1

Continuum Theory

1.1

The Continuum Concept

The atomic/molecular composition of matter is well established. On a small enough scale, for instance, a body of aluminum is really a collection of discrete aluminum atoms stacked on one another in a particular repetitive lattice. On an even smaller scale, the atoms consist of a core of protons and neutrons around which electrons orbit. Thus, matter is not continuous. At the same time, the physical space in which we live is truly a continuum, for mathematics teaches us that between any two points in space we can always nd another point, regardless of how close together we choose the original pair. Clearly then, although we may speak of a material body as occupying a region of physical space, it is evident that the body does not totally ll the space it occupies. However, if we accept the continuum concept of matter, we agree to ignore the discrete composition of material bodies, and to assume that the substance of such bodies is distributed uniformly throughout, and completely lls the space it occupies. In keeping with this continuum model, we assert that matter may be divided indenitely into smaller and smaller portions, each of which retains all of the physical properties of the parent body. Accordingly, we are able to ascribe eld quantities such as density and velocity to each and every point of the region of space which the body occupies. The continuum model for material bodies is important to engineers for two very good reasons. On the scale by which we consider bodies of steel, aluminum, concrete, etc., the characteristic dimensions are extremely large compared to molecular distances so that the continuum model provides a very useful and reliable representation. Additionally, our knowledge of the mechanical behavior of materials is based almost entirely upon experimental data gathered by tests on relatively large specimens.

1999 by CRC Press LLC

1.2

Continuum Mechanics

The analysis of the kinematic and mechanical behavior of materials modeled on the continuum assumption is what we know as continuum mechanics. There are two main themes into which the topics of continuum mechanics are divided. In the rst, emphasis is on the derivation of fundamental equations which are valid for all continuous media. These equations are based upon universal laws of physics such as the conservation of mass, the principles of energy and momentum, etc. In the second, the focus of attention is on the development of so-called constitutive equations characterizing the behavior of specic idealized materials, the perfectly elastic solid and the viscous uid being the best known examples. These equations provide the focal points around which studies in elasticity, plasticity, viscoelasticity, and uid mechanics proceed. Mathematically, the fundamental equations of continuum mechanics mentioned above may be developed in two separate but essentially equivalent formulations. One, the integral or global form, derives from a consideration of the basic principles being applied to a nite volume of the material. The other, a differential or eld approach, leads to equations resulting from the basic principles being applied to a very small (innitesimal) element of volume. In practice, it is often useful and convenient to deduce the eld equations from their global counterparts. As a result of the continuum assumption, eld quantities such as density and velocity which reect the mechanical or kinematic properties of continuum bodies are expressed mathematically as continuous functions, or at worst as piecewise continuous functions, of the space and time variables. Moreover, the derivatives of such functions, if they enter into the theory at all, likewise will be continuous. Inasmuch as this is an introductory textbook, we shall make two further assumptions on the materials we discuss in addition to the principal one of continuity. First, we require the materials to be homogeneous, that is, to have identical properties at all locations. And second, that the materials be isotropic with respect to certain mechanical properties, meaning that those properties are the same in all directions at a given point. Later, we will relax this isotropy restriction to discuss briey anisotropic materials which have important meaning in the study of composite materials.

1999 by CRC Press LLC