: )(Linear Algebra

)(Vector Spaces

Leibintz
Maclaurin
.
Cramer

.
n Vandermonde Laplace
.Gauss

n .Cayley
Peano .1888

.1 )(Vector Spaces

K E .

K E E . (.x) .x ) ( E ,+,.
K :
1

 ( E ,+) -1 .
( , ) K 2 , ( x, y ) E 2 -2( + ).x = .x + . y -(a) :

).( x + y ) = .x + . y -(b
-3

)( ).x = .( .x) -(c

x E ; 1K .x = x

E ) (Vectors k ) (Scalars
.
0E ) (+ .

-1 ) ( K ,+, )(.

: K x K .x = x

-2

= K

= . E :

) ; x = (x 1 , x 2 ), y = ( y 1 , y 2

x , yx + y = (x 1 + x 2 , y 1 + y 2 ) :

:
) ; .x = ( x 1 , x 2
), +,.

) x = (x 1 , x 2

) , x = (x 1 , x 2

) (0,0

) . ( x1 , x 2
x , y x y
x + y ) (0,0 x

x ) . (x1 , x 2


. . K )(E , +, ,.
: Algebra K

:
-1 ) (E , +,. . K
-2 ) ( E ,+,.
a K , ( x, y ) E 2 ; (a.x) y = a.( x y ) -3

)(1

) ( E ,+,. K . ( x, y ) E 2 , ( , ) K 2
:
( ).x = .x .x -1 .( x y ) = .x . y
0k .x = 0E -2 .0E = 0E
( ).x = (.x) = .( x) -3

.x = 0E ( = 0K ) (x = 0E ) -4

 -1
( ).x + .x = ( + ).x
= ( + 0K ).x = .x

. .x :
( ).x + .x = .x = .x x = 0E
( ).x + .x .x = 0E
( ).x + .x .x + .x = 0E + .x
( ).x + .x = .x
( ).x + .x .x = .x .x
( ).x + 0E = x .x
( ).x = .x .x

.( x y ) = .x . y
-2 .0K .x = ( ).x = .x .x = 0E :

.0E = 0E

-3 .
.x = 0E .x = 0K .x = 0K -4
.x = .0E x = 0E

) :(2 Product Spaces

E1 , E 2 ,, E n . K
K
E = E1 E n ) (+ ) (. :
K , (x 1 , , x n ), ( y 1 , , y n ) E ; ( x 1 , , x ) + ( y , , y ) = (x + y , , x + y ),

) .( x1 , , x n ) = (.x1 , , .x n

) ( E ,+,.

) . (0E , 0E , , 0E
n

 -1 ) ( E ,+ .
( , ) K 2 , (x , y ) E 2 -2 ) x = ( x1 ,, x n ) y = ( y1 , y 2 ,, y n:
) ( + ).x = ( ( + ).x 1 , , ( + ).x n
) = ( .x 1 + .x 1 , , .x n + .x n
= .x + .x

.( x + y ) = .x + . y ) ( ).x = .( .x:
) 1K .x = 1K .(x 1 , , x n ) = (1K .x 1 , ,1K .x n ) = (x 1 , , x n
1K .x = x ; x E = E 1 E 2 E n

) :(3
A E K ) F (A , E

A . E
) F (A , E :
f , g F (A , E ); f + g : A A
) : x f (x ) + g (x

:
f F (A , E ), K ; f : A E
) : x .f (x

) ( F (A , E ), +,. . K

:
.x .
x

 .2 )(Vector Subspaces
)(Linear Combinations
) ( E ,+,. . K E
) S = ( x1 , , x n . E E
+ , n x n

xi = x

1 1

i =1

S . (1 , 2 ,, n ) K n

) ( E ,+,. K F E . E
F E :
. 0 E F -1
( x, y ) F 2 , ( , ) K 2 ; x + y F -2

) F (.

)(Sub-algebra

) (E , +, , K F E . E F

E :
. 0E F ,1E F -1
( x, y ) F 2 , ( , ) K 2 ; x + y F -2
(x , y ) F 2 ; x y F -3

-1 ) ( E ,+,. K E } {OE
E .
] K [x x
-2 K
. K ] K [x
K } K n [x ] = {P (x ) K [x ]; deg P n

]. K [x

 )(1

) ( E ,+,. .

)(4

(Fi )i I ) ( E ,+,. K

F = Fi . E
i I

:
i I y 0E Fi Fi E . 0E Fi = F
i I

y Fi ; i I E:
& ( , ) K 2 ; x + y Fi ; i I

(x , y ) Fi 2

x + y Fi = F F = Fi
i I

i I

). ( E ,+,.

)(5

) ( E ,+,. . K ) S = ( x1 ,, x n . E
S . E

.3 )(Basic of Vector Space

S E E
S:
S x E ; (1 , , n ) k n ; x = 1x 1 + + n x n

) . E = vect (S
7

 :
-1 E . x E
-2 = 1 = , , n
-3 1 x1 + + n x n E

x1 = (1,1), x 2 = (2,3) et x3 = (2,2) :

) v = (v 1 ,v 2 :

) 1x 1 + 2 x 2 + 3 x 3 ; (1 , 2 , 3

) S = ( x1 , x 2 , x3 .
1 + 22 + 33 = v 1
1 + 32 + 23 = v 2

. S .

)(Linearly independent system

) S = ( x1 ,, x n . E S ) (
:
= n = 0K

= + n x n = 0E 1 = 2

(1 , 2 , , n ) K n ; 1x 1 +

S ). (Linearly dependent

) :(6
) S = ( x1 ,, x n . E:
8

 -a 0E S .
-b S .
-c
: S
n

i N n ; (1 , , i 1 , i +1 , , n ) K n 1 ; x i = j x j ,
j =1

j i

) S = ( x1 , x 2 , x3 ) x1 = (1,0,2), x 2 = x3 = (1,1,1
1 = 0 2 = 3 = 1 . 1 x1 + 2 x 2 + 3 x3 = 0

)(Basis
) S = ( x1 ,, x n E
:

-1 .
-2 .

)(2

S E E
. S

:
x ) S = ( x1 ,, x n :

+ (n n )x n
= n n = 0K

+ n x n

x = 1x 1 +

+ n x n

x = 1x 1 +

0E = x x = (1 1 )x 1 + ) (1 :

= 1 1 . n = n , , 1 = 1


) S = (e1 , e2 , , en )e1 = (1, 0, 0), e 2 = (0,1, , 0), , e n = (0, 0, , 0,1

) S = (e1 , e 2 , e 3 ) e1 = (1,0,1), e2 = (1,1,1 ) e3 = (0,1,1

:
; 1e1 + 2e 2 + 3e 3 = 0 3 :

) (1 , 2 , 3

) (1 + 2 + 3 ,2 + 3 , 2 + 3 ) = (0,0,0 :
1 + 2 + 3 = 0
2 + 3 = 0
2 + 3 = 0
1 = 2 = 3 = 0
5

) x = (x 1 , x 2 , x 3 S x S

) (1 , 2 , 3 . x = 1e1 + 2e 2 + 3e 3 :
) (x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) = (1 + 2 + 3 , 2 + 3 , 2 + 3

)1 + 2 + 3 = x 1 (1

)( 2
)( 3

2 + 3 = x 2

2 + 3 = x 3

1 = x1 x3 ) (3 ) (1 ) (2 ) (3
x3 + x 2
x x
2 = 3 2 ) (2 ) (3
2
2

= . 1

10


E ) e = (e1 ,, en x = (x 1 , , x n ) E
+ n x n ; (1 , , n ) K n

x = 1x 1 +

) (1 ,, n x . x

.4 )(Dimension of vector space

E
.

)(8

) S ( x1 ,, x n . E ) S1 = ( x1 ,, x n
S S1 . E
:
S1 . xi S . i > r S1

S xi 1 , 2 , , r ,

+ r x r + xi = 0

1 x1 + 2 x 2 +

0 S1 .:
1r x r

x i = 11x 1 12 x 2

xi i > r . S x
. E S + n x n

x = 1 x1 + 2 x 2 +

x r +1 ,, x n S1 (i > r ) xi
x S1 S1 E
S1 . E

11

 )(9

) ( E ,+,. K ) S = (e1 ,, en
. E :
-1 S . E
S -2 . E
S -3 .
:
3 1 E )( . S
en +1 E ) (e1 , e2 ,, en +1 S
E+ n en :

en +1 = 1e1 +

) (1 ,, n . ) (e1 ,, en +1.
: 2 3 S . x E ) (e1 ,, en , x
(1 , 2 , , n , n +1 ) K n +1
+ n en + n +1 x = 0

. 1e1 + 0 n +1 n +1 = 0 S

n +1 x S
.

: 1 2 S ei S i = 1,, n

} S1 = S \ {ei S1
S .

)(3

) S = (e1 ,, en E K
) S = (e1, , e m m > n .

12

 )(10

) ( E ,+,. . K ) S = (e1 ,, en E
n n )(.
:
) (8 ).(3

) ( E ,+,. . K E
.
E
S E ) n = card (S
. dim E = n

= E

= K n

) S = (e1 , e2 ,, en ) e1 = (1,0,,0),, en = (0,0,,1

y E = K n K n K n
) . (1K , 0K , , 0K ), (0K ,1K , , 0K ), , (0K , 0K , ,1K

= dim E .
.

)(11

E n . n . E
:
9 ) (3 n

13

 )(4

) ( E ,+,. n F E:
F -1 dim F dim E

( E = F ) dim F = dim E -2
)(5

E n ) L = (e1 ,, e p .

) e = (e1 , e2 ,, e p , e p +1 ,, en . E

) (4 F G E:
. F G and dim F = dim G F = G

.5 ) Direct Sum and additional

(Spaces

E K F1 ,, Fn
. E } + x n ; x1 F1 ,, x n Fn

F1 + + Fn = {x1 +

).(Sum of vector Subspaces

)(12

+ Fn

F1 + E ) Fn

+ Fn = vect ( F1

F1 +

F1 , F2 . E F1 + F2
} F1 F2 = {0E F = F1 F2

14


x F x = x1 + x 2 x1 F1

. x 2 F2

F1 , F2 E = F1 F2

F1 F2 E
x = x1 + x 2 . x1 F1 , x 2 F2

)(13

E E1 , E 2 E E = E1 E 2
) (e1 ,, e p E1 ) ( f1 , , f a E 2 ) S = (e1 , , e p , f 1 ,, f a

. E
:
E = E 1 E 2

) ( x 1 E 1 ) ( x 2 E 2

) (e1 ,, e p E1 + p e p
+ q eq
+ a fa

; x E ; x = x 1 + x 2

x1 = 1e1 +

x 2 = 1e1 + ( 1 , , q ) K q
+ p e p + 1 f 1 +

x = 1e1 + S

. E

)(4
E = E1 E 2 dim E = dim E1 + dim E 2

: .

15

 )(14

F E

G . E = F G
:
) (e1 ,, en F 3 ) (e p +1 ,, en
E e = (e1 , e2 ,, e p , e p +1 ,, en ) : E
) G = vect (e p +1 , , en ) (13 . E = F G

.6
E, F K u : E F .

) ( x, y ) E 2 ; ( , ) K 2 ; u (x + y ) = u ( x) + u ( y

u ) e = (e1 ,, en
u e . u

) C ([0,1],

: . ) C ([0,1],
1
f 0 f (x )dx

] [0,1
.
:
) C ([0,1],
.

) ( .

) f , g C ([0,1], ) and ( , :

16

( f + g ) = ( f + g )(x )dx
0

= f (x )dx + g (x )dx
0

) = (f ) + ( g

)(15

u : E F V E W F

:
u 1 (W ) -1 . E
u (V ) -2 . F
:
-1 x1 , x 2 ) . u 1 (W ( , ) K 2
u ( x 1 + x 2 ) = u (x 1 ) + u (x 2 ) W ) . x 1 + x 1 u 1 (w
-2 y1 , y 2 ) u (V x1 , x 2 V
) y1 = u ( x1 ), y 2 = u ( x 2 ( , ) K 2:
) y 1 + y 2 = u (x 1 ) + u (x 2 ) = u ( x 1 + x 2 ) u (V

u ) u (V . F

u : E F . :
-1 u )} ker(u ) = {x E ; u (x ) = 0F } = u 1 ({0F
-2 u ) Im(u ) = { y F ; x E , u (x ) = y } = u (E

) ker(u ) Im(u E F ) (.

17


)(16

u : E F :
u -1 } ker(u ) = {0E

u -2 Im(u) = F

.
-3 u
:
u -1
(x , y ) E 2 ;u (x ) = u ( y ); x = y
u ( x y ) = 0F
) x y = 0E Ker (u
) ker(u ) = ( 0E

u -2 )Im(u ) = F y F ; x F ; y = u ( x

u -3 u 1 : F E y1 , y 2 F !( x1 , x 2 ) E 2

) y 2 = u ( x 2 ), y1 = u ( x1 ) . x1 = u 1 ( y1 ), x 2 = u 1 ( y 2 ( , ) K 2:
) ) u 1 ( y 1 + y 2 ) = u 1 ( u (x 1 ) + u (x 2
) ) = u 1 (u ( x 1 + x 2

= x 1 + x 2
) = u 1 ( y 1 ) + u 1 ( y 2

u 1 .

D : E F ; f f

D ). ker(D
:

18

 ( , ) , (f , g ) E 2 D ( f + g ) = ( f + g ) = f + g
.
) D ( f + g ) = D (f ) + D ( g D .
) ker(D
}ker(D ) = {f E ; D (f ) = 0
}= {f E ; f `= 0
} = {f E ; f = c

:
E F ) . L( E , F

)(17

) u L( E , F ) v l ( F , G . uov = E G .
:
.

)(18

E ) e = (e1 ,, en F
) f = ( f1 ,, f n n . F :
-1 ) u L( E , F i N n ; u (ei ) = fi

u -2 f.

u -3 f.
:
-1 x E + n en
+ n f n

+ n en ) = 1 f1 +

x = 1e1 + u : E F
u ( x) = u (1e1 +

x = e i , i

19

+ 0K e n ) = 1K f i = f i ; i = 1, , n

u (e i ) = u ( 0K e1 + u

+ 1K e i +

x . F u
( x, y ) E 2 ; ( , ) K 2
) x + y = (1e1 + + n e n ) + ( 1e1 + + n e n
= (1 + 1 )e1 + + (n + n )e n

u ( x + y ) = (1 + 1 ) f 1 +

+ (n + n ) f n

) = u ( x ) + u ( x

-2 ) (16 } ker(u ) = {0E (1 ,, n ) K n

+ nu (e n ) = 0

+ n f n = 0 1u (e1 ) +

) u ( + n en ) = 0

1f 1 +

u (1e1 +

+ n en = 0

1e1 +

) e = n o K ( E

= 1

f.
f -3 ) (16 Im(u ) = F
)y = u ( x

;y F ; x E

) + n en

) u (

) + n u (e n
+ n f n

Im(F ) = F

y = u (1e1 +

y = 1u (e1 ) +

y = 1 f1 +

f.

.
.

20

 .7

) S = ( x1 ,, xn E . K
S S
) ) . rg (S ) = dim (vect (S

F, E ) u L( E , F
u ) Im(u ) ) . rg (u ) = dim ( Im(u

)(19

E ) e = (e1 ,, en ) u L( E , F
) ) . rg (u ) = rg (u (e1 ), ,u (e n
:
) ) rg (u ) = dim ( Im(u
) + nu (e n

) y Im(u ); x E ; y = u (x
y = u (1e1 + + n e n ) = 1u (e1 ) +

) Im(u ) u (e
) ) . rg (u ) = dim (vect (u (e ) ) ) = rg (u (e

)(20

E K ) u L( E , F F
K ) ) . dim ( E ) = dim ( ker(u ) ) + dim ( Im(u

21

}) {(0,0

F } . F = { (x 0 , y 0 );
:
}) {(0, 0
2

) ; ( ,

. F

) (x , y
) x + y = (x 1 , x 2 ) + ( y 1 , y 2
) = ( x 1 + y 1 , x 2 + y 2

F .

) E = F ( ,

E .

: E
. F1 = C n ( ) -1

F2 = {f E ; f (1) = 2f (0)} -2
F3 = {f E ; f (0) = f (1) + 1} -3
F4 = {f E ; x ; f (x ) = f (1 x )} -4

F5 = f E ; f C 1 , f (x ) = a (x )f (x ) -5

) a(x . E
:
F1 -1 E

) f , g C n ( ), ( ,

) ( f + g C n g , f n
.

22

 ( , )

, ( f , g ) F22 -2

( f + g )(1) = f (1) + g (1)

= 2 f (0) + 2 g (0)
= 2( f + g )(0)

. E F2 f + g F2
-3

(f , g ) F32 ;

( f

+ g ) (0) = f (0) + g (0)

= ( f (1) + 1) + ( g (1) + 1)
= ( f + g ) (1) + + F3 .

. F3

-4

(f , g ) F42 ; ( f + g ) = f (x ) + g (x )
= f (1 x ) + g (1 x )
= ( f + g )(1 x ) F4

. F4
C1 , f + g C1 g , f ( f , g ) F52 ; ( f + g ) C1 -5

( f

+ g ) (x ) = f (x ) + g (x )
= a (x ) ( f (x ) + g (x ) )
= a (x ) ( f + g ) (x ) F5

. F5

.vect (vect (A ) ) = vect (A ) vect ( A) vect ( B) A B
:

23

 x vect (A ); x = 1a1 + ... + n an (1 ,..., n ) K n (a1 ,..., an ) A n

(a1 ,..., an ) An B n ) x vect (B ) vect (A ) vect (B

) ) x vect (vect (A (1 ,..., n ) K ) (b1 ,..., bn ) vect (A

x = 1b1 + ... + nbn ) bi vect ( A i = 1,..., n

( i ,..., im ) K n & (ai 1 ,..., aim ) A n bi = i 1ai 1 + ... + im aim

i = 1,..., n ) x = 1 ( 11a11 + ... + 1m a1m ) + ... + n ( n1an1 + ... + nn ann

A ) . x vect (A ) vect (vect (A ) ) vect (A

) A Vect ( A
) ) vect (A ) vect (vect (A ) ) .vect (A ) = vect (vect (A

) (
E . K H E
( x, y ) E 2 ; x H y x y H

E / H . K

QH : E E / H
]x [ x

. .

:
] [ y ] [x E / H ) (+ )(.

[ x ] + [ y ] = {x 1 + y 1; ( x 1 , y 1 ) [ x ] [ y ]} E / H
.[ x ] = { x 1 ; x 1 [ x ]} E / H
) ( E / H ,+,.
. H

Q } [x ] E / H ; [x ] = { y E ; y x H

E / H y E y H x

24

] . [x ] E / H ; y E ; Q H ( y ) = [x

E K F E .
E / F ) . dim( E / F ) = dim( E ) dim( F

:
G E E = F G ) (14
. : G E / F .
QH G } ker( ) = {0E
)]x ker( ) ( x G ) ([ x ] = [ 0
) ( x G ) ( x F
} x G F = {0E
x =0

) x E ; x = x F + x G [ x G ] = [ x ] = (x G
) (4
) dim(E ) = dim(F ) + dim(G
) dim(G ) = dim(E / F ) = dim E ) dim(F

) S = (a1 , a 2 , a3 , a 4

2
5
1
2
3
1
2
7




a 4 = 0 a3 = 3 a 2 = 1 a1 = 1




5
2
5
13
9
7
1
12

:
:
25

a1
2
3

5
9

a2

a3

a4

5 1 2
1 2
7
1 3
0

2 5 13
7 1 12

a3 a2 a1 a4 + 5a3 a1 + 2a3 a4 2a3

1
2

5
1

0
1

0
7

17

15

11

a3 a2 a1 a4 + 5a3 = b 2

3
5

b1

b2

0
3
6

3
10

a1 + 2a3 7b 2

a4 2a3 3b 2

17

114

57

48

24

74

37

b3 b 4

1 0
0 0

2 1
0 0

3 17 57 0
5 9 24 0

1 9 37 0

:
b1 = a3
b2 = a 2 a1 a 4 + 5a3

26

b3 = 3a1 + 3a 2 17a3 + 4a 4
b4 = 2a1 a 2 + a3 a 4

rg ( S ) = 3 a 4 , a3 , a 2 , a1 :
b4 = 2a 4 a 2 + a3 a 4 = 0

W1

;x + y z = 0

) {( x , y , z

= W1

:
W1

x = y + z

} ) {( y + z , y , z ) , ( y , z
2

= W1

) W 1 = y ( 1,1, 0 ) + z (1, 0,1) ; ( y , z

}) e = {( 1,1, 0 ) , (1, 0,1 ) W1 (.

e e }) e = {e 3 = ( 0, 2,1
}) e = e e = {( 1,1, 0 ) , (1, 0,1) , ( 0, 2,1
=W 1 W 3

)e3 = (0,0,1
.

}) e = {( 1,1, 0 ) , (1, 0,1) , ( 0, 0,1

)})({( 0, 0,1

. )W 2 = vect (e

U = vect =W 1 U

U W

; z = 3x + 17 y

) U = {( x , y , z

:
; z =x y

) W = {( x , y , z

U W
:

27

x +y

; 3
x 17 y

) (x , z

) {( x ,=y , z

L = U W

1
= x , x , z
9

U W

:
=

1
x.
9

y +

)0 (1

3x + 17 y z

)0 = ( 2

x y z

2x

) (1) (2

18=y

28