_______ Introduction to Aircraft Performance, Selection, and Design Francis J. Hale 2 re Uwvery John Wiley & Sons Newiom Grchester_—=sbone == Toon SnguporeCopyght@ 8 Dobe Wey 8 Sos ae ‘Aleit ere, Pbited sna in Cas 18a wok tod ta perme Sto ‘he Prise Derren, eb Wi & Sos tee acu perme sin Preface This is teaching text for an introductory coure in aeronautical or aerospace nginerng. The course has no prerequisites, conray to the sal practice of Teuiing one or move aerodynamics courses plus propulsion end sirsctares courses prior to 4 performance course. Such presegustes not only eliminate onaerorpace engineering stdents hut also delay the exposute of aero students tothe reasoos forthe configuration and performance of various types of aieaft tnd deprive them of the motivation and rtionale forthe sopporting technish ouraee This course hat been taught many ties here at North Calin State University aswell ae at The Middle East Teeical Unwersiy in Ankara, Turkey and atthe United Sates Miltary Academy at West Point, “The major objective ofthe course aod ofthis book isto impart an understanding of why conventional sireraft ook and ya they do. By the end ofthe couse, the ‘Sudent should be abl otk the physical characteristis of any existing aera (estimating those data that might be missing; mancfatorers have a habit of not providing everything we Would lie) and deermine is performance, namely, Ae range ight rep, rate of eimb, toring ete, itis pombe fo determine the operational performance ofan aircraft with 2 set of sexi phil characterises, coms log to be abl o do the con- ‘ere tha i to design an alzral that wll eet a set of operational requirements that specify roc things a the desired range, ere airspeed, and payoad cap ‘ity Sicha design, using the techniques ofthis Book, sa conceptal or Fes bility design, ielng the major characteristics sucha the maximum goss weight, the wing area and span, the drag polar. the thrust required, and the fuel con- ssmption and fad. Skil jm performance and design impbes the capably to ‘aluate und compare competing aieaft, hus the ehaper on Selection and the incision ofthe word inthe sie, Selestion i an important proces tothe perso, fonganzition, of eounley faced withthe problem of picking the Best aircraft espe myn, often confiting details and clains. ‘Since the emphasis throughout the Book is onthe determination of the key parameters and. physial appreciation of tet infoeneon the performance and Aesgn ofan arate, analy expressions and closed-form solution are ese ‘Consequently, the techniques developed and used are bes on assumptions ‘sa szlizations (with varying effects on the precseness of the numeral Values ‘blamed hat are dependent onthe Might regime. In other words, this book does ‘ot presume to teat all posible Aight conditions or al acral conigurations ‘wit equal accuracy of resus. ‘After the developmen of the relevant equations of motion and subsjtem characteris, te fist portion of the Book s devoted to the examination ofthe performance of conventional subsonic aircraft with an idealized turbot pro> pulsion stem, The mathematics forthe trbop simpler, more straightforward, Und ease to visual phyialy tha shat forthe atom prop aire. With anunderstanding of the turbojet, is much easier to evaluate and visaice the ‘iferenes in the eeformance, Aight conditions and design etter of piston top airerafl, Turboet and pston-prop arrat establish the boundaries forthe performance and design of fed-ving area, Since both the turbofan sd the "turboprop combine o varying degrees the characterise of turbojet and paton. Drops, ther performance falls somewhere between these boundaries eh Ie cut to analyze quantitatively Consequently ony the quitatve aspects of ‘the performance and design ofthese aircraft wil be discussed in this book “Altouh the design examples appear to be retitd toa single chapter atthe ‘endothe bok, they infact wil our throughout the book, either by referral 5 ‘chapter problems, which may be used a ilsrative exatples during acute oF ‘worked outside of theclassroom. Theimportent thing to member stat analyst and design area combined process rater than tw separa and elated process, The courses that this book designed to support are for stodens i any cas eum. For the aero engineer it can be ether at introductory course to be followed by the echnical courses, which the sequence that I favor ov team bea ‘capstone course that Ues the technical courses together. The nonato or nor nginering student may well ake this as terminal course with the sole objective of understanding 8 mode of transportation that is chrscterstc of our modern society. This student, or reader, will know why ther are no anscontnenal htioptes, for example and why on long-range Might tart fies high ites and increases tha ale a fuels consumed. Te mathematical skis used inthis ook ate misma, namely, the ability to solve a quadratic equation, takea rst derivative, and perform a single mtegraton Since the results ofthese operations are always given a closed-form expressions, "hese aks ned be exercised only ithe reader want to verify the solutions Sines ‘the Englsh sem of units ssil used in srrat operations andi generally more Familia othe average person than the SI sytem, this book uses the Engish stem of units. Inthe ery chapters, the coresponding SI unl and values ate shown in parentheses following the English values and unis to pve the ear fel for ‘he equivalence of numbers and unit In his book an inconsistency with aca ‘operational practice exists since mies per howr and statue mies ate used rather ‘than kote and nail mies. “Thisbook covers morematerial thancan possibly be del with na one-emester course. Ihave found over the years tht th mest satisfactory solution sto cover the ist seven chapters as written. 1S possible, and may even be desirable (0 ‘minimize the discussion ofthe aerate Might programs an emphasize ony the real ones. Then cover thes three sections of Chap which summarize the Aiffrenes between urbojets and piston-prope and discuss the turbotan and turboprop. brie discussion onthe remainder of Chap. 8a few words onthe effets of wind, andthe semester is over. us simple design problems uch ‘hose at the endo some ofthe chapters take-home exerenes Finally. since the book is self contained, with no preeuisites ox prog know ‘dae neesary, andthe required mathematical skis are minimal, should be sable for sei'seaching nd study recommend it to anyone who sintereted pe ivr in heir design and operation, ane partlry to its who would ie i> aves beter understanding of he ravionle behind thei operating manuals find provedures and who right ws f0shorpen ad improve the inal procedures and ecnaques Av forme itary plo, know hati devoping {he book and teaching a conreponding cour, ny owe Knowledge and unde Standing of sera have greatly ncesed. Profesional pts who Rive taken iN Souk to thnk Leroy Sy her, eras A & M Uniesiy and ‘chal Livove, Syracuse Universiy for thi comments and suggeions made ilereiwing ibe hte Francis J Hale1 INTRODUCTION “4 a 1 Alera Fgh Behavior “The Performance Analysis Equations of Motion and ‘Coordinate Systems AIRCRAFT FORCES, ‘AND SUBSYSTEMS a 22 2 Ea 2 26 Introduction ‘The Atmosphere Aerodynamic Forces “The Propulsion Subsystem Weight Fractions Miscellany Problems LEVEL FLIGHT IN THE VERTICAL PLANE: TURBOJETS uM Level Fight Celi Consitions vise Fight ‘Best (Maximum) Range Ceuise-Clinb and Steped-Altide Flight ‘Best Range with a Specified Airspeed ‘Maximum Endurance Problems Contents 7 gE 3 3 % a a se a4 OTHER FLIGHT IN THE VERTICAL PLANE: TURBOJETS 2 “ “4 4s 46 Take-OfF and Landing Climbing Flight ‘Steepest Climb Fastest Climb ‘Most Eeanomica Climb Unpomered Flight Problems 5 TURNING FLIGHT INTHE HORIZONTAL PLANE: TURBOJETS sa Pe 4 5s “Turning Flight ia General Maximum Load Factor and Maxiom Bank Angle Maximum Turing Rate Minimum Tursiog Reds Problems 6 LEVEL FLIGHT IN THE ‘VERTICAL PLANE: PISTON-PROPS' «1 62 6 ot Introduction and Governing Equations Level Fight and Celing Conditions Best Range ‘Maximum Endurance Problems 7. OTHER FLIGHT: PISTON-PROPS am 12 Take-Of and Landing (timbing Fight o seeunea 101 103 105 109, 113 13 16 1 9 13 ry 137 ut 0 ey “Tuning Flight Probes ‘TURBOPROPS, TURBOFANS. AND OTHER THINGS, a 82 83 Introdton ‘The Piston-Prop and ‘Tarbojet Revisited “Turboprops and Turbofans “Mach Number Representation Flight and Maneuvering Envelopes Approximation FIGURES OF MERIT FOR SELI on 92 oa 9 9s 36 LECTION AND DESIGN Inroduction ‘Torbojets and Turbotans A Turboe-Turbofan Comparison Pistoe-Props and Turboprops | Piston-Prop Comparison A Straight Turboprop Comptison Problems EFFECTS OF WIND, oN 104 oa PERFORMANCE, Introdetion Cruise Peformance 102-1 Best Range Conditions 1022 Fight Tae and Fuel Consumption 102.3 Coacasons and Examples 11 160 163, 163 163 168 178 185, 191 198 203 203 205 a 25 20 m ns ns 226 23 2a103 Or Fight Problems 11 STABILITY AND CONTROL CONSIDERATIONS Introduction Equations and Coordinate Stems State Staitty 11-4 Longtdinal Stati Stability M1 State Margin and Trim ize Sizing Lit, and Drag 11-7 Dynamic Stab Problems i Response 12 SOME DESIGN EXAMPLES 124 Introdection 122 ATubojet Example 123. A Torbotan Example 124A Pisto-Prop Example Problems ‘SELECTED REFERENCES APPENDIX A PROPERTIES OF THE STANDARD ATMOSPHERE APPENDIX B RANGE EQUATION INTEGRATIONS INDEX 236 28 21 2a a a 3 254 264 267 268 m m 276 2 283 287 Introduction ro “Aircraft Performance, Selection, and DesignChapter One Introduction 1-4 AIRCRAFT FLIGHT BEHAVIOR “The Right path and behavior ofan aircraft are determined by the interaction ‘between the characterises ofthe azeraft fae and the environment in which ts fying The aieraftcharateists canbe categorized asthe pyscal characteristics, such atthe shape mass, volume, and surface area; the characteristics of the sub- fystems, such a¥ the propulsion, gvidanes,ané contol subsjtems: and the Structural characterises, auch a the loading and temperature imitations and the Stes ofr of he structure “The environment ales the fight ofan arraft through the eld frees and the surface fore The only fed force that we need consider fran alr is gravity ‘which appears as the weight and 6 Tuncion of the mass ofthe aicratt. The Surface frees ar the aerodynamic Fores (heb, tbe drag, andthe sie Force ‘which are vey strongly dependent upon the shape and the surface area ofthe Sierafy epoca ofthe wings, and upon the properties of the atmosphere. In ‘dation, consigration mst be sven to the inertia forces. Thy ate the conse- {quence of nonequlibrum processes and play an important ole ia dynamic and ‘Stes analyse of aircaf “There ae two basic nd fundamental modes of srrat behavior, particularly when the atrat i asumed to be argh! body. The ist model the anslarinal ‘mode in which we teat th afraft 25a pont mass tat has 3 depress of reedom find can move up or dow, fontwards or backwards, and sideways. The force fquations of motion are suficent to determine and deserbe the Wanslatonal ‘mode The second mode's the rotational mode with 3additional degrees offeedom Comprising angular motion about three mutually orthogonal axes, whose origin ‘snormally located a the center of mas (he center oferavit) ofthe aera. The ‘moment equations, as wel asthe force equations are requted to determine and ‘describe the otational mode Tn this book, we sal limit ourselves to rigid areal eventhough most modern aireraft have varying amounts of elasticity arising from the performance and Gesign obysives of reducing structural weight tthe misimum. Fortunately Seroeasc elles usally need not be considered In performance analyses oF peciminay configration design. In addition, we can nt ourselves othe force ‘Squations because we shall be treating the aleraft asa point mass our pet formance analyses and feasibly designs In Chap. 1, when we ake a brie ook 12 mratcion sibility and control and ss implications with respect to performance are ‘scussed, the momen equatlons vill be introduced. Finally, we shall consider ‘only quacesteady-sate Might: that I, we shall stsome that velocities and other Figh-path parameters are either constant or are changing so slowly that thee rates of change can be neglected. Consequently, withthe exception ofthe cent foal fore in taring igh, he inertia forces cam be neleted. 1.2. THE PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS Surely speaking. n a performance analysis, @petson takes an existing set of physical eheractersts of particular aircraft and determines Such things 3s Fow fast and how highitcan 8) and how faritcan ravel witha specified amount of fel Pesformance also means examining difeent ways of fying a mision so as to exploit the characteris and capabilities of the aeraft in question. For example, wo major objectives of commercial airraft are to minimize both the feel consumpion and the fight tine. These objectives can beret bya combination ‘of proper design and appropriate operational procedures, ‘The siteraft undergoing a performance analysis may be an exsing acral realairrft-On the other han. it may bea paper aicrafone that stein studled for possible adoption and manufacture. As a result ofthe performance analy, ltmay be rejected for any further consideration or some ofits characterises may ‘be modified and another performance analyte cariod out. And then possibly another modification and another analysis might follow. Thus, the performance analysis andthe preliminary design proces ae often intertwined in a series of ‘erations, and it may be hard at times to cstingush Between thet. “There are two base approaches to a performance analysis The rss peimarly rapa and te others primarily anata. The ater wil be sed in his ook ‘ith emphasis on classifying aircraft ona broader bas than the former approach. FFor example, he graphical approach might describe an strat inter of ts {ross weight whereas the analytical approach would use the wing loading. In fac, we shall ind hata knowledge ofthe wing loading, the maximom hitto-drag ‘ai and the type ol propulsion system wil pier insight a: othe design milan tnd performance ofan ateralt, "This i 701 an serodynames book nor «propulsion book. The coverage of these two subjects Umit to what necessiry or helpful in understanding the Slaniieance and importanes of the various aerodynamic and propulsive param: fiers. In spite ofthe overtding umportance of suuetural weight and integrity 9 {he design of srerat and o the iil an operating cot, he complet ofthe subjet precludes anything more than 2 continued awareness of ts imporance “The absence of any computer programs or mention ofesmpatalional methods is diberate but isnot tobe interpreted asa rejestion ofthe computer for use 18 Peformance and design, To the contrary, the computer in is many forms isa ‘most usefl tol. However, computers come in many hardware and software com figurations and it would ot be possible to weat them adequately in this book [ean Mond Coonine Sms 3 11s eft the individual to decide how the computer can best be we ‘Aer a chaper of background material. which can serve a8 review forthe more knowledgeable person, evel ight of turbojet arta our itt atradtion to performance. The mathematics ielavely simple and straightforward andthe nate results qt siisying. tis of sme interest to discover hat ete high nd fast not necessarily because sey want to But Because they have fon order fa hecompetiive Wit some understanding of the perormance of trbojt aera, is ease 9 relate to the performance of pstomprops. which i surprisingly ferent. The two types of aireraft fy in diferent ways to explo thet respective advantages Then we look biel a uebolans and turboprops which combine the features of ‘uchojets and piston-props to varying degres, ‘Although we shall reduce the performance problem to set of simple, ¢wo- imersional statics problems i isalways mice co be aware of thei ovens. There fore ths chapter concludes with bi section om the fundamental equations of ‘motion and coordinte stems. 1.3 EQUATIONS OF MOTION AND COORDINATE SYSTEMS In is most general form, Newton's lw governing the linear momentum ofa con sinuous stem canbe writen in vector form as vou wy here Fis the vector sum of the external frees, asthe acceleration of particle asso the system with respec to inertial space(a nonrotting and noncoxerting Fefeence ame) For areal performance analyses, the Earth canbe taken to be the inertial space and we ean neglet the rotation an curvatore of the Earth Consequently, with a ft, ponrotting Earth asthe inertial reference, the vetor ‘eqation of motion of righ arcrft can now be writen as 0 where and Wate the mass and weight othe alr gi the acoslaration dus to Earth's gravity 022/48 or 98 m/l she acceleration ofthe center of gravity the cof the aircraft with respect the Earth, and V is the velocity af he cp of ‘the arratt wi respect to the Earth For fight over aft Earth, there are thee retlincar and right-handed co ordinate systems of intrest: the yrounbaves system EXYZ: the losal-horizon Ststem Oxgy andthe wind aes Sytem Oxay.c.. We now define these systems With the assumption thatthe aterat has a pane of symmetry, as do al icra flow in operation. Asa matter of historic inert, the Germans did build and Ay an experimental asymmetrical avert during Worl War Il, Also the skewed