Professional Documents
Culture Documents
A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that combines hydrogen fuel with oxygen to produce electricity, heat and water. The fuel cell is similar to a battery in that an electrochemical reaction takes place as long as fuel is available. The hydrogen fuel is stored in a pressurized container and oxygen is taken from the air. Because of the absence of a burning process, there are no harmful emissions, and the only by-product is pure water. Fundamentally, a fuel cell is electrolysis in reverse, using two electrodes separated by an electrolyte. The anode (negative electrode) receives the hydrogen and the cathode (positive electrode) collects the oxygen. A catalyst at the anode separates hydrogen into positively charged hydrogen ions and electrons; the oxygen is ionized and migrates across the electrolyte to the anodic compartment, where it combines with hydrogen. A single fuel cell produces 0.60.8V under load. To obtain higher voltages, several cells are connected in series. Figure 1 illustrates the concept of a fuel cell. Figure 1:
Concept of a fuel cell The anode (negative electrode) receives the hydrogen and the cathode (positive electrode) collects the oxygen. Source: US Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Fuel cell technology is twice as efficient as combustion in turning carbon fuel to energy. Hydrogen, the simplest chemical element (one proton and one electron), is plentiful and exceptionally clean as a fuel. Hydrogen makes up 90 percent of the universe and is the third most abundant element on the earths surface. Such a wealth of fuel would provide an almost unlimited pool of clean energy at relatively low cost. But there is a hitch. Hydrogen is usually bound to other substances and unleashing the gas takes technology and a substantial amount of energy. In terms of net calorific value (NCV), hydrogen is more costly to
High material costs made the fuel cell prohibitive for commercial use at that time. This did not hinder Karl Kordesch, the coinventor of the alkaline battery, from converting his cars power source to an alkaline fuel cell in the early 1970s. Kordesch drove his car for many years in Ohio, USA. He placed the hydrogen tank on the roof and utilized the trunk to place the fuel cell as well as backup batteries. According to Kordesch, there was enough room for four people and a dog. The 1990s brought renewed interest in the fuel cell; however, this enthusiasm started to diminish again in the 21st century. Just as there are different battery chemistries, so also are there several fuel cell systems to choose from. Lets look at the most common types and examine the applications.
clogging of the membrane. Testing and repairing a stack is difficult, given that a 150V, 50kW stack to power a small car requires 250 cells. Extreme operating temperatures are a further challenge. Freezing water can damage the stack, and the manufacturer recommends heating elements to prevent ice formation. When the fuel cell is cold, start-up is slow and the performance is poor at first. Excessive heat can also cause damage. Controlling the operating temperatures as well as supplying enough oxygen requires compressors, pumps and other accessories that consume about 30 percent of the energy generated. If operated in a vehicle, the PEMFC stack has an estimated service life of 2,000-4,000 hours. Start-and-stop conditions induce drying and wetting that contribute to membrane stress. Running continuously, the stationary stack is good for about 40,000 hours. Stack replacement is a major expense.
carbonate, phosphoric acid and solid oxide fuel cells. Among these
choices, the solid oxide (SOFC) is the least developed but has received renewed attention because of breakthroughs in cell material and stack design. Rather than operating at the very high operating temperature of 8001,000C (1,4721,832F), a new generation of ceramic material has brought the core down to a more manageable 500600C (9321,112F). This allows the use of conventional stainless steel rather than expensive ceramics for auxiliary parts. High temperature allows direct extraction of hydrogen from natural gas through a catalytic reforming process. Carbon monoxide, a contaminant for the PEM, is a fuel for the SOFC. Being able to accept carbon-based fuels without a designated reformer and delivering high efficiency pose significant advantages for this type of fuel cell. Cogeneration by running steam generators from the heat by-product raises the SOFC to 60 percent efficiency, one of the highest among fuel cells. As a negative, high stack temperatures require exotic materials for the core that add to manufacturing costs, lower longevity and decrease reliability. With the newer SOFC systems operating at lower temperatures, however, this drawback has been reduced.
not require pressurized hydrogen gas. DMFC provides a reasonably good electrochemical performance, and charging occurs by simply replacing the fuel cartridge. This enables continued operation without downtime. Fuel cells with liquid fuels (ethanol or methanol) have a further advantage over hydrogen in the automotive market in that the fuel can be transported, stored and dispensed with known technologies. Hydrogen, on the other hand, exhibits safety risks, storage problems and needs large investments in special pipelines. Table 3 describes the applications and summarizes the advantages and limitations of common fuel cells. For completeness of listing, the table also includes the Molten Carbonate (MCFC) and Phosphoric Acid (PAFC), two varieties not described in the text above. These two fuel cell versions have been around for a long time also but have received less publicity than the others.
Applications
Advantages
Limitations
Status
Compact design; Proton Exchange Membrane( PEMFC) Medium to large systems for portable, stationary and automotive long operating Expensive to build; needs pure Practical and most widely developed
life; offers hydrogen; quick start-up, 50% efficient complex heat and water management.
Alkaline
Space
Low
Large size;
New
Applications
Advantages
Limitations
Status
manufacturin needs pure g, operation costs; no compressor; fast cathode kinetics Efficient; hydrogen and oxygen
Low efficiency; In limited service competitio life; expensive catalyst n with PEMFC New material, stack design sets off renewed developme nt Liquid
Lenient to Solid Medium to fuels; uses natural gas; 60% efficient with cogeneration
Direct
Portable,
Compact;
Complex stack;
Applications
Advantages
Limitations
Status
Table 3: Advantages and disadvantages of various fuel cell systems The development of the fuel cell has not advanced at the same pace as batteries; a direct battery replacement is not yet feasible.
Developments
In spite of environmental benefits, the fuel cell requires extensive development before it can compete in industrial and consumer markets. The existing problems revolve around slow start-up times, low power output, sluggish response on power demand, poor loading capabilities, narrow power bandwidth, short service life and high cost. These negative traits are especially noticeable for the direct methanol fuel cell. Similar to batteries, the performance of all fuel cells degrades with age, and the stack gradually loses efficiency. The relatively high internal resistance of full cells poses a challenge. Each cell of a stack produces about one volt when in open-circuit condition, and a heavy load causes a notable voltage drop. Figure 4 illustrates the voltage and power bandwidth as a function of load.
Figure 4: Power band of a portable fuel cell High internal resistance causes the cell voltage to drop rapidly with load. The power band is limited to between 300 and 800mA.
Fuel cells operate best at a 30 percent load factor; higher loads reduce efficiency. A load factor approaching 100 percent, as is common with a battery, is not practical with the fuel cell. In addition, the fuel cell has poor response characteristics and takes a few seconds to react to power demands. Rather than acting as a stand-alone engine, as the developers had hoped, the fuel cell works as a support function by giving the battery the master status. The fuel cell becomes a slave providing the charge duty. This relationship enables both parties to deliver continuous service. Having failed in the automotive field, fuel cell manufacturers explore new applications. Large 40,000kW fuel cells are being built to generate electricity in remote locations. Fuel cells also replace battery banks and diesel generators in office buildings, as
they can be installed in tight storage places and on rooftops with minimal maintenance. Forklifts running non-stop are further candidates for fuel cell technology, which allows continuous, pollution-free operation.
hydrogen for fuel, we need energy to convert the resource into a usable product in a similar way as we use electricity to charge a flat battery. If electricity produces hydrogen, then this energy source should come from a renewable resource. This is often not the case; much of our current energy comes from burning coal, oil and natural gas. Fossil fuel lends itself well to producing hydrogen, but taking this valuable fuel to unleash hydrogen does not make much sense when it costs as much or more for extraction than burning it directly. It is conceivable that the fuel cell will never become the engine that scientists had hoped, just as the attempt to fly airplanes on steam failed in the mid 1800s. Hydrogen is, however, being used to propel satellites and space vehicles into orbit. Liquid hydrogen has the highest energy-tomass ratio; but the specific energy by volume reveals a truer picture when considering storage and delivery for terrestrial use. Gasoline has almost 24 times the specific energy of pure hydrogen by volume. Is there hope for the fuel cell? Many hope it will succeed. Taxpayers may one day need to subsidize this clean energy source similar to subsidizing the electric car. Furthermore, governments may mandate its use for environmental reasons or as an alternative for the dwindling fossil fuels. Wehope that the development of fuel cells will eventually succeed in finding a replacement for the polluting internal combustion engine.