Chapter 12

The Laws of Thermodynamics

Quick Quizzes
1. (b). The work done on a gas during a thermodynamic process is the negative of the area
under the curve on a PV diagram. Processes in which the volume decreases do positive
work on the gas, while processes in which the volume increases do negative work on the
gas. The work done on the gas in each of the four processes shown is:

, W , W , and

Thus, the correct ranking (from most negative to most positive) is a,c,b,d.
5
4.00 10 J
a
W =
5
3.00 10 J
b
= +
5
3.00 10 J
c
=
5
4.00 10 J
d
W = +
2. A is isovolumetric, B is adiabatic, C is isothermal, D is isobaric.
3. (c). The highest theoretical efficiency of an engine is the Carnot efficiency given by
1
c c
e T =
h
T . Hence, the theoretically possible efficiencies of the given engines are:

A
700 K
1 0
1000 K
e = = .300 ,
B
500 K
1 0.375
800 K
e = = , and
C
300 K
1 0
600 K
e = = .500

and the correct ranking (from highest to lowest) is C, B, A.
4. (b). 0
r
Q
S
T
= = and Q in an adiabatic process. If the process was reversible, but not
adiabatic, the entropy of the system could undergo a non-zero change. However, in that
case, the entropy of the systems surroundings would undergo a change of equal
magnitude but opposite sign, and the total change of entropy in the universe would be
zero. If the process was irreversible, the total entropy of the universe would increase.
0 =
5. The number 7 is the most probable outcome because there are six ways this could occur:
1-6, 2-5, 3-4, 4-3, 5-2, and 6-1. The numbers 2 and 12 are the least probable because they
could only occur one way each: either 1-1, or 6-6. Thus, you are six times more likely to
throw a 7 than a 2 or 12.
431
432 CHAPTER 12
Answers to Even Numbered Conceptual Questions
2. Either statement can be considered an instructive analogy. We choose to take the first
view. All processes require energy, either as energy content or as energy input. The kinetic
energy which it possessed at its formation continues to make Earth go around. Energy
released by nuclear reactions in the core of the Sun drives weather on Earth and
essentially all processes in the biosphere. The energy intensity of sunlight controls how
lush a forest or jungle can be and how warm a planet is. Continuous energy input is not
required for the motion of the planet. Continuous energy input is required for life because
energy tends to be continuously degraded, as energy is transferred by heat into lower-
temperature sinks. The continuously increasing entropy of the Universe is the index to
energy-transfers completed.
4. Shaking opens up spaces between the jelly beans. The smaller ones have a chance of
falling down into spaces below them. The accumulation of larger ones on top and smaller
ones on the bottom implies an increase in order and a decrease in one contribution to the
total entropy. However, the second law is not violated and the total entropy of the system
increases. The increase in the internal energy of the system comes from the work required
to shake the jar of beans (that is, work your muscles must do, with an increase in entropy
accompanying the biological process) and also from the small loss of gravitational
potential energy as the beans settle together more compactly.
6. Temperature = A measure of molecular motion. Heat = the process through which energy
is transferred between objects by means of random collisions of molecules. Internal energy
= energy associated with random molecular motions plus chemical energy, strain
potential energy, and an objects other energy not associated with center of mass motion
or location.
8. A higher steam temperature means that more energy can be extracted from the steam. For
a constant temperature heat sink at and steam at T , the maximum efficiency of the
power plant goes as
c
T
h
1
h c
h h
T T T
T T

=
c
and is maximized for high .
h
T
10.
max
80 K
22%
373 K
h
T
e
T

= = (Assumes atmospheric temperature of 20C.)

12. An analogy due to Carnot is instructive: A waterfall continuously converts mechanical
energy into internal energy. It continuously creates entropy as the organized motion of the
falling water turns into disorganized molecular motion. We humans put turbines into the
waterfall, diverting some of the energy stream to our use. Water flows spontaneously
from high to low elevation and energy is transferred spontaneously from high to low
temperature by heat. Into the great flow of solar radiation from Sun to Earth, living things
put themselves. They live on energy flow. A basking snake diverts high-temperature
energy through itself temporarily, before it is inevitably lost as low-temperature energy
radiated into outer space. A tree builds organized cellulose molecules and we build
libraries and babies who look like their grandmothers, all out of a thin diverted stream in
the universal flow of energy crashing down to disorder. We do not violate the second law,
for we build local reductions in the entropy of one thing within the inexorable increase in
The Laws of Thermodynamics 433
the total entropy of the Universe. Your roommates exercise increases random molecular
motions within the room.
14. Even at essentially constant temperature, energy must be transferred by heat out of the
solidifying sugar into the surroundings. This action will increase the entropy of the
environment. The water molecules become less ordered as they leave the liquid in the
container to mix with the entire atmosphere.
16. A slice of hot pizza cools off. Road friction brings a skidding car to a stop. A cup falls to
the floor and shatters. Any process is irreversible if it looks funny or frightening when
shown in a videotape running backward. At fairly low speeds, air resistance is small and
the flight of a projectile is nearly reversible.
434 CHAPTER 12
Answers to Even Numbered Problems
2. (a) 610 J (b) 0 (c) 410 J
(d) 0 (e) 200 J
4. (a) 31 m s (b) 0.17
6. (c) More work is done in (a) because of higher pressure during the expansion.
8. -465 J
10. (a) 12.0 MJ (b) 12.0 MJ
12.
0 0
6PV
14. 0, <0, >0 U Q W =
16. (a) 12 kJ (b) 12 kJ
18.


>0, <0, 0
AB AB AB
Q W U >
<0, =0, 0
BC BC BC
Q W U <
<0, >0, 0
CA CA CA
Q W U <
20. (a) 8.24 J (b) 12.4 J (c) 20.6 J
22. (a)
(b)
76.0 J, 101 J, 88.7 J
IAF IBF IF
W W W = = =
165 J, 190 J, 178 J
IAF IBF IF
Q Q Q = = =
24. 19.7%
26. (a) 10.7 kJ (b) 0.533 s
28. 13.7C
30. (a) 0.0512 (or 5.12%) (b)
12
5.27 10 J
(c) Such engines would be one way to harness solar energy as conventional energy
sources become more expensive. However, this engine could produce unacceptable
thermal pollution in the deep ocean waters.
32. (a) 9.10 kW (b) 11.9 kJ
34. 453 K
36. 6.06 kJ K
38. 2.7 kJ K
The Laws of Thermodynamics 435
40. (a)

End Result

Possible Draws
Total Number of
Same Result
All R RRR 1
1G, 2R RRG, RGR, GRR 3
2G, 1R GGR, GRG, RGG 3
All G GGG 1
(b)

End Result

Possible Draws
Total Number
of Same Result
All R RRRRR 1
1G, 4R RRRRG, RRRGR, RRGRR, RGRRR, GRRRR 5
2G, 3R RRRGG, RRGRG, RGRRG, GRRRG, RRGGR,
RGRGR, GRRGR, RGGRR, GRGRR, GGRRR
10
3G, 2R GGGRR, GGRGR, GRGGR, RGGGR, GGRRG,
GRGRG, RGGRG, GRRGG, RGRGG, RRGGG
10
4G, 1R GGGGR, GGGRG, GGRGG, GRGGG, RGGGG 5
All G GGGGG 1

42. (a) 1 52 (b) 1 13 (c) 1 4
44. 3.0
46. 16.0 J K, 26.7 J K, 10.7 J K
h c Universe
S S S = = =
48. 0.55 kg
50. (a) 251 J (b) 314 J (c) 104 J by the gas
(d) 104 J on the gas (e) zero in both cases
52.
4
5.97 10 kg s
54. (a) (b) (c) 9.07 kJ
0 0
4PV
0 0
4PV
56. (a) (b) 16 kJ (c) 16 kJ
2
4.9 10 J

58. (a)
0
21
2
nRT (b)
0
17
2
nRT
(c) 0.190 (or 19.0%) (d) 0.833 (or 83.3%)
60. (a) (b) 335 J +
3
2.09 10 J
62. (a) (b) (c) 2.8
6
2.4 10 J
6
1.6 10 J
2
10 J
436 CHAPTER 12
Problem Solutions
12.1 From kinetic theory, the average kinetic energy per molecule is


B
A
3 3
2 2
molecule
R
KE k T T
N
| |
= =
|
\ .


For a monatomic ideal gas containing N molecules, the total energy associated with
random molecular motions is


A
3 3
2 2
molecule
N
U N KE RT nRT
N
| |
= = =
|
\ .
PV nRT =


Since for an ideal gas, the internal energy of a monatomic ideal gas is found
to be given by
3
2
U PV = .
12.2 (a) ( )
( ) ( )
3 3
5
10 m
3 1.013 10 Pa 3.0 L 1.0 L 610 J
1 L
ab a b a
V V

=
| |
(
= =
|

\ .
W P
(b) ( ) 0
bc c b
W P V V = =
(c) ( )
( ) ( )
3 3
5
10 m
2 1.013 10 Pa 1.0 L 3.0 L 410 J
1 L
cd c d c
V V

=
| |
(
= =
|

\ .
W P
P (atm)
V (L)
a b
c
d
0
0 1 2 3
1
2
3
(d) ( ) 0
da a d
V V = = W P
(e) 610 J 0 410 J 0 200 J
net ab bc cd da
W W W = + + + = + + + = + W W
The Laws of Thermodynamics 437
12.3 The number of molecules in the gas is
A
N nN = and the total internal energy is


( )
( ) ( )
A B
4
3 3
2 2
3 J
3.0 mol 8.31 1.1 10 J
2 m
U N KE nN k T
| |
= = =
|
\ .
| |
|
\ .

303 K
ol K
nRT
= =


Alternatively, use the result of Problem 12.1,


3 3
2 2
U PV nRT = = , just as found above.
12.4 (a) The work done by the gas on the projectile is given by the area under the curve in
the PV diagram. This is


( ) ( )
( )( ) ( ) ( )( )
( ) ( )
by gas
0 0 0 0
3
5 3
6 3
triangular area rectangular area
1 1
2 2
1 1
11 1.0 10 Pa 40.0 8.0 cm 19 J
2 1
f f f f f f
W
P P V V P V V P P V V
= +
= + = +
| |
( ( = + =
|

\ .
0
m
0 cm


From the work-energy theorem,
2
1
0
2
E mv W K = = where W is the work done
on the projectile by the gas. Thus, the speed of the emerging projectile is


( )
3
2 2 19 J
31 m s
40.0 10 kg
W
v
m

= = =

(b) The air in front of the projectile would exert a retarding force of


( ) ( ) ( )
5 2 2 4 2
1.0 10 Pa 1.0 cm 1 m 10 cm 10 N
r air
F P A
(
= = =

(


on the projectile as it moves down the launch tube. The energy spent overcoming
this retarding force would be

) ( ) 10 N 0.32 m 3.2 J
spent r
W F s = = =

and the needed fraction is
3.2 J
0.17
19 J
spent
W
W
= =
438 CHAPTER 12
12.5 In each case, the work done on the gas is given by the negative of the area under the
path on the PV diagram. Along those parts of the path where volume is constant, no
work is done. Note that 1 .
5 3
atm 1.013 10 Pa and 1 Liter 10 m

= =
3
(a) ( )
( ) ( )
5 3 3
0
4.00 1.013 10 Pa 4.00 2.00 10 m 810 J
IAF IA AF I A I
W P V V

= + = +
( ( = =

W W
(b)
( ) ( )
( )( ) ( ) ( )( )
( ) ( ) ( )
5 3
triangular area rectangular area
1 1
2 2
1
4.00 1.00 1.013 10 Pa 4.00 2.00 10 m
2
507 J
IF
I B F B B F B I B F B
P P V V P V V P P V V

= = +
(
= +

=
3
W =
(c) ( )
( ) ( )
5 3 3
0
1.00 1.013 10 Pa 4.00 2.00 10 m 203 J
IBF IB BF B F I
W P V V

= + =
( ( = =

W W
12.6 The sketches for (a) and (b) are shown below:

P
V
(a)
P
1
V
1
P
2
V
2
P
V
(b)
P
1
V
1
P
2
V
2

(c) As seen from the areas under the paths in the PV diagrams above, the higher
pressure during the expansion phase of the process results in more work done by
the gas in (a) than in (b).
12.7 The constant pressure is ( ) ( )
5 5
1.5 atm 1.013 10 Pa atm 1.52 10 Pa P = =
(
and the work
done on the gas is ) W P . V =
(a) = and

3
4.0 m V +
( ) ( ) ( )
5 3
1.52 10 Pa 4.0 m 6.1 10 J + =
5
W P V = =
The Laws of Thermodynamics 439
(b) = , so

3
3.0 m V
( ) ( ) ( )
5 3
1.52 10 Pa 3.0 m 4.6 10 J = +
5
W P V = =
12.8 As the temperature increases, while pressure is held constant, the volume increases by


( ) f
i
f i
nRT
nR T nRT
V V V
P P P

= = =

where the change in absolute temperature is
C
280 K T T = = . The work done on the
gas is

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 0.200 mol 8.31 J mol K 280 K 465 J W P V nR T = = = =
12.9 (a) From the ideal gas law,
f f i
nR PV T PV T
i
= = . With pressure constant this gives

( ) ( )
3
273 K 4 1.09 10 K
f
f i
i
V
T T
V
| |
= = =
|
\ .

(b) The work done on the gas is


( )
( ) ( )
( )( )( )
3
1.00 mol 8.31 J mol K 1092 J 273 K
6.81 10 J 6.81 kJ
f i f i
W P V PV PV nR T T = = =
=
= =

12.10 (a) The work done on the fluid is the negative of the area under the curve on the PV
diagram. Thus,


( ) ( )
{
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
}
6 3
6 3
6 3
6.00 10 Pa 2.00 1.00 m
1
6.00 2.00 10 Pa 2.00 1.00 m
2
2.00 10 Pa 4.00 2.00 m
if
W =
( +

+



7
1.20 10 J 12.0 MJ
if
W = =
440 CHAPTER 12
(b) When the system follows the process curve in the reverse direction, the work done
on the fluid is the negative of that computed in (a), or

12.0 MJ
fi if
W W = = +
12.11 (a) Because the volume is held constant, 0 W = . Energy is transferred by heat from the
burning mixture, so 0 Q < . The first law then gives U Q W Q = + = , so 0 U < .
(b) Again, since volume is constant, 0 W = . Energy is transferred by heat from the
burning mixture to the water, so 0 Q > . Then, U Q W Q = + = gives 0 U > .
12.12 The work done on the gas is the negative of the area under the curve on the PV diagram,
or

( ) ( )( )
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 3
2 2 2
2 2
W P V V P P V V PV
(
= + =
(

0


From the result of Problem 1,

( )( )
0 0 0 0 0 0
3 3 3 3 9
2 2
2 2 2 2 2
f f i i
U P V PV P V PV PV = = =

Thus, from the first law,
0 0 0 0
9 3
2 2
W PV PV
| |
= =
|
\ .
0 0
6PV = Q U
12.13 (a) ( ) ( ) ( )
5 3 3
1.013 10 Pa 10 m
0.800 atm 7.00 L 567 J
1 atm 1 L
V

| | | |
= = =
| |
\ . \ .
W P
(b) 400 J+567 J 167 J U Q W + = = =
The Laws of Thermodynamics 441
12.14 The work done on the gas is the negative of the area under the curve on the PV diagram,

so ( ) ( )( )
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 3
2 2 2
2 2
W P V V P P V V P
(
= + = +
(

V , or 0 W >

From the result of Problem 1,

( )( ) ( )( )
0 0 0 0
3 3 3 3
2 2
2 2 2 2
f f i i
U P V PV P V P V = = = 0

Then, from the first law,
0 0 0 0
3 3
0
2 2
W PV PV = = = Q U , or 0 Q <
12.15 (a) Along the direct path IF, the work done on the gas is

( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
5 3 3

1
1.00 atm 4.00 L 2.00 L 4.00 atm 1.00 atm 4.00 L 2.00 L
2
1.013 10 Pa 10 m
5.00 atm L 506.5 J
1 atm 1 L
W area under curve
W

=
(
= +
(

| | | |
= =
| |
\ . \ .


Thus, 418 J 506.5 J= 88.5 J U Q W = + =
(b) Along path IAF, the work done on the gas is

( ) ( )
5 3 3
1.013 10 Pa 10 m
4.00 atm 4.00 L 2.00 L 810 J
1 atm 1 L
W

| | | |
= =
| |
\ . \ .


From the first law, ( ) 88.5 J 810 J 722 J W = = = Q U
442 CHAPTER 12
12.16 (a) In a cyclic process, and the first law gives

, or Q W
0 U =
0 U Q W = + = =

The total work done on the gas is
ABC AB BC CA
W W W W = + + , and on each step the
work is the negative of the area under the curve on the PV diagram, or


( )( )
( )
3 3
m
2.0 kPa 10 m 6.0 m +
( )
3 3
.0
kPa 20 kJ
(
=
(

2.0 kP

AB
W

=

0
BC
W =
a 10 m
1
8.00
2
(
6


, and ) ( )
3 3
.0 m 10 m 8.0 kJ =
12 kJ
2.0
cA
0 8 + +
kPa
.0 kJ
6 +
=
W
20 kJ
ABC
=


Thus, W , and 12 = = kJ Q W
(b) If the cycle is reversed,

( ) 12 kJ 12 kJ
CBA ABC
W W = = = and 12 kJ = = Q W
12.17 (a) The change in the volume occupied by the gas is


( ) ( )( )
2 2
0.150 m 0.200 m 3.00 10 m
f i f i
V V V A L L

= = = =
(
3


and the work done by the gas is

) ( ) ( )
2 3
by gas
6 000 Pa 3.00 10 m 180 J W P V

= + = =
(b) The first law of thermodynamics is
input on gas output by gas
U Q W Q W = + = . Thus, if
, the energy transferred out of the system by heat is


8.00 J U =
( ) ( )
output
=
by gas
8.00 J Q U W = 180 J 188 J = +
12.18 Volume is constant in process BC, so 0
BC
W = . Given that 0
BC
Q < , the first law shows
that . Thus, 0
BC BC BC BC
U Q W Q = + = + 0
BC
U < .

For process CA, , so 0 <
CA A C
V V V = ( ) W P V = shows that 0
CA
W > . Then, given
that 0
CA
U < , the first law gives Q U
CA
W
CA CA
= and 0
CA
Q < .
The Laws of Thermodynamics 443
In process AB, the work done on the system is ( ) area under curve W AB = where

( ) ( ) ( )( ) 0
B A B A
P P V V
1
area under curve
2
A B A
AB P V V = + >

Hence, 0
AB
W < . For the cyclic process, 0
AB BC CA
U U U U =
(
+ + = , so,
)
AB BC CA
U U U + = . This gives 0
AB
U > , since both and
BC CA
U U are negative.
Finally, from the first law, Q U W = shows that 0
AB
Q > since both
and W
AB

AB
U are positive.
12.19 (a) ( )
( ) ( )
3
5 3 3
6 3
1 m
1.013 10 Pa 1.09 cm 1.00 cm 9.12 10 J
10 cm
V

=
(
| |
= =
(
|
\ .

3
W P
(b) To freeze the water, the required energy transfer by heat is


( ) ( )
3 5
1.00 10 kg 3.33 10 J kg 333 J
f
Q mL

= = =

The first law then gives


3
333 J 9.12 10 J 333 J U Q W

= + = =
12.20 Treating the air as an ideal gas at constant pressure, the final volume is


( ) f i f i
V V T T = , or the change in volume is


( )
3 3
5 3
10 m 310 K 273 K
0.600 L 8.13 10 m
1 L 273 K
f i
f i i
i
T T
V V V V
T

| |
= =
|
\ .
(
| |
| |
= =
( |
|
\ .
\ .



(a) The work done on the lungs by the air is

( ) ( ) ( )
5 5 3
by gas
1.013 10 Pa 8.13 10 m 8.24 J W P V

= + = =
(b) Using the result of Problem 1, the change in the internal energy of the air is

( ) ( ) ( )
5 5 3
3 3
1.013 10 Pa 8.13 10 m 12.4 J
2 2
U P V

= = =
444 CHAPTER 12
(c) The energy added to the air by heat is

( ) ( ) ( )
3 5
2 2
Q U W P V P V P V = = = (



or,
( ) ( )
5 5 3
5
1.013 10 Pa 8.13 10 m 20.6 J
2

= = Q
12.21 (a) The original volume of the aluminum is


3 3
0 3 3
5.0 kg
1.85 10 m
2.70 10 kg m
m
V

= = =

and the change in volume is ( ) ( ) ( )
0 0
3 V T V V T =
( )
= , or


( ) ( )
1
6 3
3 24 10 C 1.85 10 70 C V


(
=

(
6 3
9.3 10 = m

The work done by the aluminum is then

) ( ) ( )
5 6
3 10 Pa 9.3 10 m 0

=
3
by system
1.01 .95 W P V = + = J
(b) The energy transferred by heat to the aluminum is

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
5
Al
5.0 kg 900 J kg C 70 C 3.2 10 J Q mc T = = =
(c) The work done on the aluminum is W W
by system
0.95 J = = , so the first law gives


5 5
= 3.2 10 J 3.2 10 J 0.95 J U Q W = + =
12.22 (a) The work done on the gas in each process is the negative of the area under the
process curve on the PV diagram.

For path IAF, W W , or


0
IAF IA AF AF
W W = + = +
( ) ( )
3 3
5
Pa 10 m
1.50 atm 1.013 10 0.500 L
atm 1 L
76.0 J
IAF
W

(
| | (
| |
=
( |
( |
\ .
\ .


=

The Laws of Thermodynamics 445
For path IBF, W W , or


0
IBF IB BF IB
W W = + = +
( ) ( )
3 3
Pa 10 m
0.500 L
atm 1 L
IBF
W

5
2.00 atm 1.013 10
101 J
=
=


For path IF,
( )
IF AF
W W triangular = area , or

( ) ( )
3 3
5
1 Pa
76. 0 0.500 L
2 atm
IF
W

10 m
1 L
0 J 0.500 atm 1.013 1
88.7 J
(
| | (
| |
=
( |
( |
\ .
\ .


=

(
| | (
| |
( |
( |
\ .
\ .


(b) Using the first law, with ( ) 180 91.0 J 89.0 J
F A
U U U = = = , for each process
gives

( ) 89
IAF IAF
Q U W = = .0 J 76.0 J 165 J =

( ) 89
IBF IBF
Q U W = = .0 J 101 J 190 J =

( ) 89.0
IF IF
Q U W = = J 88.7 J 178 J =
12.23 The maximum efficiency possible is that of a Carnot engine operating between the given
reservoirs.

( )
293 K
1 1 0.489 or 48.9%
573 K
h c c
c
h h
T T T
e
T T

= = = =
12.24 The maximum possible efficiency of an engine is the Carnot efficiency,
1
h c
c
h h
T T T
e
T T

= =
300 F 149 C 422 = =
c
c
T , where are the absolute temperatures of the reservoirs the
engine operates between. For the given engine, the temperatures of the reservoirs are
and 15 so the maximum efficiency is


and
h
T
0 F 65. = K 6 C 339 K =
339 K
1 0.
422 K
c
e == = 197 or 19.7%
446 CHAPTER 12
12.25 (a)
eng eng
eng
1
0.333 or 33.3%
3 3
h
W W
Q W
= = = e
(b)
eng
1
c
h h
W Q
Q Q
e = , so
1 2
1 1
3 3
c
h
Q
e
Q
= = =
12.26 (a) From
eng
1
c
h h
W Q
Q Q
e = , the energy intake each cycle is


8 000 J
10 667 J 10.7 kJ
1 1 0.250
c
h
Q
Q
e
= = = =


(b) From
eng c
W e Q
t t
= = , the time for one cycle is


( ) ( )
3
0.250 10 667 J
0.533 s
5.00 10 W
c
e Q
t = = =


12.27 (a) The maximum efficiency possible is that of a Carnot engine operating between the
specified reservoirs.

( )
703 K
1 1 0.672 or 67.2%
2 143 K
h c c
c
h h
T T T
e
T T

= = = =
(b) From
eng
h
W
Q
e = , we find
( )
5 4
eng
0.420 1.40 10 J 5.88 10 J
h
Q = = = W e

so
4
eng
4
5.88 10 J
5.88 10 W 58.8 kW
1.00 s
W
t

= = = =
The Laws of Thermodynamics 447
12.28 The work done by the engine equals the change in the kinetic energy of the bullet, or


( ) ( )
2
2 3
eng
1 1
0 2.40 10 kg 320 m s 123 J
2 2
b f
W m v

= = =

Since the efficiency of an engine may be written as
eng eng
eng h c
W W
e
Q W Q
= =
+
where
c
Q is
the exhaust energy from the engine, we find that

( )
4
eng
1 1
1 123 J 1 1.10 10 J
0.0110
c
Q W
e
| | | |
= = =
| |
\ . \ .


This exhaust energy is absorbed by the 1.80-kg iron body of the gun, so the rise in
temperature is


( ) ( )
4
1.10 10 J
13.7 C
1.80 kg 448 J kg C
c
gun iron
Q
T
m c

= = =

12.29 (a) ( )
eng
1 200 J
1 1 0.294 or 29.4%
1700 J
c
h h
W Q
Q Q
= = = e
(b)
eng
1700 J 1 200 J 500 J
h c
Q = = = W Q
(c)
eng
3
500 J
1.67 10 W 1.67 kW
0.300 s
W
t
= = = =
12.30 (a) The Carnot efficiency represents the maximum possible efficiency. With
, this efficiency is given by


20.0 C 293 K and 5.00 C 278 K
h c
T T = = = =
( )
278 K
1 1 0.0512 or 5.12%
293 K
c
c
h
T
e
T
= = =
(b) The efficiency of an engine is
eng h
Q = e W , so the minimum energy input by heat
each hour is


( )( )
6
eng
12
min
max max
75.0 10 J s 3 600 s
5.27 10 J
0.0512
h
W
t
Q
e e

= = = =
P

(c) As fossil-fuel prices rise, this could be an attractive way to use solar energy.
However, the potential environmental impact of such an engine would require
serious study. The energy output, ( )
eng
1
c h h
Q Q W Q e = = , to the low
temperature reservoir (cool water deep in the ocean) could raise the temperature of
over a million cubic meters of water by 1 C every hour.
448 CHAPTER 12
12.31 The actual efficiency of the engine is
300 J
1 1 0.
500 J
c
h
Q
Q
= = = 400 e

If this is 60.0% of the Carnot efficiency, then
0.400 2
0.600 0.600 3
c
e
e = = =

Thus, from 1
c
c
h
T
e
T
= , we find
2 1
1 1
3 3
c
e = =
c
h
T
T
=
12.32 (a) The Carnot efficiency is
353 K
1 1 0.433
623 K
c
c
h
T
e
T
= = = , so the maximum power
output is


( )
( ) eng
max
max
0.433 21.0 kJ
9.10 kW
1.00 s
c h
W
e Q
t t
= = = =
(b) From 1
c
h
Q
Q
e = , the energy expelled by heat each cycle is

( ) ( ) ( ) 1 21.0 kJ 1 0.433 11.9 kJ
c h
Q Q e = = =
12.33 From
eng h
W e Q
t t
= = , the energy input by heat in time t is
h
t
Q
e

=



Thus, from
h
h
Q Q
e
Q

=
c
, the energy expelled in time t is

( ) ( )
1
1 1
c h
t
Q Q e e t
e e

| | | |
= = =
| |
\ . \ .

1
The Laws of Thermodynamics 449
In time t, the mass of cooling water used is
( )
6
1.0 10 kg s m t = , and its rise in
temperature is


( )
( )
( )( )
6
6
6
1
1
1.0 10 kg s
1000 10 J s
1
1
0.33 1.0 10 kg s 4 186 J kg C
c
Q t
T
mc e t c

| |
= =
|
\ .

| |
=
|
\ .

or 0.49 C T =
12.34 The actual efficiency of the engine is


( )
2
1
eng
2 actual train actual
actual
h h
W
m v
e
Q Q
= =
(


while the theoretically possible efficiency (the Carnot efficiency) is


)
2
1
eng
2 theoretical train theoretical
c
h h
W
m v
e
Q Q
= =

The energy input from the high temperature reservoir is the same in the two cases since
it is specified that the same amount of fuel is consumed in both cases. Thus, we find

( )
( )
2
eng
eng
c theoretical theoretical
actual actual
actual
W
e v
e v
W
| |
= =
|
\ .
or ( )
2 2
6.50 m s
0.200 0.338
5.00 m s
theoretical
c actual
actual
v
e e
v
| | | |
= =
| |
\ . \ .
=

But, we also know that 1
c
c
h
T
e
T
= , giving
300 K
453 K
1 1 0.338
c
h
c
T
T
e
= = =


12.35 The energy transferred from the water by heat, and absorbed by the freezer, is

( ) ( ) ( )
3 3 3 3 5
J
10 kg m 1.0 10 m 3.33 10 3.3 10 J
kg
f f
Q mL V L

| |
(
= = = =
|
\ .
5


Thus, the change in entropy of the water is
450 CHAPTER 12
(a)
( )
5
3
3.3 10 J J
1.2 10 1.2 kJ K
273 K K
r
water
water
Q
S
T

= = = =

and that of the freezer is
(b)
( )
5
3.3 10 J
1.2 kJ K
273 K
r
freezer
freezer
Q
S
T

+
= = + =
12.36 The energy added to the water by heat is


( ) ( )
6 6
1.00 kg 2.26 10 J kg 2.26 10 J
r v
Q mL = = =

so the change in entropy is


6
3
2.26 10 J J
6.06 10 6.06 kJ K
373 K K
r
Q
S
T

= = = =
12.37 The potential energy lost by the log is transferred away by heat, so


( ) ( ) ( )
2 4
70 kg 9.80 m s 25 m 1.7 10 J Q mgh = = =

and the change in entropy is
4
1.7 10 J
57 J K
300 K
r
Q
S
T

= = =
12.38 The total momentum before collision is zero, so the combined mass must be at rest after
the collision. The energy dissipated by heat equals the total initial kinetic energy, of

( )( )
2
2 5
1
2 2 000 kg 20 m s 8.0 10 J 800 kJ
2
Q mv
| |
= = = =
|
\ .


The change in entropy is then
800 kJ
2.7 kJ K
296 K
r
Q
S
T

= = =
The Laws of Thermodynamics 451
12.39 A quantity of energy, of magnitude Q, is transferred from the Sun and added to Earth.
Thus,
Sun
Sun
Q
S
T

= and
Earth
Earth
Q
S
T
+
= , so the total change in entropy is


( )
1 1
1000 J 3.27 J K
290 K 5 700 K
total Earth Sun
Earth Sun
Q Q
S S S
T T
= + =
| |
= =
|
\ .

12.40 (a)

End Result

Possible Draws
Total Number
of Same Result
All R RRR 1
1G, 2R RRG, RGR, GRR 3
2G, 1R GGR, GRG, RGG 3
All G GGG 1

(b)

End Result

Possible Draws
Total Number
of Same Result
All R RRRRR 1
1G, 4R RRRRG, RRRGR, RRGRR, RGRRR, GRRRR 5
2G, 3R RRRGG, RRGRG, RGRRG, GRRRG, RRGGR,
RGRGR, GRRGR, RGGRR, GRGRR, GGRRR
10
3G, 2R GGGRR, GGRGR, GRGGR, RGGGR, GGRRG,
GRGRG, RGGRG, GRRGG, RGRGG, RRGGG
10
4G, 1R GGGGR, GGGRG, GGRGG, GRGGG, RGGGG 5
All G GGGGG 1

452 CHAPTER 12
12.41 (a) The table is shown below. On the basis of the table, the most probable result of a
toss is 2 H and 2 T .

End Result

Possible Tosses
Total Number
of Same Result
All H HHHH 1
1T, 3H HHHT, HHTH, HTHH, THHH 4
2T, 2H HHTT, HTHT, THHT, HTTH, THTH, TTHH 6
3T, 1H TTTH, TTHT, THTT, HTTT 4
All T TTTT 1
(b) The most ordered state is the least likely. This is seen to be all H or all T .
(c) The least ordered state is the most likely. This is seen to be 2H and 2T .
12.42 (a) There is only one ace of spades out of 52 cards, so the probability is
1
52

(b) There are four aces out of 52 cards, so the probability is
4 1
52 13
=
(c) There are 13 spades out of 52 cards, so the probability is
13 1
52 4
=
12.43 The maximum efficiency is that of a Carnot engine and is given by


100 K
1 1 0.
200 K
c
c
h
T
e
T
= = = 50 , or
max
50% e = . The claim is invalid
The Laws of Thermodynamics 453
12.44 Operating between reservoirs having temperatures of 100 C 373 K
h
T = = and
, the theoretical efficiency of a Carnot engine is


20 C 293 K
c
T = =
293 K
1 0.21
373 K
= = 1
c
c
h
T
e
T
=

If the temperature of the hotter reservoir is changed to 550 C 823 K
h
T = = , the
theoretical efficiency of the Carnot engine increases to


293 K
1 0.64
823 K
= = 1
c
c
h
T
e
T
=

The factor by which the efficiency has increased is


0.64
3.0
0.21
c
c
e
e

= =
12.45 (a) The entropy change of the hot reservoir, with an energy output of magnitude
h
Q ,
is


h
r
h
h h
Q
Q
S
T T

= =
(b) For the cold reservoir, with an energy input of magnitude
c
Q , the change in
entropy is


c
r
c
c c
Q
Q
S
T T
+

= =
(c) The engine has an energy input of magnitude
h
Q from a reservoir at temperature
and an energy output of magnitude
h
T
c
Q to a reservoir at temperature T . The
net change in entropy for the engine is


c
eng
h c
r
h c
Q Q
Q
S
T T T

| |
= =
|
\ .

(d) For the isolated system consisting of the engine and the two reservoirs, the change
in entropy is


eng
0
h h c c
isolated h c
system
h h c c
Q Q Q Q
S S S S
T T T T
| |
= + + = + + =
|
\ .

454 CHAPTER 12
12.46 In this case, 8 000 J
h c
Q Q = = . The change in entropy of the hot reservoir is
8 000 J
16.0 J K
500 K
h
h
h
Q
S
T

= = =

For the cold reservoir,
8 000 J
26.7 J K
300 K
c
c
c
Q
S
T
+
= = =

The net entropy change for this irreversible process is

( ) 16.0+26.7 J K 10.7 J K 0
universe h c
S S S = + = = >
12.47 The energy output to the river each minute has magnitude

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
8 1
J
1 1 1 0.30 25 10 60 s 1.05 10 J
s
h
c h
Q
Q e Q e t
t
| |
| |
= = = =
|
|
\ .
\ .
6
9.0 10 kg
1


so the rise in temperature of the of cooling water used in one minute is


( )( )
11
6
1.05 10 J
= 2.8 C
9.0 10 kg 4 186 J kg C
c
Q
T
mc

= =


12.48 The energy exhausted from a heat engine is


eng
eng eng eng
1
1
c h
W
Q Q W W W
e e
| |
= = =
|
\ .
h


where Q is the energy input from the high temperature reservoir,
eng
W is the useful
work done, and
eng h
e W Q = is the efficiency of the engine.

For a Carnot engine, the efficiency is ( ) 1
c c h h c
e T T T T = =
h
T

so we now have
eng eng
1
h c
h c h c
T T
W
T T T T
| | |
= =
|
\ . \
c
Q W
|
|
.

The Laws of Thermodynamics 455
Thus, if T , the energy exhausted when the engine
has done of work is


100 C 373 K and 20 C=293 K
h c
T = = =
4
5.0 10 J
( )
4 5
10 J
293 K
5.0 10 J 1.83
373 K 293 K
c
Q
| |
= =
|
\ .

The mass of ice (at 0C) this exhaust energy could melt is


5
5
, water
1.83 10 J
0.55 kg
3.33 10 J kg
c
f
Q
m
L

= = =

12.49 The work output from the engine in an interval of one second is W . Since
the efficiency of an engine may be expressed as


eng
1 500 kJ =
eng eng
eng h c
W W
e
Q W Q
= =
+


the exhaust energy each second is
( )
3
eng
1 1 500 kJ 10 k
c
Q W
e
| |
= =
|
\ .
1 1
1 4.5
0.25
| |
=
|
\ .
J
The mass of water flowing through the cooling coils each second is


( ) ( ) ( )
3 3 3 3
10 kg m 60 L 10 m 1 L 60 kg m V

= = =

so the rise in the temperature of the water is


( ) ( )
6
4.5 10 J
18 C
60 kg 4 186 J kg C
c
water
Q
T
mc

= = =

12.50 (a) From the first law, ( )
1 3 123 123
418 J 167 J 251 J U Q W

= + = + + =
(b) The difference in internal energy between states 1 and 3 is independent of the path
used to get from state 1 to state 3.

Thus, ,

and
1 3 143 143
251 J U Q W

= + =
( )
143 143
251 J 251 J Q W = = 63.0 J 314 J =
456 CHAPTER 12
(c) ( ) ( )
12341 123 341 123 143
167 J 63.0 J 104 J W W W = + = + = = W W

or 104 J of work is done the gas by in the cyclic process 12341.
(d) ( ) ( )
14321 143 321 143 123
63.0 J 167 J 104 J W W W = + = + = = + W W

or 104 J of work is done the gas on in the cyclic process 14321.
(e) The change in internal energy is zero for both parts (c) and (d) since both are
cyclic processes.
12.51 (a) The work done by the system in process AB equals the area under this curve on the
PV diagram. Thus,


( ) ( )
by system
triangular area rectangular area W = + , or

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
by
system
3 3
5
4
1
4.00 atm 40.0 L
2
Pa 10 m
1.00 atm 40.0 L 1.013 10
atm L
1.22 10 J 12.2 kJ
W

| |
| |
+ (
|
|
\ .
\ .
= =
by
system
12.2 kJ
AB


Note that the work done on the system is W W = = for this process.
(b) The work done on the system (that is, the work input) for process BC is the negative
of the area under the curve on the PV diagram, or

( ) ( )
3 3
5
Pa 10 m
1.00 atm 10.0 L 50.0 L 1.013 10
atm 1 L
4.05 kJ
BC
W

| |
| |
= (
|
|
\ .
\ .
=

(c) The change in internal energy is zero for any full cycle, so the first law gives

( )
( )
0
0 12.2 kJ 4.05 kJ 0 8.15 kJ
cycle cycle cycle AB BC CA
Q U W W W W = = + +
= + + =

The Laws of Thermodynamics 457
12.52 The efficiency of the plant is
300 K
1 1 0.4
500 K
c
c
h
T
e e
T
= = = = 00

Also, 1
c
h
Q
e
Q
= , so
1 0.600
c c
h
Q Q
Q
e
= =

From
eng 0.400
0.600
h c
W e Q Q
t t
| |
= = =
|
\ .

t
,

the rate of energy transfer to the river by heat is

( )
9
1.50 1.50 1000 MW 1.50 10 J s
c
Q t = = =

The flow rate in the river is then


( )
( ) ( )( )
9
4
1.50 10 J s
5.97 10 kg s
4 186 J kg C 6.00 C
c
water
river
Q t
m
t c T

= = =


12.53 (a) The change in length, due to linear expansion, of the rod is

( ) ( ) ( )( )
1
6 4
0
11 10 C 2.0 m 40 C 20 C 4.4 10 m L L T


(
= = =



The load exerts a force
( )( )
2 4
6 000 kg 9.80 m s 5.88 10 N F mg = = =
(
on the end of
the rod in the direction of movement of that end. Thus, the work done on the rod is


) ( )
4 4
5.88 10 N 4.4 10 m 26 J W F L

= = =
(b) The energy added by heat is

( ) ( ) ( )
5
J
100 kg 448 20 C 9.0 10 J
kg C
Q mc T
| |
= = =
|
\ .

(c) From the first law,
5 5
9.0 10 J+26 J 9.0 10 J U Q W = + = =
12.54 (a) The work done by the gas during each full cycle equals the area enclosed by the
cycle on the PV diagram. Thus

( )( )
by gas 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 3 4 W P P V V P = = V
458 CHAPTER 12
(b) Since the work done on the gas is
by gas 0 0
4PV W W = = and 0 U = for any cyclic
process, the first law gives

( )
0 0
0 4 Q U W PV = = =
0 0
4PV
(c) From the ideal gas law, PV
0 0 0
nRT = , so the work done by the gas each cycle is

( ) ( )
by gas 0
3
J
4 4 1 1 273 K
mol K
9.07 10 J
W nRT
| |
= =
|
\ .
=
.00 mol 8.3
9.07 kJ =

12.55 (a) The energy transferred to the gas by heat is

( ) ( ) ( )
3
J
1.00 mol 20.79 120 K
mol K
2.49 10 J 2.49 kJ
Q mc T
| |
= =
|
\ .

= =

(b) Treating the neon as an ideal gas, the result of Problem 1 gives the change in
internal energy as


( ) ( )
(
3 3 3
2 2 2
f f i i f i
U P V PV nRT nRT nR T = = = ) , or

( ) ( )
3
3 J
1.00 mol 8.31 120 K 1.50 10 J 1.50 kJ
2 mol K
U
| |
= = =
|
\ .

(c) From the first law, the work done on the gas is


3 3
1.50 10 J 2.49 10 J 990 J W U Q = = =
The Laws of Thermodynamics 459
12.56 (a) The change in volume of the aluminum is

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0
3 V V T m T = =
( )
, or


( )
1
6 7 3
3 3
1.0 kg
3 24 10 C 18 C 4.8 10 m
2.70 10 kg m
V


| |
(
= =
|
\ .
( ) (


so the work done on the aluminum is


) ( )
5 7 3 2
1.013 10 Pa 4.8 10 m 4.9 10 J W P V

= = =
(b) The energy added by heat is

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
4
1.0 kg 900 J kg C 18 C 1.6 10 J 16 kJ Q mc T = = = =
(c) The first law gives the change in internal energy as


4 2 4
1.6 10 J 4.9 10 J=1.6 10 J 16 kJ U Q W

= + = =
12.57 (a) The energy input by heat from the molten aluminum is


( ) ( )
3 5
Al
1.00 10 kg 3.97 10 J kg 397 J
h f
Q m L

= = =

and the energy output to the frozen mercury is


( ) ( )
3 4
Hg
15.0 10 kg 1.18 10 J kg 177 J
c f
Q m L

= = =

The efficiency of the heat engine is given by


eng 177 J
1 1 0.554 or 55
397 J
h c c
h h h
W Q Q Q
e
Q Q Q

= = = = = .4%
(b) T = and T 660 C 933 K
h
= 38.9 C 234 K
c
= = . The Carnot efficiency for a heat
engine operating between these two reservoirs is


23
1 1
c
c
h
T
e
T
= =
4 K
933 K
0.749 or 74.9% =
460 CHAPTER 12
12.58 (a) From the result of Problem 1,

( ) ( )( )
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 3 15 15
3 2
2 2 2
A C C C A A
U P V P V P V PV PV n

( = = = =

(
2
RT

The work done on the gas in process ABC equals the negative of the area under the
process curve on the PV diagram, or

)( )
0 0 0 0 0 0
3 2 3 3
ABC
W P V V PV nRT ( = = =

1 2 ABC
Q Q Q


The total energy input by heat, = + , is found from the first law as

( )
0 0 0
15 21
3
2 2
ABC A C ABC
Q U W nRT nRT nRT

= = =
(b) For process CDA, the work done on the gas is the negative of the area under curve
CDA, or ( )( )
0 0 0 0 0
2
CDA
W P V V PV n ( = = + = +

0
RT . The change in internal energy is
0
15
2
A C
U U nRT

=
C A
= . Thus, the energy input by heat for this process is


0 0
15 17
2 2
C A CDA
U W nRT nRT

= = =
0 CDA
Q nRT

The total energy output by heat for the cycle is


3 4 0 0
17 17
2 2
CDA
Q nRT nRT
| |
+ = = =
|
\ .
Q Q
(c) The efficiency of a heat engine using this cycle is


( )
( )
0
0
17 2
17
1 1 1 0.190 or 19.0%
21 21 2
output
input
Q
nRT
e
nRT
Q
= = = =
(d)
( )
( ) ( )( )
0 0
0 0
5
1 1 1 0.833 or 83.3%
3 2 6
A A
A
C C C
P V nR
PV T
T P V P V nR
= = = =
c
e =
12.59 The mass of coal consumed in time t is given by
h coal
M Q Q = where
h
Q

is the
required energy input and Q is the heat of combustion of coal. Thus, if is the
power output and e is the efficiency of the plant,


coal
( )
eng
h
coal coal coal
W e
Q
t
M
Q Q e Q

= =

=
The Laws of Thermodynamics 461
(a) The coal used each day is


( )( )
( )
6
3
3
6 3
150 10 J s 86400 s d
10 g cal 4.186 J
0.15 7.8 10
g 1 kg 1 cal
2.6 10 kg d 2.6 10 metric ton d
coal
t
M
e Q

= =
( | || |
| |

( | | |
\ .
( \ .\ .

= =

(b) The annual fuel cost is:
( ) ( ) cost coal used yearly rate = , or


( )
( ) ( )
( )
6 7
3
3
ton
J s 3.156 10 s yr
1 t
10
10 g cal 4.186 J
0
g 1 kg 1 cal

(
| | | |
| |
( |
| |
\ .
\ . \ .
(

6
3
$8.0
150 10
on $8.0
$7.7 10 yr
kg ton
0.15 7.8 1
coal
t
cost
e Q
| |
=
|
\ .
| |
| |
= =
|
|
\ .
\ .

(c) The rate of energy transfer to the river by heat is


( )
eng eng
eng 1
1
h c
W e W
Q W Q
t t t e

| |
= = =
|
\ .


Thus, the flow required is


( ) ( )
( )( )
6
4
1
1
150 10 J s 1
1 4.1 10 kg
4186 J kg C 5.0 C 0.15
c
water water
Q t
m
t c T c T e
| |
= =
|
\ .

| |
= =
|
\ .

s

12.60 (a) The energy transfer by heat required to raise the temperature of the water to the
boiling point is

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
3
1.00 10 kg 4 186 J kg C 100C 20.0C 335 J Q mc T

= = =

We neglect the very small volume expansion (and associated work done) by the
water while in the liquid state. The first law of thermodynamics then gives the
change in internal energy as

335 J 0 335 J U Q W = + = + =
462 CHAPTER 12
(b) To completely evaporate the water, the required energy input by heat is


( ) ( )
3 6
1.00 10 kg 2.26 10 J kg 2.26 10 J
v
Q mL

= = =
( ) ( ) (
3


The work done on the water in this process is


)
3
5 3 3
6 3
1 m
1.013 10 Pa 1671 cm 1.00 cm 169 J
10 cm
f i
W P V V
| |
= = =
|
\ .


so the change in internal energy is


3 3
2.26 10 J 169 J 2.09 10 J U Q W = + = =
12.61. (a) The work done on the gas during this isobaric expansion process is

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
8 000 Pa 0.10 m 4.0 10 m 32 J W P V P A x

(
= = = + = (




The first law of thermodynamics then gives the change in the internal energy of the
system as

42 J 32 J 10 J U Q W = + = =
(b) If the piston is clamped in a fixed position, then 0 V = and

the work done on the gas is zero
U Q


In this case, the first law gives 42 W J 0 = + = + = 42 J
12.62. (a) The energy transferred from the water by heat as it cools is

( )
( ) ( )
3 3
3
6
g 10 cm cal 4.186 J
1.0 1.0 L 1.0 570 C 4.0 C
cm 1 L g C 1 cal
or 2.4 10 J
h
h
Q mc T V c T
Q
= =
( | | | |
| | | |
=
( | |
| |
\ . \ .
\ . \ .

=


The Laws of Thermodynamics 463
(b) The maximum efficiency of a heat engine is the Carnot efficiency. Thus,


( )
( )
4.0 273 K 277 K
1 1 1 0.
570+273 K 843 K
c
c
h
T
e
T
+
= = = =
(
67

The maximum useful work output is then


)
( ) ( )
6 6
eng
max
0.67 2.4 10 J 1.6 10 J
c h
W e Q = = =
(c) The energy available from oxidation of the hydrogen sulfide in 1.0 L of this water is

( ) ( )
3 3
mol J
310 kJ mol 0.90 10 1.0 L 310 10 2.8 10 J
L mol
U n

(
| | | |
= = =
| |
(
\ . \ .

2

12.63. The work that you have done is

( ) ( ) ( )
2
eng
step 4.448N in 2.54 10 m
150 lb 90.0 30.0 min 8.00
1 lb min step 1 in
W mg h

(
| | | | ( | | | |
= =
( | |
( | |
\ . \ .
\ . \ .
(

5
eng
3.66 10 J W =


or

If the energy input by heat was ( )
6
4 186 J
600 kcal 2.51 10 J
1 kcal
h
Q
| |
= =
|
\ .
, your efficiency
has been


5
6
3.66 10 J
0.146 or 14.6%
2.51 10 J
eng
h
W
e
Q

= = =

0.180 or 18.0% e


If the actual efficiency was = , the actual energy input was


( )
5
6
3.66 10 J 1 kcal
2.03 10 J 486 kcal
0.180 4 186 J
eng
h
actual
actual
W
Q
e
| |

= = = =
|
\ .


464 CHAPTER 12