CIP-DATA KONINKLUKE BIBLIOTHEEK, DEN HAAG Giani, Gian Paolo Rock slope stability analysis / Gian Paolo Giani: (transl. from align]. ~ Rotlerdam fete. Balkema.~ Ml, Transl, of: Analisi di stabilita dei pedi, ~ Part: Chassifiewzione dei fenoment di stabil pendii naturafi ¢ fronti di scavo in roccia. Torino: Associazione Minecana Sul 1988, with ee ISBN 90 5410 122.9 bound Subject headings: rock slopes: alysis Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use. or the internal oF personal use of specific clients, is granted by A.A.Balkema, Rotterdam, provided that the hase fee of USS1.00 per copy, plus USSO. 10 per page is paid directly to Copyright Clearance Center. 27 Congress Sirect, Salem, MA 01970, USA. For thoxe organizations that have been photocopy license by CCC. a separate system of payment has been arranged. The fee eau for users of the Transactional Reporting Service is: 90 5410 122 9/92 USS1.00 + USSO.10. Original text Anolisi di siobilité dei pend ~ Parte b: Classifienzione dei fenomeni di instabilita. pendit nannroli e fromtidi scavo in raccia ©1988 Associazione Mineraria Subslpina, Turin Completely revised and updated edition in English: ©1992 A.A. Balkema, PO. Box 1675, 3000 BR Revtterdam, Netherlands ISBN 9054101229 Distributed in USA & Canada by: ‘A.A. Balkema Publishers, Olel Post Road, Brooklicld, VT S134, USA Printed in the NetheslandsContents PREFACE TO REVISED ENGLISH EDITION 1 PROBLEM DEFINITION AND LANDSI.IDE CLASSIFICATION 1 Natural slopes 2 Anificial slopes 1.2.1 Excavation slopes 2 Embankments and dams 1.2.3 Wastes 1.3 Aim of a slope stability analysis 1.4 Classification of slope movements 1.5 Slope movement and analysis types 1.5.1 Falls. 1.5.2 Topples 1.5.3 Slides (5.4 Lateral spreads 15.5 Flows 1.5.6 Complex movements ROCK SLOPE ENGINEERING 2.1 Inteoduction 2.2 Problem definition 23 Stability analysis methods 2.4. Static and dynamic equilibrium equations 2.5 Safety factor and limit equilibrium method 2.6 Effect of water pressure in rack discontinuities 2.7 Principal factors affecting rock slope stability analys xt 29 20 29 39 40 42 44 45VI Rock slope stability analysis 3 GEOMECHANICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF DISCONTINUITIES 3.1 Discontinuity types 3.1.5 Bedding planes 3.1.2 Cleavage planes 3.1.3 Schistosities 3.1.4 Folds 3.1.5. Faulis 3.L.6 Joints 3.2. Rock slope discontinuity classification 3.3. Rock feature description methods. 3.4. Orientation 3.4.1 Angle definition 3.4.2 Spherical projections 3.4.3. Equal-area projection 3.4.4 Discontinuity orientation survey analysis and interpretation 3.4.5. Statistical interpretation of pole contour diagrams 3.5 Spacing 3.5.1, Definitions, measurements and scopes 3.5.2 Precision of the mean spacing and spacing distribution 3.6 Persistence definitions, scones and measurements 3.7 Roughness 3.7.1 Definitions and scope 3.7.2. Measurement and presentation of results 3.8 Wall strength 39 Aperture 3.10 Filling 3.11 Seepage 3.12 Number of sets 3.13 Block size 3.14 Discontinuity description using drill core and drill hole analysis 3.15 Geophysical surveys 4 SHEAR STRENGTH 4.1 Basic concepts 4.1.1 Intact rock strength envelope 4.1.2. Types of sicength criterion 4.1.3 Coulomb shear strength criterion 4.2. Rock discontinuity shear strength 4.2.1 Planar discontinuity surfaces 4.2.2 Inclined discontinuity surfaces 47 47 47 a7 50 50 5 52 53 55 56 56 ST SR 64 oe 73 7 14 78 85. 85 BS 88 1 92 93 94 95 96 97 9 99 99 99 101 103 103 1056 Contents 4.2.2. Multiple inclined discontinuity surfaces 4.2.4 Ladanyi & Archambault criterion 4.2.5 Rough discontinuity surfaces 4.2.6 Barton criterion 4.2.7 Scale clfects 4.2.8 Joint Roughness Coefficient measurements from large scale index tests 4.2.9 Statistical methods for IRC determination and shear behaviour prediction 4.2.10 Fractal characterization of joint surface roughness for estimating shear strength 4.2.11 Geostatistical operators applied to the rock joint shear strength prediction 4.2.12 Influence of the wall discontinuity interlock tevel on the shear resistance 4.2.13 Filled discontinuities 4.2.14 Discontinuity shear behaviour under dynamic conditions: 4.2.15. Concluding remarks on joint shear resistance 4.3 Shear strength of rock mass GROUNDWATER FLOW IN ROCK MASSES S.A Introduction 5.2 Basic concepts 5.3 Flow in discontinuous media 5.4 Flow in porous media 5.5 Rock mass flow models 5.6 Hydraulic conductivity of a single discontinuity, 5.7 Hydraulic conductivity of a discontinuity ser 5.8 Hydraulic characterization of discontinuous rock masses 5.8.1 Practical example of pumping tests in boreholes 5.9 Hydraulic characterization of equivalent contimious masses 5.10 Mathematical models 5.10,t Single fracture models 5.10.2 Joint network mouels GEOMECHANICAL MODEL 6.1 Introduction 6.2. Rock joint system models 6.2.1 Orthogonal mode} 6.2.2. Unbounded random plane model vil 106 108 iW 13 116 129 132 134 138 139 141 141 146 146 146 148 150 151 153 154 156 159 162 163 163 165 167 167 167 167 169Vill Rock slope stabiluy analysis 63 64 6.5 6.2.3 Co-planar polygonal model 6.2.4 Mosaic block tessellation models 6.2.5 Poisson disk model 6.2.6 Other joint modelling approaches 6.2.7 Concluding remarks on the joint system modelling techniques Potential instability phenomena identification Design sectors 6.4.1. Statistical models 6.4.2 Geostatistical models Application example 7 ROCKFALLS, TOPPLES AND BUCKLES, VW 72 73 Rockfall 7.1.1 Analytical formulations of rock fall 7.1.2 Rockfall movement analysis Toppling 7.2.1 Toppling mechanisms 7.2.2. Single block toppling limit equilibrium 7.2.3 A block system loppling analysis Rock buckling 7.3.1 Flexural buckling of plane slabs 7.3.2 Thice hinge bean models for plane slopes 7.3.3. Three hinge buckling of curved slopes 8 SLIDING PHENOMENA ANALYSIS 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 Siiding instability types Simplified methods 8.2.1. Plane sliding 8.2.2 Sliding on a two plane intersection line Stability analysis using vector methods 8.3.1 Equations of lines and planes 8.3.2. Volumes, areas, angles and forces 8.3.3 Warburton procedure for stability analysis of a polyhedral rock block 8.3.4 Block theory Probabilistic methods 8.4.1 Introduction 8.4.2 Stability indexes 8.4.3 Monte Carlo method 8.4.4 Rosenblucth point estimare method 7 174 74 176 176 7 179 (80 180 185 191 I 191 193 208 208 215 218 222 222 224 226 229 229 229 231 242 282 253 256 259 264 281 281 282 283 285Contents 1X 8.4.5 Application example 286 8.4.6 Conditioned probability and Bayes theorem 287 8.4.7 Application example 288 8.4.8 Fuzzy set theory 289 8.4.9 Rock slope stability analysis ap} 290 8.5. Concluding remarks on the graphical methods in rock slope stability analysis, 292 9 DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM EQUATION METHOD 295 9.1 Method of analysis 295 9.2. Distinet Element Method 295 9.2.1 Introduction 295 9.2.2 Theoretical fonnulation of the method 296 9.2.3 Block deformability 297 9.2.4 Discontinuity behaviour model 298 9.2.5 Motion equations 301 9.2.6 Calculation sequence 302 9.2.7 Static analysis 303 9.2.8 Boundary element representation for zones distant from the examined arca 304 9.29 Coupled problems 304 9.2.10 Dynamic analysis 306 9.2.1] Other main DEM applications 306 9.3. Seismic analysis, 307 9.3.1 Pscudo-statie method 307 9.3.2. Overall displacement method 308 10 STABILIZATION AND PROTECTION METHODS 3IS 10.0 Introduction 315 10.2 Excavation and geometrical slope parameter design 315 10.2.1, Rock sliding along discontinuity planes 317 10.2.2. Rock slope toppling and sliding 322 10.2.3 Circular failure in soft or weitk rock 322 10.2.4 Secondary toppling failure 323 10.3 Drainage measures 324 10.4 Support and reinforcement systems 329 10.4.1 Active reinforcements 333 10.4.2 Passive reinforcements 337 10.5. Methods of protection 340 REFERENCES 347Preface to revised English edition This English cdition of the book: Analisi di, stabilita dei pendii ~ Parte 1. Classificazione dei fenomeni di instabilita, péndii naturali ¢ fronti di scavo in roccia vepresents an updated and revised ,version of the first Halian edition published by the Associazione Mineraria Suibalpina of Turin. ‘The book deals with the methods of assessing the stability of rockélapes and the techniques of improving the stability conditions of natural and artificial slopes which arc at risk. a , The book also deals with the-description ofurvey.and measurement methods used (o mode! the mechanicalehaviour of rock masses and theouilinifig.of field observations to calibrate numerical or analytical methods of slope analysis. The main {opiés of the book are: "Slope instability movement classification and description in order to establ- ish a connection between engineering geology and rock and soil slope engineer ing ficlds; = Different modes of slope instability and the correspondent types of slope analysis: _ ~The geometrical and physical featurés of the rock mass and the rock discontinuity; ~ ‘Sheatstrength; Rock mass modelling for flow and mechanical analysis; Rock slope stability analysis in static and dynamic fields, Rock fall modelling: Methods of improving rock slope stability and the protection methods for rockfalls. The first 1988 Italian edition of the book was written especially for the students of the course of ‘Fisica de! suolo ¢ stabilita dei pendii’ of the Technical University of Turin and contained the resulis of scientific researches published in books, magazines and international conference proceedings as far as possible. This new edition of the book has been updated with some real case application examples and with the results of new rescarch and experimental data gathered. ‘abovelall from Malian research laboratories such as those of the “Gvorisorsé ¢ xtXII Rock slope stability analysis Territorio’ Department of the Technical University of Turin and ISMES of Bergamo. 1 would like to thank all my colleagues who helped me in the writing of this book by giving me their opinions and technical papers and the other international authors of the papers quoted in the references from which I gathered scientific material I would also like to thank the past-president Prof. L. Stragiotti and the President Prof. S. Pelizza of the Associazione Mincraria Subalpina who permitted the publication of this English edition Finally | would like to thank the following persons for their important contribu- tions: ~ Dr Margherita Ferrero who assisted me in the discussing and reading of the text; — Nuova Copisterin who did the typing of the manuscript; Mrs Marguerite Jones who helped me in the English translation of the book: Miss Cristiana Catino and Miss Marina Berardi for the drawings; Dr Gabriele Pancotti who reproduced the photographs; My wife who put up with me during this period Gian Paoto Giani Turin, July 191CHAPTER | Problem definition and landslide classification (1 NATURAL SLOPES Natural slopes can be classified by referring to the activily state (Varnes, 1978). Active slopes are those (hat are cither currently moving or not moving al the present but have moved within the last seasonal cycle. Inactive slopes are thse where there is no evidence that movement has taken place within the last seasonal cycle. These slopes may be dormant, when the faiture causes are still present and a movement may occur again, or they may be stabilized when the factors causing the movement have been removed naturally or by human activity. Zaruba & Mencl (1969) and Vames (1978) subdivided slope movements according to age. A slope movement is called ‘recent’ when it has occurred in recent decades ina slope which has not yet been the center of mass movements. A movement for which there is no memory or historical records is called ancient. A fossil movement, finally, is where a slope movement occurred in a previous geological age. ‘The causes which determine sliding movement in a slope depend on pheno- mena which contribute to a shear stress increase and/or to a reduction of shear strength. The principal phenomena which contribute to a shear stress increase involve the toe or the slope surface weakening or the slope surcharging. ‘The toe or the slape surface weakening can be due to: 1. Erosion by streams, rivers, glaciers, waves. tidal currents. sub-acrial weath- cring, wetting and drying and frost action; 2. Subsidence. previous rock fall, toppling, sliding and superiicial scaling: 3. Phenomena connected to human activity such as mining or civil excavations, channel construction or water level variation in the toc zone of reservoirs. Surcharges can also be induced by natural causes or human activity. Natural surcharges are due to rain water or snow weight, or to water percolation in rock discontinuities. Surcharges due (o human work are embankments, mining '2 Rock slope stability analysis and industrial waste disposal, weight of buildings and other structures and water weight in channels and reservoirs. The principal causes which contribute to a shear strength reduction depend on: Soil texture, rock fabric and rock structural defects; physical and chemical reactions; and changes in intergranular forces. 1. Texture plays an important role in sensitive soil behaviour such as clay, shale, loess, loose sand and organic porous material. The rounded shape of the sand particles decreases shear resistance, whilst sharp shapes increase shear res- istance, The principal parameters affecting the rock mass shear resistance are the structural discontinuities, the contrast in stiffness and resistance in non- homogencous masses, the unfavorable orientalion of beddings and joints, the slope orientation and the cementation degree of semi-coherent rocks such as sandstone and conglomerates. 2. Physical and chemical reactions can be due to: a) The softening in fissured clays; b) The physical disintegration of granular rocks such as granites or sandstones under frost action or thermal eycle effects; Plate 1.1. Fissure in over- consolidated clays. By F Lida,Problem definition and landslide classification 3 c) The hydration in clay soils, when a large quantity of water is absorbed by clay fraction thereby decreasing initial shear strength (smectitic clay swelling determines a shear decrease): d) The oversaturation of loess with a consequent destruction of the bonds between the clay particles and large soil particles; c) Cement dissolution phenomena in sandstones and conglomerate: 3. The principal intergranular force varistion phenomena depend on: a) The water content which determines the pore pressure and the water pressure in the rock discontinuities. Meicoric events and human works such as the diversion of streams, biackage of drainages, irrigation and pondin, b) The clearing of vegetation and forests. 4, The soil texture and rock fabric variation can be caused by: a) Fissures of shales and overconsolidated clay (Plate 1.1): ‘b) Weathering and fracturing duc to the release of vertical or horizontal stresses. in valley cuts or walls; c) Remoulding or revelling which can decrease the shear strength of fine Particle material such as loess, loose sands and sensitive clays. 1.2 ARTIFICIAL SLOPES Anificial slopes can be subdivided into three categories: Excavation slopes; dams and embankments; and wastes (Chowdhury, 1978). 1.2.1 Excavation slopes “She excavation design aims at determining the average excavation height and inclination which can keep the slope stable, while taking economical aspects into consideration The period for which an excavation slope has to remain stable varies according tothe: — Mining or civil work type: ~ Foreseen mainicnance works; = Forescen stability control measurements. The principal parameters affecting rock slope excavation stability arc: 1. Rock matrix shear and deformation features; Physical and geometrical features of discontinuities in the siope rock mass; Average height, slope angle and the complete geometry of benche: Discontinuity and rock mass water flow; Drainage works: Reinforcing works (rockbolis, cables, ete.) which can also be considered in the design phase for a suitable slopé stability condition. The principal parameters which must considered in the slope excavation design are: Queen4 Rock slope stability analysis: 1, Shear resistance parameters in drained and undrained conditions (the stabil- ity analysis of an excavation slope in a clay material is usually carried out in effective stress terms with drained parameters); 2. Stress state history; both those induced in the geological formation before excavation and those duc to the excavation; 3. Pore pressure distribution and change in pore pressure during and after the slope excavation; 4. Long (c’, ’) and short (S,) term stability conditions. 1.2.2 Embankments and dams The mechanical properties of the materials used to construct embankments and dams can be known before or “in situ’ determined both from soit and rocktiil composition and from the compaction degree points of view. Careful investiga- tions and “in situ" tests are insicad required in order to characterize the subsoil Embankmients and dams constricted on a cohesive soil require a staged construction by consolidating with controlicd loading rates in order to strengthen the foundation soil (Ladd, 1987). Consolidation may be accelerated by the \stallation of vertical drains. Ficld observations are necessary for important works built on cohesive soil foundations in order to estimate the rate of pore overpressure dissipation Stability analysis must consider staged construction problems according to the CU (consolidated undrained) case which represents the most realistic and critical conditions. The CU case rclers toa full or partial consolidation of soil as far as the applica stresses and undrained failure are concerned. Numerical methods such as the Finite Element Method (FEM) can be used for the coupled deformation-flow problem in order to help the enginecr in the staged construction parameter definition, The principal advantages of FEM use in designs are: = The possibility of simulating the staged construction by varying soil detor- mation modulus with confining siresses and by choosing an appropriate soil stress-strain constitutive law; ~ The possibility of computing and comparing the settlements determined for each dam layer application with experimental results; = The possibility of examining the interacting soil core rockfill behaviour and of computing effective stresses in the soil core for cach dam layer loading: ~ The possibility of assessing overall dam stability conditions for each con- struction stage on the basis of the effective stresses and the pore pressures computed When a dam is working, control grid measurements are periodically or continuously carried out and the stability analysis usually relcrs to the following critical situations:Problem definition and landslide classification $5 Atthe end of the dany construction; I. 2. In ong term conditions with full water load; 3. In rapid water emptying conditions; 4. Inscismic conditions. 1.2.3 Wastes In many European laws waste disposals are classificd according to the toxicity degree and the material types (such as sanitary landfill, industrial muds or mining, and civil work debris). The principal Factors governing the waste disposal slope stability problems are: 1. The site choice which depends on environmental problems, soil mompholo- gy. stratigraphy and mechanical features and hydrogeological conditions of the basin housing the waste disposal; 2. The waste disposal construction method choice which must allow one (o store the required waste volume while maintaining the designed slope stability conditions; 3. The mechanical characteristics of the waste material and the tailing dams; 4. The seepage control. Waste material can be shoveled or set in place by means of hydraulic filling techniques. In the first case the material can be, from a geomechanical point of view, considered a debris or a sand, according to the material particle size distribution. In the second case, different kinds of problems affecting the waste disposal slope stability should be considered. Two problems which influence the hydraulic fill structure stability are here bricfly discussed: The construction methods of tailing dams for hydraulically transported waste material and the sclection of shear strengih for static and dynamic stability analysis. Tailing dam construction methods (Morgenstern & Kupper, 1988) (Fig ae = Upstream method: = Downstream method; — Centerline method. The upsircam method is the oldest, simplest and most economical method of tailing dam construction. However, the most famous examples of hydraulic filled structure collapses were constructed using an upstream method (Morgenstern & Kupper, 1988). Morgenstern & Kupper have pointed out that the failure statistics reflect the fact that the upstream method of tailing dam construction is the most Trequently used; if correctly designed, safe structures can also be built using the upstream method. Morgenstern & Kupper also pdinted out that the most significant characteristics which affect the design and the performance of hydraulic filling structures re 1.1)CHAPTER | Problem definition and landslide classification (1 NATURAL SLOPES Natural slopes can be classified by referring to the activity state (Varnes, 1978). Active slopes are those that are cither currently moving or not moving al the present but have moved within the last seasonal cycle. Inactive slopes are those where there is no evidence that movement has taken place within the last seasonal cycle. These slopes may be dormant, when the faiture causes are stil! present and a movement may occur again, or they may be stabilized when the factors causing the movement have been removed naturally or by human activity, Zaruba & Mencl (1969) and Varnes (1978) subdivided slope movements according to age. A slope movement is called ‘recent’ when it has occurred in recent decades in a slope which has not yet been the center of mass movements. A movement for which there is no memory or historical records is called ancient. A fossil movement, finally, is where a slope movement occurred in a previous geological age. The causes which determine sliding movement in a slope depend on pheno- mena which contribute to a shear stress increase and/or to a reduction of shear strength The principal phenomena which contribute to a shear stress increase involve the toe or the slope surface weakening or the slope surcharging. The toc or the slope surface weakening can be due to: 1. Erosion by streams, rivers, glaciers, waves. tidal currents. sub-acrial weath- cring, wetting and drying and frost action; 2. Subsidence, previous rock fall, toppling, sliding and superficial scaling: 3, Phenomena connected to human activity such as mining or civil excavations channel construction or water level variation in the toe zone of reservoirs. Surcharges can also be induced by natura) causes or human activity. Natural surcharges are due to rain water or snow weight, or to water percolation in rock discontinuities, Surcharges due to human work are embankments, mining 1Problem definition and landslide classification 7 independent of the method of construction are: — The particle size separation; ~ The drainage measures; ~ The compaction = Earthquake resistance. The selection of the strength parameters is of vital importance for the design of a stable embankment and fora stable hydraulic filled structure. Poulos (1988) poinicd out that the steady state strengths of soils ultimately control stability for both static and earthquake loading in every case. The steady state strength is the strength at a very large strain (i.e. the strength when the soil is in a stcady state of deformation - Figure 1.2). The ‘in situ® peak strength is of a temporary nature and should nol usually be relied on for a long term. 1.3 AIM OF A SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS In the geotechnical ficld, stability analyses aim to support the safe and functional design of rock and soil slopes. Preliminary analyses can be carried out in order to determine the critical parameters of a work stability. Parametric analyses allow ‘one to assess the physical and geometrical problem parameter influence on the slope stability. A rock and soil slope stability analysis allows one to evaluate: 1. The optimal staged excavation or construction time sequence determina- tion; 2. The role, which design parameters such as slope angle and excavation or embankment height, play in the work stability; 3. Consolidation works such as retaining walls, drainage systems or rockbolt- ing, which can stabilize a slope. A stability analysis can also be carried out to assess the equilibrium conditions of a natural slope. Civil works are often constructed on natural slopes which are in limiting equilibrium conditions or which were the center of a landslide movement. In these cases, stabilily back analyses are carried out with the purpose of assessing the values of shear strength parameters and pore pressure distributions in potentially unstable masses in the absence of undisturbed specimen laboratory tests. Dynamic equilibrium equation analyses can be carried out in order to predict unstable mass movements. This is the case of flow or fall instability phenomena where soil mass and rock block paths are determined until the statical equilibrium condition is reached Stability analysis can be carried out with the aim of analyzing the seismic shack event effect on a natural or artificial slope. Two analyzing methods are usually used for this purpose: The first is Called pscudostatic and simulates the seismic shock effect by adding an external force proportional to the maximum seismic8 neck slope stability analysis designed acceleration to the active forces: the second, called the overall displace- ment method, solves the dynamic equitibrium equations of the examined unstable mass by taking the time variation of the seismic acceleration. according 10 2 designed seismogram. into account The instability risk is a concep! which should be introduced into stability analysis because of the uncertainties connected to the geological material parame- ter determination, Probabilistic analyses are carried out for this purpose. Geostat- istical models for the geological variables governing slope stability problems can finally be carried out, by considering the regionalized aspect of those variables and by therefore decreasing the uncertainties of the slope stability assessment 1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF SLOPE MOVEMENTS ‘The most widely used classification of slope movements was compiled by Varnes (1978) for the US Trasportation Research Board and the National Academy of Sciences. There are six basic considered types of slope movements: Falls, topples. slides. lateral spreads. flows and complex movements. Sliding movements are further divided into rotational and translational slides. Every type of moveme: is also considered on the basis of the geological formation type which has besn subjected! 10 the movements. Geological formations are subdivided into: Bedrock, debris soil and earth soil Slope movements were therefore classified by Varnes into 18 types Table 1.1 repons the abbreviated classification af slope movements proposed by Vames. The types of slope movements occur with a different Irequence. An earth block slide is. in nature. more frequent than an eanh topple. Table 1.1, Abbreviated classification of slope movements proposed by Vames (1978). Type of movement Type of material Engineering soils Bedrock Predominantly coarse Fails Rockfall (a) Debris fail (hi Earth falt (oy Topples Rock topple (b) Debris topple tit Earth toppte 1p) Slides: Revational A few units Rock slumpic) Debris slump (1) Earth stump (7) Slides: Transiational A few units Rock block slide Debris block slide Earth block slide Many usits Rock slide td) Debris slide (mi Earth slide «n) Lateral spreads Rock spread (e) Debris spread anh spread (s) Flows Rock How (deep Debris Naw (soil Ean flow (Soil creep) it) creep (ny creep) (t) Complex Combination of to of more principal types of movements ig)Problem definition and landslide classification 9 Carrara et al. (1985) examined the different frequencies of the Varnes classifi- cation of movement types in the Jtalian geological environment The tems used to refer to the frequency of a slope movement type are 1. Large diffused types 2. Average diffused types: 3. Rare diffused ty pes. Carrara et al. also referred to the identification difficulty degree of slope move- ment in the lalian environment. A slope movement can be: 4. Easily identitied and classified on the basis of ‘in situ’ observations: 2. Identitied and classified only on the basis of geological and geotechnical investigations, Table 1.2 reports (Carrara et al., 1985) the diffusion and the investigation difficulty degree of slope movements for the Italian environment. A slope analysis is carried out by usit an analy tical or numerical model which can determine the limiting equilibrium conditions or the movement of a poten tially unstable mags. Slope analyses can in fact be devoted to examining either stability conditions or motion equations of a slope mass. by determining. in the latter case. the paths and the velocities of the unstable body Table 1.3 reports the terms used (9 qualitatively describe the slope movement velocity according to the Vames classification Table 1.2. Frequency of the Varnes classification movement pes and identitic ty degree in the lalian geological environment (afler Carrara et al. 19 a Fee soo ho #438 p db 4400 ie 4 ce #4 000 1 44 eoo r d 44 0e m #4 409 $ e488 n 40 1 fo 48 obo ato v gs Fe edd Slope movementiypes: # # # Large dittused slope: # # Average diffused: # Rare diffused 090 Easily identifiable slope: ¢¢ Difticutt o identify: © Unlikely identifiable. Table 1.3. Slope movement scale (alter Varnes, 1978 Rae Delinition term aims Extremely rapid > 3 mimin Nery rapid > 1S miday Rapid > 13 m/month Moderate > 15 mésear Slow > 006 méyear Very 100 km/h) on the Spriana (Valteltina. Italy) landslide site, over a path of more than 1000 m (Plate 1.2) Rock block fall analysis methods. as discussed in Chapter 7. are used in order to predict the block path and the block energy during movement. Protection darriers. catch fences, catch nets and other rockfall protection systems can be reliably designed when the block path and enerey are predicted Plate 1.2. Path of block falling. at Spria- na Valiellina, Lombardy, Italy 7 duced by permission of ISMES Geo- mechanical Division,Problem definition and landslide classification Figure 1.3. Main types of falls accosd- ing to Hurchinson (1988). a) Primary. Rock and soil fatis: b) Secondary: ny {b) Stone Plate 1.3. Debris falls in an alluvial deposit in Soncala, Valtellina, Waly Stone and boulder fails involve rock bodies already physically detached from the cliff and merely lodged upon it and have been as a secondary fall category (Hutchinson. 1988) in contrast to the primary fall category which refers to the fresh detachment of material from the parent mass (Figure 1.2, Plate 1.3). 1.5.2 Topples Toppling movements are due to forces that cause an overturning mement about a pivot poim below the toppling block unit center of gravity. {n.a blocky rock mass,12 Rock slope stability analysis (2) 3 (cy Figere ‘a. Toppling & res:a) Si-> +S tiple: c) Debris topple: 1) \Y ke stches'ratum: 2) Streuny erosion: 3) Beh; 4) Sund: 5) Tension crack: 6) Clayey yravel:” set al is due to block w the resultant force which determines the block top! water pressure in the joint and the adjacent block thnust Rock block single toppling conditions can be analyzeu. as discussed in Chap- ter 2, by means of rotational and traslational block equilibrium equations. Rock block multiple toppling phenomena were classified, as is discussed in Chapier 7, by Goodman & Bray (1976) according to the rock block system geometry and to the forces acting on the blocks The block movements which follow a topple are falls, rollings and slides. A block fall analytical model can be used to determine the path and energies of a falling block which stans to move by toppling. Rock and soil toppling failure schemes are reported in Figure 1.4 1.5.3 Slides A sliding movement is determined by unbalanced shear siress along one or more surfaces. These surfaces are visible or may be inferred by analyzing ‘in sity’ observations. Sliding surface determination is one of the most important prob- lems in a landslide analysis. A landslide phenomenon may already have occurred and the sliding surface shape and position can be identified by means of site investigations (Walker et al., 1987). In this case slope stability analysis is carried out with the purpose of assessing unstable slope mass strength or pore pressure parameters by means of @ landslide back analysis.Problem definition and landslide classification 13 A landslide phenomenon can be incipient or a sliding condition can be determined for a man-made slope. In these cases, slope stability analyses are carried out with the purpose of locating a critical failure surface. The methods proposed to automatically locate the critical failure of an ‘engineering soil" slope by considering it to be the surface that has the minimum safety factor (Mostyn & Small, 1987) are: 1. The minimum safety factor research into families of surfaces that pass through a pre-determined slope zone (for exaniple: The toe, the crest of the slope or acontact zone between two different layers) 2, The use of the operation research /dynamic programming method to guide the search. 3. The application of the variation calculus. Figure 1.5 shows the grid search pattem forthe critical circular sliding surface of a triangular slope. This procedure of minimum safety factor determination has disadvantages and limitations. Disadvantages occur because the critical surface obtained by the grid search pattern does not always correspond to the absolute minimum safety factor but often corresponds 1o a local minimum surface for non-homogeneous slopes. Limitations of the minimum safety factor determination using a grid search Pattern occur when the centre of the critical circular surface is not located inside the grid. In many cases the center is located at an infinite point or along the lowest border of the grid. The first situation occurs when a non-cohesive soil is examined Figure 1.3, Determination of the minimum safety factor circular surface in a homogeneous slope: 1) The circles pass through the slope toe; 2) Radius of the circular surface which refers to the minimom safety factor: 3) The centers of the examined circles lie on grid points: 4) Contours of iso-safety factor curves.14 Rock slope stability analysis with a linear Mohr-Covlomb shear strength envelope. The second occurs when an embankment is built on a cohesive soil and an undrained loading condition has to be verified. ‘The second method of locating the critical failure surface has no arbitrary restrictions on the shape and position of the critical surface. This method involves establishing an initial estimation of the location of the critical failure surface and evaluating the safety factor for this surface. The initial estimation is then modified and the safety factor is re-evaluated for the new surface location. The process is continued iteratively until a minimum safety factor has been obtained. The limit equilibrium method is the most used method applied to determine the safety factor along a surface. Different alghorithms were instead proposed for the critical surface location. The secant method (Nguyen, !985 a, c) is a numerical procedure often adopted in order to locate the critical surface with a few iterations, A probabilistic analysis method was proposed by Oboni & Bourdeau (1983) in order to find the most probable critical failure surface. The method, which applies the calculus of variations, consists of the deriving of an analytical function for the safety factor and then, by using calculus, the determination of the condition for which this function is a minimum. The geometry and cther variables of the stability problem need to be expressed as a differentiable function in order to apply this method A summary of the various methods of applying the variation calculus for the enitical surface location has been given by Fredlung (1984), Since field investigations have » dominant influence on the soi) and rock mass geotechnical characterization and consequently on the landslide analysis model choice. the principat landslide parameters which should to be classified are: ~ Failure surface: ~ Depositional area: ~ The way in which the movement occurs; ~ The rate of the movement; The size of materials and the degree of disruption of the displaced mass: — The parent material involved; - ‘The age of the failure; — Various combinations of the above parameters The failure surface shape is determined by the landslide movement Planar slides are characterized by slides on a plane or on more than one plane. These planes are dip directed out of the existing ground surface. Slides are, in this case, translation movements. Much of the material is forced down the slide plane as blocks of material which are often held together by vegetation roots. Rates of movement range from mm/s to a few m/s. Rotational slides, also called stumps, are characterized by curvilinear (concave upward) shear planes. ‘The dominant characteristic of the failed mass is a backward rotation. SlumpsProblem definition and landslide classification 15. are generally deep compared to their length. The failed material remains intact in that only one or a few discrete blocks are likely to be produced. Slumps are rare on natural hillslopes, even though they are perhaps the most common mode of failure in man-made excavations and in soft ground fills. Rates of movement range from mm/y to m/day (Walker et al., 1987) Walker et al. (1987) gave typical ranges of geometrical features of various slope movements, based on published sets of experimental data. The examined slope movement geometrical feature is the ratio between the maximum thickness (D) of the moving mass and the maximum length (L) of the moving mass im the direction of the maximum slope ‘The translational slide phenomena varied in a range between 5 to 10 of D/L%, the rotational slide phenomena in a range between 15 10 30 and flows in a range between 0.5 10 3 1.5.3.1 Rotational slides The most common rotational sliding phenomena involve a sliding surface with a spoon shape or a convex cylindrical shape. The sliding surface is seldom a uniform concave upward spherical segment: often the presence of beddings. joints, faults and non-homogeneity zones influence the sliding surface shape. The 3-D stabilizing effect. given by a non-constant sliding surface along the transversal direction to the ground surface. can be taken into account in a linziting equilibrium analysis. Figure 1.6 illustrates the principles of a method available to include 3-D effects in a classical 2-D limit equilibrium method approach (Plate 1.4). The sliding surface, determined on the principal landslide vertical section, is therefore often composed of straight lines and circular arcs Rotational slides mainly occur in slopes made up of relatively homogereous clay and shale deposits. This phenomenon also occurs in slopes of granular material or closely jointed rock. in which pore water pressures are sufficiently high (© cause a rotational rather than a shallow (ranslational failure. Rotational failures aiso occur in slopes of highly alterated and weathered rocks. Methods of assessing stability conditions in closely jointed rock slopes, alterated and wea- thered rock slopes are discussed in Chapter 8 (Sarma, 1973; Hoek & Bray, 1981: Hoek & Brown, 1980; Hoek, 1983). Hutchinson (1968) has defined and described the following three main types of rotational landslide (Figure 1.7) \. Single rotational slide; 2. Successive rotational slides; 3. Multiple rotational slides. The first type is characterized by the presence of a single, concave upward sliding surface upon which the unstable mass moves as an essentially coherent unit. The second type, characteristic of the latter stage of degradation in freely16 Rock slope stability analysis Figure 1.6. Approximate method of 3-D stability analysis for a cireular or non-circular surface in terms of tolal or effective stress (after Hutchinson & Del Prete. 1985). The 2-D factor of safety Fon section J-1 (fora | m wide strip) is: F, = (Resisting moment of forces, ER)/{Disturding moment or forces, SD). The 3-D safety factor, Fy, is given by F; =(B,- IR + Ry + Ry)! (B,- ED). where B, is the arm of an equivalent rectangular sliding body. Ry is the restoring moment or force on end ptane M and Ris the restoring moment or force on end plane N. a) Slide boundary; 1) Section 1-1: 2)8,: 3) End plane Mf: 4) End plane N; 5) Idealized equivalent rectangplar slide boundary; b) Section }-1 of the landslide, Plate 1.4. Rotational sliding in clay at Craco. Basilicata, ltaly. By M. Del Prete.Problem definition and landslide classification \7 Figure 1.7. Main types of rotational slides (after Varnes, 1978): a) Single: b) Multiple: c) Successive; 1) Slope degrading cliffs or stiff fissured clays, refers to a succession of shallow rotational slips. arranged approximatively head to toe up @ slope and usually of the retrogressive type. The third phenomenon type can occur, under certain circumstances, as a retrogression of a single rotational slip and results in the formation of two or more slipped blocks. each with curved, concave upward slip surface tangeras to a common, generally deep-seated, slip sole. The classical limit equilibrium methods can be applied to assess slope stability conditions or to carry out a slope back analysis for circular sliding surface cases (Bishop, 1955; Spencer, 1967) or for non-circular sliding surface cases (Janbu, 1973: Morgenstern & Price, 1965: Fredlung & Krahn, 1977; Sarma, 1973). 1.5.3.2 Translational slides Translational slides involve shear failure on-alrnost planar surfaces in a down slope section. These phenomena were subdivided by Hutchinson (1988) into the following principal types (Figure |.8): 1, Sheet slides: 2. Slab slides; 3. Peat slides;18 Rock slope stability analysis 9 h Figure 1.8. Principal «ypes of sliding translations: 1) Sheet slides: 2) Slab slides: 3) Rock slides (a-d: 2-D phenomena: e-h: 3-D phenomena); 4) Debris slides: 5) Sudden spreading failures (after Hutchinson. 1988; Kovari & Fritz, 1984). 4. Rock slides: 5. Debris slides; 6. Sudden spreading failures. Sheet slides are very shallow translational movements of essentially dry and cohesionless materials. Slab slides involve coherent but unlithified soils, The phenomenon often occurs when a greater contrast between a very soft slipping zone and the overlying, stiffer, but still unlithified zone, occurs. Peat slides usuaily affect blanket bogs and the failure surface often occurs in mineral soils just below the base of the peat, or in mineral peats Rock slides can be subdivided on the basis of the movement type, of the sliding plane surface shape or of the number of sliding rock blocks. Sliding movement can occur along a single plane (Plate 1.5) or at the intersection line between two planes (Plate 1.6). Sliding surfaces can be planar (Plate 1.7), stepped or poly- gonal. Rock sliding movement can involve a single unit, a few units or many units, Chapters 8 and 9 are devoted to the analysis of the rock slide phenomena Slides of debris can involve, in non-periglacial zones, movement along a bedrock or along a more consolidated debris material.Problem definition and landslide classification 9 Sa Sot Jello Plate 1.5. Plane sliding in a layered excavated rack wall in Valnoci, Tuscany. lta. By A. Azzoni. ISMES. Plate 1.6. Rock wedge failures in the Corinto channel walls, Greece.20 Rock slope stability analysis Plate 1.7. Sliding plane along a bedding surface in marl, Basilicata, Naly. Debris slides can be caused in a periglacial zone by the thaw of a thin layer of soil. In this case, the saturated debris material slides over a planar surface, which is generally the permafrost table Sudden spreading failure usually occurs in varved clays and in other quaternary deposits, in particular, in quick clays or with sub-horizontal layers of loose saturated sand or silt, prone to liquefication by earthquakes Hutchinson (1988) also defined compound slides as intermediate types as far as, the proportions between rotational and translational slides are concerened (Figure 1.8). Compound slides are characterised by markedly non-circular slip surfaces formed by a combination of a steep, curved orplaner rear part and a flatter sole. Compound slides usually reflect ihe presence of hetereogeneity beneath a slope which is often a weak layer or a boundary between weathered and unweathered materialProblem definition and landslide classification 21 The limit equilibrium method is often, for the above quoted sliding types, not able to take all the factors affecting the slope equilibrium conditions into account, A stress-strain analysis method should be used when failure stresses are due to stiffness contrast between a potentially unstable mass and the underlying soi) ‘The relative displacements of rock blocks may affect the equilibriuma condi- tions of a rock mass formed by several block units. The slope analysis method has to consider the joint stiffnesses in order to compute relative block movements. A numerical method able to determine interstitial overpressure, caused by cyclic or impulsive loadings. should be used when an instability phenomenon can be caused by soil liquefaction 1.5.4 Lateral spreads ‘The prevailing mode of movement of lateral spreads is a lateral extension created by shear or tensile fracture generation. These movements are often determined when the slope is formed by a stiff formation lying on a soft formation or when a stiff and soft layer sequence occurs In the case in which a stiff slab lies on a soft layer, the slab weight can induce yield zones in the Jower layer. Subvertical tensile fractures in the slab are the consequence of these yield zones. These fractures can be extended from the slab basis up to the top, dividing the whole slab imto a set of blocks. Lateral spread movements can be generated or increased when the fractures are water or debris filled. Two pictorial examples of lateral spreads, given by Vames (1978), are reported in Figure 1.9. (a) (b) Figure 1.9. Examples of lateral spread proposed by Varnes ()978): a) Lateral rock spread (Zarvba & Mencl, 1969); b) Lateral soil spread; 1) Compact clay; 2) Soft clay layered with send and silt; 3) Compact clayey gravel22. Rock slope stability analysis Different lateral spread phenomena can be numerically modelled by means of 1. Computation of the yield zones induced by external loadings; 2. Analysis of failure propagation in the stab, 3. Analysis of lateral extension movements, 4. Analysis of stabilization methods. ‘The computation of the yield zones induced by external loading can be carried out using a stress-strain analysis method such as the finite element method. In this case: a) deformability and strength features of geological formations, b) body forces, c) boundary conditions and d) plasticity laws for the formations, need to be assigned to the numerical model. The failure propagation analysis in the slab can be examined by using a method such as the displacement discontinuity method (Crouch & Stanfield, 1983) by also assigning the fracture toughness to the numerical model. The analysis of lateral extension movements can be examined as a sliding movement and sliding analysis methods can be used for this purpose The analysis of the stabilization method can be carried out by simulating cables or other reinforcing techniques with a numerical method such as the distinct element method or finite element method The use of the distinct element method allows one to schematize a blocky system; in finite clement method application, the fracturated slab can be consi- dered as an equivalent continuous method or can be alternatively schematized as a jointed system and joint elements must be used 1.5.5 Flows Several types of movements cannot be classified into falls, topples, slides or lateral spreads. These movements have a flow aspect in unconsolidated materials, both with low or high rates, whether saturated or drained The moving mass rate distribution is found in several cases and especially in fine soils similar to that of a viscous fluid. 15.5.1 Rock flows ‘A rock flow movement includes deformations that are distributed among many large or small fractures, or even microfractures, without a concentration of displacements along a through-going fracture. The movements are usually slow and sometimes are so slow as to be called gravitational movements. Flow movernents may result in folding, bending. bulging or other manifesta- Lions of plastic behaviour (Varnes, 1978) A numerical simulation is extremely difficult as it is difficult to assess rock mass paramelers and have experimental displacement measurements available to compare with numerical results in so slow and Jong term movements. 1.5.5.2 Debris and earth flows In debris and earth flows. the sliding surface is not usually visible and when aProblem definition and landslide classification 23 sliding surface is visible, it occurs for a short period of time. The limit between the moving mass and the underlying soil can be a clear differential movement surface ora distributed sliding zone. Varnes classified the debris flows as: Debris flows, debris avalanches, solifiuctions, block streams, soil creeps. 1. Debris flows are called mud flows in some other classifications. Vames (1978) distinguished debris from mud flows on the basis of the particle size of the materials which are involved in the flow movement. Some typical distributions of the particle size of materials involved in mud flows and debris flows are reported in Figure 1.10. Debris flows commonly result from unusual heavy rainfalls or cles V fa) 199 /|—_—_—. 80 60 aoe 20 — —- ) Figure 1.10. Grain size distribution of mud flow and debris flow materials. a) After Hutchin: son (1988): 1-2) Mud flows; 3-5) Debris flows; 6) Wet concrete. b) After Giani & Mancini (1988): 1) Specimens gathered on the side of the debris flow area: 2) On the flowing material: 3) On the material in the toe zone in a debris flow which occured in 1987 in Valiellina (haly,24 Rock slope stability analysis Plate 1.8. Debris flow in Val Brem- bana, Lombardy. Italy. By A. Frassoni, iSMES from snow or frozen soil thawing. The debris flow movement has been classified as very rapid (Plate 1.8). 2. Debris avalanches are those types of movement which have similar charac- teristics to the classical movements of snow or ice. In debris avalanches the rate of movement is very rapid or extremely rapid, whilst the phenomenon is progressive and always involves greater masses of debris during the flow and tumble, 3. Solifiuctions or soil flows involve the movement of superficial debris. This phenomenon is, in areas of perennially or permanently frozen ground. better termed gelifluction and is however dependent on the frost-thaw cycles which can seasonly determine a weakening of the debris mantle cavering the slope bedrock. with a consequent viscous curling debris movement. Solifluctions are typical in gentle slopes ang are also recognizible (Civita, 1982) because of the unusual tree forms with the trunk being bent near to the root and straight in the upper part 4. Block streams are typical movements in semi-arid environments and can be caused by the rapid lowering of rock mass mechanical features combined withProblem definition and landslide classification 25 5. Soil creeps are extremely slow movements which are imperceptible if displacement measurements are not carried out over a long period of time. Movernents have a viscous character and involve almost fine grain debris material in non-periglacial areas. The rate of movement is in the 10 mm/year range, the movements are determined by the wet content variation in the debris material; these wet variations are usvally cavsed by temperature variation The earth flow movements have been classified by Varnes as: Wet sand or silt flows, rapid earth flows, earth flows, dry sand flows, loess flows 1. Wet sand or silt flows have been identified for natura! and man made slopes, both in sub-aqueous and in a wholly sub-aerial environment. In the first environ ment. instability ofien occurs when banks of sand in the toe zone of a submerged slope are subjected to score and to repeated fluctuations of pore water pressure because of the rise and fall of the tide or the stormy sea wave action. In the sub-acqueous environment, the flow may be of a liquefaction type. This occurs when. in the lower saturated slope part. high excess of pore pressures are induced by the weight of the upper part of the slope. Flow movements vary from rapid to very rapid 2. Rapid earth flows occur in fine-grained silt, clay and clayey sand. These flows form a complete gradation with slides involving failure caused by lateral spreading. They involve not only liquefaction of the subjacent material. but also retrogressive failure and liquefaction of the entire slide mass. This phenomenon usually takes place in sensitive materials, that is. in those materials whose remoulding strength is decreased to a small fraction of its original value at constant water content (Varnes, 1978). Flow movements are very rapid. 3. Slower and drier earth flows are typical in plastic earth whenever there is a combination of clay or weathered clay-bearing rocks, moderate slopes, and adequate moisture to provoke instability (Plate 1.9) (Varnes, }958).26 Rock slope stability analysis 4, Dry sand flows vary from rapid to very rapid movements. These movements are common along shores or embankments underlain by dry granular material Flowing material may be channelized or sheetlike. 5. Loess flows are dry and extremely rapid movements. The instability is caused by earthquake shock which destroys the fairly coherent internal structure of the porous silt which makes up the loess. The loess therefore becomes similar toa dry sand which can flow. Water action can be superimposed onto this failure mechanism and in seismic conditions liquefaction phenomenon can arise, deter- mining an earth-like flow movement Analytical models of Aow-slide phenomena have been proposed with the purpose of determining the motion equations of the Rowing material and conse- quently the maximum extension of the movement. Hutchinson (1986) has analyzed slope failure due to a structural collapse and the consequent flow-slide of the unstable material. The analyzed slopes can be formed by a metastable, non coherent matenial and the instability is caused by extemal actions such as those due to an earthquake or to pile driving. Hutchinson analyzed the movement of a generic flow slice by applying the rigid motion equation and neglecting every possibie viscous movement inside the flowing mass. The model schematizes the flow evolution and exhaustion as being dependent on the slice consolidation due to the natural drainage which occurs during the flow movements. Results of the model application were also compared successfully to some real cases such as that of the Aberfan industrial waste landslide (1965). Plate 1.10. Complex landslide which occurred in 1988 in Mount Zandila in Valteltina, Italy. The movement started with a rock sliding on two orthogonal discontinuity planes and a subsequent rockfall occured (Govi, 1988). The movement continved with a debris-avalanche and a dehrie-flow which is reraenizable in the lower dartProblem definition and landslide classification 27 1.5.6 Complex movements Slope movements are often the combination of one or more of the above described principal movements. Complex instability movements can be those in which the moving mass is subjected in one part to one movement type and in an other part to another type of movement (Case 1). A second complex movement type is that in which the moving mass passes from one movement type to a second movement type during travelling (Case 2; Plates 1.10-1.12). Varnes (1978) described: 1. Rockfall and debris avalanche (Case 2); 2. Rock topple and rotational slide (Case 1); 3. Rock slide and rock fall (Case 2); 4. Cambering and valley bulging (Case 1); 5. Slump (or rotational sliding) and earth flow (Case 2). Some of these phenomena types are analyzed in Chapter 7. Plate 1.11. Debris flow at Mount Zandila. By G. Robiglio, }988.28 Rock slope stability analysis Plate 1.12. Mount Zandila landslide blocked Val Pola with a 300 m rise of the debris Sow on the opposite valley slope. The landslide movement occurred on a path of about 100m. Taken in 1988.CHAPTER 2 Rock slope engineering 2.1 INTRODUCTION The Varnes classification of slope movements considers the sliding phenomena by differentiating the movements involving a few block units from those move- ments which involve several block units. The examples of Varnes, used for the examplification of lateral spreads. gravitational rock creep or complex movements, involve large masses and consequently large landslides Traditionally, large scale (km) instability phenomena are examined in the engineering geology field, while small scale instability analysis pertains to the soil and rock mechanics field, even though both the geological and engineering backgrounds are required in order to study both large and smal! landslide problems. Rock slope engineering (Piteau & Peckover, 1978) is not concerned with large landslides, but with individual rock block falls, translation of small rock masses, occasional slides of accumulated debris from gullies, talus slopes and postglacial slide areas. The main purposes of rock slope engineering are to determine rock slope stability conditions, to stabilize unstable natural slopes and to design, while maintaining safety conditions, the rock excavation slopes by obtaining optimal conditions from the reliability and the economical points of view The subsequent chapters of this book are mainly dedicated to rock slope engineering even though the geomechanical rock mass characterization and the slope stability analysis methods here reported are equally uscfu) for large land- slide engineering analysis. “Some examples of typical complex movement mechanisms are also dealt with 2.2 PROBLEM DEFINITION From an engineering point of view, ‘rock’ means a compact semi-hard mass of a variety af minerals30 Rock slope stability analysis All the features, starting from ultra microscopic to macroscopic, which in- fluence the strength and the deformation characteristics of rocks, can be called defects. The influence of these defects (Lama & Vutukuri, 1978) is to decrease the load carrying capacity of rocks and cause a concentration of stresses in cenain directions around an excavation. Defects in rocks can be grouped into the following categories: Fabric defects and structural defects ‘The first defect category refers to the component part of the rock which may be arranged in a regular or irregular order relative to each other which defines what is known as rock fabric (Plate 2.1), Structural defects in rocks are of three types: Folds. faults and joints. These defects are mainly duc to tectonic stresses to which the rocks have been subjected during the course of history. The quantitative description of structural defects, Plate 2.1. Volcanic tuff flow structures on Ischia is- land, Campania, Haly. By G. Miglian.Rock slope engineering 31 commonly called ‘discontinuity’, is one of the main problems of rock slope engineering and is dealt with in Chapter 3 (see also Plate 2.2), Rocks can also be weathered by different causes such as mechanical processes or chemical dissolutions. Rock weathering is a process which causes alteration of the rock due to the action of water, carbon dioxide and oxygen. The effect of weathering is not limited to the surface, but extends deeper depending on the presence of channels, which permit the flow of water and contact with the atmosphere. Weathering, results in a decreased competency of the rock from the engineering point of view. Rock slope stability depends on the strength features of the rocks. the geome- trical and strength features of the discontinuities and the presence of weathering action on the rock and rock defects. Rock slope excavations have been classified on the basis of the relative importance of the defects and alterations to the slope stability (Duncan & Goodman, 1968). Plate 2.2. Quarry faces in porphiric formation, Rock discontinuities determine the columnar shape of the rock. By M. Fomaro.32 Rock slope stability analysis Figure 2.1. Rock slope excavation classification (after Duncan & Goodman, 1968): 1-3) Continuous masses, 4-5) Pseudo-continuous; 6-10) Discontinuous: 1) Strong homogeneous; 2) Weak homoge- neous; 3) Terraced rocks; 4) Ravelling: 5) Slumping rocks: 6) Sheeted: 7) Slabby; 8) Blocky; 9) Buttressed; 10) Schistose rocks. Excavated rocks are divided into continuous, pseudo-continuous aid disconti- nuous masses. The diffent types of rock slopes are illustrated in Figure 2.1, with examples of relative rock types and include: ~ Continuous masses: !) strong homogeneous, 2) weak homogeneous and 3) terraced rocks; ~ Pseudo-continuous masses: 4) ravelling. 5) slumping rock; — Discontinuous: 6) sheeted, 7) slabby, 8) blocky, 9) buttressed and 10) schistose rocks. ‘A rock slope can be homogeneous or can be made up of a complex of rocks of different geological origins with a different sequence of sediments or be intruded by bodies of igneous rocks or partially metamorphosed Different lithological units can have different strength, deformation and com- petence features.Rock slope engineering 33 The weathering of friable rock material, such as sandstone, or of closed fractured shales can be the cause of slope ravelling. When the slopes are faulted, fault zones can be subjected to slumping. A fault gauge behaves like a clay material, while a fault breccia behaves like debris composed of broken rack fragments varying in size from centimeters to deci- meters. Rock slopes can be affected by sheet structures parallel to the slope face. The thickness of the individual sheets may increase from a few decimeters near the surface to several metres at a depth. Sedimentary rock depositional features can determine regular bedding and the principal weakness surfaces. present at the excavation faces, are the parallel bedding planes (Plates 2.3-2.5). Different types of mechanisms can cause the development of the forces that result in the jointing formation. ‘A buttressed rock slope can be determined by the intersection of joint planes with conjugate planes. Unstable rock wedges can therefore be exposed on the slope faces (Plate 2.6). Blocky rocks can be determined by the intersection of different joint plane sets and by the presence of other weakness planes in regular or irregular shapes (Plate 2.7).34 Rock slope stability analysis Plate 2.4. Subvertical closely layered limestone at the Strozza quarry, Lombardy, Italy. By A Auzoni, ISMES. a Bees se esata ars Seok Plate 2.5. Closely jointed and layered limestone excavation faces at the Antoigne quarry, Belgium. By M. Cardu.Rock slope engineering 35 Plate 2.7. Quarry faces in Baveno ink. Piedmont, ttaly, The three recognizable exploitation splitting joint sets, are almost perpendicular. By G. Gola A rock slope is called schistose (Plate 2.8) when the foliation, which occurs in the coarse-grained metamorphic racks, is closely spaced Slope failure mechanism can be differentiated on the basis of the Duncan and Goodman rock slope classification.36 Rock slope stability analysis Plate 2.8. Quarry faces in onthogneiss. The wo conjugate joint sets are perpe schistosity which is the main splntubility plane of the explo icvlar to the ion. By G. Gola, ITEA. Table 2.1. Typical shear strengih and unit weight rock values (afer Hoek & Bra Rock type Dry unit weight (kN/m3) Hard igneous rocks: Granite, basalt, porphyry 25-30 35-53 35-45 Metamorphic socks: Quarzite. gneiss, st: 25-28 20-40 30-40 Hard sedimentary rocks: Limestone, dolomite, sandstone 23-28 10-30 33-45 Soft sedimentary rocks: Sandstone, coal. cha'k, shale 17-23 The shear strength characteristics and unit weight of intact rock determine the stability conditions of a homogencous slope. A typical range of cohesion. friction angle and unit weight value, of the main geological rock groups are given (Hoek & Bray, 1981) in Table 2.1 ‘As the intact rock shear failure envelope is nonlinear, the strength features depend on the applied normal stress level as described in Chapter 5 Uniaxial compressive strength is probably the most important feature for the mechanical characterization of intact rocks. The uniaxial compressive strength of the intact rock is a characteristic requiredRock slope engineering 37 in many cases, including stability problems, which are governed by the shear strength of the discontinuity planes. This can be utilized, forexample, as a reference point, for the disconsinuity wall trength, or for the buckling analysis of rock slabs. Table 2.2 reports some typical values of uniaxial compressive strength ob- tained in Italian rock mechanics laboratories. Terraced rocks can determine stability problems when deformation. features of the alternate layers are different and tensile stresses can be induced im the stiffer layers, as a result of ‘extrusion’ of the more deformable layers. As the tensile of rocks is very weak. vertical tension cracks open in stiff rock. Tension cracks, filled by water, can induce near surface failure in the slope. The ravelling of the weathered surface material on a slope is a phenomenon which produces the fall of small individual pieces of the detenorated rowk and the accumulation of a debris material at the base of the slope. The stability conditions of the rock slope can be reduced by ravelling, above all, if the detached rock pieces come from above, from the foot of the slope. In this case, topplimg, fall and sliding of the overhanging slope rock mass can be released and an analysis of these movements should be carried out, Stability analysis of fault breccia or fault gouge are performed by examining the potential sliding of the filling material on rotational or translatiorzal sliding surfaces. Rock slope engineering is devoted to the discontinuous rock slope: analysis. The failure surface, in discontinuous rock masses, tends to follow the pre-existing discontinuities and does not occur throughout the intact rock portions. tev any great extent, unless the rock is very soft. The shear strength of the rock mass is determined largely by the presemce of the discontinuities and the result is that the rock mass behaviour results to be anisotropic in its strength and deformation features The principal instability phenomena of discontinuous rock slopes axe due to toppling and sliding Toppling conditions of a rock block are reached when the block is: zs tall and thin as the weight force vector of the block falls outside its base. Sliding conditions of a rock mass are determined when the sheaw’ strength mobilized on the potential sliding surface reaches the shear strength available for maintaining the mass stable. The ratio between available and mobilized shear strength defines the safety factor of a slope. The rock slope stability analysis and the consequent safety factor determination depend on the identification of the potentially unstable phenomenon ard on the quantitative description of the physical and geometrical features governing the Problem; this description also involves the hydraulic pressure determinazion. Rock slope stability conditions are more influenced by movements than soil slope stability conditions, Sma}] movements can determine a large fall in the available shear strenoth and therefnre rance a Larne enfety reduntion38 Rock slope stability analysis Table 2.2. Uniaxial compressive strength of rocks C. (Mal . to | ost | | I | or) dil log a me ig | | | | | gE 3 ee 38 ge 828 BEES PEPER EBEE § fs £8 é83 8 828 88382 F 855 § 1) Carbonate rocks; Ml) Lithified argilaceous rocks; Ill) Arenaceous rocks; IV) Metamorphic crystalline rocks (trom finer grained to coarser grained): V) Igneous rocks (from finer to coarser). 1. Finale, 2. Pioganismi, 3. Fiastrone, 4, Fiume Santo, 5. Vicenza, 6. Porto Torres, 7. Rive del Garda, 8. S. Vito dei Normanni, 9. Pineroio, 10. Carrara, 11. Vaidieri, 12. Valdieri, 13, Perlato di Sicilia, 14. Riva del Garda. 15. Porto Tories, 16. Salafossa. 17. S. Vito dei Normanni, 18 Premagio, 19. Edolo, 20, Lavagna, 21. Pavana, 22. Ridracoli, 23. Pavana, 24. Potenza, 25. Pavana, 26. M. Aniola, 27. Salatossa, 28. Ridracoli,29 Pavana, 30. Brasimone, 31, Rivoli, 32 Gioveretto, 33. Edolo, 34. Cervinia, 35. Voliri, 36. Vaimalenco, 37. Vaimalenco, 38. Voitri, 39. Sondrio, 40. Chiotas, 41. Luserna, 42. Bussoleno, 43. Luserna. 44. Adamelio, 45. Bronzolo, 46. Albiano, 47. Albiano, 48. Lasa, 49. Baselga ci Pine, 50. Gioveretto. 51. Orvieto, 52. S. Fecelino, 53. Traverselle, 54. S. Federico, 55. Tatoro, 56. Baveno, 57. Monte Stefano.Rock slope engineering 39 Consequently, the risk to a rock slope excavation is greater than that (o a soil slope, even though the two average designed safety factors are the same. ‘The safety factor designed for a rock slope should be greater than the safety factor for a soil slope in order to maintain the same risk degree, otherwise, residual shear strength features should be assumed to be *a priori’ in ordes to define the available sliding surface strength. A rational rock slope design, minimizing rock slope excavation and reinforcing works, must take the reliability of the works into account. The terms of reference. conceming safety factors, work reliability. and long term mining and civil work stability conditions are completely different (Scavia et al., 1988). Mining excavations are designed on the basis of the maximum mineral recovery and the instability risks are mainly assessed by means of economical criteria. Civil excavations, however, are designed on the basis of the different maintenance, control and efficiency necessities of the civil works. 2.3 STABILITY ANALYSIS METHODS A procedure. which is able to define the geometry of blocks or of the system of blocks isolated by discontinuity planes and exposed on the examined excavation face or on the natural slope surface, is developed in every stability analysis method. Sliding analysis methods can use static or dynamic equilibrium equations. ‘A static equilibrium analysis firstly examines the kinematic possibitity of the sliding or toppling of each block which has a face exposed on the slope face. The weight forces, the forces due to water filling the joints, the resistant and the sliding forces are then computed and the equilibrium equations are solved in order to determine whether the block is stable or not. If the block is not stable and a sliding movement occurs, the method assumes that it is in an indefinite motion without changes in motion. Static equilibrium analysis, carried out using the Limit Equilibrium Method, only examines the incipience of motion and does not consider the subsequent behaviour of the whole system of blocks. The methods that use static equilibrium equations, whether involving a single tock block or a system of blocks, assume the block fo be stiff and only analyze sliding phenomena (Wittke, 1965; Goodman & Bray, 1976; Chan & Einstein, 1981; Lin & Fairhurst, 1988). ‘The methods that use dynamic equilibrium equations simulate the behaviour of a blocky system by assuming a more realistic hypothesis by referring 10 the examined physical phenomenon. The Distinct Element Method, an efficient procedure for dynamic analysis, is also able to examine the stability conditions of a blocky rock mass (Cundai). 1971, 1988; Cundall & Hart, 1985: Hart et al., 1988)