Cuapter 8 |’ Linear Kinematic Analysis ‘A. Coordinate systems I. two-dimensional systems 2. three-dimensional systems ‘Time Units of Measurement Vectors and Scalars 1. scalars 2. vectors 4) vector representation) vector operations ©) resultant vector d) vector components Il. Position and Displacement A. Motion B. Position C. Distance D. Displacement I. Velocity and Speed A. Speed B. Velocity 1, slope 2. first central difference method . Numerical Example D. Instantaneous Velocity 1. limit 2. secant 3. tangent 4, differentiation E, Graphical Example 1. local extrema IM. Acceleration ‘A. Instantaneous Acceleration B, Numerical Example . Graphical Example D, Acceleration and the Direction of Motion oR Linear Kinematics V. Differentiation and Integration Vi. Kinematies of Running A, Steide Parameters I. stride 2. step 3, stride and step length 44. side rate ‘5. support and non-support B, Velocity Curve C. Variation of velocity during support VIL Kinematics of Projectiles ] A. Gravity 4 B. Projectiles 4 C. Trajectory of a Projectile 1. parabola 2 apex D, Factors Influencing Projectiles 1. angle of projection ) positive angle b) negative angle 2. velocity of projection a) horizontal velocity b) vertical velocity orange 3. height of projection EB, Optimizing Projection Conditions Vill. Equations of Constant Acceleration ‘A. Three Equations B, Numerical Example 1X, Chapter SummaryStudent Objectives ‘ter reading this chapter, this student will be able to: + Describe how kinematic data are collected. Distinguish between vectors and scalars Discuss the relationship among the kinematic parame- ters of position, displacement, velocity, and accelera. tion, Distinguish between average and instantaneous quanti- ties. Conduct a numerical calculation of velocity and accel eration using the first central difference method, Conduct a numerical calculation of the area under a parametertime curve, ‘Sketch the general shape of the derivative of a curve, Discuss various research studies that have utilized a linear kinematic approach. Demonstrate knowledge ofthe three equations of con- stant acceleration, Calculate the range of a projectile using the equations of constant acceleration ‘The branch of mechanics that deals with the deseription ‘of the spatial and temporal components of motion is called Kinematics. The description involves the position, velocity, and acceleration of a body with no concem for the forces causing the motion. A kinematic analysis of motion may be either qualizative or quantitative. A qualitative kinematic analysis is a non-mumerical description of a movement based on a ditect observation. The description can range from a simple dichotomy of performance —good ot badd. {0 a rather sophisticated identification of the joint actions, ‘The key is, however, that itis non-numerical and subje tive. Qualitative analyses are conducted primarily by teach ers and coaches, among others. In the field of biomechanics, there is greater interest in a quantitative analysis. The word “quantitative” implies 4 ‘numerical result, In a quantitative analysis, the movement is analyzed mumerically based on measurements from data collected during the performance of the movement, Movements may then be described precisely. Quantitative analyses are conducted by researchers but rarely by Goaches and teachers. The researcher then uses ths type of analysis to fully desctibe the movement techniques to interested parties. For example, a quantitative analysis ‘may be conducted by a clinician on an individual who has cerebral palsy to determine this individual's gait pattem ‘The clinician quantifies the gait parameters for the sur. ge0n who then decides what type of surgery is required to ‘enable the patient to walk more effectively Acsub-set of kinematics that is particular to inotion in a straight line is called linear kinematics. Translation or fanslational motion is referred to as “straight line” ‘motion and occurs when all points on a body or an object ove the same distance over the same time. In Figure &- 4a, an object undergoes translation. The points Al and B1 move to A2 and B2 respectively, in the same time, The distance from A1 to A2 and BI to B2 is the same. thus anslation. For example, a skater gliding across the ice maintaining a pose is an example of translation. While it ‘appears that translation can occur only in a straight line, there are also instances when linear motion can occur along 2 curved path, This is known as curvilinear motion and is presented in Figure 8-1b. While the object under. ‘goes a curved path, the distance from Al to A2 and Bl to B2is the same and is accomplished in the same amour of time. For example a sky-diver falling from an airplane Prior to opening the parachute undergoes curvilinear motion :328 A AY By B AY By Mechanical Analysis of Human Motion Ap Bo Be FIGURE 8-1. Types of translational motion: A) straight-line or rectilinear motion; and A) curvitnear motion. In both A) and B), the motion from A to A? and B! to Bis the same and occurs in the same amount of time, Collection of Kinematic Data ‘There are several methods by wich kinematic date are collected for use in a quantitative analysis, Bio- ‘mechanics laboratories, for example, may use accelerom- eters which measure the accelerations of body segments Girectly. The most common method of obtaining kine- matic data, however, is high speed cinematography or high speed video. High speed video is presently a more popular technique than cinematography and will be referred to exclusively throughout, although the same tasks can be accomplished with high speed cinematogra- phy. The data obtained from high speed video result in the location of positions of body segments with respect to time.,These data are acquired from the videotape by means of digitization, a computer-assisted technique that allows the movement to be analyzed frame-by-frame, Reference Systems Before analyzing the film, a spatial reference system is determined. There are many options for the bfomechanist in regards to a reference system; however, most laborato- ries use a Caytesian coordinate system. A Cartesian coor- dinate system is also referred to asa rectangular reference system, This system may either be two-dimensional or throo-dimensional A two-dimensional reference system has two-imagi- nary axes arranged perpendicular to each other (Figure 8- 2a). The two axes (x, y) are usually positioned so that one is vertical (y) and the other is horizontal (x), although they may be oriented in any manner. For example, in cer- tain circumstances, the axes may be re-oriented such that ‘one axis (y} nuns down the fong axis ofa segment. As the segment moves, the y-axis corresponding to the long axis ‘of the bone also moves with the result that the y-axis may not necessarily be vertically aligned (Figure 8-26). ‘An ordered pair of numbers is used to designate any point with reference to the axes with the intersection oF origin of the axes designated as (0, 0). This pair of num- bers is always designated in the order of the x-value fol- lowed by the y-value; these are referred to as the hori-