An Argument and Plan for the Creation of the Teacher Corps by Wendy Kopp A Senior Thesis presented to the Faculty of the Woodrow Wilson School af Public and International Affairs, Princeton University, In pariai fulAl of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Ars April 10, 1989PREFACE ‘The ides tha] present ane develop inthis thesis came out ofa conference which brought ‘business and student leaders from across the United States together in San Francisco inthe fall of 1988. Ourmission was to develop plans to improve America’s public educational system. ‘The parvcipanis in my “action plan group” idenlfied he lack of qualified teachers as one of three major problems in our schools, We advanced many often proposed ideas ~ increased salaries, ‘ore status, carer ladders ~ of ways to tact alerted individuals to the profession, Then our ‘iscussion took anew direction We began thiking about tie phenomenal amount of intrest that the conference participants ‘were showing in teaching, These students were certainly the "best and brightest’: they were nominated by deans of their universities as te tp studens on campus and were then selected from large pool of applicants on the bass of extracumicularatvides and essays, After hearing business and governmert leaders speak ofthe stat of cur schools and ofthe dire eed for academically able teachers, mary of these studomts had indicated a desire to spend afew years teeching. We soon agreed that if given te ‘opportunity, top students would join a "Teacher Corps” ~ an agency much like the Peace Corps that attracts 2 large amount of publicity and recrits a selective group to teach for two years In the process of researching the ies fr this thesis, Ihave become commited to the belie! that 2 Teacher Comps must exist I plan to begin the effort to create it, together with several other colege students and graduating seniors, beginning une day tum inthis thesis. It will be a private. non-profit ‘organization funded through the suppor of corporations and foundations. The venture will ell on fund-raising and administrative skills Ihave leamed inte past four years atthe Foundation for Student ‘Communication, due non profit corporation run by Princeton University saudenis which wes responsible for organizing the conference mensioned above, It wil also requir ws (the founders) t» Jeam, quichly, how to work with teachers and administrators and state bureaucracy. ‘The venture wal without question be amajor chalenge, Should ic work, it would open a great ‘many doors ~ both fer bright young college graduates who would love the chance tteach but asois and for elementary and secondary sche carver oppontunit to pursue oxhen fous amount of potential © [eum and grow and comtstbute 10 this county 1d sruderts who haveTABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction cesses 1 Setting the Stage... DL The Towering Task. UL What Has Been Done. ‘Why We Need A Teacher Corps. V.The Policy Contextieracene ee VI. Lessons of Alternative Certification Programs. cu VIL. Lessons of the National Teacher Comps, ‘VII Lessons of Major Volunteer Corps... IX. Plan... X Will ke Work?..... Tables. Appendix, Bibliography... ecto . 109 118 1123 2149) 1619. 10. a 2 13, 14, 15. Appendix 1: Action plan, Appendix 2: Budget and budger calculations. Appendix 3: NEA leuer.. INDEX OF TABLES AND APPENDICES High school principals who reported having difficulty hing fully qualified foghe's for vacancies, by school size, type of community. and subject, Numbers of aching certificates issued by sate, by type of cenificate in 1987... Projected annual demand for new hiring of classroom teachers in public slementary and secondary schools, fail 1988 1997, Farollment in public elementary and secondary schools, by organizational level, with projections 50 stites and Dice fal 19807, a aa Pupil-teacher ratios for public schools:,1980-1988.. Bachelors degrees confered, total and education, year ending 1971-198 Beginning teacher salaries and expected first-year salaries of college graduates to be hired... eeceteseent Estimated average annual salary of teachers in pubic elementary and secondary SCHOOMSseecccssseeesstteneenen ses 7 ‘Scholarships and forgivable loans for students entering teaching... Description of alterstive certification programs by stat ecconu ‘Synthesis of necessary policy objectives and current inisiatives A summary of state teacher testing programs, June ... Characteristics of Beginning Teacher Programs, by stat Bodies that control standards and centfication, by state,INTRODUCTIO? “How many of you are willing to spend ten years in Affica or Latin America or Asia working for the U.S, and working for freedom? How many of you who are going to bbe doctors are willing to spend your days in Ghana? Technicians or engineers, how raany of you are willing to work inthe foreign service and spend yous lives cravelling around the world? On your willingness to do that, not merely to Serve one of two Years in the service, but on your widingness to contibute part of yout life o tis ‘country, I think, wil depend the answer to whether we as.a free society can compete.” ~John F. Kennedy, October 14, 19601 ‘Those were the words of Jolin F, Kennedy as he first suggested the idea of a Peace Corps 19 ‘an excited group of students a: the University of Michigan. Today, thousands of this nation's best and. brightest serve in the Peace Corps o further the development of non-industalized nations. Atthe same time, however, this country faces a number of intemal threats that also calf for the help of our brightest minds, Perhaps foremost among these is the dapidated state of our educational system. ‘This thesis is an argument and plan forthe creation of a "Teacher Corps" an orgenization. such like the Peace Corps which would allow a select group of college graduates without “undergraduate degrees in education to teach for periods of two years in the United States. The Teacher Conps would antract and select top graduates through a massive publicity and recruitment effort, train them in a summer institute, and place them in schools with ful teaching responsibilities under the supervision of expenenced teachers. ft seeks 19 address the teacher shortage, and its members would serve only as supplements tothe nonmal faculty in schools experiencing shortages of cemified, qualified teachers, Its imponant to nove tha this is not an argument to recreate the National Teacher Corps. Which President Johnson created during his War on Poverty in 1965 and which will be discussed at length below, (Although Congress renamed the National Teacher Comps as the Teacher Comps in 1967, the agency will hereafter be referred to as the NTC, while the Teacher Corps 1 propose will be named fn full.) While the NTC was different things to different people from its very inception, it was fundamentally an anti-poverty program and thus placed its members only in low-income areas. Some T Redmon Coates, Come As You Are: The Pesce Comps Stary (San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1986)did view it initially as a kind of domestic Peace Corps, although its leaders made it clear that their primary objective was not o atract a new group of individuals to teaching nor to give idealistic Hberal ans graduates a way to serve their country, but rather to bring about a change of the education and teacher training system. NTC's function was not primarily o provide low-income areas with individuals to fil open teaching positions, then, but to develop and institutionalize innovative methods of training individuals tobe effective career teachers in poverty areas. The Teacher Corps is diferent in that its primary goal is to address teacher shortages rather than poverty problems. While the Corps ‘would train its members, its objective in doing so would not be to develop innovative ways of raining ‘orto prepare individuals to change the system, but rather to prepare them to do te best possibe job during the nwo years they would be leaching. Benefits of the effort would accrue tothe general ‘population of students, although its probable that they would accrue disproporionately to schools in ‘ow socioeconomic areas since they are most likely to be experiencing teacher shortages. ‘The proposed concept of a Teacher Comps is not new, however. Jean King and Robert ‘Wunperling proposed the idea in 1983 after concluding that "improved status, money, and climate are strongly to be desired (as ways to make teaching more anractive} but not likely to be accomplished.” ‘They wrote: “Let us demythologize teaching and strip ourselves of the expectation that work in classrooms is or mUst be aonce-and-forcall career choice to be declared in the sophomore year of college and pursued until teacher retirement allows one to maintain the highest Income for subsistence in old age. Letus instead recruit and support short-term teachers who either will enter the classroom with the decision to defer immediate preparation for other professions or wil undertake teaching because they fare ambivalent about which direction to take after the baccalaureate degree. In either ‘case, we suggest that able teachers may be atracted to the field as a kind of domestic ‘educational Peace Comps... Like the youthful volunteers who for 20 years have represented America overseas, these recruits would comunit themselves fora limited thine to workcng with people in porentally difficult senings, broadening their own horizons atthe same time they provide service tothe country." ‘Also, J, Fox recommended in 1984 that each state implement a Teaching Service which would forgive the college loans of an extremely select group in return for three years of teaching in the state's Tyean A. King and Robert K. Wirpeting, "Rethinking Teacher Recruit,” Joural of Tescher Education larwary February 1983) 6schools! Roy Edelfelt suggested similar iea in 1986 as one of several ways wo alleviate teacher shortages, His proposal was for anationally based, federally funded cadre of teachers, primasily Fecent graduates, who would serve two-year stints in designated areas of teacher shortage? Both Fox and Edelfelt recommended that the teacher reemuits participate in summer training not unlike that which ‘the Peace Corps requires. ‘While these individuals and possibly others have suggested the concept of a Teacher Comps, their proposals were usually a single paragraph or page hypothesizing about the possible benefits of such a program, There has not to my knowledge been a comprehensive assessment ofthe potential of such an agency. The following chapters seek to provide such an evaluation, (Chapter One explains why itis imponancto consider creating @ Teacher Corps at his me and also why the prevailing aiudes ofthe publi, the business community, and graduating students are ‘curently conducive to its creation. Chapter Two details that magnitude of the tak that today’s leaders face in anracting a teacher workforce of sufficient quantity and quality. Chapter Three looks at what policymakers have done to attack the problems inorder to learn wht works and what remains fo be done. Chapter Four explains why the Teacher Corps must exist. Chapter Five pus the Teacher Corps in potcal context by examining cure policy garding beginning eacher cerfication and induction, ‘the major actors in education policy, and how similar programs have operated in this context. Chapter Six draws lessons from today's alternative certification programs, Chapter Seven delves into the lessons of the NC, and Chapter Eight examines the experiences of the Peace Comps and of VISTA. ‘Chapter Nine presents a plan for the Teacher Corps and Chapter Ten addresses the question of feasibility 1 IN, Fon, “Restructuring the Teacher Work Force To Atwact the Best and the Brightest.” Joumal of ‘Education Finance (Fall 1984) 229, 2 Roy Edelfelt, "Managing Teacher Supply and Demand,” Action in Teaches Education (Summer 1986) 33,I SETTING THE STAGE . Of Troubled Schools, National Concern, and Youthful Idealism “We have three deficits in this country." said James Burke, chainman of Johnson & Johnson, ih response to my request that he name what be sees asthe greatest challenges facing America, “One is the trade deficit, One isthe budget deficit. Another which is probably more onerous is the deficit in ‘bright, well-educated. highly motivated people, We have allowed our educational system to totaly deteriorate." Mr. Buske's statement is significant in two regards. Firs, it poims to a major national problem the dilapidated state of our public elementary and secondary educational system and the poor ‘quality ofits products. Second, it indicates that some of the nation's most prominent leaders recognize the problem and are ready and willing to take action so mitigate it ‘These are two of thrve factors which demonstrate that now is the time for tie creation of the ‘Teacher Corps. The final, eqully important factor is thatthe public, and especially recent college ‘graduates, are in the mood to help. This chapter sets the stage for the Teacher Comps. It seeks 10 show that the Corps could today capitalize on the mood of the nation to gamer the enthusiastic support ‘of business and govemment leaders and of the American public, The Problem ‘The deficit to which Mr, Burke points is real. The world is becoming increasingly comptex and dynamic and is demanding individuals who are more flexible and highly educated than ever before: ‘meanwhile, public elementary and secondary schools are suming cut too few individuals able 19 ppexform in it. A recent issue of Fortune puts the problem in dramatic terms: “I's like Pearl Harbor, The Japanese have invaded. and the U.S. has been caught short, Not on guns and tanks and battleships ~ those are yesterday's weapons ~ bat gon menial mig. Ina igh-ech age where nations creasingly eompete oh brainpower, American schools are producing an army of * T Nancy Perry, “Saving the Schools: How Busaness Can Help." Euguse (November 7, 188143— ‘Arecent report of the Departnents of Education and Labor states that the economic shift from low-tech manufacturing to high-tech service industries has created an unprecedented demand for more highly skilled workers. | Indeed, the Hudson Institute reports that by the year 2000, the majority of ‘new jobs will require some postsecondary education for the first time in history: only 27 percent of ‘new jobs wil] fall into the "low skill” category by that year white forty percent do today, and jobs in the middle of the skill distribution today will be the least skilled occupations of the funare.2 ‘As America demands eidzens with higher skil levels its e€ucational system tums out students ‘ho are often deficient in basic skills and usually lack “higher order” skills the ability to reason effectively and to use knowledge and learing for innovative thought, The National Assessment of Eslvcational Progress (NAEP), which ests 9-13 and 17-yearolds to determine their proficiency in reading, writing, science, and mathematics, revealed in 1989 that while scores have increase in recent ‘years, students have not recovered ground lost in the seventies and eighties.3 NAEP. reports, furthermore, that “Where was concem even im the frst assessments about the quality of student Moreover, most of the recent gains have occurred at the iower levels of achievement, which ‘means that students stll Jack higher-order leaming skills. The following were among NAEP's findings +61 percent of 17-year-olds failed to demonstrate the ability to find, understand, surnmane, and explait “relatively complicated” information on reading tests, +The majority of 17-year-olds failed to demonstrate the ability to analyze scientific procedures and data, and only 50 percent of 13-year-olds revealed 2 grasp af the basic ‘elements oF science, + 50 percent of 17-year-oids revealed that they don't have command of decimals, Sractions, percents. basic gcometry and algebra, and 25 percent of seventh and eighth graders demonstrated that they do not possess skills in whole-number addition, ‘Subtraction, multiplication, and division, ) Te oom Lie: Basic Shas in he Warkolice (Washington, D.C. Deparmmens of Education and eprunent of Labor, 1985) 1 2 We Bustumn Lane, Vials Skill a the Workplace. p 4 § Arthas Appletee, Juin A. Lange, and Ins VS: Mullis, Cssrauds in Amoncan Education Princeton, NI atncstional Teng Sersien, Fett #989) 5,* Fewer than 25 percent of 17-year-olds were able to write an “adequate” analytic or persuasive essay, 1 American sudents look bad onthe NAEP tests they look even worse in itematona omparisons, The Intemational Assessment of Educational Progress reported in 1987 that in math, US. students rank behind their counterpans in every other nation tested ~ Korea, French and English ‘Quebec, Brtsh Columbia, French and English Ontario French and English New Brunswick, Spain, the United Kingdom, and Irtané, In science, American students ranked above ony those in rela, French Ontario, and French New Brinswick.t ‘And these est scores refec the edcaional atinmeat of those who are sil in schol. Now conser the fect that 700,000 students dop oat each year2 Only 746 percent of persons aged 18-19 be completed high school in 1986.3 andthe problem i even worse for minottystudens, In the same year, 64.9 percent of blacks and 54.7 percent of hispanics aged 18-19 had graduated.4 Stated another ‘3y, approximately 35 percent of blacks and 4S percent of hispanics crop out of high school, Those Statistics ae paricuarly worisome in ight of demographic tends which indicate that minvides are ‘aking up a greater percentage of the school and wotklorce populations. The Coramice for Feanomie Development repons th by the year 200038 percent of Unie States youth under the age of 18 will be minorities.S ‘The bottom line js that America’s schools are. ‘ih many cases not preparing students for the "real. orld." The poor performance of the educational sytem treatens the operation of he democratic system, It Uxretens the operation of govemment, is ffs are nowhere more cbvious than in ‘corporate America, In a 1984 Conference Board survey, fewer than nine percent of $14 executives 2 Archie Lapointe, Nancy A. Mead, and Gary W. Philips, A Wott of Differences (Princeton: Educaonal Testing Service, January 1987). 2 David T. Kears and Denis P, Doyle, Winning be Bran Rare (Sen Francisco: laste fr Contemporary Studies, 1988) 1. + Jayee D, Stem, The Candiion of Eatation (Washington, D.C: National Cente for Education Statistics, 1988) 99. 4 Stern, p. 90. cy Perry, “The Education Crisis: What Business Can Do,” Eorune (July 4, 1988) 72reported having access to an adequate supply of well-prepared candidates, while Bifty percent reported an adequate supply of marginally prepared candidates.2 Motorola, forexample, which has traditionally employed eight often applicants forts enery-level positions requiring seventh-grade English and eighth-grade math sills, now screens as many as fifteen wo hire just one2 Similarly, 84 percent of 22,000 individuals who tock the exam for entry-level jobs at New York Telephone failed in 1988.3 Nasional Concern Iwas A Nation At Risk, the report of the National Commission on Excellence in Education, that frst focused public atenion on the problems in the American educational system. “If an unfriendly foreign power had atempied to impose on America the mediocre educational performance that exists today, we might well have viewed it as an act of war stated the report. "We have, in effect, been committing an act of unthinking, unilateral educational disarmament."4 The 1983 repon pointed to a number of alarming statistics: that 23 million Americans are functionally iiterate “by the simplest ests of everyday reading, writing, and comprehension’ that on 19 academic tests American students were never first or second and were last seven times in comparison with other industrialized nations, and that SAT scores showed a virrualy unbroken dectine between 1963 and 1980.5 ‘Coupled with a National Academy of Sciences symposium that called into serious question the ‘Quality of math and science education, A Nation At Risk served wo alarm the generat public as well as lis leaders. Other well-publicized reports — Emtest Boyer's High School (1983), John Goodlad's 4 Place Calted Schoo! (1984), Theodore Sizer’s Horace’s Compromise (1986) — were soon to fallow, as } Leonard Lund and Patrick McGuire, The Role of Business in Precallege Education (New York: The Conference Board, 1984) 4 2 Perry, “The Education Criss.” p. 72. 3 Perry, "Saving the Schools,” p. 42, National Commission on Excellence in Education, & Nauion ALRisk (Washington, D.C. U.S, Deparment of Education, April 1983} 1 5 Navional Commission on Excellence in Education, A Nation AC Risk. &reports from no fewer than 275 site and local task forces.1 A new batch of reports that appeared in 1986— the Camegie Foundation's A Nation Prepared: Teachers for the Twenty-First Century , the Holmes Group's Tomorrow's Teachers, she National Governor's Association's Time for Results ~ focused specifically on problems conceming teachers and the profession of teaching. Five years after the publication of A Narion At Rick, then Secretary of Education William Bennen made headlines by reporting thatthe nation i "sll trsk": = we are cenainly not doing well enough, and we are not doing well enough fast ‘enough, We are still at isk, The absolute level at which our improvements are taking place is unacceptably low. ‘Too many students do not graduate from our high schools, land too many of those who do graduate have been poorly educated. Our students know too lite, and their command of essential skis is 100 slight, Qur schools stil teach curicula of widely varying quality. Good schools for disadvantaged and’ ‘minority children are much too rar, ard the dropout rate artong black and Hispanic youth in many of our inner cities is perilously hugh. An ethos of success is missing from too many American schocls. Our teachers and principals are too often hid and promoted in ways that make excellence amatte of chance, not design. And the entire ‘roject of American education ~ at every level - remains sufficiently accounsabe for ‘the result chat matters most: student leaming, ‘Today reports and recommendations come not only from gavemment agencies and education associations, but from corporate America, BusinessWeek's September 1988 cover sto ry. for example, reported that companies ae suffering from a lack of investment inthe nation's youth. And David Keams, the chairman of Kerox Corporation, recently published Winning the Brain Race, in which he called for "the restructuring of our entire public education system.” Concluding chat publi education has put this country ata uersble competitive disadvantage, he writes: “The simple sath is chat we cat have a world-class economy without a world-class workforce, from senior suientists to stockroom clerks. And we cannot have a world-class workforce without world-class schools "3 In shon, the Amencan educational system has become the preoccupation of the media and of the nation’s business and govemment leaders. It ranks so high on the agenda of thenew 7 William Bennet, American Educaiton: Making lk Wark (Washington, D.C: Department of Education, 1888) 1 2 Bennett. pp. 1-2. 3 Keams and Doyle. p. 1: oom administration (and of the American public) that President Bush has labelled himself the “Education President.” Itis of such concem to state leaders that Tennessee Governor Lamar Alexander, chairman of the National Governor's Association, stated, ye are giving schools more atiention than we ever had in the 78-year history of our association“! A recent survey of 95 Fortune $00 CEOs revealed that business Leaders rank the educational system along with global competition, the budget deficit, and the need to improve productivity asthe "most significant challenge American business faces."2 Accordingly, corporate giving to elementary and secondary education increased $1.6 percent between 1984 and 1986.3 And in places such as Arkansas, California, Floride, South Carolina, and Texas, the tusiness community played a major role fn designing and enacting school reform measures; business leaders served on commissions and task forces that proposed reform rises’ money for public opinion polls and advertising campaigns zo mobilize public suppon, and lobbied state legislatures + Rising Spirit of Volunteerisre ‘When Amenca’s leaders express great concer about the state of the edeational system, they speak to a public, and especially o a generation of young American, that is increasingly idealistic, ‘increasingly willing to volunteer in the nation’s service. In shor, they spesk 10 a great pool of individuals who are just waiting 1 be tapped for service in America's schools. "Meet the new youth service corps,” stated a 1988 issue of BusinessWeek. The article explained tht teenagers are doing every:hing from planting forests (feeding the homeless in fity sate and ciry programs, Itrepored, "Most of the programs, nurtured by young, charismatic leaders, have bioomed in the past three years. Funded by goverment, conporae, or philanthropic sources, they pay 1 National Governor's Association, Time fon Resulis The Govemors 1991 Repent an Education (Washington, D.C: National Governors’ Association Center for Policy Research and Analysis, August 1986) 6, 2-Views from we Top." Business Manih (July 1988) 66-70. 3 Nathan Weber, Giving WLS.A.: The Annus) apart on Philamihions [oc he Year 1987 (Albany, NY: ‘American Associatoa of Fund-Raising Counsel, 198) 63 4 susan Fuhoman and Lorzaine M. McDonald, "The Political Context of School Reform." . 3 suuon, Bd, Van D. Mueller and Mary P. McKeown (Cambridge: Hasper é& Row, 1986) 52.participants nominal salaries but offer a chance to gain work experience, serve the community, and add meaning and direction to an often aimless time of ife."! In an October 1988 article ented "Idealism's Rebirth,” US. News and World Report also roted an increase in publi service, It paralleled anitudes tn the curent decade to thse atthe end of the fies: “The concluding note to John Kennedy's inaugural address sul rings bells more than ‘a quarter-century Iter, but tno longer resonates clearly. At the end of the sleepy, ‘materialistic 1980s, he gambled that he could rekindle Americans’ sense of idealism to tackle te challenges of a new era, The stategy worked berter than he imagined. Today, another matenalistic decade is ending and the sarne contrarian dynamic is at ‘work. Just when ihe evidence suggests that traditional American idealism is languishing, countervailing signs are cropping up. After the Me Decade and the ‘Gimme Decade, many Americans are staring o feet uncomfortable withthe unbridled pursuit oftheir private interess and are volunieering for a widening array of Ccommunity-service activities." Newsweek noted the same wend in 2 1988 issue: "BMW's and the Almighty Buck are out. The new Yuppie rallying cry is volunteerism, Tired of the excesses of the Me Generation and searching for balance and companionship, young professionals are penciling compassion into their appointment books." ‘The 1988 Gallup Pol indicates thatthe new idealism is more than media hype. It reported that 39 percent of adult citizens were involved, formally or informally, in Such charitable activities as helping the undemprivileged. the infirm, or the elderly. The current Gallup figure isthe high point in a sen-year trend, which began in 1977 at 27 percent (One illustration of the yuppie volunteering spirit is Steet Project. Five Wall Steet analysis and consuluants formed the agency in 1988 to be a clearinghouse for volumieer activities in New York. City. Through a monthly newsleter circulated in 11 investment houses and 5 consulting firms, they ‘marshalled 200 to 300 volunteers to staff soup kitchens, cook meals for the homeless and take children Tigeuh H, Hammonds, “Toe New Face of Public Service.” BusinessWeek (October 24,1988) 57 2-Thomas Moore, “IMealisn’s Reb” US, News & World Repor (October 2s, 1988) 37 3 mneta Miller, “The New Volusterism." Newsweek (February 8, 1988) 42 4 George Gallup, J. The Gallup Poll: 1987 (Witmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, Inc, 1988) 128from the citys welfare hotels tothe circus and a Broadway play.) Another new program in New York City is the Student/Sponsor Partnership, through which 117 professional people each pay $1,500a year send a child o parochial school in an effor to decrease the dropout rae of inner-city-school students? An older organization, the Literacy Volunteers of America, has swelled by 42 percent since 1986 even though tutors must undergo & 24-hour training program and stick with the program six ‘months.3 Similarly, while the Mayor's Voluntary Action Center in New York has existed for two ‘decades itis experiencing an unprecedented increase in ensollment, acconding to a 1987 issue of the New York Times. Ichad reportedly attracted 3,000 volunteers —_most age 18-35 ~ in the previous year. Winifred Brown, executive director ofthe program, stated, "These young people ~ some call ‘them yuppies ~ have a side to them which is emerging more cleady each day. They are looking to become involved in the life of the community, especially to help such curren issues as homelessness, hunger literacy, and now the crisis created by AIDS."4 Nowhere is the rising spirit of volunteerism move apparent than on college campuses, where ‘wo organizations have sprung up since 1985 to coondinate service activities. A former group of| Harvard volunteers run the Campus Outreach Opporunity League (COOL) to offer community service advice te studemts and staff on more than 450 campuses across the nation S Also, the presidents of Stanford, Georgetown, and Brown organized Campus Compact, @ group of more than 150 other college presidents who have agreed to make community service programs core pars of the student experience at thei colleges. Campus volunteer activites range from painting houses and raking leaves to collecting unused food from dommitory cafetertas and local restaurants to give to the * Miller, pp. 4 2 Miner, p. 43. 3 Mitr, p42. 4 Kathleen Teltsch, “New York City Atuacts the Young As Volunteers,” New York Tienes (August 23, 1987) ML. 5 Keuiryn T. Theus, “Campus-Based Community Service," Change (Sepiembe:/October 1988) 30 © Moore, p. 385 homeless. Students at Brown, for example, have organized a clothing bank for the poor, provide ssaffing for a center for batted women and children, run a garden project during the suramer in the Bronx, and serve as mentors for disadvantaged youth in housing projects. ‘A November 1987 Gallup Poll asked 542 students om 100 randomy selected campuses natonwide, "Are you involved in any charity or social service activities such as working in 2 soup kitchen, helping retarded children, or working in a hospital” Thiny- five percent responded affirmatively? The figure appears tobe even greater at highly selective institutions. A 1988 Gallup- Independent Sector survey revealed that nearly 60 percent of Harvard's 1987 graduating class panicipated regularly in some community-service activity during thei four years of college: in 1983. the figure was 35 percent.> A 1988 New York Times reported that 2,200 of 5,100 Yale undergraduates do community sevice work + In A Call 0 Cihic Service, published in 1988, Charles Moskos illustrates the increase in ‘sudent voluntzerism by dealing over twenty yesr-round state and Tocal youth corps that have come {nto being in the 1980s, In 1987, 7,000 young people had enrolled inthe programs. Moskos concludes: _ the examples cited here... refute the general characterization of American yout as irrevocably self-absorbed and apathetse. Clearly, if the proper opportunities were available, many more would serve."6 Conclusion Faced with the reality that public elementary and secondary schools are producing ingividuats incapable of performing in an increasingly complex and dynamic word, Americas business and 1 Moore, p. 38. 2 Theus, p. 30. 3 Moore, p. 38. ¢ Theus, p. 31 S Charles C. Moskos. A Call'tg Civic Service (New York: The Free Pres, IY8HY nt © Moskos. p. 4government leaders have targeted educational reform as a top priority. They eagerly suppor causes ‘and take actions which they betieve will improve the schools and theiz products, And the American i | i public~ increasingly idealistic ang bombarded with images ofa dilapidated educasonal system and its negative impact on American power ~is in the mood to help them in che effor. Its hand io imagine an environsnent more conducive t0 the creation of the Teacher Compsn THE TOWERING TASK Recruiting More, Better Teachers "Our role is essentia! and unavoidable in the construction of a sound and expanding economy for the entire non-communist world. .. The problems in achieving this goa! are towering and unprecedented ~ the response rust be towering and unprecedented wel) ee oka Kennedy, State of the Union, January 30, 1960 ‘twas this statement that led Warren H. Wiggins to tite his draft of the Peace Corps proposal ~The Towering Task.” His report, which called fora great number ofthe nation's brightest minds to address challenges in lesser developed countries, was mor influential than any other in determining the shape of Peace Comps. Today, the nation’s leaders face a Towering Task on the domestic front—a task which also will require the atention of the nazion’s brightest minds. ‘Today's leaders feel strongly that the educational system iso better than the quality of ts teachers. The Committe for Economic Development reported in 1985: “Iris traditional wisdom in the business world that a conporation is only as good as the people t employs. Siriery, our Schools can be no beter than the teachers who tft them,” in Teachers for the Twenty-First Century, the Task Force on Teaching as a Profession expressed what is now seemingly a national consensus thar the key 1 success ofthe educational reforra moversent “lies in creating a profession equal to the task."3 “The Towering Task, hen, isto attract more, bemer teachers. While teachers have traditionally come from among the Yeast academically able of Americans, cunent efforts must amact a greater proportion of the most able, Furthermore, schoois must fil teacher positions that today remain empty ~ or, at best, filled with unqualified, uncertified individuals. And as enrollments inerease and an unprecedented mumber of experienced teachers reie, it will be necessary to attract hundreds of 2 Brent Ashabranner, & Moment in Histor: The Fist Tan Year af ths Peace Cars (Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Co. 1971) 24 2 Task Force on Teaching as a Profession, A Nauon Prepac a wl ew ‘York: Casnegie Forum on Education and the Economy, May 1986) 25 3 Task Force on Teaching as a Profession, p.2thousands of Americans to Al new wacher positions in the coming years. Policymakers must accomplish these tasks while women and minorities find increasing opportunites in traditionally more. prestigious, higher paying occupations, at a time when the public perceives the occupation of teaching as low-status and low-paying, and in spite ofthe fact that teaching has long been a highly inaccessible, unpublicized occupation. Needec : Teachers Who Are Academically Able ‘Today's average cacher comes from the bottom nungs of academic achievement. The following statistics are sorne ofthe indications that they compare poorly with their noneaching counterpart + Edueation majors scored 21 points below the national average onthe verbal ponon ofthe SAT and 34 points below the mean on the math portion in 1988, They scored above only those students who specified aninienton 1o major inthe ares of home ‘economics, "technicalocational,” and public affairs, +The 1988 ACT scores of education majors were below the national mean and above only those of students specifying an ination to major in home economics, community service, agriculture or forestry, and trade or industry.2 + Almost half of students enrolling in teacher education come from non-academic high school programs that are not intended to prepare students for college. + The college grades of education majors are below those of students in aU other majors excep agriculture, architecture, comarunications, fine and applied a, comment service, ade and industry, and general scucies 4 ‘Moreover, there is evidence to suggest thatthe mos: academically qualified teachers leave the profession sooner than do others.5 & 1981 study of the North Carolina teacher workforce indicated that those who score highest on measures of academic ability leave teaching in the greatest numbers ! College Ensance Examination Board, 1288 Profile of SAT and Achievement Test-Takers (Princeton, ‘Educational Testing Service, 1988) 8 2 The High School Profile Report, ACT Grading Class 1987, 9 Task Foree on Teaching asa Profession, p. 32, 4 cateae Suudent Profiles: Noms forshe ACT Assessnen (lowa Ciy: American College Testing Program, 1987) 71, ‘5.W. Timothy Weaver, “Solving the Problem of Teacher Quality,” Phi Delts Kappan (October 1984) 111.while dhose who score lowest are most likely ta stay in che classroom, In 1982, a national study similarly concluded that while veaching retains afar share of those who score in the middle on such test, it also retains a disproporsonately small share of those wh score highest and a disproportionately large share of those who score lowest. ‘While virally al recent evaluations of the characteristics of entering teachers point wo a decline in their academic abilty.3 many note tha this nation has always had a problem in anracting bright persons to the teaching profession. “People have agonized for over one hundred and fifty years about ‘the quality of teachers.” states one history of American schools and teaching. Indeed, studies dating * back to 1928 reveal that college students whe major in education have been less academically able than most other college sudents.5 ‘An analysis ofthe National Longiainal Sealy of 1972 High School Seniors demonstates that teaching is more asractve to students with Tow measured academic ability and less anractive to ‘hose with high measured abity than are ether professions, According to the study, education artracted more than its share of students from the bontom two fis of academic ability, as measured by SAT scores, and less than its share from the top Two fiths, For example, thiny percent of education smajors scored inthe lowest fifth compared with fiften percent of dhose majoring in all other fields; ten percent of education majors scored in the highest ith, compared with 22 pereent of ters. 6 {Vici $. Vance and Philip Schlechty, “The Distribution of Academic Abili Implications,” Phi Delia Kannan (1982) 22. 2 vance and Schlechty, "The Distribution of Academic Abiiy in the Teaching Force,” p. 24 inthe Teaching Force: Policy ‘Nancy E, Adelman, (Washington, D.C.: Policy Studies Association, Inc., October 1985) 8 4 David Tyack, “The American Tradition: The Changing Role of Schooling and Teaching.” Harvard Educational Review (May 1987) 171 5 Mary Cihak Jensen, (Oregon: ERIC Cheargghnaseon Edcaonal Mangement, 19876. § Vance and Schlechey, "The Distribution of Academic Abibty in We Teaching Force,” p, 23-4, i6‘While there is no cicar consensus on which characteristics make the best teachers, book normative and empirical analyses indicate that academically able persons are mos: likely to be effective teachers. The Task Force on Teaching as a Profession states: “Teachers must think for themselves if they are to help others think for themselves, be able to act independently and collaborate with others, and render critical judernent, ‘They must be people whose knowledge is wide-ranging and whose undersianding runs deep." Likewise, one extensive analysis of effective teachers concludes that competence in teaching requires "a level of intellecal ability that i at least equal to, if not superior to, that of the average college student.” 2 Another states: "Bffective eachers... are not “ordinary" teachers. They are probably brighter and ‘more dedicated thin average. They are certainly better organized and more efficient classroom managers, better prepared and more thorough instructors."3 Indeed, a substantial amount of empirical evidence suppons these claims. For example, i is clear that the most powerful discriminator of all weacher characteristics for predicting student achievement is their score on a test of verbal facility (Coleman, 1966; Plowden Repon, 1967: Bowles, 1968; Bowles and Levin, 1968: Hanushek. 1968) In addision,a survey of principals in Indiana public schoo! districts indicates a correlation beoween success in wsaching and high school and college reconés, The principals were asked to nominate up to three of theis most oustanding teachers. Of the 1.241 weachers nominated from 566 schools, 1009 were in the top twenty percent oftheir high school ‘lasses and eighty percen: had undergraduate GPAs above 3.0. The teachers were also. on average, ‘very involved in extra-curricular activities 5 2 Task Force on Teaching as a Profession, p. 25. ? Vance and Schlecht "The Diswibuton of Academic Ability in the Teaching Force,” p, 25, * Jere Brophy, "Successful Teaching Suategies forthe Ine City Chil,” Bi Delis Kappan (Apt 1982) 528 wsnagon, DC: US, Depetoen of Hea, aca, & 1970) 47-48, ewes, 5 Theodore J. Kowalski and Roy A. Weaver, "Characteristics of Outstanding Te we icerisics vg Teachers: An Academic Involvement Profi,” Action in Teacher Educatan (Summer 1988}, iemic & Social‘tseems Clear, ten, that if policymakers are o succeed in bringing about a positive refomn of the educational system. they must anracta greater proportion of teachers from the top nungs of ‘acalemic achievement. Of course were will be exceptions; many oulstanding teachers wil have done poorly in high school or in college oron SAT tests just as some corporate chairmen and some senators ig. But the average teacher should not be below the mean in academic achievement. Needed: Certified Teachers To Fill Existing Openings Even while some analysts argue that there is no national teacher shortage today, many schools 4dohhave shortages of qualified, certified teachers, (In this section, I define “qualified” to mean certified through standard or altemate, as opposed wo emergency, procedures) Positions remain unfilled in some areas, and “emergency certification” or “misassignment” enables unqualified individuals to fll openings in others Any disagreement over whether a wacher shorage exists centers on the definition of “shonage." Since itis the iment of any poticymaker to create the best possible world, this evaluation of teacher supply and demand defines wacher shonage a8 sitation in which a school district would ideally hire more qualified teachers than it can find, It would be too simple under this definition to deemmine whether or nota shonage exists by simply subwacting national supply from national demand fortwo major masons. First, as Rand Corporation repont explains, some national surveys may reveal relatively few unflled vacancies while personnel administrators in many states and school districts do perceive shortages of qualified applicans.! For this reason, an Oifice of Educational Research and Improvement repon siates that “the issue of teacher supply and demand is best understood with local data conceming local schools and different teaching areas, not data at the state and national level describing averages."? Second, it is often difficult to obtain actual numbers of shortages since schoo! districts can usually “solve” staffing problems, albeit suboptimally, A Rand Corporation repon states: 2 Gus W. Hagustrom etal, Assessing Teacher Sunply & Demand (Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation, May 1988) 3. 2 Lawrence M. Rudner, What's Hapnening in Teacher Testing (Washington, D.C.: Office of Educational Reseatch and Improvement, August 1987) 28,“wien imbalances in he supply of and demand for washers occur, schgol districts may atopt steps that cree cubopamaeaming experiences for sradents, AMON these soacegies ars the asignmers of teaches to each cose ousice tet elds Of preparation, the enlargement of clas sies or expansion of teaching toads, ad the Eancelaion of usually upper level) couse that cannot be even marginally well aught by untrained teachers."! Even those who are outspoken in their belief that a national teacher shortage is not impending say that shortages will always exist by specialty, region, and degree of urbanization? Persistent shortages occur in the fields of science, math, bilingual education, foreign languages, and special education. A survey of teacher placement officers in 1988 revealed that bilingual education and special ‘education faced “considerable teacher shortages,” while fields of physics, mathematics, speech pathology, chemistry, computer science, special education for the deaf and gifted, data processing, ‘Spanish, library science, and earth science had "some teacher shortage."3 In 1986, 72 percent of high schoo! prinefpals reported difficulty in hiring fully qualified applicants for teaching vacancies in. ‘physics; 63 percent, chemistry; 62 percent, computer science; 57 percent, mathematics: 52 percent, foreign language: 38 percent, biology, physical science, eantvspace science, and life science; 37 percent, special education; 27 percent, general science; and 6 percem, social studies.* (See Table 1.) ‘Acute shortages also occur in certain types of schools and communities. Small schoois, for example, have a greater problem attracting teachers than do large ones.> and rural and inner-city Alswits also tradivonally have problems aracting teachers even nines of surplus 6 Table 1 ‘ Maggsom, p. 52 2 Nowtly Daniel Hecker and Emily Feisitzer, see Kathyyn J. Tooreéman, (h ‘Consequences (Evanson, IL: Deparment of Educational Leadership, Novernber 1987) 10 3 James N. Akin, 1988 Teacher Supply (Demand Report (Aduison, IL: Assocation for School, College, & University Staffing, April 1938) 4 Siem, p. 108. 5 ami T. Dunathan, “Tescher Shortage: Big Problems for Small Schools,” Phi Delia Kappan (November 1980) 205. $ Susan Hooper, Good Teachers. An Untlinking Look a Supaly & Prepatedness (Alexandria, VA: Nato ‘School Boards Association, May 1987) 17; Erica J. Gosman and Richard F, Porreca, oms Wi ont 2 jnshe Wes Boulder, CO: Wester interstate Commission for Higher Ecucaion, July 1986) 12demonstrates that small schools have more rouble attracting teachers in shortage subjects than do large ones, while rural and urban schools have greater troable than do suburban ones. And experts generally agree that need in some schools extends beyond postions in what are generally classified as shortage subjects.) Sometimes, regions of the country wil have a shortage of teachers even as the res ofthe nation experiences a “surplus,” For example, while K-12 enrollments in most of the nation dropped off approximately 25 percent after the baby boom, there was only a limited enrollment decline in the Sunbelt and West, and schools in those areas therefore had greater trouble in filing all teacher positions. A 1986 National Education Association survey demonstrated that shortages exist in Califomia, Texas, and Florida. Of 110 school districts which responded to the survey. 79 reported that they might have a “real shortage" in September 1986.2 Even schools that do not repor a shortage of teachers may not be able to find certified, qualified teachers to fill all oftheir positions. Many individuals who do not have any teacher training or subject-aea background teach under emergency cenficates, and thers who do have regular centfication are “misassigned to teach in fields for which they have no training, ‘Unfortunately, accurate data on the extentof emergency cenification and misassignment is ‘unavailable.3 In the case of misassignment, it appears that many states may not even be aware of the extent ofthe practice. A Council for Basic Education study found in 1985 that states sometimes allow school administrators the authority to assign certified teachers to positions outside their fields without reporting it, and while three quarters of states have an explicit policy or regulation limiting outof-field teaching, few or none have reliable means for measuring its incidence,4 Data concerning emergency 1 Dunathon; Gosman and Perreca: Hooper. 2 Hooper. p. 16. 3.¢, Emily Feiswizer, Teacher Crisis: Muh or Realiv? (Washington, D.C.: National Cenger for Education Information, 1986) 31 ‘ 2 AR Mi Virginia Robinson, Oe ee Coamal fr Base Edson, 1985) 6certification is no more reliable. States which reported rather large proportions of teachers working under emergency cenificates in 1984 reported by 1986 that they did not issue emergency certificates at sit instead, they provide warrants or temporary eertficatss o permit teaching by those who fail 10 meet requirements for full cenfication.+ ‘Arnumber of surveys provide a solid indication that emergency certification is widespread, “The National Center for Education Statistics reported in 1985 that approximately 12.4 percent ofall newly hired teachers and 3.4 percent ~ almost 90,000 - ofthe total teacher population were not fully certified in their primary fields of assignment.2 Other estimates indicate that the problem may be even ‘worse, A 1986 National Education Association survey found that 38 percent of school districts would assign teachers outside their field of preparation in an effort to respond to a teacher shortage, while 38 percent would recruit individuals with no formal teacher wining And te 1988 Condition of Teaching reported that rwenty percent of teachers surveyed said that they were teaching in subjects in ‘which they "feet unqualified”; percentages varied by state from 2 high of thirty percent in Utah and Washington to a low of tweive percent in New Hampshire4 Predictably, these figures are even higher in certain subject and geographic areas. According to 1981 study, fewer than half of newly hired math and science teachers were cenified or eligible for certification in Uwir subjects.S And, acconding to surveys in the early eighties by the American “Association of Colleges for Teacher Education (AACTE) and the National Associaton of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification (NASDTEO) the problem is accennuated in certain “sates. The AACTE, which compiled responses from 23 state agencies, showed that California issued } Feisuitzer, Teacher Crisis. 9. 29 2 Linda Darling-Hammond and Barnea Bery, The Evolution of Teacher Policy (Sama Monica, CA: Rand Corporation, March 1988) 21. 3 Darling-Hammond and Bemmy,P-23- 4 Emes Boyer Tne Condition af Teaching Princeton, NI: The Camegie Foundation forthe Advancement of Teaching, 1988) 24. 5 tinds Daring: Hanmond, fewsod she Commision Repos The Coming Crisis in Teaching (Santa Monica, ‘CA: Rand Corporation. July 1984) 44996 emergency certificates in 1982-83; Pennsylvania, 1,711; and New Jersey, 1077. Other sates ‘poredly ised fewer than 625, NASDTEC also surveyed al fifty states in order to find out what Percentage of foal certificates issucd in 1982-83 were clasifed as emergency, substandard, or limited, ‘Texas had no data for 1952-83, bu in 1981-82 reported 20 percent. Ohio reported 16 percent in 1982- $5 California, 13 pereent; Florida, 12 percent: Colorado and New Jersey, 10 percent. Given that there is no standard teminotogy for different types of cenficaion, it is extremely ‘ard to determine the extent of emergency cerifcaton simply by examining recent hiring practices, Sul, Table 2 illustrates atthe very Least that states ae issuing a good numberof certificates that are not “sandard.” ‘The 22 states that provided information regarding “emergency” cerificates iesued a total cfover 23,000 in 1987. Yet they also issued over 74,000 "provisional" cenificates and over 33,000 "temporary" ones. They issued almost 72,000 cerificates under the classification of other." Even in times of national “teacher surplus," then, demand for teachers in some areas wil! cnceed supply. Moreover, che practices of emergency certification and misassignment make any estimate of demand much lower than it would be in “ideal” circumstances. Needed: Hundreds of Thousands of New Teachers ‘Virwally al ecoourus project that the demand for eachers wil ineease dramatically in the coming years. The National Center for Education Statistics, a research centerin the Department of aueation which provides the most often cited projections, uses estimates of schoo! enroliment levels, ‘opilteacher ratios, and the atwtion rave of yeachers to conclude that schools will have to hire more than 1.5 million new teachers by 1997.2 As Table 3 indicates, rota yearly demand for new public teachers will increase 35 percent by 1995, Secondary schools alone will demand aimost 80 percent tore teachers per yearby 1995; while they hired opproximately 48,000 new teachers in 1988, they wil hire as many as 86000 1995, Sal clementry and secondary schools wil dma approximately 1 Robert A. Roth, "Emergency Ceniicates, Misassigniment of Teachers, and Other “Di ‘ela Kasgan Gune 1986) 726 2 Stem, p. 104 int Little Secrets.” Phiapproximately equivalent numbers of new teachers between now and 1997; elementary schools will ‘need 868,000 and secondary schools will need 708,000. Par of the increase in demand results from the fact that the children of the baby boom parents se row entering the school sysiem, They entered elementary schools beginning in 1985 and will continue to do so in increasing mumbers until 1996; the baby boomlet will begin affecting secondary enrollments in 1990.1 As Table 4 shows, tou fll enrollment in public elementary and secondary schools wil rise four percent between 1989 and 1992, from 40.3 million to 41.9 milion, Enrolment wil! have risen to 44 milion by 1997, which represents an increase of nine percent over 1989. Enrollment in the elementary grades is expected to increase four percent by 1982 and six percent by 1997, while enrollment in secondary schoots is expected to increase three percent by 1992 and 14 pereent by 1997. ‘To make matters worse, while schools demand more teachers to accommodate enrollment increases, an increased number of experienced teachers will eave the profession? ‘The National Education Association repors that as many as 900,000 of tie nation's 2,3 million teachers wilt retire by the rum of the censury3 The fact isthe teacher population has greyed: as the baby boom ended, schools hired few new teachers and sometimes dismissed many of those with les seniority.4 While ‘one out of six teachers had just one or two years of experience in 1961, 1966, and 1971, only one out of thirty had the same in 1983.5 Accordingly, the proportion of teachers in the 20-24 age group dropped from 10.2 percent in 1976-1977 to 4.5 percent in 1983-1984, while the proportion of those Tooredman, p. 4 2 Hagstrom, p. 9; John N. Mangies, Excellence in Education (Fort Worth: Texas Christian University Press, 1965) 97; Feiszer, Teachor Chi, P.7. 3 Tooredman,p. 5. Task Force on Teaching Asa Profession, p. 3 5 Mark A. Siegel, Naney R. Jacobs, and Donna R. Pesser, “Teachers: For Many There Are Other ‘Alemeuiven” The Information Series On Cumeat Topics (Plano, TX: Information Aids. ne, 1986) 61‘younger than 35 dropped from 53.2 percent 10 37.2 percent in that ime, Meanwhile, the proportion ‘older than 55 increased slightly from 9.5 percent to 10 percent! While experts are certain that retirements wil increase dramaucally at some point within the next decade, they do not agree on when, the increase will occur, The National Education Association estimates that thiny to fifty percent of practicing leachers may retire berween 1990 and 1995,? while others estimate that the increase in reirements wort increase until after 1995.3 Most estimates of teacher supply and demand assume thet pupil-ieacher ratios will remain relatively constant and thus ignore the fact that schools may respond to enzollment increases by (1) increasing class size or (2) increasing technology use as a mears of eliminating some of the need for human instructors, While such assumptions seem risky in ligt of the fact tha the number of students perteacher dropped significantly from the period of highest student enrollments to that of lowest caroliments,it is ive that ratios are thus far holding at the lower figures even though enrollments are ssaring to climb (see Table 5). Iris possible that administrators may change pupil-eacher ratios in the long run, but many argue that urdon demands for pleasant working conditions and job security will ” oep ratios at their present fevelS At any rte, its doubtful that, given union opposition, a change in pupit-weacherraios or technology use Would decrease the demand for teachers to any significant degree in the near future tis significans to note thatthe increase in teacher demand will be even greater in cern regions and areas. In particular, tow socioeconomic reas wil require a disproportionate number of nev teachers. The coming baby boomlet wil be approximately 80 percent larger for low-income than sighincome groups®, and the fact that low SES schools experience a greater ras of teacher tumover > Haggswom, p. 8. 2 Gosman and Poreea, p. 14 3 Tooredman, p. 5. * Feisitcer, Teacher Gusts P-3 STooredman, p. 4 * Hapestrom, p. 40.will lso exacerbate the problem in those areas.! Furthermore, as schools with better working corsitions begin to demand more teachers, i is possible that many experienced teachers in low SES schoois will change districts The Obstactes Interest in teaching hiad reached an all-time low in the early eighties, While 21 percent ofall bachelor’s degrees (176,614) were awarded to people prepared to teach in 1971, only nine percent (#7.221) were in 1986 (see Table 6). Freshman interest in teaching careers had fallen similarly ~ from ahigh in 1968 of 23.5 percent? to a low in 1982 :0 4.7 percent It scems that the same factors that Jed the profession to decline in popularity such as the increase in other career opportunities and the Jow stanas and salary of teachers - wil given presen circumstances, make it extremely unlikely that the profession of teaching will aract ube quality and quantity of individuals it demands, Following is a descripion ofthe major obstacles which current effers to accomplish the Towering Task must confront. ‘Anincrease in opporunity elsewhere. The growth in career opportunity for women and minorities, who used to occupy the majority of teaching positions, has made it Tess Likely today that a substantial nuraber of individuals wil enter teaching. Women constituied 70 percent of the teaching force in the mid-sinties, when they received three percent of all aw degrees and six percent of medical degrees. In 1982, women received one thint of all law degrees and one quarter of medical degrees 4 Some fear thatthe growah in career opportunity will accentuate modem-day shortages: “nail recently, recurrent shortages were eased by the availability of relatively welt CUOEASE teSied omen wto ad few aeraivesif hey wancedrespecabi mldde- qualified. talented Net years these women have increasingly exploited expanding eon ee —aeaeaeSASee Ts: << "ames W. Guthrie, Schools and Ineaualiy (Cambridge, MA: MET Press, $971) 49, ; “The Amicon Bushman: National Norns for Fall 1987 Cooperative Instiational Reseach Pra (Cantor: Higher Beeson Reseach insti, 1987) 3 Cooperative Insttuuonal Research Program. P 4 “ Mangien, p. 95.‘opportunities in other fields: they no longer constitute a captive labor poo! forthe ‘teaching profession," . ee ape Peat ‘The increase in opportunity may also have a major impact on the quality ofthe teacher force, a itis probable that individuals with high measured academic ability have the most opportunity in other fields, A study of the National Longitutinal Smidy data for the class of 1976, which reveals thatthe largest number of transfers occurred among students in che highest-ablity fields, indicates that the brightest students have the grestest numberof options 2 Indeed. inwition dictates that high test scores will open many doors and that highly selective colleges expose stadems to a greater variety of ‘occupational atematives and aatract more reensters, A study of academic ability in the teacher force éraws om this reasoning to conclude: "As a practical matter, itis unrealistic w expect that reaching could ever be made sufficiently attractive to those who score in Ure upper 25 pefvent on measures of academic ability to draw into its ranks a proportionate number of those individuals.” Low Suauis, Teachers fel, according to a 1984 Gallup Poll, thatthe public ranks them at the bottom of the sociat scale.4 Most experts agree that teaching in America has always had 2 “shadowed” social standing and yet some argue that the stats of teachers has declined sill further in recent years, They argue that the teaching profession used to have the reputation of being a “dedicated service," but that "ten years of teacher militancy” have detracted from such a perception.© “The fact that teaching is considered alow status occupation may result from a number of factors. For one thing, teachers generally have welatively low socioeconomic status, and the profession has also long been dominated by females.7 The status problem also results from public recognition | Michael Sedlak and Steven Schlossman. Wi ‘of Teasing a: a Bateson (Senta Monica, CA: Rand Corporation, November 1986) 4, 2.W.-Timoshy Weaver, America’s Teacher Quality Problem (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1983) 23. 3 Vance and Schlechty, "The Disuibusion of Academic Ability in the Teaching Force.” p. 25, 4 Siegel, Jacobs, and Presser. p. 69 5 King and Wimperling.p. 5. © Xing and Wimpesling, p. 5. 9 ance and Schtechty. "The Bisebuton of Academic Ability i the Teaching Force." psthat teaching attracts the lower rungs of academic achievers. While revealing a study showing that teachers are generally of low academic ability, wo researchers worry that their report is "likely to iscourage potential recrlis from pursuing a career in which they risk the stigma of being thought among the least academically abie of al college graduates" Some argue thatthe education school itseifis one element ofthis problem. A highly controversial article tat frst appeared in Texas ‘Monthly called "Why Teochers Cant Teach” blamed education schools for wolerating mediocrity arid chasing away good students? Others have also argued thatthe low regard in which teacher education. is held on most campuses does tle to encourage academically able students to pursue teaching and helps stigmatize teaching as academically inferior3 “The result i that parents and peers in high socioeconomic brackets influence children to view teaching as a downwardly mobile occupational choice."4 And ambitious individuals who are deciding what to do with the rest oftheir Lives wil often head in other directions. low Salaries, The Task Force on Teaching as ¢ Profession reported that the salaries of Japanese teachers compared to those of their countrymen were 37 percent higher in 1986 than salaries of American teachers compared to those of other American workers.5 Indeed, weacher salaries inthe United States are low when compared to those of other occupations demanding a college degree. The problem became even worse during the 1970s, when salaries of other oecupations soared6 and average teacher salaries fell 15 percent in eal doltars,7 1 Vance and Schlechty, "The Distribution of Academic Abibty in the Teaching Force,” p. 26, 2 Gene Lyons, "Why Teachers Cant Teach,” Bi Delta Kappan (October 1980) 108-112. 3 Phinip c. Se «4 Victor S. Vance, "Rearuitmett, Selection, & Retention: The Shape of the Teaching enamel fh 1989) 48 . 4 Vance and Schlechty, "The Diseibutlon of Aczdemic Ability io the Teaching Foree,”p. 25, 5 Task Force on Teaching as a Profession, p98 6 Susan Tiff, "Who's Teaching Our Children?” Tims (November 14, 1988) 62 7 Stem, p. 100.‘Table 7 illustrates that beginning teacher salaries are lower than the salaries that colleBe graduates expect to make in ther fist year. Furthermore, the salaries are also extraordinarily compressed when compared with those of other occupations; most teachers reach the top of the scale within ten to twelve years after entering the workforce.) I seems cerain dat salary levels do influence career choice, A recent study of the impact of salaries on the career choices of math and seience majors reveals that larger salary differentials berween seaching and other occupations requiring math and science skills do comelate with shortages of math and science teachers.2 Indeed, ina recent survey which asked adults to identify che wo or three most ‘mportant things about ther jobs, the general population identified "a good salary” and “job security” most often. Low accessibility and iow publicity, Because standard cerufication procedures require an ‘undergraduate education major, the teaching profession has traditionally excluded individuals who do not major in education either because they ae simply indecisive about their future career choice or because they desire wo concenurate in subject mater disciplines during their undergraduate years. Even though itis actually possible for non-education majors to teach, most of them do net perceive that the opportunity exists, This problem results primarily from a lack of publicity about teaching opportunities and ways of going about taking advantage of them. Until recently, there had been no national adversing nor active recruiting for teachers among either education or non-education majors Ata time when Americans become increasingly aware of opportunites in other occupations, and when other Sectors are becoming more and more aggressive in an attempt to attract themn, the Lack 2 Task Force on Teaching as a Profession, p. 98. 2 Russell Rumberger, A 1 3.¢, Emily Feiswrizer, Profile of Teachers in we US. (Washington, D.C.: National Center of Education Statistics, 1989) ii 4 Emily C, Feistntzer, Teacher Supply and Demand Survey 1OR§ (Washington, D.C. National Center for Education information, 1988) 5.of recruitment and publicity, together withthe popular perception that the profession is largely inavcessible, seems particularly serious. ‘Yet even if an individval does recognize tht the opportunity is the7e, he or she stay not KNOW show 10 approach: the system since state cenfication requirements vary by state and teaching level “There is no national clearinghouse for information on openings or state regulations, let alone any degree of standardization. Because college seniors are often bombarded with other opportunities. itis ‘unlikely that, unless they ae extremely detesmined to pursue a teaching career, they will make the effort to tackle ths maze of requirements and regulations ‘Explaining acute shortages. While an increase in career opportunity, Jow status, low salaries, lack of recruiters, and a maze of stae certification requirements discourage individuals from entering the occupation of teaching generally, additional factors may be at work in areas of acute shorage. ‘Acute subject shortages, usually in math and stienee, result probably because the opportunity, satus, and selary factors are aoventuated for cenain subject majors. Individuals who major in math and science can attain jobs which are higher status and higher paying then the entry-level jobs of their peers in other subject majors (see Table 7), which means thal teaching appears even less arzactive 1 the math and science majors than tothe general college population. Furthermore the increasingly high demand {or individuals with echnical expertise ereates even more careet opportunity for math and science ‘majors than for persons who majo! nistory or English, forexample. ‘Geopraphie shortages, on the other hand, demand a different explanation, These shortages, which occur most often in small schools and in rural and inner-city districts, are a result of factors that, say never go away ~ dangerous working conditions, poor location lack of cormmunity and parental suppor, and scarcity of nancial resources. Because these disadvantages may persist even as the leaching profession asa whole Increases in apped! and aecessbiy, geographic shonages demand ‘unprecedented solutions.Conclusion Policymakers face a daunting task, To create a teacher workforce equal to the task of creating ‘excellent schools, they must atiract a greaier proportion of teachers from among academically talented Americans. They must solve persistent teacher shortages. And chey must at the same time axract hundreds of thousands of Americans to fll new teacher positions. Current efforts will successfully tackle these problems in wacher quality and quanuty only if they confront and find creative solutions io new and old problems. They must: (1) ceme to grips with ‘he fac that today’s world provides more opportniies for bright college graduates of every gender and sex than ever before, and that few of the most talented individuals will therefore choose teaching as ‘acazeer, (2) improve the status of teaching: (2) confront the salary issue; (4) develop mecharusms to actively recruit teacher candidates; (5) increase the accessibility of teaching to non-education majors: and (6) develop a mechanism to solve acute geogrephic shortages which may persist even as teaching. in general gains in appeal and accessibility. 8m WHAT HAS BEEN DONE Efforts To Attract More, Better Teachers Jn the past five years, neanly every sate legislature has acted on programs to recruit teachers, and efforts have also originated a local and national levels, Efforts have attempted in some cases to increase the supply of teachers, in some cases to attract academically outstanding individuals to the profession, and in some cases to do both simultaneously. Indeed, some of the initiatives are ‘generating a good deal of interest. Freshman interest in teaching rose to eight percent in 1988. And teaching is also now auracting different segments of Americans; reports of mid-career business executives heading tothe classroom, of liberal ans graduates seeking teaching jobs, and of retirees ‘wanting to become teaching are appearing in newspapers and periodicals all over the country. By examining: Fecent mitlatives to attract more, better teachers, this chapter seeks to (1) discover what types of po’ iiat'ves work in order to determine what elements to incorporate in the Teacher Corps ant 2) desemnine what policies are still needed. It wil describe and evaluate six major initiatives: increased selares, scholarships and loans for prospective teachers, locally iniiared recruiting campaigns, n cal public relations campaigns altemate certification programs, and fifth- year graduate programs Salaries ‘While ithas tacinonally been the responsibility of the local school district to set teacher salaries, atleast dury states have recently mandated minimum salaries, and others have instiuted across-the-board pay raises ? Begining salanes have increased over 17 percent between 1980 and 1988, and yet tod s beginning salary is stl below. in ea! dollars, what beginning salaries were in 1972 (see ‘Table 7.) 2 Elizabeth Ehrlich, “Amenca’s Schools Sul Aren't Making the Grade,” BusinessWeek (September 19, 1988) 130 2 Darting- Hammond and Berry. 9 38.Farthermor, its imporant o note that beginning salaries vary widely by state ranging from $26,880 in Alaska and $21,900 in California to less than $15,000 in Louisiana, Vermont, and Idaho 1 ‘Average selaries have also increased 26 percent from their low point in 1981 (See Table 8.) ‘Today the average teacher makes $28,085 ~ significantly above what he or she would have mede in current dollars even in 1973, when teacher salaries peaked. Icis significant to note, however, that Dart ofthe reason average salaries have increase is that teachers have aged. While the average teacher of 1971-2 had ten years of experience, the average teacher of 1985-86 had 16,$ years of experience. One analysis reveals that, accounting for the differences in experience levels, “similarly situated teachers are actually worse off by a factor of 15 percent than their counterpans of a decade ago.°2 Furhermore, average salaries remain low in some areas. For example, they are below $22,000 in Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Nonth Dakota, South Dakots, and West Virginia.3 “Many question whether iis feasible to increase salaries to aevel that would make the teaching profession compeduve with other occupations, The Task Force on Teaching as a Profession suggests ‘ha teacher salaries would have to equal those offered inthe middle range ofthe wage scale and as, Table 7 revealed, even today’s salaries are below what most college graduates expect to make. Dramatic increases seem rather unlikely; only six states, suffering from tight budgets, increased salaries for the 1988-89 year:5 One anelyst notes that to aise the salaries of 2.3 million teachers by the {510.000 necessary 10 make teaching more financially competitive with other jobs reeuiring equivalent training would cost over $20 billion ~ an amount states may not be willing or able o spend § It seems 1. Howard Nelson, Survey & Analysis of Salacy Trends 988 (Washington, D.C.: American Federation of. ‘Teachers, July 1988) 45 2 Darling-Hammond and Bey. p. 41 3 Watson, 9. $5. 4 Tak Foree on Teaching AS A Profession, p99. s ity B, Newweiler, Teacher Education Polics in tbe Sats: A SO-Siate Survey of Legislative and [Admatrauae Rebans Washngun, D.C: Amedcan Assoialon of Colleges for Testes ec, Tene 1968) 1 § Atlan Odden, "Financing Educational Excellence” Phi Delta Kappan (lanuary 1984) 314,unlikely that leacher salaries will ever reach a level sufficient to attract and retain the college graduates ‘who have the most oppomunities. ‘Scholarships and Forgivable Loans Jn 1982, only three states offered scholarships and forgivabie loans to students agreeing to teach after graduation. By 1988, 35 had, The programs vary in structure: loan forgiveness provisions permis borrowers to cancel some portion oftheir loans tough performance of a certain service, while service payback pro fons require recipients to perform a certain service in exchange for financial aid;! Scholarships, on the other hand, do not obligate recipients to any action AAs Table 9 reveals, six ofthe states’ programs classify as service payback programs; 24 as loan forgiveness programs; and sixteen as scholarship programs. (Some states have more than one program.) Of those programs, 21 sim specifically to aac eochers to subject or eagraphic shortage axeas, while sixteen aim at azacting outstanding high school and college suiders to te profession of| leaching. The size ofthe incentives vary from $7,500 per yearin Alaska to $1,000 per year in sates such as Oklahoma. ‘The payback provisions also vary, fom Alaske's requirement that loan recipients ‘wach five years 10 pay off each year of loan to New York's requirement that recipients teach half a year to pay off one year of scholarship. In addition, the federal leistanore has long offered financial aid to attract students to teaching. ‘The National Direct Student Loan Program, created in 1972 and renamed the Cast D. Perkins Loans in 1987, contains a provision that forgives loans o college graduates who teach in schools in low-income areas or in schools serving handicapped children, Also, the Paul Douglas Teacher Scholarships ‘svards grants of $5,000 per year of teacher preparation tring to students who graduate inthe top ten percent of their high school classes. ‘While itis clear that policymakers have acted with great enthusiasm onthe idea of anmacting seudents to teaching with loans and scholarships itis not clear that these incentive programs will have 2 Jim Stedman, The Experience with Loan ki Programe (Washingion, D.C. Congressional Reseach Service Janay 27,1985),the desired result. A senior information specialist atthe Education Commission ofthe States explains ‘hat past and current studies indicate that loan programs will not attract new students into teaching: (Ear ah undecided high schoo! student io select a carver that invotves four years of "8 preparation ant another four years of service just because a free college Joan is at stake is not realistic." ‘While most ofthe present programs have not been in effect long enough to properly gauge their impact, 42 1986 College Board survey of states that tad 2 that point implemented loan forgiveness programs ‘vealed that in over fifty percent of the programs, avallable funds were not completely wilized due to insufficient numbers of applicants ‘The College Board also evaluated two programs - one in North Carotina and one in Kentucky ~ which have been in existence for some time. The North Carolina program has aided about 12.000 ssudens since 1957; 38 percent of loan recipients failed to mest the teaching requirement and repaid the loans in cash. The Kentucky program, after thee years of operation, had gradvated 140 recipients, 73, percent of whom did go into teaching. The College Board reported: “In imerviews with program administrators, many indicated tat the loan forgiveness programs were not as successful as had been anticipated an expressed skepticism About their viebility. A commonly voiced viewpoint wss, the program is probably just financing those who would go ino teaching anyway." Analysis ofthe loan forgiveness and service payback provisions of the 1958 National Defense Education Act (NDEA) and of dhe 1963 Health Professions Student Loan Program (HPSLP) also indicates that forgivable loan programs ae not effective in attracting individuals who would not have otherwise entered the teaching profession. The NDEA authorized the National Defence Student Loan (NDSL) program in order to increase the quantity and quality of teachers available othe nation’s | Chris Pipho, Loan Forgiveness Programs: Will They Wark? (Washington, D.C.: Education Commission of the States, Aprit 1985). * Uene K, Spero. The Use of Sun Financial Aid Ta Atract Prospective Teachers: A Survey of Siae Efforg (New Vou Coles Envane Exemnaton Bou, eazy 1988) 3 Spero, p. 10. 4 Spero, p. 1elementary and secondary schools."] tt authorized loans to college students and permitted borrowers tw cancel up to half of their dett by teaching in public elementary and secondary schools. After examining several evaluations of the loan program, specifically those by the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, the Camegie Commission on Higher Education, and the College Board, a ‘Congressional Research Service report concluded that while over a million persons had had nearly half billion dollars of loans forgiven, “there is litle postive effect noted inthe literature concerning NDSL_ forgiveness"? The conclusion, more specifically, was that many borrowers would have envered teaching anyway and therefore simply reap a rgiveness windfall’, that the incentive has net seemed sufficient, as the average debt levels have been relatively small; and that the program incurred many administrative problems.3 ‘The Congressional Research Service also examined the HPSLP, which added a forgiveness feanure in 1965. The program provided that any degree recipient who practiced medicine in an area «determined to have a health manpower shonage could cancel up of fifty percent of his loans at arate of ‘ten percent per year. By 1979, the program provided for forgiveness of up to 85 pervent of loans at a rate of 30 percent in the first and second years and 25 percent in the third.4 Again, after examining studies by the General Accounting Office (GAO), the Congressional Research Service concluded that ‘while 3,511 borrowers had cancelled $20.5 million since the program began, relatively few individuals were actually influenced by the option. GAO's 1978 report concluded thar the forgiveness option was ineffective and that those who were utilizing it were receiving windfall benefits since they would have practiced in shortage areas anyway. » Stedman. p. 3. 2 seaman, p. 10. 3 Stedman, p. 10. * Stedman, p. 10. 5 Stedman, p. 12{i seems then that the rash of new loan and scholarship programs may fall to significantly increase the quantity and quality of individuals imerested in teaching. Indeed, past experience indicates that they will do litte to recruit those who would not otherwise have entered the teaching profession, Local Recruiting Effors ‘Several individual discs have adopted aggressive recruitment strategies much like those of corporate America. These efforis usually target education majors in an auempt to lure them to ‘parscular district, and they are having tangible, positive results. They can provide lessons for schools hoping to recruit both education and non-education majors. Prince George's County of Maryland, for example, needed to fill 400 teacher openings. It worked with the Advisory Council for Business & Industry to develop a recruiting plan which had five specs: +A higher budget The budget in 1986 was $4,000 — $10 for each opening, ‘Local businesses conuributed additional funds to send recruiters to job fas. + Advenising. rea businesses contributed $200,000 to create and ran high- ality tes is.on commercials on local channels. + Incentives. The school compiled a package of incentives, inciuding a break im rent and d:scounts on goods and services, + Perks, Recruiters gate away tote bags and apples, and hosted a hospitality suite athe recruutment fair «Publicity, Newspapers and wlevision stations allover the country covered the disthcis recruiting effons ‘The result? The district received 7,000 inquiries and 4,000 completed applications for the available stows] ‘A growing numberof districts ae taking similar initiatives. The Morongo Unified Schoot District in Twentynine Pains, CA, sends eight rersters including he principal snd superintendent on nt: For 800 Teaching Jobs.” Americanou-of-state recruiting tips.1 The Los Angeles Unified School Dstt, which anticipates the need for approximately 14,000 atditonal wachers by 1991, established a recruitment center 0 assist teacher candidates through the application and selection process. And one superintendent of a rurd district conducts energetic teeruitment at universities and works to develop personal relationships with university placement officers and with student teacher supervisors; white she had six applicants for a teaching position seven years ago, she now considers sity applicants for each position 3 ‘While these effonshave focused primarily on eeriting education majors, local efforts to generate interest among non-education majors have also been successful. For example, when a group of studens in Harvard's undergraduate education program waveled to other prestigious universities to explain that non-edueation majors di have the opportunity to each they were surprised and excited by the extent and enthusiasm of te response. 4 Similarly, Eric Bagan, a Wiliams graduate who taught for three year in an inner-city New York school and now travels ta selective liberal ats insitutions 19 recruit, notes that he has met a good deal of enthusiasm and interest Bagan's efforts are successful in acealy placing candidaies since be has the ability to direct inwerested individuals i the proper directions. ‘Aggressive local werutmentiniatives are clearly suctesslin actully placing candidates, Fumhennore, because of their ability 1oGraw individuals 1 paricular areas, whey have the potenti to solve acute geographic shorages. Yet ocal recruitment is by is very nature limited ~ both in its extent, 2d ints ability 0 create “hype.” 2 joan Burnside, “Barollments Are Up, and Our Teacher Recruiters Are On the Road," Andtican School Board Joumal Janvary 1987) 28. Rooper, p27. Steasen,p. & * Vito Peronne, Harvard University, personal interview, February 24, 1989, S Eric Bagan, telephone imterview, Apr 3, 1989.National Public Relations National adverising effons are much wider in scope and therefore have the ability to generate a greater amount of interest in teaching. Funhermore. by focusing positive atention on the profession, they help to increase its status in the eyes ofthe general public. Yet these effort suffer from WO inherent problems. First, the great variation in sate cenification and taining requirements severely ‘hampers any national campaign in providing interested pares real direction. Its approach is as a result necessarily passive and is therefore less effective than local recruitment at aetually drawing individuals into the profession. Second, the efforts obviously have Lie ability to target individuals with certain qualifcations.1 ‘A group of business and education leaders formed an organization in 1986 designed to promote teaching asa career trough national advertising, Called Recruiting New Teachers (RNT), the ‘organization to date has run $30 million of Public Service Announcements and has received approximately 166,000 cals to its 800 nurnber. The callers leave tir names and addresses, and RNT ails a brochure which advises interested individuals to contact guidance or career counselors, tak 10 their favorite teachers, write or call their state deparanents of education or college admissions office, oF visit ther local school disrct office, "The brochure encourages those interested in eaching to “be asseniv ‘and find the information they need to make informed career decisions. Recognizing the need for follow-up, RNT requests that interested panties return a response ‘card with more infomation about themselves. ‘The organization is making an effor: to have various institutions and individuals contact the 30,000 individuals who have malted response cards thus far and {is now also making its data-base availabe to school districs with shonages. RNT has no statistics conceming the number of individuals who have actully entered the teaching profession as a result of fone of the advertisements.2 Yet itis clear that these efforts cannot be as effective in actually placing 1 Kim McGuire, Recruiting New Teachers, telephone interview, March 17, 1989, 2 information from RNT promotional material and interviews with David Kaselkomn, president, and Kim MGuse 38«andidates a8 cana Loe program in which rcnuters guide candidates tough the entire application process Alternate Cerifcation Programs Altemative Certification (AC) programs! generally seek to stract a select group of liberal ans, graduates and mid-career professionals and prepare them for certification through a shortened version of the pedagogical taining that traditionally certified teachers receive during their undergraduate years. ‘The typical program includes a formal pre-service or in-service instructional component and some type of extensive feid experience. Table 10 provides a description of existing programs. In general, AC programs seem to airact highly qualified indi als. Policy Studies Association (PSA) study of AC programs repoms that several of them are successfully recruiting top students from prestigious schools and thatthe programs have the luxury of high applieant-to-panicipant ratios, which allows them to choose the strongest candidates 3 The study states that AC candidates dave strong undergraduate backgrounds, shat some attended Ivy League institutions or very small ¥beral ans colleges, and uiat some graduated with honors 4 Furhermore, AC supervisors reported without exception tha the candidates had beter than average or superior mastery ofthe subjects they were teaching.> The credentials of candidates New Jersey hired in September 1988 are testimony to these positive evaluations. Thiny-five percent of New Jersey candidates graduated from eatlege with honors.6 And as of Apcil 1987, the percentage of candidates from New Jersey's AC program who 1 Chapters Five and Six provide a more detailed description ofthese programs. 7 Adelman, an Esplorsiocy Stuy, p28. ? Adelman, An Exploratory Suds, p26 4 Nancy man, “An Examination of Teacher Alterative Certification Programs,” What’ 2 Fccang ba Lavrance Rae (Washington. D.C: Office of Edacatonal Research & Inproverest ‘Aegust 1987) 153. 5 Adciman, An Exploratory Study, p. 46. S Colesie Rorso etal, The New Jersey ml (Frentan, NI: New Jersey State Deparment of Eprogram who passed the NTE was higher, at 92.9 percent, than was the percentage of those who came ‘rough the traditional veacher programs (86.2 percent); the mean score ofthe AC candidates was also significantly higher,1 Jn some states, the programs seem to be atracting 2 high umber of applicants, and they help ‘mitigate acute shortages in states that allow alternative route candidates to teach only in shortage areas. For example, New Jersey's AC program has completely eliminated the need for its former practice of ‘emergency certification, The program received 1,962 applications in 1986, 2.088 in 1987, and 1.56% in 1988. (The drop is due not to an decrease in inrerest bat to a sicter definition of “applicant. ")2 In 1985, 11 percent ofall new teachers hired in New Jersey were AC candidates: in 1986, 14 percent: 1987, 18.2 percent, and 1989, 29 percent 3 'W does not appear, however, that AC programs have the capacity to eliminate shortages. A Souther Regional Féucation Board (SREB) analyst, who has studied a great number of AC programs, says that the large numbers necessary to solve shortage problems "just arent there." In Califor for example, shortages persist although its AC program accounted for 15 percent of new mathematics teachers, 31 percent of biological science teachers, and 24 percent ofall new physical science teachers between 1984 and 1986 in participating districts S The number of applicants who entered the program. ‘was less than one third ofthe figure that was originally projected.6. The fact that participation in AC 1 Dennis Gray and David Lynn, New sativ (Washington, D.C. The Council for Basie Education, 1988) 9. 2 Rorro, p. 4. 3 Romo, p. 5. 4 Lynn Comett, Southem Regiona! Education Boaud, telephone interview, March 17, 1989. SNe Brian S. Mituman, and Linds Darling-Hammond, ust Non (Santa Moniea, CA: RAND Corporaton, May 1988) 28. 6 Michaet D. McKibbin, “Akemate Teachor Ceruifioation Programs,” Edgcational Leadership (Novernber 1988) 33. 40programs isnot greater may stem from a numberof factors. Fist, recruitment fo the programs is not exensive; the PSA study found that recruitment efforts were usually limited,} while SREB found that any districts participacing in sae.iniiaed AC programs simply neglected to recnatalingether > Second, the fact wat programs vary by state may have the same discouraging effects that differing standard certification requirements have. Finally, the programs seck to atract individuals fora career in teaching and therefore stil fail to address the fact shat there has been an increase in oppomunity in ouher sectors Interviews with AC candidates reveal, however, that AC programs do accomplish important goals ~ primarily in increasing the accessibility and status of teaching. They appear to be successful in ‘auracting individuals who have a deep interest in teaching but who did not, for whatever reason, major {in education, ‘The PSA sredy found that the most common reason cited by the candidates he interviewed was “a personal commiament to enter teaching at some point in their careers"3. Many of the candidates cited the program's shor time frame and the limited amount of “Mickey Mouse” coursework as attractions 4 Some of the candidates sated that they would have been unlikely to enter teaching if it weren't for the AC program, and several cited the selectivity ofthe programs as @ major strength 5 Fifth-Year Programs In an arempt to attract individuals who did not major in education but wish to pursue a career in teaching, fifth-year programs offer sndard certification after one or two years of teacher training, Some of the programs result in a Masters Degree.6 Nancy E. Adelman, Policy Studies Association, telephone interview, March 17, 1989. 2 Comets, interview. 3 Adelman, “An Examination of Teacher Alterative Certification Programs,” 133. # Adelman, An Exploratory Study, p. 27 5 delman, An Exploratory Su, p27 6 Carey, Mituman, and Darling-Hammond, p. 32 41Fifth-year programs are gencrally modelled aftr the "Masters of Ans in Teaching” (MAT) programs ofthe law fifes.1 The MAT programs were successful in attracting students in the upper ranges of academic ability - in comparison not only with teacher averages. but with national averages. Among the original MAT programs, the mean scores of Harvard MATS on Graduate Record Exams ‘were substantially higher than national means for education students and were near the means for professional students in physical science, At Note Dame, Duke, and the University of Chicago, ‘professors in academic deparmments stated that in most cases, MAT snudents were equal to and in some «cases superior to students in Master's Degree programs? Today, high entry standards mainain this same degree of selectivity,3 which serves to increase the “satus” of entering the programs. Wile these programs are certainly succesful in eruting individuals of high acaderi ability who did not maforin education, teirabilty to help solve acute shonages seems limited. Unlike AC participants, graduates of fifth-year programs atlain standard certification and therefore cannot be restricted to serving in areas of acute shortage.4 Also, enrollments in current programs have, for the mos: part. remained small: one sty of eight fifth-year programs found thatthe average ensoiert vas 185 The low enrollment levels ay be a eu of emumber of facors, For ne ting, these programs usu incu ary substantia opportunity css pancipares must generally pay their own tuition costs, and the programs usually demand a full-time commitment to coursework. Similarly, the programs are intended to prepare individuals o be career teachers and may therefore be unattractive 0 (Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service, March 1986), 2 Coley and Thorpe, A Look at the MAT Mods}, p. 7. 3 Carey, Miuman, and Darling-Hammond, p. 45. 4 Carey, Mittman, and Darling-Hammond, p. 45. 5 Carey, Minman, and Darling-Hammond, p. 37. Corey, Mian, and Darling-Hammond. p. 62‘hose who plan to pursue other opportunities. In addition, most universities make a minimum effort 10 ize the option, Conclusion ‘Table 11 summarizes the extent io which current policy initiatives accomplish the objectives ‘that Chapter Two set forth as essential to solve the problems of teacher quality and quantity, ‘While increased salaries are probably the most common teacher recruitment initiative. itis uunfessibie 10 rely on pay raises alone to attract the “best and the brightest” and alleviate teacher shortages, Furthermore, its doubtful that scholarships and forgivable loans will have the desired effect of recruiting to the teaching profession those wivo would not have otherwise entered it ‘On the other hand, local recruitment efforts have tangible, positive results — even in the absence of drastic pay raises and other financial incentives. While national publicity effons are more capable of generating 2 great dea of interest and in increasing the status of teaching, local effons are probably more effective in placing candidates because oftheir ability 1 target individuals with cerain characteristics and to guide candidates through the application process. While all AC programs are not equally successful in auracting highly qualified applicants wo shortage areas, t appears that they do in many cases succeed both in increasing the status of the occupation and in making the profession. accessible 10 those who want wo teach but did not major in education, Furthermore, because AC candidates can be confined to shortage areas, these programs have the potential to alleviate acute geographic shortages. Fifth-year programs also improve the status of teaching by maintaining high admission standards, and they add an important dimension by enabling non-education majors who wish to pursue a career in teaching to atin standard cerification. In shon, it seems that the most successful policy initiatives are those that do much more than throw money atthe profession, They are creative programs which take into account the psychological factors, as well asthe practical considerations, that influence career choice, 1 Carey, Mieman, and Darling-Hammond, p62Task: ‘Yeti also clear that curent policy initiatives are not suficient to accomplish the Towering + No program yet comes to grips with the fact thatthe brightest college graduates are very unlikely to spend a career in teaching now that the world is so full of other opportunities. + Many initiatives have made progress in increasing the status of teaching, but more are needed. + No initiative has successfully confronted the salary issue so thatthe "best and the brightest" would willingly sacrifice @ high first-year salary in order to teach, + While some local recruitment effons have proven effective, the practices are by their ‘very nature limited in scope: national recruimment efforts have remained passive in ature and do not have the a to target highly able individuals, + While AC and fifth-year programs have increased the accessibility of teaching to rnon-education majors, there is 2s of yet no mechanism to help de-code the maze of state taining and certification requirements. + Although some AC programs do help mitigate acute shortages, they do not appear to have the capacity to eliminate them entirely,Iv WHY WE NEED A TEACHER CORPS ‘This nation needs a Teacher Comps, Local recruitment efforts, national advertising campaigns, stae-intiated altemative cenification programs, and fith-year programs are important, But there are some things the Teacher Comps would accomplish which other efforts will not. It will appeal to the very "best and brightest” ~a group of individuals who will not respond to current initiatives. Jt wil provide a mechanism to solve acute geographic shonages. And it will create a new spint around the ‘educational system and the profession of teaching. This chapter explains why the Teacher Corps ‘would do great things for the educational system and for the profession of teaching, Attracting @ Unique Group ‘The Teacher Comps will succeed in recruiting a unique group of individuals; they will be dhe very brightest minds among recent graduates, and they will be Uhose among the brightest minds who care the most about children, about communicating their knowledge and enthusiasrs, about making an impact. The Teacher Corps will appeal to this group because ofthe creative manner in which it (1) ‘comes to grips withthe fact that bright college gradusies have a great many opportunites in other fields; (2) improves the status of teaching; (3) confronts the salary issues (4) goes about recruiting its ‘members: and (5) increases the accessibility of teaching, Gessng the best graduates in.a world fll of oopamunities. The Teacher Corps recognizes that the brighest Americans will have every incentive o pursue higher-paying, higher-sttus opportunities in business and government. Rather than fighting a losing batde against these other sectors, therefore, ‘he Teacher Comps opts not fo compete. Instead it requests that individuals take @ break from their fast- paced lives to serve the nation. That the best andthe brightest willbe wiling to do — especially ata time when idealism and the spirit of volunteerism are ronning high, ‘A Harvard professor studied the motives of hiny Harvard undergraduates who had recently emcered the College's undergraduate teacher education program to discover elues about how to acttalented people to teaching, One of his conclusions was thatthe student paricipans were deeply commited to teaching "but not necessarily asa lifelong career.” He wrote: (They sev teaching asa temporary break between college and graduate school. They ‘saw IL.as compensation to society before moving on to another profession, They saw ‘tas aleaming experience, as a way o help them decide about the future." Indeed, the brightest graduates may be more likely to commit two years after college to teaching ‘because they face a word ful of opportunity — where career choices are difficult and the extent of ‘pportunity self seems overwhelming. King and Wimperling, in proposing ther idea of a Teacher Corps, verbalized the lure of a two-year teaching stint: “Recent gradustes) may find atractive a hiatus from snudent life, the ready applicability of the bachelor’s degree and teaching cerificte to a responsible job, and the flexibility of employment which allows for summers open and uncommitted, Perhaps the most powerful enticements lie in the people-centcred nature of teaching Jor those who are dissatsfied with the non-humanistle aspects oftheir pre- professicnal schooling) and im the chance to use the teaching interval as'a period for clarifying ulumate carver choices."2 fthis is the case, skeptics ask. then why weulds't a great many more of the best and the brightest anempt to join the Peace Corps? Yet a number of factors may discourage them from joining the Peace Corps. For one thing, they might not identify with its politicized manure. And while they ‘ay be all for a hiatus, they may not wanta hiatus spent living in mud huts teaching agriculture “in the ‘middle of nowhere" (rot that people in the Peace Corps actually do live in mud huts’and so an, but the ‘common perception thet they do could drive many away). Furthermore, resent graduates may wish to serve in this nation, rather than in a foreign land, Hf recem graduates would be so willing w take time out 10 ach, then why don't they go find teaching jobs on their own? ‘There are three major reasons, all of which the Teacher Comps will seek 10 address. First, they may worry about threatening future job opportunities — something that would be of no concem in a program heartily supported by business and goverment leaders. Second, most. college students don't realize that they have the opportunity to teach. Third, with so many 1 Jerome T. Murphy. “Atracting Talented Student io Teaching.” Harvard Edacaton Review .p. 184 2 King and Wimpering, P.7‘sppemunities knocking at their doorsteps, smderis dont think (or have time) to take iniative and look elsewhere Slatus.ald salary, Just as national adverising eampaigns have focused positive attention on teachers, Teacher Comps advenisements will seek wo se! the experience as something almost glamorous. Like the Peace Corps did in its eatly days, the Teacher Corps will create a level of spirit ‘and mystique which would rival the hype that curently lures so many who have undefined career plans into investment banking! Furthermore, the Teacher Comps will maximize selectivity in onder to increase the stares of the Yentare, Some of the AC candidates revealed that the selectivity of the program was a major attraction: ‘effect, the degree of selectivity raised the staus ofthe job. The Teaches Corps’ billing asa rwo-year ‘rogram, as well as the fact that it would have a preat number of universities from which wo select applicants, makes it feasibtc that it could be even more highly selective than are AC programs, Finally, the Teacher Comps wil seek to capitalize on the fact that salaries ae iow wo actually Increase the status of the endeavor. By billing the opportunity to serve in the Teacher Comps as something the best and the brightest will sacrifice for something they do mezely 0 be of service to others ~the agency will create the same kind of mystique that the Peace Comps is able to create with its slogan “The Hardest Job You'll Ever Love,” Covating an effective recruitment effon, Iris clear that while national adverdsing campaigns do {ain public atzencion, they are less effective in actually placing individuals in teaching positions than is locally initicted. industry-type reenuiting, Yet the impact of local programs is necessarily limited, The ‘Teacher Corps uses the tactics of Jocai recruiters on a national level, It derives the benefits of a national advertising campaign by creating a publicity drive thet is massive in scope; it will therefore have the ability 10 build a much greater amount of hype then would any state or local program. And it gains the benefits of local recruitment effons by recruiting in-person on college campuses, teacher recruiters will, knock on doors just as corporate recruiters do. Jncreasing the accessibility af eating. Ii lear hata major advantage of AC and fifth-year programs i thas they provide non-educationrejors Uke opportunity to ener teaching. The Teacher aCorps would make teaching even more accessible to these individuals. It would cenartize the application process so that students do not have to apply to individual states to leam about their programs. Furhermore, the Teacher Comps administration, rater than the colege senior, would take ‘much of the initiative, it would in fact guide each applicant tough the process, Mitigating Acute Shortages ‘The Teacher Corps wilt mitigate acute geographic shonages by ensuring tha its members serve only in shortage areas, It will uns serve a purpose which most other recruitment initiatives do not While some AC programs arm to accomplish this cbjective, most recruitment inidatives seek to improve the quality and quantity of veachers nationally and often have lite impact on areas of persistent shortages, “Idea Power” ‘While the Peace Corps’ founders cenainly hoped tha its members would aid the people of lesser developed countries to lea and modernize, their primary aim was something less tangnble. Milton Viorst, who played a role in the first days of the Peace Corps. explains: we did not stake the Peace Comps gamble on the power ofa few thousand Americans t0 accomplish a physical transformation of the underdeveloped world. We based our gamble on a conviction tha it was not muscle power but ides power tat changed the world... The idea of the American Revolution, born more than two hundred years ago, continues to resound with explosive force Uioughout the world”! ‘na similar way, the Teacher Comps would have a positive impact merely by creating a new spirit around the educational system and the profession oftesching “The immense amount of publicity and support from government and business leaders which ‘would surround the Teacher Corps would focus pubic anention onthe importance of schools and education, It would send the clesr signal that the nation's leaders and its brightest young minds care, Moreover, te Teacher Corps would focus postive attention on the profession of teaching. Press atention on Teacker Corps members ~ the very brightest, most enthusiastic recent graduates — would 1 Mitton Viorst, Making a Difisences The Peace Corps Twenty-Five (New York: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1986) 17send a signal 10 the public that teaching is not “downwardly mobile.” It would send the signal that it is fulfilling and meaningful, that itis challenging, that itis important ane respectable ‘Thus. the real impact ofthe Teaches Corps would extend far beyond the 500 or 1,000 or 10.000 classrooms in which its members would teach. It would encourage student achievement and community involvement. And it would encourage the brightest high school students to consider ‘waching as a life-tong career, A Consideration of Possible Disadvantages ‘Any discussion ofthe reasons the Teacher Comps would benefit the educational system must be sevompanied by a consideration of reasons the Tescher Comps might haa it Following is an evaluation of the most persuasive arguments. +A program: that places individuals in teaching positions afer only avo to three months of pedagogical raining is antcherical to the notion of professionalizing the teaching occupation. Even as sites and «education associations seek to make teacking more ofa profession — with more stringent requirements, ‘more thorough raining, beter working conditions, more autonomy ~ the Teacher Corps would allow individuals wich lite training into classrooms as full teachers, thus implying that teaching requires Ute ‘or no professional knowledge base and that anyone can teach if they have command of the subject maner.! ‘The Teacher Comps recognizes that extensive formal and informal training is essential wo the most qualified teachers, While it therefore seeks to provide its members with some training and with the suppor and supervision of an experienced teacher, it does not profess to give individuals who have only a few months of formal pedagogical training a standard cenificale, Instead, the Teacher Corps Permits its members to teach for only two years, and to do so only in areas for which cenfied teachers are unavailable, Furthermore, chances are that without the Teacher Corps, schools would have to hire candidates who are not only less academically ale, but also have even ess formal taining and a less Aeveloped suppon mechanism. *To anwact individuals for only sso years of teaching would only cost schools a great deal of time and fort spent in on-the-job-raining, Furthermore, it would Say 0 the ration that experience is not important in creating effective teachers. 1 Rober Roth makes this complaint wih reference to alternative certification programs: Robert A. Roth, “Altemate and Alternative Cerufication; Purposes, Assumptions, and Implications,” Action in Teacter Educanon (Summer 1986).‘While itis truc that experience is extremely valuable in creating effective teachers it ts also tue that schools would benefit from the enthusiasm and knowledge that sharp, recent college gratuates would provide ~ and there is litle chance that, as long as teaching is billed as something that must be long- tem, many of these young people will teach at all. Also, the Teacher Corps would bill itself as an ‘emergency response to a shonage of experienced, qualified teachers and would therefore not be teling the nation that its inexperienced members were preferable to, or as qualified as, experienced teachers Furthermore, schools would be beter off to spend the time and effor to orient and suppor Teacher CConps members than to leave classes untaught or taught by unqualified and untrained individuals. ‘While tis litle consolation, the facts that schools are already spending a good deal of time taining individuals who do not remain inthe profession: fully fifteen percent of beginning teachers leave the profession within two years of beginning it, and an additional nine percent leave within another year.! + The Teacher Corps will atract coltege students who would have, in its absence, made a long-term commitment to teaching. Students wil determine that to be in the “In” crowd, they muse join the Corps rather than enter the profession as a full fledged teacher. possible tat the Teacher Corps could have this effect on some sudents. It is equally possibi, however, that it will tract individuals who had never thought about aching and who, aftr the ‘Teecher Comps experience, decide to purse tas acarezr, In each ofthese cass, if an individual desires io teach longer than bwo yeas, they Would ofcourse beable to atin funher pedagogical ‘aining towards full cerication and would cenataly be no worse for their Teacher Corps experience sTegcher Cons members wil anract pbc azewion whch wil damorlicoter teachers who have fea long-term corersimen to teaching Iti possible that Coms members wall anract the azenion ofthe media and public. Yet tha tention ‘Wil generate additional attention for he profession of teaching in general. Funermore, any amount of Positive attention on teaching will increase its status. As the Teacher Corps grows older, it will welt atzact less media attention, bu will hopefully have increased societat respect for teaching in general, +The Teacher Corps would attract individuals who are ying to find themseives rather than thase who re serious and dedicoted | Richard J. Mamane, “Understanding Teacher Airton,” Harvard Educational Review 6 30‘The Peace Comps confronted this same argument at its inception, and yetit is widely perceived that Peace Comps members have been extremely commined and serious. ‘The flaw in this axgument is that dedication, seriousness, and commitment do not necessarily go hand in hand with a sense of direction, Indeed, some of the most talented individuals may be more directionless simply because they perceive anv unlimited number of options before them. «tis probable thatthe Teacher Corps would appea! to students in humanities and social sciences rather than those in math and science, it would sherefore not be able to provide teachers for areas whick have the greatest need, The Teacher Corps would auempt to atracta cadre of individuals most equipped 1 meet demand and ‘would therefore put a good deal of emphasis on recruiting graduates with concereraions in areas of subject shortages, Even if t does not sucoed in tis effort, the Comps wil be able to meet a pressing need by serving in geographic areas of shortage. Furthermore, if teacher demand rises in he coming years tothe levels that many predict it will, tis very possible that the range of subjects which ‘experience shortages will become broader. + The Teacher Corps would attract a disproportionate number of individuals who have upperclass backgrounds since they will be most able 10 ford to take a wo-year break from fast paced careers, These individuals wil be least able to function in inner city schools, which have the greatest shortages and will therefore demand most of the Corps members. ‘This is indeed a valid concem:, However, Teacher Corps placements could stil be win-win sinuations, ‘The schools would gain teachers, however naive, for positions that would otherwise have gone Unfiled, And the Corps members, who would have initally joined the Comps knowing that they might ‘ery well find themselves in an alien environment, would lear and grow from the experience VISTA, which ints early days recruited primarily upper-middle class college graduates, confronted ‘uch the seme dilemma and found ta its recuts could be very effective in working with the poor in ‘nner cies, The Teacher Corps would take this concem into account in developing the curriculum of its waining instioue Conctusion ‘The Teacher Comps is, in short, a creative program that takes into consideration the Psychological factors and practical cnsideraions tat influence the career choices of the bes and 31brightest, It would attract a segment of individuals which no program currently succeeds in recruiting ‘The program is likely to succeed in doing so because it will (1) take advantage of the desire of students ‘sho have the most opporunity in other sectors to take a two-year hiatus: (2) build the “status” of the endeavor by maximizing selectivity and capitalizing on the low-salary, roughing it theme; (3) Build a ‘agonal public relations effort that woeld both get the word out that non-education majors can teach and build the excitement and mystique necessary to atract college stadents who have a number of ‘cpperunities knocking at theit Coorsteps: and (4) make the transition to teaching easier by centralizing te application process. ‘While Teacher Comps members could not provide the expertise of qualified, experienced teachers, they would provide energy, enthusiasm, and subject knowledge in positions that would otherwise be left unfilled, or filled by individuals with less taining and less support. They would supplement the curent teacher workforce, and would a the same time focus a new spirit on the ‘educational system and on the profession of teaching,approximately sixteen courses over eight semesters for elementary teachers and twelve for secondary teachers? ‘Moreover, 2s of Aptil 1987, 44 states required all begining teachers o pass a written test prior certification? As Tabic 12 reveals, the testing requirements also vary widely across states. ‘The test most commonly used for cenification isthe National Teacher Examination (NTE) by the Educational Testing Service. NTE's "Core Bantery," which lass five and a half hours and includes 340 multiple choice questions, covers communication skils such as listening, reading and writing: a ‘general knowledge of social studies, math, literature, fine ats, and science: and professtonal knowledge of teaching. NTE also offers subject tests in 26 fields. The second largest producer of teacher certification tests, National Evaluation Systems, produces custom-made tests which vary between states.4 Emergency, limited, and subsandard cenificarion. As Chapter Two explained, itis difficult 10 eam from state regulations whether or nota state will actully cenify individuals who do not ful ft starvard centfcation requirements. However itis generally accepted tha every sate will make such exceptions when confronted with a shorage of traditionally ceifled teachers. A professor at the ‘University of Wisconsin, who has developed, written about, and researched programs in eacher education for many years, writes: ._ in guth, every state has existing provisions in is state certification laws which pemnit any school district to utilize unprepared and unlicensed individuals if, inthe judgement of te local school authorites, there are no professionally prepared licensed teachers available."S Indeed, Table 2 revealed that states issued many non-standard certificates in 1987. J Adelman, An Exploraiary Suidy,p. 30. 2 Radner, p.1. 2 Rudner.p. 3. "Altemative Certification and Urban Schools,” Action in Teacher Education (Summer 1986) 13,Table 13 Usts the requirements of states that officially alow emergency certification. Note ‘hat the tale does not include states that allow altemative routes io standard certification.) Of the 21 states that allow emergency cenification, only nine require a B.A. degree, and only two require testing, Generally, in states that alow substandard cenificates, districts that have a teacher shomtage apply tothe state cerification department to receive a waiver enabling individuals without pedagogical maining to teach. ‘Alternative certification programs. As of September 1988, 23 states had AC programs, four hhad proposals pending, and twelve were considering the option. These programs typically allow non-education majors who participate in pre-service or in-service taining to assume full teaching responsibilities, AC paricipants teach with te suppor of experienced instructors and usually receive full eenification after a period of one or nwo years. (Table 10 provides a description of programs ‘which have already been implemenied ) Induction pmerams. A growing numberof states are mandating "Beginning Teacher Pregrams" (BTPs) to provide novice teachers with assistance and suppor and to determine whether ‘hey will be eligible for “fll ceriticaion." While the beginning teacher stil assumes ful responsibility fora ciass, he or she does not receive @ standard certificate until che “induction year" or internship is over? BTPs vary between one and !wo years in length and usually involve curricular and instructional support for new teachers andlor assessment of thetr competency. As of June 1988, 2 states had implemented full BTP programs, eight were testing the idea in pilot programs, and twelve were considering the option. ‘The rapid spread of BTPS is a response to to major factors: (1) dissatisfaction with paper-and-pencll tests as screens into the profession and the desire to add on-the job performance assessments as @ requirement for cerificaion?; and (2) a growing body of knowledge concluding that BTS often Lack, and know they Tack, competence in planning for | Widtiam Warren, "Aliemative Cenifcates: New Paths io Teaching,” New York Times (September 28, 1988) Bis. 2 Rudner. p. 39, 3 Darling-Hammond and Berry. pp. ix 5sinsouction, evaluating student work, motivating students, and adjusting tothe classroom ‘environment. While states set gerieral guidelines for the programs, they usually give each district the responsibilty to develop its own specific plan? As Table 14 illustrates, BTPs vary widely by state and locality. A lack of research on the programs makes it difficult to determine which types are most effective and no douit increases the degree of variation In BTPs designed for assessment, supervisory teams are usually responsible for observing ‘ntems and providing feedback about their performance. Usually, the teams consist ofa building principal, a teacher educator, and a supervisory classroom teacher, each of whom undergoes some training in supervision techniques. Each member of the tam generally visits an intem three times @ year, and after each observation. the observer consults the intem to discuss streagihs and weaknesses; tutorials and training are provided to address any weaknesses.3 Simlarly. teams in support programs also usually involve a mentor teacher, the site principal, and a ursversity consultant. In some cases, however, they involve only menter teachers, or mentor wachers and site principals, The mentor teachers responsibilities include accepting te inductee asa colleague and establishing open communication with him or her. . “Most states use individuals with other teaching responsibilies as mentors and evahiators: they generally provide release time for these teachers and sometimes pay them a stipend for mentoring. Other states and districts release experienced personnel to serve as fl-time clinical suppor teachers In one such district, each suppor teacher was assigned approximately eighteen clienf teachers distributed across eighteen elementary schools In Georgia, observers are employees in a network of * Ruder, p. 39. 2 James Hoffman eta, "A Snidy of State-Mandated Beginning Teacher Progsams,* Journal of Teacher Education Ganuary-Febnuary, 1986) 17. 3 Rudnes, p. 40. « Sandra J. Odel, “Induction Support of New Teachers: A Functional Approach,” Joumal of Teacher Education Clanvary - February, 1986) 27. 56seventeen regional assessment centers located throughout the state. Many of the programs provide training for support team members, and others provide training workshops for interns.! Actors ‘States. Most state constitutions place theultimate responsibility for education policy in the sate legislature, although some give it directly tothe State Board of Education (SBE), which exists ‘primarily o implement laws, When the legislanure does have policy-making power, itoften delegaves it tothe SBE2 and even when SBEs do not have formal contol over education poicy, they serve to make recommendations tothe governor and iegistaure, Another stawe body. the State Education “Agency (SEA), 1s the chief administrative arm of te SBE. It exists for compliance monitoring, technical assistance procurement, and research and evaluation, ‘Table 15 illustrates that while policy-making procedures clearly vary across states, the SBE conzols certification policy in most cases. Where he state constitution authorizes the legislature to set carification standards, however, the legislature cannot hand the task to the SBE withou., at minimum, offesing some starulory guidance, Similarly ifthe state constiution delegates authority to the SBE to sot these standards, the Jegisiature may not pass a law requiring standards different from those set by the SBE3 It is important to understand hat while SBEs may have much controt over education policies, the impetus for recent reforms has in many sites come from the legislarure and govemor.# Lamar ‘Alexander, chairman of the National Govemors Association and governor of Tennessee, stats: * Rudner, p. 41. 2 Grace Belsches-Simmons and Judith Bray, The Legal Contest for Teacher Improvement (Denver: Education Commission of te Sites, 1985) 5. 3 Betsches-Simmons and Bray, p. 6. 4 susan Fuhrman, William Hf, Clune, and Ricard F. Elmore, “Research on Education Reform: Lessons on the Implementation of Policy.” Teacher's College Recaxd (Winter 1988} 242.No one else can set the agenda in a state the way the Govemor can. The Governors agenda becomes the state's agenda and une state's agenda is the nation’s agenda, especially in education,"! While Governor Alexander is cerainly a biased source inthis regard, Ross Perot, who sought 10 reform the educational system in Texas, has been quoted assaying something tothe same effect: "People have been to see me about how to do what we've done in their states. 1 tell them, unless you can get the Govemor involved, don't even stat, Tt will bea waste of ime.” Studies of recent education reforms reveal that sate polieal culture and context led to a wide variation in the choice of policy instruments and implementation strategies; states adopted various pieces of the national reform agenda which best fit their own goals and capacity.3 Furthermore, it seems that today states are more willing to act swifly and dramatically than they had been prior to the ight reform movement. One snudy of the reform process in several states epors that state policymakers perceive that they will gain political rewards by taking bold new iniiadves: ‘Sun ignals from both the general public and national elives made it clear, arly 10 legislarures and governors, thatthe risks of acting decisively were very low, and in fac, the political costs of not acting were even higher,"S ‘An analysis oftheir initiatives regarding weacher cemtficaton is particularly elevent. ‘Almost all states have enacted changes in teacher certification policies within the past few years. Most of the changes carne in response to public concern that teachers are not adequately prepared and Involved increased requirements in the form of more tests, minimum academic standards, or increased course requirements. Its important to understand, however, that these reforms were generally not coherent packages which would lead state policymakers o be opposed to future changes, One study of sue cenification reforms states | National Govemor's Association, p. 4. 2 National Govemor's Association, p. 4 ° Fuhrman, Clune, and Elmore, p. 239 “Fuhrman and McDonrell,p. $0. * Fuhmman and McDonnell, p. 61."There is lale evidence that in it i ‘Most states eligibility requirements are developed as potofas ros fens eof ae policies afeting eatrance int teaching re cies in pieces mses to isolated probiene Saart Poe in piecemeal fashion, making isolated repo (One important corelary is that many tates which have alr implemented AC programs will stil’be open to allowing other non-raditicnal routes o cenfication. Only in New Jersey cid che state seek to eliminate ochernot-trachional routes by creating the AC program. And ifthe AC program has ot succeeded in eliminating shortages, it i Ukely that states will be open to additional options.2 As Chapter Three revealed, many ofthe AC programs have not infact eliminated teacher shonages. Indeed, some AC programs are not intended specifically to solve persistent shortages; while states such a Georgia and South Carotina do limit program participants to teaching in designated shorage areas, others, such as those in New Jersey, Maryland, Louisiana, and Mississippi. allow them to teach uhroughout the system 3 ‘Local Education Agencies. Like SBEs, Local Education Agencies (LEAS) are created either by the the state constitution or legislate, LEAS, run by district superintendents and schoo! principals, exist under the supervision ofthe SBE and assume day-to-day respensibility fo schoo! operations + Such responsibilities include staffing determining the content and requirements ofa schoo's ‘educational program, and resource allocation. Principals usually have the respensiility for hiring teachers although they must opera under guidelines set by scheol superintendents LEAs vary in their responses to state policy initiatives, Some comply itera, some resis, and some adapt ~ taking from state policy only the elements that suit local goals.S Those LEAS that are 1 Goer, Ekstrom, and Coley, p. 2 2 Mike Van Ryan, Assistant Commissioner for Education, New York State Depantment of Education, 8, 3 Carey, Minman, and Darling-Hammond, 4 Betsches-Simmons and Bray, p- 5 Fuheman, Clune, and Elmore, p. 239.‘OSL FesPonsive and cooperative are those tha feel he greatest need for reform. A study of local FRapOnss Io Sate reform iniatives reports that ths phenomenon is especially apperent in teacher policy: istrict response to state teacher init = Those distrets th ‘se for recruitment and traning of novices"! "concludes, furhermore, that i te local ned is great enough, disrits will work to actively shape and expand stat policy to meet their specific goals: “Many of the districis we observed » 60 Not merely adapt to state policy; the; comets At amply polices around local promis, weehet ok erst oe other Policies easy to implement exis. Active distress do Bot walt for state policies o happen, they make thers happen, diseier eee appears not only important but paramount,"2 Stic ners Groups. Treidonaly, most lobbying for and aginst educatonal reform has ome from teacher unions concemed wit job security and working conditions and from a business ommuric} commited only stopping ax increases. With the reform movement ofthe eighties, however. special interest groups began playing diferent roles. Ina dramade reversal the business “emmutysbendoned is usual sian using ates for education and campgnedaetively for School reform? Jos as striking was change nthe ole of te vo major teacher unions the : ‘American Federation of Teachers AFT) and he National Edueation Associaton (NEA). ‘These unlons have wadidonaly payed an astive ein guiding sate education policy in dhe 38 Stes thet rere or all teacher eaetive trgining the unions have lobed not oly for increased salaries and job security, ‘ut for improved working conditions such as more preperation Sime, smaller lass Size, and involvement on textbook comminces. Inthe eighties reforms, however, ‘the educational associations played a second role to business.5 1 Fuhmen, Clune, and Elmore, p. 252. ? Fuhrman, Clune, and Elmore, p. 254, 3 Fuheman and McDonnell, p52 “ Belsces-Simmons and Bray. 9.9. * Fuhrman, Ciune, and Elmore, p. 243.‘While the unions were not strong supporters of many reform measures, they for the most Par efained from mourting all-out opposvion, Even in reforms central tothe testing profession such aS carviculum and teacher certificaln, teacher associations accommodated to reform rather than either saping it prior to passage or resisting it ater Surprisingly, Uney were even wiling to swallow ‘anges in compensation schemes which they viewed as disagreeable, For example, while it pposed compensation based on factors other than seniority and educational adainment, the AFT was willing 1 sccept such schemes in some cases and because it saw the reform movement as an opportunity 0 bxain more visibility and support for public education generally > Implementing Alternative Certification Programs ‘While Chapter Six will presenta detailed description of AC programs in order to provide sessons conceming the design of the Teacher Corps, its important to examine inthis chaprer how they have been implemented. Most of the programs originated in the mid-eighties, and they can provide ‘yluable essons about implenienting non-traditional toutes to cenification in the current policy context. In all cases, the state's goveming body for education approved AC programs; while some legislarures mandated them, others came as SBE mandates? Initiatives to create them came always from outside the education establishment Usually, they were part of reform packages led in many cases by governors and leisiatures. In New Jersey. for example, Governor Tom Kean proposed the “Altemate Path to Certification” in 1983 as a means of alleviating the growing teacher shortage in New Jersey and eliminating the practice of emergency cersificaton in the sate $ ‘ Fateman, Clune, and Elmore. p. 243. 2 Fanrman and McDonnell, p.$3- 3 Comett, telephone interview. * Comets, telephone interview. 5 Sayre Unler, aliemalive Path 0 Easy, New escs and Elsshare (Washington, D.C: Cemer for Education Stausties, April 1987) 4‘Apparently, a state's regular teacher certification and induction policies did not influence the ‘way it stuctured its AC program. For example, states nonmally devised the training curriculum ‘without egard to regular teacher education requirements. Most states structured their curriculum around guidelines which a panel headed by Emest Boyer, president of the Camegie Foundation for the ‘Advancement of Teaching, identified for New Jersey's curriculum. In addition, as a comparison of Tabies 10 and 12 reveals, twelve states which do require other beginning teachers to pass atest before centering the classroom do not require AC candidates to do so. Of the other states, two do not require tat cither beginning teachers or AC candidates take them. Nine do require that AC candidates pass tests, and those that require regular beginning teachers o pass tests of professional skills often require ‘AC candidates only to demonstrate subject competency. Furthermore, comparison of Tables 10 and 14 reveals tat AC programs have incorporated a supervision mechanism even in states that do not require [BTPs. Moreover, in states that do mandate BTPs, the induction programs for standard and altemative cenificaton differ. In the cases of Connecticut, Georgia, and South Dakota, for example, BTPs involve more individuals than do the AC programs’ supervision/suppor: teams. ‘The extent to which Tocal districts cooperated with the state mandate to implement AC Programs depended on the extent of their need. Some, usually hose experiencing teacher shortages, took the initiative to devetop programs. Others, such as some of the Florida their feet.2 istrict, appeared 10 drag ‘While some special interest groups, namely teacher unions and colleges of education, were Inially opposed to the programs, most have since changed their postion, 3 The American Association ‘of Colleges of Teacher Education (AACTE) isueda poston statement on AC programs in February 1985 approving programs that would: (1) use selective a ission sandards: (2) employ a curriculum that provides knowledge and skills needed by beginning teachers: (3) incorporate a supervised * Adelman, An Exploratory Stusty,p. 32. 2 Comen, telephone interview. 3 Corea, telephone interview‘stems. and (4) assure competency in subject fel and in professional studies trough the use of examination.! The teacher unions approach each alteratve cenification program om a case by €as ‘basis and do not generally oppose those programs that incorporate adequate training and supervision mechanisms In sum, implemeniation of AC programs functioned much as would have been expected given the foregoing description of state policies and actors. As experience with other educational reforms could have predicted, legislatures and boards of education did not appear to demonstrate any concern about structuring AC programs so that dhey paralleled ocher state requiremens in the areas of training, tesing, or induction, Funhermore, the policy actors each performed much as they had in response to other education reforms. Legystatures and govemors provided the impetus for most programs; local districts took the initiative to develop and implement them fully ony if they had a particular need for them; and even though education associations disapproved of AC programs initially, they refrained from mounting all-out oppo: and eventually came around to suppor them under certain circumstances, Conclusion Because some s ses alow teachers with emergency centficates to fill positions in shortage areas, Teacher Corps members may be able to teach in those states even without formal legislative or SBE action, Usually, however, the Teacher Corps will have to gain the suppor of either legislatures or the state board of education for bow. “The ewrent policy content appears conducive o te creation ofthe Teacher Corps. It seems tha localities are particularly enthusiastic about programs thet meet their needs, and it does not seem Likely that education associations would oppose non-traditional routes to certification that are selective, inconporate a raining progzem and a mecharism for supervision and suppor, and are limited in scope Sestes aso appear willing 10 develop and adopt innovative programs regarding teacher cerufication in { adeiman. An Eyniomson Sits?saab i : = te face of pressing needs, and even those that have mandated AC programs would be likely 10 consider the Teacher Corps as a supplementary measure. It seems infact. chat state actors are more concemed with meeting needs than with maining the coherence of state policy regarding traning, resting, and induction, athough recent inistives in altemative cenification and beginning teacher [duction programs indicate that the Teacher Corps might have to incorporaie certain kinds of ‘mechanisms for taining and support in order tobe politcaly viable.VI LESSONS OF ALTERNATIVE CERTIFICATION PROGRAMS Altemative certification programs can offer many lessons for the planning of the Teacher Corps. They share much with the Teacher Corps proposal ~ primarily the effort to recruit non- education majors and the shonened program of pedagogical taining. Also, i is likely that states will require the Teacher Corps to display many of the characteristics of AC programs. This chapter will ‘examine their methods of administration, funding, recruitment, selection, waining, placement, ard supervision, Unfortunately, because there are few research mechartisms to monitor the effectiveness of different approaches, it is not currently possible to come to valid eonctusions about which methods are mos effecove.} This chapter therefor seeks primarily to describe, rather than evaluste, existing programs Administration Progrsns of Unir organizational arrangements, although they generally involve more tar one ‘Typical parucipanis include the SEA, one or more LEAs, and one or more college of ursversis; > Usual, the role of the SEA is limited to centification procedures, while the LEA and THE acrk oget 1 and screen applications and to coordinate training, placement, and supervision. New Jerse 15 411s SEA does help inthe actual operations of the program. by reerwiting appicans and aranging for taining facies Funding ion, Supervision, and the financial suppon of the ‘The principle program: costs are insi candidates In most cases, the candidates reccive a fegular teacher salary. The average cost per cuther Regional Educauon Beare, corsiboraies this viewparticipant, not including salaries, is approximately $5,000; cosis range between $1,284 and $16.533 per candidate, and the median cost is $2,693.1 Funding sources vary considerably. Some of the programs, such as the one in New Jersey, awe largely tution-funded, (New Jersey provides approximately fifteen scholarships, but all other panicipants pay for their own training.) In tree cases where the state has been the initiator, a major proportion of the funding comes from the SEA’s annval budget. In Los Angeles and Houston, the LEAS fund theit own programs. Thmve states received funding from the Economic Security Act's Title in 1985-86, Other federal sources of funding include the Fund for dhe Improvement of Postsecondary Education and the Office of Educational Research and Improvement, and tates also receive some funding from business and industry and from non-profit foundations 3 Recruioment ‘Studies by the Policy Studies Association (PSA) and by the Souther Regional Education Board (SREB) found that states had made very lle effort in recruiting candidates. New Jersey, Which is one of the most successful programs in sttrcting 2 good number of individuals, does send reenuiters to a number of select colleges and universities to interview prospective teachers. Stil, the New Jersey recruiters conduct very litte advertising in conjunction with the college visits: they apparently a&sume that students interested in teaching will inquire about such opportunities.4 Most programs intend to aractablance of mid-career changers. new B.A. and other rontradiional applicants, hough sore at more rary focused. Programs in Arizona, Los ‘Angeles, New Jersey. and New Mexico recruit recent college graduates; Harvard and the University of 1 Adelman, An Exploratory Suuty, p19, * Adetman, Ap Exploratory Stus, p. 16 5 Adelman, An Exploratory Study, p18 4 san Hansen, New Jersey Department of Education, tlepone interview, April, 1989, 5 Carey, Mittman, and Darting-Hammond, p25‘Maine target mid-career changers and re-entry candidates; and Houston is interested in atracting homemakers and retired military personnel as well as mid-career people. As a whole, AC programs are most successful in attracting mid-career changers and new B.A.s.2 Selection Inmost cases, entry requirements arc equal to or greater than the requirements for entry into university teacher education.3 Predictably, while af states require that participanis have a four-year degrec, programs vary widely in their criteria and methods of selection. ‘The Dallas Independent School District's program, for example, requires that participants have 4 four-year degree, a minimum GPA of 2.8, and passing scores on a basic skills test: furthermore, administrators conduct an interview, require applicants to write an impromptu essay, and verify the applicants’ references and records.* In New Jersey, candidates must pass a competency test in the subject he or she intonds to teach and be approved by district personnel after a screening interview that focuses on bickground, academic experiences and cenainetnical and pemonal characeities 5 Training Most states have modeled their taining curiculum after aso of guidelines devised by a panel often leaders in teacher education, The pane! concluded thackeiowledge of three major areas was essential o begining teachers: + Curriculum ~ the subject itself, how to assess student progress, how to organize ‘lass content, how to develop and use ests " Adelman, An Exploratory Siudy, p.24 2 Carey, Miuman, and Darling-Hammond, p25. 3 Mckibbin, “Altemate Teacher Cenfication Programs,” p. 33. 4 i Jemy B, Hutton, er Sep tc aba ett ots cP Ecucation, August 1987) 28, 5 Saut Cooperman and Leo Klaghole, "New Jessoy's Alemate Rute to Certification,” Phi Delia Kepoan (une 1985) 604. o* Student ~ their characteristics, the ways they leam, how to discipline + Setting - how to cope with the bureaucratic ‘Social structure of public education! Program designers have followed diferent strategies to create training programs for candidates ‘har meet state requirements for cerfcaion, take into account the post-graduate status and maturity of dhe populations being recruited, and in most cases synhesize and compress the material ino @ shores time frame 2 The programs range from short orientation to extensive programs that paralle! undergraduate teacher education. In Pennsylvania, a student with a bachelor's: degree can be hired as a fulltime vacher with the spulation that he or she enroll in ateacher preparation program atone of ‘twenty sites; in order to achieve permanent certification, the candidate must complete the teacher preparation program within three years. Other programs, such as that in North Carolina, require a ‘shon orientation program in addition to completion of a full undergraduate education curriculum. In Georgia trainees can satisty the requirements during @suramer inttte. In Mississippi. candidates snusi take twelve semescer hours of education coursework. (Sec Table 10) While AC standants generally require fewer hours of formal coursework than do regular cerdfcation standards, most require more hours ef supervised field experience. This field experience usualy takes the form of 2 eachingintemship often in wich te candidate assumes complete responsibility fora class.3 The formal insiruction resembles the content of waditional undergraduate ‘education programs, which can be divided into (wo parts: (1) the philosophical, historical, and sociological foundations of American education, and (2) “methods” courses, which cover instructional Strategies, classroom organization end management skits, Giegnostc and evaluation techniques, and lopies specific to the level or subject to be taught 1 mest L., Boyer, Repor ofa Panclon ite Prenazaion of Bezinning Teachers Princeton, NI: The Henry ‘Chauncey Center, March 1984) 2 delman, “An Examination of Teacher Altemative Certification Programs.” p. 132, Carey, Mizman, and Darling-Hammond, p20 + Adelman, “An Examination of Teacher Altemabve Cenification Programs.” p. 132‘The PSA study concludes that “itis cur best estimate thatthe essential content of aditional teacher education is being covered."! Available studies also indicate thatthe candidates certified through altemate routes ar not lacking in wuching skills when compared with other beginning ieachers. PSA reports that the interns revealed the same strengths and deficiencies as did other first- year teachers in teacher competency errors? It concludes: Tack of ertcin of demas esc andas The teem grap forest supervisors is traditionally prepared teachess,"3 ‘The SREB study also found that state teacher competency evaluations showed that candidates certified tough an atemate route were comparable to other beginning teachers in all states for which evaluation results were available ~ Texas, North Carolina, Florida, Califomia, and New Jersey.4 A.closer examination of New Jersey's training program is instructional. Formal taining takes place in one of thirteen regional centers, each affiliated with a college or department of education, which coordinates instructors for the insiitute of higher education and the school district.> New Jersey requires 200 hours of taining during the first yeer. During the first year of operation, it required that teachers atend taining classes four hours afterschool exch day forthe first twenty workdays. The trainees would then receive ata of 120 adltional hours during the remainder ofthe year. Because the intial eighty hours were extremely szessful forthe trainees, New Jersey amended the program the following year o require fewer hoors per day for thiny workdays and some weekends.6 4 Adelman, An Exploratory Study, p. 32. ? Adelman, An Explaraior Shidy, pp. 46-7 3 Adelman, An Explocaory Stusy, p47. Lynn Coment, Alsemative Ceniication Programs: Art. They Working? (Aulanta: Southern Regional Eavcation Board, March 1988). § Gray and Lynn, p. 12 ® Gray and Lyan, p. 11‘An evaluation of New Jersey's program bythe Council for Basic Education (CBE), found thatthe Personne! hired to teach in the regional centers are often not Practicing teachers, but ‘dminisators long removed from the classroom. The CBE evaluation sted: Our distines impression is that parc Connon eee OUTS 85 having all the faults tht regulary cenincd weeien: Stems setts 10 their edocation courses taken in undergduate eae ous the Slama Toute noviees, like ter regular route counterparts soopiae eenihoe ‘Professional taining seems irelevant, ‘overly long, poorly presented, and boring.*! (CBE also concluded that it would be ease onthe trainees ifthe intel raining was doe prior tothe school year? Placement No program has a fomnal placement system. In most cases, candidates find jobs on their ovm, ‘ither prior to entering the program or after completing it3 While some States do not require AC Parieipants to each only in shorage areas, PSA\s study of the 700 graduates of AC programs in 1985-86 revealed that more than sixy pe highest nt were teaching in urban areas, where shortages are In New Jerse), siany schools were inislly elucta: to hire the AC eachers since the program ‘raultes the active paricipaticn of principals © New Jersey's experience also reveals, however, that School districts become more receptive to AC teachers overtime, Of New Jersey's 611 school disticts, 152 had hired candidates rsfieé trough the state's altemate route by November 1987. By 1988. a total of 379 school disvicis were panicipating: of tose, 200 were public and 179 were Ponpublic.5 Tray and Ln, p. 12. 2 Gry and Lynn, p. 11 > Adelman telephone interview 4 Scot Jashik, *Conce ised Over New Jersey Pan To Use “Altemate Route’ To Cenily Teachers,* ducaucn ‘August 1987, $ Rens. 9.6‘The CBE study reported that a std majority ‘of principals and administrators woul, all other things being equal, rather hire a regularly censified ‘eacher than an AC candidate in order to escape the fxpense of exiensive supervisory time. They would however, be ‘willing to hire other such candidates ‘equily macve, centiied aches wer unavaante! Sita, he PSA study found only one incipal who was cleaty negative ward the program and who fl that ‘gular oenification programs provided better preparation and less burcen on the schools 2 Supervision ‘Will program partipant generally assume ful responsibilty of tee clases rom te fist, ay oF School or within a month ofthat sine 3 most sates make some provision forthe suppor, Supervision, and evaluation of uainees by experienced teaches, The usual supervisory model is ‘fered tos linia supervision.” which invelves a good amount of supervisory time and egler Aiscussions to encourage the beginning teacher to analyze his or her work + Usually, candidates are ‘ssoned mentor teachers, who receive. spends, Building principals play some supervisory rein realy ll programs, and in programs invelving instition of higher education, university personnel are usually invelved.S Again, models of supportsuperision vary widely between programs. In Houston for ttamls, mentor teacher and principal have pimary responsibly for day-to-day soporte Gistiets Employee Development Deparment andthe AC saff monitor progress and resource center JpNew Jersey, ems have an experienced eater or admin in tbe lsroom al tines ding the first month, then once ‘Per week for ten weeks and once per month for the ‘remainder of the year. The Sata Fe Schoo disc eased one elementary and one secondary teacher fom regular * Gray and Lynn, p. 17. 7 Adelman, An Exploratory Stuy, p52. * Adetman, “An Examination of Teacher Aiterasve Cenifcation Programs p. 132 “Adeinan, An Exploratory Stud, p. 34. * Adeiman, Aa Eestoratry Suit. p. 34sesponsiblldes 0 serve as fulltime clinical support supervisors for 15 program participants; on average, the supervisor was present week! ach intems classes for an equivalent of one fll day per ‘In general, participants in AC programs receive ‘Mor supervision than the average student or first-year teacher.? While typical supervision of beginning teachers is often a mater of a few widely separated observations and evaluations. AC panicipants receive much more frequent contac.3 The ‘PSA study found that program participants rated the amount ‘and quality of supervision as more than. adequate+ Conclusion Following are the elements of the AC experience that are the most significant tothe planning of tte Teacher Cos: * While AC programs are open to the general population, they are most successful in attracting new B.A.s and mid-career changers. + AC entry requirements vary widely, but are in most cases equal fo of greater than eligibility requirements for standard cenification, + While training programs generally require fewer hours of formal training than do standard teacher traning programs, they are covering the essential clements of ‘pedagogical theory, and AC paricipants do not appear to be lacking in teaching skills. ‘Most training curriculums follow guidelines set by a prominent board of educators ‘They vary widely, from stort programs to more extensive ones, + An evaluation of New Jersey's taining program reveals that tis important to have top instructors teaching the candidates and that under optimal circumstances, formal ‘waining would take place prior to the school year. + Principals are willing to hire AC candidates, even though they require more atention ‘and supervision than beginning teachers with standard cenificates, if qualifies Centfied teachers are unavailable. The majority of AC candidates enter teaching positions in urban areas where shortages are the highest + AC pantcipanis generally assume full responsibilty oftheir classes from the frst day of school or within a month ofthat time. —__ " Adcman, An Explorsiony Stuy p. 35 * Adeiman, “An Examination of Teacher Alternative Certification Programs,” p. 132. * Adeinan, An Exgloruary Sid, 7p. 32-4 “ Adena, an Exploratory Sad . 24.vil LESSONS OF THE NATIONAL TEACHER CORPS ‘The National Teacher Comps (NTC), Great Society effort to increase the educational portunities of disadvantaged children, sought to achieve a complicated and ever-changing weave of tjectives. Tt was in pan, initially atleast, an effort to capitalize on the idealism of youth in order to axprove the educational system. This chapter will descrite its operations in onder to provide a number sflessons forthe planning and implementation ofthe Teacher Corps. First, however, because an snéerstanding of is operations ean come only with a full understanding ofits varying purposes and its svolution, the chapter wil examine the NC's dynamic history in detail, Creation and evolution ‘President Johnson expressed his intention to create a "National Teacher Corps" at a National Education Association convention on July 2, 1965. He sited "in the next few days I will propose a National Tescher Corps to enlist thousands of Safgnchy ehowuny ean tiycpetiornsen Tey be yom men ‘preparing for teaching careers. ‘Theyll be expericnced teachers willing to give a year to the places in their country that need them the mos"! Johnsons endorsement, which came afer Senators Gaylord Nelson and Edwant Kennedy bad each Proposed an “American Teacher Corps” gave momentum tothe idea. Congress authorized is ereation ‘nthe Higher Edveation Act of 1965 on October 20, 1965, . “The legislation authorized a maximum of 6,000 experienced teachers and teacher intems to teach in ow dncome schoots as an addon to dhe regular faulty. after no more than tree months of Special training which would include teacher education subjects, academic coursework in the fields of _wban and rural poverty, and an acquaintance with community insituions seeking to deal with poverty Probiems.2 According to the legislation, the NTC would operate in two ways. In one form, teacher- tiers would serve in teams white completing & program resulting ina professional credential and : res Wee) 1. week ending July 9, 1965, p. 1345. 20S Code Congressional and Adminisuative Nows (St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Co., 1968) 4069. 1incnding community awareness tnd forms coursework, In the other fom, experienced teachers vould leave their present Jobs to teach ndcpendentyin low-income schoo fortwo yeas ‘His important o realize thatthe NTC was differen things to diferent people fom ts very inogption. President Johnson saw it as an intagral pam of the Great Society agenda, a much-needed ¢fforo improve the education ofthe Gisadvantaged, He stated in his leer 10 Congress: "fhe National Teacher Comps draws on that spirit of dedication of Americans which w ‘has been demonstrated time and again in peace and in war, by young and old. at home and abroad. It will provide a chalienge and an opportunity for teachers wilh a sence (mission ~ those best sulted to the momentous tsk tis tation faces in improving ‘education ;.- The National Teacher Corps can help improve the quality of teaching ‘where quality is most needed and most often in short supply —in city slums and in, areas of rural poverty." ‘Tomany. then, the NTC was to bea kind of Peace Corps~an agency that would aact a unique |roup of individuals to serve the nation as teachers ofthe poor. In fact, one U.S. Congressman stated ‘hat “it presents an opportunity for young college graduates who wish to render service here at home in the same way that young people have served abroad in the Peace Corps “2 Others saw it primarily asa means of recruiting a new group of teachers, For example, the National Advisory Council on the Education of Disadvantaged Children stated in 1967 thatthe main ‘alue ofthe Corps was that it recruited “an unusual group of young people who, but for the Comps, ‘would never have been drawn to the teaching profession."3 Sul others viewed the NTC primarily as a ‘ind of special waining ground for individuals who wished to teach the disadvantaged, Unlike "aditional teacher education programs, the NTC would recognize that there are al iferences tecween teaching low-income students and teaching middle-class students and would provide its ‘members with special training which would make them uniquely able to teach in low socioeconomic a ‘Conmssonat Quancry Weekly Repu, week ening July 23,1965, p. 1487 226 Corvin, ni (ew York: John Wiley & Sons, 1974) 4 Corwin, p. 4, 6seas: moreover, Dy developing and instinationalizing these special training techniques, it would bring about a change in methods of aching and teacher taining, ‘The committee responsible for NTC legislation expressed these varied intents in 1965: “The National Teacher Corps is aimed atthe reallocation of talent inthe teaching profession to assist urban and rural areas that are marked by concentrations of 1OW- {Income families and to attract into the teaching profession and io service in such areas the most able and dedicated young people graduating from our Nation's institutions of higher education, The comniitce is ofthe belief thatthe placing of experienced teachers and teaching teams in schools with high concentrations of low-income families will be most beneficial tothe children of such schools, to the teachers themselves, and will provide a unique training opportunity for furure teachers of the disadvantaged"? ‘Tre commitee also highlighted it intention thatthe Comps bring about change in educational techniques and veacher taining: “The committee recognizes the importance of innovation and new techniques in dealing with the educational problems of the dissdvantaged end it isthe committee's assumption that the local school districts applying for Teacher Corps members Wil be willing to innovate and lize the experience that these teachers bring with tern” ‘According to the 1965 version of the Higher Education Act, then, the purpose was twofold: "to strengshen the educational opportunities available to children in areas having concentrations of low- ‘nome families and to encourage colleges and universities to broaden their programs of teacher rperation."4 ‘While Congress may have meant the NTC to serve many different functions, however, NTC Jeaders were insistent thatthe program's primary concem should be to bring about change in education d inteacher traning. James E, Allen, Jr, who was Uwe Commissioner of Education, stated atthe ‘Teacher Corps National Conference on October 16, 1969: —— "Corvin, p. 3. ~ *US. Code, 1965 . 4058, a US. Code, 1965, p. 4065. ‘ UScoge, 1965, p. 1272“The fundamental purpose of the Teacher Corps is not just to create sensitive teachers bat to create teachers with a mission: to change the system "L ‘Te frst NTC director, Richard Graham, makes a statement atthe conference which is even more revealing: ‘o’be sure there is some question about what we are. Many ofthe people in the Office of Education see the Teacher Comps as merely a means to bring new people 19 education... . Many of them see the ‘Teacher Corps as a government supported fellowship program, a prospective teacher fellowship program under anotier name. Many schools see it as provider of paraprofessional Services. It does these things to be sure, but that is not what the Teacher Corps is. ‘The legislation is clear it states two objectives: (1) to strengthen educational tes availabe 1 children in areas of concentration of low-income families; and (2) to encourage colleges and universities to ‘broaden their progrants of teacher preparation. The rest of it, the attracting of new People, the training of afew teachers, the supply ofa few services; all ofthat is the ‘means to these ends, those two objectives, The Teacher Corps was instinted to provoke and assist change."? In accordance with these aims, NTC programs ofthe early seventies gave an increased ‘emphasis tothe development of innovative preservice teacher education programs. They linked concems about multicukural education, community involvement, and school reform with teacher ‘ining methodologies including intensive field experience, team teaching, and competency-based ‘eacher egucation.3 Indeed, a legislative amendment in 1967 reveals that NTC emphasis was on ‘ining, rather than actuat service, It provided that suudents in their third and fourth years of ‘dergraduate study could participate in the program.4 Other amendménts broadened the functions of GeNTC. For example, a 1969 legislative amendment provided that NTC personnel coilld serve ‘venile delinquents, youth offenders, and adult criminal offenders. Furthermore, a 1970 amendment — n i (Washington, D.C: US. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, May 1970) 1. ovoki . tht 1960 Teacher Coms Nasional Conference, p. 6, {DBD Mant, “Teacher Corps” Enesopeda ot Eduction! Research Ed. Held, Mitel Lond "Btn Page Lid,, 1980) 206. 4 US. Cove, 1967, p. 1266oaght to beter integrate the community in NTC taining projets by enabling the NTC to aaract olunleers to serve as tutors and/or instructional assistants in schools. Asthe teacher shortage eased in te seventies, the NTC's focus shifted from pre-service 10 in- service taining, Accordingly. a legislative amendment in 1976 added to the Teacher Corps’ statement sfinent we words, “and to encourage institutions of higher education and local education agencies to improve programs of taining and retraining for teachers and teacher aides"? The legislation suborized two-year “demonstration projecs” designed to demonstrate strategies for integrating the rnining of teacher-intems with that of experienced teachers and teacher aides 3 ‘The NTC made another significant change in 1978. The shift came because NTC leaders, stil commied to developing and instiutionalizing improvements in educational and teacher taining teeiques, felt strongly thatthe original NTC teams of teacher intems were not able to effect change ‘win the large, permanent systems of the local education agensies, institutions of higher education, {are schools, and sometimes the community itself. They felt that in-service programs involving emanent staff would be much more likely to succeed in insiusionalizing educational improvements 4 ‘Asa result legislation in 1978 authorized five-year demonstration projects which were to be carried out Joinly by one or more institution of higher education, one or more Jocal education agency, and an ‘lected community council. Aiming to improve the quality of education by focusing on each school ‘td surounding community as a unit with its own individual training needs, each project would {periment with innovative methods of teacher education in in-service training programs for ‘Professional teachers located in a single school site —_— er pWfilam Smith, “The American Teacher Corps Programme." Watld Yearbook of Education 198, Buiesionel Development of Teachers ‘Ed. Eric Hoyle and Jacqueta Megarry (London: Kogan Page Lic.. 1980) : Loe US cose, 1974, pp. 686-7. * smi, “The Amesian Teacher Corps Programe, p. 208, “Sit, Famer Dzecior, atonal Teacher Comps, Telephone interview, Febmeary 22,1989 “Snip, “The American Teacher Corps Programme," p. 214. “Sit “te american Teacher Com Programme, p- 212. BLegislation in 1980 served to increase sil further the power of the NTC to bring about sespread change of teacher education practices. It gave the national office grantmaking capability _gsigned to facilitate diversification and redirection of teacher education programs. Federal funding ofthe Teacher Corps ceased in 1981, when the Omnibus Budget aeconilaton Act lumped all funds that had been focused on education for the disadvantaged into ‘chagter two" and made a block grant othe states, allowing tem todo wit it what they wished. Early Operations While NTC administrators focased on the quality of the program in its beginning days? they age aso able to involve a good nurmber of intems in the program. In 1966, 1,279 college students garicipte: in 1967, 882: in 1968, 1029. (The drop in 1967 was due w funding problems > ~ while the numbers may appear rather aitious, Richard Grabam, who was the NTC director axe time, does not recall that there was ever any concer about setficing “quality for quant ‘Thismay bein part de to he fact shat he sar-up time was rather leisurely, while the NTC was anborized in October of 1965. i diz nt aim to receive all applications ~ both from schools and 119664 rospective teacher-interns - ustii Mas Organizational Soucrure The NTC was housed within the Office of Education until 1980, when it moved to the new Depanment of Education as a part of the Office of Educational Research and Improvement The Teacher Comps director reponed to the Commissioner of Education until 1980 and to the Secretary of Education afterwards. 1 US. Code, 1980, p. 3187 * Seth, lephone interview: 2 Loi Weinberg, Former Navoral Teacher Comps administrator, Telephon intrview, Api 3, 1989, “Richard Graham Fist Nauotal Teacher Corps dizetor, Telephone intervie, Apri, 1989, "Cecaressionst Cuore Waris Rests, week ending Apri 22, 1966. p b+‘The fact that the NTC was part ofa larger organizational structure served to blr is disinctive ssisson.| Furthermore, the organizational sructure made it hard forthe NTC to develop an informed, coteren sategy.? Par ofthe problem wast higher echelon officals did na allow the NTC to tke control ofits own affairs. For example, public relations, program evalvction, and eventually grant sparagement were centralized within the Office of Education and out of eontot of the NTC aiminssetors,Inaliion, te national ofce dt not have enough fang to monitor lest program sies3 Administration Because the Constioution resticts the role ofthe federal govemment in education to that of encouraging and helping state and loca) authorities, federal programs have only limited authority. The NTC wasmo exception. The legislative commitee responsible forthe bil sated tha the intention ofthe TC was "wo encourage inistive an variation in local prograns” and “to simply promote close aroperatonberween the nstnuion of higher education, the local edcaton agency, andthe stat Inia NTC eisation had provided thatthe Commissioner of Education woud perfom the folowing fxcons: * “AyRecruit selec, and enroll ‘experienced teachers and inexperienced teacher-intems i ‘who hive a bachelors degree for periods of two years. : @)Amange with institutions of higher education, state education agencies, or local education agencies to provide training. (@ Work with local education agencies in areas having high concentrations of low- : income families to furnish either experienced teachers or teacher-teams (an ‘ experienced teacher and a group of intems) who would have time alloted to take part in a teacher-intem training program under the guidance of the experienced {eacher and the institution of higher edcation. 2s ‘Smith, telephone interview. "cor Corvin, p. 325, US. code, 1565, p. 4069. 80apjetives ofthe NTC. I was alsa to ac as acleasinghowe to tefer applications tothe approgeate local agency or institution of higher edueation,1 Fis clear that NTC's stay asa federal agency in an arna in which ete and local acrors rule let program © operate inan extremely Aexitie mare, Is provisions enabled the localities to F bavea great deal of autonomy in adapting she program wo their own needs Funding ‘The nancial stability of the NTC was, by nanure ofthe fat that it was an agency of te federal ‘everiment, subject to the whims of eack politcal administration. ‘The result was sometimes ‘ripping, and finally devastating to the organization ‘The agency was off to a slow stan when Congress failed to appropriate funds forts creation ‘nits fist year of authorization, A small supplemental appropriation of $9.5 million in Fiscal Year 1886 did enable itto become a reality, however? Funding allocations fuctuated between tat igere #04 $37.5 million over the NTC's sixieen-year history. Congress of course cut funding entirely ia 2981 when it voted to lump ail funds for the disadvantaged into Chapter Two block grants, Recruitment ‘The NIC ren national Public Service Announcements in onder to gain national attertion and ‘lemst. Yet it also soughr to bring about aggressive recruitment on she Tocal level. inorder to ‘Xcomplish this goal, it sent recruitsmen: materials o five universities, which served as regional ‘fecruitinent centers and had contracts to "beet the bushes” for recruits.3 — "US. Cage, 1967, p. 1266 dy ES Cove, 1967, p. 1266. 3 ‘Stith etephone interview. 2Daring its first zen years, NTTC project involved 11,000 intemns and 8,000 teachers. In the NIC'seatiy years, an average of 1500 trainees pancipated annually; by the mid-seventies, several inundred were panicipating annually. Selection ‘Twenty college graduates competed for one spot in the Teacher Corps in 1973.2 The intems ‘were predominantly white upper-middle class, and almost sixty percent were from professional or managerial homes (in comparison with thiny percent of the other new teachers).3 ‘The local school districts and universities, which were responsibte for screening applicants, ceach developed criteria for selection under the guidelines set by une navional office.4 It does not seem , alhough it did aim of course to anractthe thatthe NTC placed a great deal of emphasis on select smost highly qualified individuals ic could.S The interns’ aptitudes were considerably below those of typical graduate srudents buat were comparable to orstightiy above the aptitudes of other gratuate students ineducstion, On the verbal GRE, different cycles of intems scored between the 31st and 40th percentiles, compared to a mean of 50 for all graduate students ang a score of 27 for graduate students in education. ‘The general impression of program participants was that inserns were somewhat more competent than other education students, though not overwhelmingly so. Forty percent of faculty members, program directors, principals, coordinators, and intems, and 25 percent of team leaders, rated the overall quality ofthe intems as “excellent "7 | edward L. Dejaoeka and David. Kapel, American Edusators’ Enayctopedia (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1982) 515. 2 Commitwce for the Study of National Service, Youth and the Needs of the Nation (Washington, D.C. The Potomac Institute) 112. 3 Conwin, p. 83. 4 seit, elephone interview 5 Graham § Corwin, p. £3 7 Corwin, p. 84Incensives Initial NTC legislation provided that the LEA would compensate teacher interns at a ate equivalent to the lowest rate peid to fulltime teachers at he assigned grade. Similarly. the LEA would pay experienced! teachers not leading teams in the sarie way they would compensate a teacher with equivalent experience and duties; it would compensate experienced teachers leading teams an amount 10 ‘which the Commissioner agreed and wihich reflected the additional effort of those wachers.! NTC ‘members would also receive readjustment allowances, funds to cover travel and moving expenses. and stipends for raining periods, including subsistence allowances. Regular teachers complained, however, that while NTC members received time off 10 pursue their own studies and a degree, they still made the seme wage as teachers with full responsibilities, As asesult, 1967 legislation reduced the compensation of NTC members to be the full-time lowest salary or $75 per week plus S15 per dependent, whichever was les, It does not seem that recrsitment suffered from this change. probably because the primary concem of the idealistic individuals it anracted was not money. Accordingly, tie NTC attracted intems with the same kind of pitch that the Peace “The hardest job you'll ever love.”? Comps uses today Training “Teaching intems would complete each state's requirements for certification, which obviously redhiced the amount of opposition from state and local actors.4 In addition, they would take a pre~ service component of approximately eight weeks in eaching disadvantaged children, compleie a intemship, and parcipate in a community projet designed to sensitize volunteers oa background —_— TUS, Code, 1965, p. 1273. 2 US. Code, 1965, p. 1274 3 Smith, telephone interview, ¢ Smith, telephone interview. Kevin Lowther and C. Payne Lucas, Kesting Kennedy's Pramise (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1978) 137 4 Rice, p.8, 5 Reeves p. 163 F Reeves, p 165.‘Ashabranner also states that he feels that the Peace Corps would be better privately financed, although he sees no possibility of private organizations putting up enough money to make that happen. He argues that the Peace Corps’ tag as an agency of the government incurs a degree of suspicion that makes the volunteers’ work more difficuts 2 ‘Rognultment, The Peace Corps stages both national public relations drives and local recruitment. Since its easiest days, thas relied on donated advemising space and Public Service Announcements created by @ Madison Avenue agency and the Ad Council, and it has sought 10 anract as much media atiention as possible.3 Also, some recruiters are based in the national office, where they answer tollsfive and provide information o potential applicants, Yet the agency also recruits actively out of sixtcen regional offices, and approximately 55 former volunteers pursuing graduate study also serve as on-campus recruiters. The recruiters sa telephones, visit college campuses, talk with community groups, and organize special events lo answer questions, show films, and generate incerest# “The Peace Corps office offers several explanations for the fact that applications had decreased from 45,000 in 1964 10 15,500 in 1981.5 Most ansbute much ofthe fall-off in interest a decline in recnuitment activities 6 One spokesperson adds that it is more difficult to recruit day simply because the Comps is no longer new: “e's aot harder today even though there is a wave ora feeling in the counery that ‘volunteering is a popular thing (0 do. I's harder than it was inthe heyday when it ‘was new, when it was glamorous."? Ashabranner, p. 284, 2 Ashabranner, p. 283. 3 Sinclair. * Boace Coms Annual Repork J987 & 1988 (February 1989) #5 S Rice, p. 8 Rice, p. 7. 7 nexander Sinclaw, Peace Comps spokesperson, telephone interview, Pebruary 22, 1989,He also states, however, that t became more difficult to atract individuals to the Peace Corps in the seventies and eighties “withthe Me Generation,” but he added that “the worst of that is behind us. Another feason that the ranks of the Peace Corps shrank is that the agency began to target a different ‘type of individual, As it began to seck applicants with technical skills, it stopped actively recruiting the ‘young, liberal ans generalist. ‘This year. the Peace Corps aims to recruit 3,250 new trainees in order to boost its ranks 10 6,000.2 Inits effort to increase the size of the Comps, its stepping up recruitment efforts and is again rargeting recent college graduates, I recently insalled a mainframe computer system that enables instantaneous tracking of applicants 3 Furthermore, the Peace Corps made a great effort 0 institutionalize the process of involving former volunteers in current recruitment activities. In 1988, for example, 25 resumed votun:zer groups formed in 16 states: members spoke during college campaigns and tp comm: ips. nd resimed volunteers were matched with applicants in order that they could offer Srsthand ampressions of Peace Coms service+ Selecucs, Because Peace Corps founders saw selection as extremely important, they criteria and method through which to choose volunteers from the poo! of aprlicents. Dr. Nicholas Hobbs, who was chairman of the Division of Human Developmen: at he Geerge Peabody Coitege for Teachers and established the Air Force selection ‘process, led 2 conference of acvisers experienced inthe problems of selection, ‘Toxiay the Peace Corps hires one of every six applicants. Those who are selected go ahrough an intensive selection process including: (1) interviews both on-campus and at a egional office; (2) a lengshy application with references: (3) a reference check; (6) FBI check; and (5) a medical exam 5 ? Sinclay. 2 Sinclax, 3 peace Corse annual Repom: 1987 1824. p 17 4 peace Comes annus! Rene LET AL cre wigtiee, Mah 23, 98 Span 4Nearly all volunteers are college graduates, and many come from elite instirutions. Most are from upper-middle-class backgrounds,! Because the Peace Corps began seeking specialists rather than B.A. generalists, the average age ofa Peace Corps voluntcer has risen from 25 in 1962 4 over 30m 1988, although the 23 to 27 year-olds remain the largest cohort by a significant ‘measure.? Incertives. Shriver explained o President Kennedy in December of 1961 that Peace Corps wages would be low by design: “Volunteers are expected to live simply and unostentavously. We believe it will make their work more productive and effective, They have a twenty-four-hour-a-day job, ‘They receive lite of no pay an accept substantia! hazars to their health and even, to thelr safety. The Peace Corps is not just a job. There are no nine-to-five days in ‘our operation... ."3 Stuiver sought to aerally capitalize on low wages and hard ving conditions. Today, te Peace CorPs sll lures recnuts with the stogan and theme, “The roughest job you! which averaged approximately $300 in 1987.4 Atthe end of their ever love.” And volunteers still receive “subsistence” wages. service, they receive $200 per month tha they served tive preferential hiring fr federal jobs, 1986, ‘Volunteers have always been eligible for non-compei been able to defer loan repayments for three ‘years.5 Additionally, and they have always tion inorder to make the Peace Corps amore feasible and Congress acted to create a forgivable loan o} anretive option for some. Ic approved para loan forsveness of up o fy Percent under the National Direct Student Loan Program. “Anumber of analysts have endes ‘Adams, for example, explains that the volun avored to define what itis that draws individuals into the Comps. Velma cers all possess a unique character sti _ } Moskos, p. 50: 2 Peace Corps Annual Renort 1987.8 1988, PP. 17-18. 3 Viorst, p. 22. 4 Moskos, p. 50. § sinclair. ® Sinclair.they all possess some indefinable characteristic ~ call it dedication, the social service motive, the pioneer spirit, or idealism — which armors them against mat discomforss and makes them essentially disinterested in monetary rewards. They apparently weleome the opportunity to face hardships, to grapple wat the forces of ‘nature. to give up temporarily the same high standards of living which they strive (© help others reach! ‘Many believe that young people join the Peace Corps because they are either dissatisfied with their lives orunceriain of the Cours they Wish their lives io take and wish "Wo find a sense of direction and ro test their own powers."2 Morris Stein concludes that individuals join the Corps because they want a two- year (hiatus) which will force ther to revalute their lives “The generalization Ihave amived at ar studying the changes in the volunteers over time is consistent with that suggested by the psychologist Erkkson in another context. “The two-year period in Columixa provided te volunteers witha moratorium period — a period in which they could withdraw temporary from the kinds of situations tat ‘would help them re-evaluate their lives.” Sargert Shriver provides a similar, though not identical evaluation: “The young men and women we ge inthe Peace Corps. 80 percent college graduates ~ are sill n search ofa "eal if. in search of reality. In a sense they ae fugitives from the groves of academe: they want some graduate experience in the world." ‘Ashabranner, who studied the early recruits, repos tht they joined because they were yearning for venture, postponing a career decision, seking a break beween undergraduate and graduate school, interesed in leaming about the rest ofthe world, o seeking to delay military service, Also, he states that in almost every case there is an adctional motive ~ “to make some kind of contribution to a better ‘world in a personal, individual way." Tisining. There were few guidelines on how to train Peace Comps volunteers in 1961. AS a resulta series of "Peace Corps Institue brought expers from government agencies, universities, foundations, business, and various privat organizations to discuss the components of a 1 Velma Adams, The Peace Cams in Action (Chicago: Follett Publishing Company, 1964) 3. 2 Edna McGuire, The Peace Comms: Kindisrs of she Snark (New York: The MacMillan Company, 1966) 38. 3 Stein, p. 3. 4 Sargent Shriver, Boins of she Lance (New York: Harper & Row} 193 5 Ashabranner, pp. 96-97,‘Lessons As the nation’ largest volunizer program and one with a household name, the Peace (Corps can provide several lessons for the Teacter Comps, Among the significant elements of the Peace CCorps' origins and operations are the following 1 The program would probably not exist today if it were not for the idealistic students wrho had pushed for it~ Suppon from the public and media were also cersra to the Peace Comps’ initiauon 1, Mile the Peace Corps was not a new idea, its onginality and draw came from the fact that it was a nationally publicized program supported by the nations leaders. « The size and speed of start-up were extremely significant in determining the form of the agency. While the decision to "san big and san immediately’ led Peace Comps administrators to actin the face of many unknowns and w at umes sacefize qualty for ‘quantity, the decision may also be responsible forthe Tact that the Peace Cer received so much national acclaim and atencion. It is significant to note dat rot onty were Peace Corps administrators aiming io place almost 1,000 reensts inssay. but they were trying to have them in taining within uve months of sant. + The inier-governmental structure of tne Peace Corps has had several neganve effects, including politicization, subjection to the whims of different administrasors. and 3 lack of visibility + The Peace Comps has successfully recnited members by operating from both national and local levels. It uses Public Service Announcements, on-campus recruiing, and the help of retumed volunteers. While the number of applicants had decrease substandally by the early eighties, Peace Corps administrators are successful) ‘increasing the level of interes today by stepping up recruitment acuvites + An intensive selection process ensures tha: Peace Corps members are qualified for the job. Early Peace Comps administrators viewed candidate selecuon as exiremely important and therefore convened a board of experss to determine cnlena for selection. «The Peace Corps capitalizes on low wages and poor working conditions to'ereate a sense of hardship and adventure that works to draw many idealistic youth who are in search of direction, reality, or simply a break from fast-paced lives. + While Congress recently added a forgivable ion option for Peace Corps volunteers, ‘the Peace Comps existed without it unt 1986 + Key elements of the early waining program were a board of expen tht structured it dow cniversiies that conated space ad services. Because the nature of he Peace ‘Comps requires assignments to vary widely, uaining is decentralized, + The Peace Comps relies onthe full cooperation ofthe country receiving volunteers it equires that the foreign goverment request hem and that it play amajor roe in theit raining and supervision. 100Volunteers In Service To America Qtigins. The idea of a national service corps ‘a program designed to attack poverty with volunteer service — firs received serious attention when President Kennedy assigned his brother Robert toexplore the possibility in dhe summer of 1962.1 Yet Congress defeated Kennedy's proposal William Crook and Ross Thomas, who wrote a history of VISTA, concluded that the program was efeated because “he approach to Congress had smacked too much of Madison Avenue and oo linte of the grass roots."2. President Johnson revived the concept as part of his War on Poverty in 1964. He stated in a message to Congress that thousands of Americans "want the chance to serve the needs of| their own land” and that they "should have that chance.” Indeed, a Gallup poll revealed that youthful Idealism and the volunteering spirit was stl alive and well in 1966; it showed that $3 percent of college students expressed "an interest in working in the VISTA program, ether on a full-time or part-time basis."3 Congress responded to Johnson's proposal with enthusiasm and authorized the program in that year as pan of the Office of Economic Opporturity Volurzers in Service to America, commonly known by the acronym VISTA, was intended to provide opportunities for volunteers to work full-time in one-year terms for locally sponsored projects cesigned to increase the capability and living conditions of low-income people.S VISTA tasks were originally defined as delivery of human services to the mentally i, the deny. the physically handicapped, migratory workers, residents of urbax slums and depressed rural areas, American Indians, and other deprived groups.6 | William H. Crook and Ross Thomas, Warriors forte Poot: The Story of VISTA (New York: William Morrow & Co., 1968) 23, 2 Crook and Thomas, p. 43. 3 Crook and Thomas, p. 60. * Crook and Thomas, p. 46 3 John E. Byrne and Don W. Wilson, The United States Goverment Manual 1988-1989 (Washington, D.C. US. Government Printing Office, 1988) 506 § Moskos, p. 53 olEarly Operations. A seven to eight month stx-up period alleviated many of the problems the ‘Peace Comps had in its early days.) The committee that proposed VISTA shied away from specifying anumber of volunteers who would serve inthe Corps; they fet thatthe number of volunteers would be determined by how many well-qualified persons sought to serve, by the number of requests fOr volunteers, and by budget appropristions Part of the committee's motivation in not naming a number ‘was the belief that, as it stated, “Quality of personnel will be of greater importance than quantity."3 ‘Sul, VISTA went through the same start-up problems that plague any new organization (Crook and Thoms, sho documented the hisiory of VISTA, wrote: “At the beginning, VISTA was crisis oriented. Inadequately staffed and underfunded, ichad to quickly find insttions tux could train Volunteers, locate local projects and sponsors who needed and would accept Volunteers. and then recruit persons who ‘Were willing to spend a year of ter lives as guinea pis in anew and totally untried program." Evolution. Like the Peace Corps, VISTA's goals have remained the same over time, while its numerical svengih has fluctutted. VISTA peaked in 1975, with 4,580 volunteers, and fluctuated. erween 4,500 and 4,000 until 1981.5 In 1981, an executive order from President Reagan cut the ‘organization to 2,000. Congress has recently increased funding appropriations to allow it to expand. Organizational Sxucture. Originally, VISTA was part of the Office of Economic Opportunity; in 1971, Nixon moved it under the ACTION umbrella. VISTA operated almost wholly out of is national office unt it established regional offices in 1968 and state offices in 1970. These offices provide services such as volunteer support and project development work. "Diana Lendon, VISTA spokesperson telephoreinerview, March 24, 1989, 2 Crook and Thomas, p46 9 Crook and Thomas, p. 46 “ Crook and Thomas, p. 48. 5 Bin Bares, VISTA spokesperson telephone interview Febmiary 22, 1989}‘Some argue that VISTA has suffered because it has never been an independent agency. Crook and Thomas write that VISTA “was largely ignored" and that "ts identity asa result was largely plured."! They note that VISTA suffered from this fact from its very inception: ‘We lacked the imagination and foresight to realize the full impact that the program epuld make, Forutaely this was corrected. But i that tine te ation wasnt in SISTA, asin the other OEO programs, and we sufered several setbacks because of this, VISTA’s stans as a governmental agency also subjected it tothe varying whims of different political administrations. While Nixon's goal was to do away with the activist culture of the program, VISTA was charged with “empowering the poor” during Caners administation3 VISTA volunteers thus began organizing tenant strikes and advocating welfare rights, and the agency also made grants to some organizations with strong leftist ties.4 ‘Then the Reagan administration sought to do away with ‘what it saw as a liberal bastion, Indeed, James Bumley, the newly appointed director, stated that he was "working hard to be the last VISTA director."S While the Friends of VISTA mounted a campaign to save the program, Reagan stl cut it in half to 2,000 volunteers and stopped all national recruitment.© Recnuiment. nits early years, VISTA recruited both nationally and locally. Magazine and newspaper advertising, radio programs, TV spots, and even 2 movie enabled them to advertise on a tional scale. Funhermore, VISTA enclosed one-page reenuitrent brochures with monthly retirement ‘checks of millions of retired government workers. And in order to make the same kind of personal recruitment presence that corporate recruiters do, VISTA personnel visited 639 college campuses.” * Crook and Thomas. p. 134 2 Crook and Thamas, p. 48, 3 Moskos, p. 54. Mostos, p. 54 5 Moskos, p. 54. § Moskos. p. $5. * Crook and Thomas. p- 69 10‘The result was that, according to @ Gallup pol ofthe graduating class of 1966, 90 percent of the nation's college students had heard or read about the VISTA program? In 1965, over 11,000 people completed applications for available stots: in 1967. over 17,000 di: in 1969, over: 23,0002 ‘Today, because the Reagan administration ondened a stop to all national recruiting, VISTA leaves reeruisment to local project sponsors 3 Now the local projects tend to recruit only within the {immediate community, and fewer than tn percent ofthe current VISTA force are recent college graduates ‘Selection. Of 70,000 applicasons it received berween 1964 and 1969, VISTA accepted less than twenty pereent From the beginning. it made serious effors to recruit not only recent colege grduates but older, retired persons, and thost who are poor and perhaps uneducated, It sought 10 atzact individuals “endowed withthe qualities that make up the nanvral leader"6 ané had few formal requirements for service even in its eaty days. It equire thatthe applicant be over eighteen years of age and that he or she have no dependents, There were no minimum educational requirements 7 ‘Sil, VISTA had a preponderance of young college graduates ~ most of whom were iberal ans graduates from well-to-do backgrounds ~In is early years The typical volunweer was aeallege cor professional schoo! graduate who was taking a year off between graduating and beginning their careers9 Of the 15,000 Americans who enlisid in VISTA between 1964 and 1969, sixty percent 1 Crook and Thomas. p. 60. 2 susan Whitesey, XISTA: Challenge io Powers (New York: Coward-MeCann, Ine, 1970) 22, 3 Barres. 4 Lendon. 5 Crook and Thomas. p. 18 © crook and Thomas, p. 18 7 Crook and Thomas, p 62: 8 Moskos, p. 54. 9 Reeves, p21 164wore below age 24, and 82 percent had attended college. Thineen percent were over the age of fifty. Inthe last ten years, however, as VISTA's emphasis shifted to recruiting in the communities rather ‘han on college campuses, the recruits have become older? Today VISTA is comprised almost entirely of low-income volunteers.3 Inceatives. As inthe Peace Corps, volunteers receive a subsistence allowance plus health insurance. The average pay is $465 per month plus a readjustment allowance of $75 for each month in service.* VISTA has the same policy on loans as the Peace Comps does. ‘The early VISTA pitch was much te same as that ofthe Peace Corps, although it simed to appeal to the potential volunteers sense of rationalism 10a greater degree, Crook afd Thomas explain: "VISTA offered its members neither security nor rapid advancement nor foreign inigue .. About all thatthe VISTA recruiters had to offer was the same 1OW-key Pitch that had greeted the first batch of volunteers at the White House on Decernber 12, 1964, when they were told by Lyndon Johnson that ‘your pay willbe Tow, the conditions of your labor wll ofan be difficul. But you Wl have the satisfaction of Teading a great national effor, and you will have the ultimate reward which comes to those who serve ther fellow man."S ‘Training. In its carly years, volunteers entered a six-week training course, which usually consisted of afew days ona college campus and about five weeks living and working among the poor. lis waining centers were widely scattered without regard for geographic relevance or convenience. By mid-1967 the organization had conducted 165 taining programs with 42 different contracting agencies ‘and institutions in 28 states and in Puerto Rico.5 After VISTA operations were regionalized, it established training centers in each of seven Office of Economic Opportunity centers to tain volunteers in the same region in which they woutd crook and Thomas, p. 16. Bare, 3 Moskos, p. $5. “Raman, $ Crook and Thomas, p, 12 ® Crook and Thomas. p. 68gon the theory that different damavely six weeks ~ serve. Agin the Peace Comps, VISTA atempted to regionalize Saini assignments would require different types of skills. Sessions stil lasted approx! wo weeks of Basic orientation and rwo to sx weks of field experience inthe region oF Pcie? which dhe tinee would be assigned. ‘Today mos raining occu on-the-job, although state offlees do pu together some PreBreS when many volunteers will be performing the same function. Such is the case with teracy ‘volunteers? Biscement- Volunteers ge ‘education, literacy, runaway youth, refugee resetilem 3 (while VISTA is involved in “education,” volunteers sceraly share skills in fields such as drug abuse prevention, rent, community design, weatherization, economic development, and emergency food and shelter. do not wach per se, bot rather perfom literacy work, adminiser GED courses for Neh ‘school dropouts, etc.4) VISTA operates in a way that ensures local actors wil play an active ro in placing and ing volunteers, Tt makes federal grass o sponsoring agencies 1 organizations ~ which in aim fire and supervise she votuntes supensisi local governmental 5, Sponsors organizations and non-profi canbe any group af od izes who ban togeer in an fil or quas-ofiia aly fo Danes he conditions oft poor 5 gene work ude a inimunof supervision 7 A few years after VISTA started, it Volunteers adthough regional centers keep touch withthe volunteers afer they ave assigned 10 projets ee 1 Crook and Thoms, P62 Bares, 3 Byme and Wilson, p. 506. “Bares. 5 Moskos, p. 3. 6 Crook an Thomas, p. 18. 7 crook and Thomas, p. 70.‘began to appoint those who reenlisted afer one year as "VISTA Leaders" to link the volunteers with VISTA headquaners, to work with the volunteers, and 19 coordinate the sponsors and cornmmunity 10 receive the volunteers. A VISTA spokesperson sai that this practice was not used to any great extent since most VISTA personnel were opposed to creating any kind of hierarchy among the volunteers. Lessons, Because VISTA is a domestic program, it can provide several valuable lessons for the Teacher Comps: + VISTA benefited in its early stages from the su; of! ernment leaders and the idealism of the era. * pen of tp Boy + VISTA was able to star witha large number of volunteers without sacifc quanity 1 te fact that tenoyes a seven oelghmonh as up period. + VISTA’ status as an iter-govermental agency meant tha it would exist in relative obscurity and would be subjected itto the whims of different political administrations, sometimes with almost devastating results 1 The absence ofa national recruitment campaign and on-campus reemiting has severely cut the numberof recent college graduates who participate in te Program. ‘An acave publicity campaign that involved both national advertising and on-campus ‘ecruting resulted in high numbers of applicants inthe earlier days of the Corps + White VISTA cannot offer the sense of foreign inrigue that the Peace Comps does, it can play to a greater degre on the idea of a "great rational effort” Again. VISTA, appears to capitalize on the “hardship” theme, offering low wages and poor working conditions + VISTA taining is decentralized because assignments vary widely by locality. + VISTA maies on active parcipation of sates and locales that are receiving volunteers Conelusion Is possible to translate elements of the experiences of the Peace Corps and VISTA into lessons for the Teacher Corps: + Publicity, intial suppor from idealistic students, and the endorsement of prominent political figures are essential to give large-scale programs eal momentum. + While itis possible to sar big without sacrificing quality, itis imponant to allow enough stant-up time to ensure that itis possible ro concentrate on quality, } Crook and Thomas, p.+ Govemment agencies suffer from a number of disadvantages — namely that funding {s subject to the whim of eiffeent politcal administrations and that, when structured 438 components of other organizations, they are often unable wo attain visibility and autonomy. » National advertising ang coordination, as well as active, of-campus recruitment is essential 1 arracting high numbers of volunteers + Ttis possible to attract a great many highly qualified individuals even if salaries are Jow simply by capitalizing on a spirit of hardship and adventure. While forgivable Joan options may be beneficial in attracting applicants, programs operated successfully without them for many years + When programs plan selection and training on a centralized basis, boards of expens can play sn essential role in determing criteria and program elemens that will apply nationally. + Programs have relied on enthusiastic local cooperation rather than the leadership of ‘experienced volunteers or staff as a crucial element in placement and supervision.Ix PLAN ‘This chapier draws from lessons presented in Chapters Six through Eight to present a plan for she creation of the Teacher Corps. It includes justifications for the choice of certain policy options. 1. Goals. ‘A. To help solve teacher shortages. B. To focus positive tention on the educational system and on the profession of teaching. . To attract the “best and the brightest” to seach, D. To provide the opportunity fora group of individuals who would not otherwise teach to do so. 1. Adminisuation and funding ‘A. Typeofomanization The organization will be a private, non-profit corporation for a number of reasons. First asthe experience withthe Peace Corps, VISTA, and the NTC iltastrate, public organizasions are subject 10 he whim of the administration in power. Tt would be impossible o ensure financial sibility and even the physical existence of the agency when political administrations have the power to determine its status, Second, as the experiences of the Peace Corps and VISTA show, itis difficult o maintain the nonpartisanship of a goverumencal organization. Often they become associated with a cerain ideology, which drives “mainstream America” away from participating, Third, as the experience of the NTC reveal itis polisealy iffeult vo operate as an agency of the federal goverment in an arena where local and sate actors traditionally rule, Finally the experiences of the Peace Corps, VISTA, and the NTC point tothe benefits of being # free-standing organization; perhaps most significa are espritsde-corps and visi. BB. Eunding. While funding could potenally come from corporations and foundations government agencies, Corps members (who would suse panicipation costs from their universities and other cal sponsos), and schools that accept Comps members, the Corps would seek initially t feast, to atract all of the suppor from corporations and foundations. at 108a ime when the federal goverment is seeking to cut expenditures and other sectors of the ‘¢conomy are willing to support education. it is only practical that funding should come from Private sources, Furthermore, to ask Comps members and schools to panicipate financially ‘might discourage them from panicipating. ©. Advisory Board, The organization will nave a board of directors comprised of prominent business and govemment Jeaders and celebrities. The board will lend the Teacher Corps the same sense of national importance that it would have if it were a government-sponsored ‘organization and will also make fund-raising easier. D. Board of Educators. This board of high-level educators wil play an advisory role inthe design of selection criteria and training curriculum, Mh, Size sree ‘A. Sigs. The Teacher Comps will aim to appear national in scope in an atempe to atractthe kind of national acclaim and arersion thatthe Peace Comps di in is eaiy days, and it wil at the same time seek to preserve an emphasis on quai. While the actual mamber of members wi depend largely on the degree of interest of graduating students, school principals, and states, the Corps wil aim wo train approximately $00 individuals during the summer of 1990 and as ‘many as 1,000 the following summer B. Speca. As the experiences of te Peace Corps, VISTA, and the NTC demonstrate, itis ‘important to allow an extensive amount of time for sar-up. Planning and organization will begin in April of 1989 and he first recruits wil not be in raining unt Sune of 1990, They will be placed as teachers the following fall, IML, Taciding legal barns. Inia, the Teacher Corps will have wo atain the approval of the state body that determines certification standards. In onder to tackle the maze of requirements and regulations, it will be necessary to persuade, lobby. and work with the following noA: National associavions snd politcal figures. The Teacher Corps will seek the endorsement of (organizations such as the NEA, AFT, Department of Education, Congresspersons. and Mr. or Mis. Bush in onder to increase leverage over state organizations. B. Governors, It is wonhwhile to repeat Mr, Perot’s statement: ",. unless you can get the Govemor involved, don't even start. It will be a waste of time.” . State body that sovemscentfcation, Since these bodies approved all AC programs, itis 1ikely that it willbe necessary to gain their formal approval ofthe Teacher Comps. D. School districts with shonages. Chapter Five made it clear das districts with need wil take action to shape state policy, and in some states, schools may be able wo hire Teacher Comps ‘members under existing emergency certification provisions. 1V. Rechimaent. A, Stops 1, Recentoliece eratuates only. While mid-career and retired persons could ‘cerainly be furure candidates forthe Teacher Corps, it will a first reonuit only on college campuses in order to keep selection and recruitment procedures as simple as posstble, 2. Topcolleges and universities. The Teacher Corps will recruit specifically at 75 schools the frst year and 100 the second. Schools will be selected according to a ‘variety of measures including size, average SAT, selectivity, and minority cenroliment in order to keep the application process as selective as possible while keeping the process as simple as possible. 3, Emphasis on majors in areas of subject shonage. The Teacher Coms will aim specifically o auract (with special advertising etc) individuals withthe subject expertise necessary to fill areas of greatest shonage B. Tactics.1. Public Service Announcements, Just as did the NTC, the Peace Corps, and VISTA, the Teacher Comps will anempt to attain the assistance of the Ad Couneil in azaining donated advertisements and advertising space and time, (Celebrity figures. The Corps will invoive celebrity names and figures in recruisment in order to appeal to students and gain national recognition and publiciry 3. On-Campus recruiting, While the NTC, the Peace Comps, and VISTA relied on rational advertising an coordination, their experience shows that ative, n= ‘campus recruiting i essential, a. Promotion. Teacher Corps recruiters wi bite campuses with brochures, flyers, and posers. The Teacher Corps wil also endeavor to get a company to donate Teacher Comps shins e:e. 10 hand out on college campuses. bb. Liniversioy relations, Recruiters wil also tlk with career service directors and ‘counselors to make sure that they view the Corps asa viable option and that they will encourage invested stants to apply ¢, Visits. Recruiters will make two campus visis: one early inthe year and one during interview ume. V, Selection ‘A. Guteria. The Board of Educators will develop the selection criteria, The Teacher Comps will aim to attract individuals who most clearly demonstrate superior academic achievernent, leadership, enthusiasm for learning and for helping others, # sense of commitment to whatever they acempr, and a willingness io go above and beyond. 'B. Madiod. To make the selection process as compesve and thorough as possible, applicants would complete the folowing process 1. Anapplicotion wih eters of recommendation 2, Tuo on-campus meriews3, Asubicc competency or general knowledge test. This requirement will have the advantage not only of providing another measure for selection, but also of (1) demonstrating to the ‘Principals tha the Teacher Corps members are extremely bright and have a good cominand ‘ofthe subject they will be teaching and (2) making licensure of Teacher Corps members casein sates hat ogee beginning acer and aematvecerificaonpasipans to take such tess. It is possible that this requirement could provide some degree of flexibiry’ if states wished 1o require that applicants take a certain Kind of test, the Teacher ‘Coms could direct applicants in certain states to take that tet rather than another. Vi. Tenms of Enlisiment, ‘A. Assignment, The Teacher Corps will assign members to schools where they will assume fall teaching responsibilities. B. Compensation 1. Salary, Comps members will receive the same salaries and benefits as other first-year teachers inthe school in which they willbe serving, While this policy will have some negitve eects in causing Cons members to receive varying pay. any other policy would have greater negative impact. As the experience ofthe NTC revealed, other teachers wouls respond encagonisucaly if Cons members were to receive higher pay than other beginning teachers in their respective schools. On the other hand, i they were to receive less than wher beginning achers, Corps members would realize tat they would be receiving more ine had simply applied direc tothe schoo! for an emergency cenficate and hac foregone the Teacher Corps procedure 2, Tanning expanses. While the Teacher Corps would cover al expenses (materials, food, room, wavel) which its members incur in connection with the aang instiut, it would ne provide them an adéona spend, (While he Peace Corps does provide spends, fst- yearieecher salaries are figher tan te allowances volunteers reeive in the Peace Corps3, College loan policy. Under te Higher Education Amendments of 1985,'any teacher receives a three-year deferment before they are obliged to begin repaying their National Direct Student Loans or Guaranveed Student Loans. Corps members would of course. ‘Qualify under these provisions. While it might be beneficial if Congress acted to forgive portions of college loans in retum for service in the Teacher Corps, the Peace Corps and VISTA existed for some time without such allowances, and Chapter Three's analysis oF forgivable loans also indicates that they are of litle effectiveness in attracting individuals to certain pursuits C. Temmlengtiy Comps members will agre to serve two full years. The two-year term would sive Teacher Comps members a chance to become miore effective inthe classroom and would aso provide a greater incentive for schools to devote time during the first year for adequate support and supervision. (The Peace Comps relies on its members’ word of honor that they ‘will complete the term and has litte probiem with dropouts.) They will atend the taining instiute between June and August ofthe summer immediately after they graduate and would teach the following 1wo school years, They will have the second summer free. Vu. Training ‘A. Logistics The Teacher Corps Training Instcue wil last ewo to three months during the summer. As the evaluation of New Jersey's AC program revealed, iis easier on program participants if training takes place prior w the school year. The Insite will ake place on 2 single college campus while VISTA and the Peace Corps must conduct traning on a decentralized basis because of the nature ofits assignments, NTC’ experience revealed that a cenralized training program was useful in increasing the esprit-de-corps ofthe group, The ‘Teacher Corps will house members in dorms and use university facilities for dining and classes,B, Program design The Board of Educators will devise the general goals, structure, and curriculum content of the raining instirate in much the same way that advisory panels formed the guidelines for AC and NTC maining programs C. Professional saff. Itis possible thatthe training institut will ake place on a campus that does rot have an education school, and even if the site does have an education school, itis likely that the Teacher Corps will have to attract additional instructors to teach the group. Teacher Corps staff would work to achieve the goals of the Boand of Educators by assembling the appropriate educators and resources. IIL Placement snd supervision |A. Scope. The Teacher Comps will place its members over a wide geographical range in order to achieve a “national” image. However, it would seek, inially at least, to concentrate the members in four or five major centers where shortages are acute in order to ease coordination. Also, the Teacher Corps would place members only in secondary schools in ‘order to simplify training and to capitalize on their subject knowledge 1B. Shomage apeas. The Teacher Corps wil allow is members to serve only in postions for which certified, qualified instructrs'cannot be found. This provision will ensure thatthe ‘Teacher Corps does not threaten a certified tachers jobs. . Locating the pastions. The Teacher Cors wil plan on ‘soliitng” school distri wth shonages to take she Corps members just ashe Peace Corps solcts foreign counties, tough it wil also encourage school istics to take the initiative in approaching it about attaining some of the Corps members. The pers on the basis oftheir nowledge of te Teacher Corps recruitment and principals would be agreeing to hire Teacher Comps mem! seleeson processes, The Teacher Comps would sek o ain commitments fom sthco] officials prior to recruiting season in order 10! greet send the recruits to visit the school and meet the principal prior know how many applicants and which majors to accept, It would a nSto the school year, if the principals are not satisfied withthe Corps members, he Or she would not be expected to retain them. D. Placing in zmups. The Teacher Corps will atempl wo place members in groups wherever possible in order to ensure @ degree of peer support. In no case would it place fewer than two Corps members in one school. E, Tens ofemploymens. The Teacher Comps wil sign a contact with the principal of each school in which Teacher Corps members would serv. 1. Compensation. The school district will pay the Tescher Corps member the normal beginning teacher salary and benefits 2. Assignment, The school will give the Teacher Comps member fll responsibility for his orher class, As NTC’s experience revealed, this measure is essential in mitigating reseriment from other wachers. 3. Suppor and supervision, Remembering the experiences of the Peace Corps, VISTA. and the NTC, the Teacher Comps will seek to attain the full cooperation of local officals in supporting and supervising its members: it will also be exible in onder to adapt to local wishes and capabilities. The Teacher Corps will require thatthe principal 1) assume personal responsibility to encourage, support, and ortent the Teacher Corps. member, ané (2) serange for an additional support and supervision mechanism, Because states have varying policies conceming induction programs, and because different Localities have different capabilities, the Teacher Corps will not require one certain model of supervision and suppom. It wil instead work with each principal on a case-by-case bass to ensure that it meets stale requirements and that its members receive the appropriate level of help. TX, Follow-up mechanisms. Just as VISTA's regional offices follow up with their volunteers, the ‘Teacher Corps would use a umber of follow-up and support services in an efor to ensure that the school personnel and its members have te best possible experiencesA. Newsletter. All involved principals, mentor teachers, and Corps members will receive a frequent newsletter. B. Personal contact with principals. The Teacher Corps staff will establish continuing contact — in-person andlor by phone — with involved principals. C. Regional get-togethers. Corps members from the various regions will come together at several points during the school year for workshops, speakers, or social events, D. Qpen-door policy. AU principals, mentor teachers, and Corps members will be encouraged to write or call the Teacher Corps office to make suggestions, complains, etc.x WILL IT WORK? ‘Will the best and brightest college students apply wo the Teacher Corps? Will the media focus tention on i? Will companies support it? Will unions oppose it? Will states alow it? Will principals and superintendenks hire its members? Like the Peace Corps, VISTA. and the NTC in their initial stages, the Teacher Corps faces many unknowns, This chapter examines the question of feasibility The Best and Brightest ‘There are several indications that college seniors would be interested in teaching in areas of need. Chapter One illustrated the encouraging factors: that a wave of idealism is sweeping America and especially college campuses; that the public is aware of the poor condition of the nation's schools; and that the nation’s leaders are making it known thst improving the educational system is one oftheir top ptiorkes. Chapter Three revealed that national adverising campaigns have uncovered a great deal of inerest in teaching, Chapters Seven and Eight demonstrated that college seniors opt for two-year breaks in a search for advencur or for reality. And indeed itis cear that college students are increasingly opting for such a “hiatus.” Peace Comps applications rose 25 percent between 1987 and 1988,1 and spokespersons for both the Peace Corps and VISTA stated that they have noticed a rise in interest on college campuses.” The Media Tis clear thatthe media is eager to play on the public's concem about the educational system. ‘The February 13, 1989, issue of Time used a full page to explain that mid-career people ae going into teaching today, and the November 14, 1988 issue had spent at leas five pages answering the question, “Who's Teaching Our Children?” BusinessWeek devoted seven pages in its September 19, 1988 issue to eport that “America’s Schools Sul Arent Making the Grage.” And the cover of Formine's " Peace Come Annual Report: 1987.8 1988. p. 18, 2 Sinelax; London,‘November 7, 1988, issue read “Ssving Our Schools.” These examples are only a ny sampling of the area interest that magazines, television programs, and newspapers have shown in efforts 1 improve the educational system, Fumhermor, it became clear in Chapter One that the media is also fascinated with demonstrations of American idealism. BusinessWeek and U.S. News & World Report each devoted several pages in October 1988 19 comment that idealism i “in's Newsweek had done the same easier In ‘the year, and Time followed suit ina Janvary 1989 issue. Newspapers and talk shows, as well, have spent a good amount of time in an effort to document what many perceive as a swing away from the "Me" and “Mine” generational aiudes. If all worked as planned, the Teacher Corps would be especially likely to gamer a grea ceal of ‘media atension. Recognizing that good publicity i essentisl 1 good recruitment, the organization's staff would focus much time and energy on anaining it Furthermore, the Corps would have the support and help of number ofthe business and goverment leaders wha have been so outspoken (and 50 often quoted) on the problems with our educational system. Corporate America |As Chapter One Wlustrsted, corporations are lending a great deal of moral and financial support to the educational system. Corporations alone gave well over $100 million to elementary ant secondary education in 1986, a tei conbstios otis area are growing tremendously: they increased 51.6 percent between 1984 and 1986.7 his possible to gauge the amount of inert corporsie America would show in the Teacher Comps by looking ats kind of suppor ithas given "Reenting New Teschers,” which was founded in 1986 forthe purpose of advertising for teachers. RNT has received $30 million doUars of free advertising in publications including Time, and the New York Times. Tn addition, it has received almost $1,000,000 from a Fortune, Rolling Stone, Reader’s Digest, Family Circle, Newsweek, Mone, —_— } Giving USA. p. 80:variety of corporations and foundations! Itis very possible tha the Teacher Corps would be able to raise a much greater amount of money from these later sources since the nanure ofits operations ‘demand more funds. Unions Experience with educational reforms ofthe eighties, and with AC programs in particular, indicates that teacher unions would have neither the capacity nor desire to block the Teacher Corps {from operating, Stl, because any sont of apposition from teacher unions could impede the progress and smooth operations of the organization, itis important to determine what the unions’ position toward the Comps would be. Forruncely itis very posstle that unions would suppor the Teacher Comps idea as @ way t0 hop solve teacher shortages. Bella Rosenberg, assistant tothe president of the AFT, responded to the suggestion of « Teacher Corps: "I's a fantastic idea." She approved ofthe idea of providing summer tusining and supervision io the recruits, but did express reservation about giving Comps members ‘complete responsibilty of a class. he added that she has reservations about giving any begining teacher complete esponsibility fora clas inidally.) She said that there might be some conflict with the ‘union guidelines of certain states but that those confliets could be worked out? “A tener from Sharon P, Robinson, director of instruction & professional development atthe NEA, was positive about the Teacher Corps idea. (See Appendix 3) She sted, on behalf of NEA President Mary Fused: “As members of the eeching profession, we have some trouble accepting any short-term service corps as occupying a significant role in this country’ educational commitment. But in a purely supplemental or caer invesdigasve capacity, much benefit might be derived from such a program.” She added, “Think the need fo discover and encourage the best and brightest of cur —_——_————_ 1 Information from the brochures of Recruiting New Teachers 2 Betla Rosenberg, telephone interview. March 20.1989‘shudents to investigate teaching, and in doing soto provide a supplemental function in the schools has seat potential ‘White ts cenainly possible thatthe union positions wil vary by locality it seems that union (opposition will not be either surong or widespread. Indeed, it seems that unions would prefer Teacher Corps members who have some pedagogical wsining o individuals licensed under emergency Certification who often have no pedagogical taining at al. Furthermore, implicit in the Teacher Corps ‘concept isthe admission that its members are not qualified for standard centfication; fo this reason, it ‘could be more attractive to unions than AC programs which do result in a standard certificate. States As Chapter Five revealed, states adopt reforms depending on their differing needs. While itis ot likely that every state would allow Corps members to teach, itis almost certain thatthe states with the greatest need would do so, And the fact that the Teacher Comps has incorporated mechanisms for flexibility in testing requirements and induction programs may ease the process of ataining sae approval in some areas. New Jersey Commissioner of Education Saul Cooperman said that he would approve ‘wholeheartedly of te idea, although he felt tht it might meet legislative resistance from unions, He ‘was very encouraged to hear thatthe national offices ofthe AFT and NEA had been fairly supporive of the idea.? He predicted that state response wo the Teacher Corps would vary according to whether they ‘had shonages or not. Mike Van Ryan, assistant commissioner of education in New York, also responded very posiively to the Teacher Comps concept. He said that New York state, which is experiencing shortages, would be "very receptive.*3 Schools 1 Sharon P, Robinson, National Education Association, lener, March 9, 1989, 2 Cooperman, 3 Van Ryan.ORCI ERE IRE re ere ne Principals of schools with teacher shortages responded to the Teacher Corps idea with great enthusiasm, For example, Judy Kodding, principal of Pasadena High School in Pasadena, California, said that she would want to hire Teacher Corps members even if she did not have a shortage. And Dennis Litky, principat of Thayer High School in Winchester, New Hampshire, said, "I think any ‘program that brings the best and brightest into the profession of teaching is good thing."? (Caesar Previdi. principal of Martin Luther King High Schoot in New York City, also said that he would want to participate if all of the details were "worked out."3 He said that the fact that Corps ‘members would only be teaching for two years would not bother him because "it would be beter than. not having anybody.” He added: "I think any principal would lock at that as @ good idea. You would ‘et people with alot of energy. You get alot of resources out of them.” Previgi sald that while it could be overwhelming to go into a South Bronx high school asa first-yeat teacher, the three-month ‘summer instrate could help to prepare the Corps members for such circumstances, “I's a tough job, but for young energetic people who want todo it, Think it would work out.” he said, He also said that he thought principals would be willing to agree to hire Comps members without physically meeting them first, depending on the relationship that te Teacher Comps staff developed with the principals. Conciusion Indications fom college students and the American poblic. from the media, from comporaie “Americ, from unions and state policymakers, and from school principals could not be more ‘encouraging about the Teacher Corps’ potential for success, Yet the idea is only avery small step. “The Peace Corps would not exist today if it were not forte idealistic students who pushed the nation’s Jeaders to move beyond the idea and thus acted to bring about the agency's creation. fs hbnety 5. Moga _ Tyady Kodding, Pasedena High Schol Principal, telephone interview, March 23,1989. 2 Dennis Litky, Thayer High School Principal, telephone interview, Apri 4, 1989 3 Caesar Previi, Marin Luther Kang High School Principal. tlephone imerview, March 23, 1969,NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION « sate sated rurne.c wie etree ce a ean caverch neuro Dre Appendix 3 INSTRUCTION & PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 91 261n St. 9 wae e 3 March 9, 1989 Ms. Wendy Kopp Princeton University 221 Dod Hall Princeton, New Jersey casa¢ Dear Ms. Kopp: Mazy Hatwoed Futrell was intrigued with the enthusiasa and fativity you shared with her in your February ¢ lectens She has asked me to respond on her behalf. four idea of a "National Teacher Service" is an interesting one. ,iimilar concerts have surfaced before. The prospect gf attracting careez educators out of an initial service experience is the most appealing aspect of your preposal. As Rembers of the teaching profession, we have soxe trounte accepting any shert tern service corps as occupying 2 signizicant role in this country's educational commitment. But in 2 purely suppienental or career investigative sapacity, much benefit night be derived from such a program, We feel strongly that the core of this Nation's commitment to education aust flow fron fully prepared, career focused, and professionally oriented persons. Even a suggestion that. acceptable levels of expertise could develop in short termers simply doesn't mesh with what those of us in the business know it takes to do the job--much less with what our young people need and deserve. Now this may sound lixe I find little merit in your concept. Quite to the contrary, I think the need to discover and encourage the best and brichtest of our students to investigate teaching, and in doing so to provide a supplemental function in the schools has great potential. suggest that you contact our state affiliate, the New Jersey Education Association (P, 0. Box 1211, 160 W. State Street, Trenton, NJ 08607). In particular, TI suggest that you contact Mr. John Pietrowicz of NJEX who is their Director of Instruction and Professional Development. Possibly they or soneone they might suggest can help you with the development and practical implementation aspects cf your idea. You will Sharon P. Rabinson, Director 9 (202) 622-7380get your best help and direction from working closely with practicing teachers and their lo cal organizations. We certainly wish you the very best with your idea and hope you choose to devote your energies to a career in teaching. There are few more satisfying or challenging professions you could elect. Sincerely, ee ed Sharon P. Robinson Director SPR/cow ect Executive Office John Pietrowicz, NJEA 160