UNIT 2

THE
PRONUNCIATION OF
ENGLISH
POEM OF ENGLISH

Dearest creature in creation,
Study English pronunciation.
I will teach you in my verse
Sounds like corpse, corps, horse, and worse.
I will keep you, Suzy, busy,
Make your head with heat grow dizzy.
Tear in eye, your dress will tear.
So shall I! Oh hear my prayer.


(follows)
Just compare heart, beard, and heard,
Dies and diet, lord and word,
Sword and sward, retain and Britain.
(Mind the latter, how it's written.)
Now I surely will not plague you
With such words as plaque and ague.
But be careful how you speak:
Say break and steak, but bleak and streak;
Cloven, oven, how and low,
Script, receipt, show, poem, and toe.


(follows)
Finally, which rhymes with enough
tough, through, plough, or dough,
or cough?
Hiccough has the sound of cup.
My advice is to give up!
GENERAL ISSUES
COMPLEX NATURE OF THE ENGLISH
PHONOLOGICAL SYSTEM
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ENGLISH AND
ITALIAN SOUNDS
VARIETY OF ENGLISH ACCENTS
therefore
A KNOWLEDGE OF PHONETICS AND
PHONOLOGY IS EXPECTED FROM
UNIVERSITY STUDENTS AND WILL PROVE
TO BE BENEFICIAL TO THEIR
PRONUNCIATION SKILLS
ACCENTS OF ENGLISH:
NATIVE, NATIVESED, FOREIGN
Accent: the way in which a language is
pronounced in a specific geographical area
O native: UK , Australia, New Zealand, USA
and Canada
O nativised: where English is a second
language (e.g. India)
O foreign: where English is a foreign language
(e.g. Europe, China)
The British and the Americans are
divided by a common language
TWO STANDARDS OF PRONUNCIATION
(Compare the BBC and CNN News):

RECEIVED PRONUNCIATION, RP, OR
BBC ENGLISH

GENERAL AMERICAN

Phonetics and phonology

Phonetics: studies the physical
characteristics of sounds

Phonology: describes the
organization of the sound system
of a language

The articulators
Graphemes and phonemes
grapheme: a letter of the alphabet (a
discrete mark in writing or print) <t>

phoneme: a distinctive sound in a
language capable of creating a distinction
in meaning between two words /d/ dog
/l/ log /f/ fog
International Phonetic Alphabet
(IPA)
a set of symbols used for representing the
phonemes and sounds of all languages
the phonetic transcription of words is
provided by bilingual and monolingual
dictionaries
phoneme symbols are enclosed within
slant brackets // whereas the phonetic
transcription of words is enclosed in
square brackets [eCO]
TWO USEFUL WEBSITES
http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningengli
sh/grammar/pron/sounds/
the website of the BBC World Service

http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/
The website of The International Phonetic
Association (IPA)
No one-to-one correspondence
between graphemes and phonemes
<c> e.g. cut, nice, ocean
/k/ in cut [g4]
/s/ in nice [C]
/e/ in ocean [*e*]

<o> e.g. come , home
// in come [gO]
/*/ in home [*O]

Silent graphemes
castle, Christmas, often
<t>
know, knock
<k>
walk, talk, folk
<l>
in write, wrong
<w>
debt, bomb, doubt
<b>
psychology , psalm
<p>


Homophones and homographs

aloud( ad alta voce) and allowed (consentito)
[*C-]
homophones: words orthographically
different but phonetically identical

- lead [)-] (condurre), lead []-]
(piombo) - tear [4*] (lacrima), tear
[4]*] (strappare)
homographs: words orthographically
identical but phonetically different


English phonology
segmental: describes the phonemes
of a language and the way they
combine
suprasegmental: describes the units
larger than the phonemes
(syllables, rhythm groups and
intonation phrases)
Phonemes and minimal pairs
phoneme: a distinctive sound in a language
capable of creating a distinction in meaning
between two words
/s/ // and /t/ sit [sit]
set [set] sat [st]
minimal pairs: a pair of words which differ only
by one phoneme
kit [kt] cat [kt] cot [kCt] caught
[kOt]
pane [pane] cane [cane] rane
[rane] vane[vane]
PHONEMES AND ALLOPHONES
allophone: the different realisations of the same
phoneme in different contexts e.g. /t/

- aspiration: top [4CO]
- affrication: train [4
e
]]
- Not fully audible: set []4 C]

- clear /l/: lip [O]
- dark [] (accompanied by back resonance) in
syllable final position as in hill [] or before
another consonant as in milk [Og]


THE GAP BETWEEN SPELLING AND
PRONUNCIATION IN ENGLISH

THE ENGLISH ALPHABET IS
MADE OF 26 LETTERS

THE ENGLISH PHONOLOGICAL
SYSTEM (in RP) IS MADE OF 43
PHONEMES



THE ENGLISH ALPHABET
26 LETTERS

a b c d e f g h i j k l m
n o p q r s t u v w x y
z

THE ENGLISH SOUNDS:
43 PHONEMES
Vowels: ) ] C O 4
) *

Diphthongs: C ] O C *, *,
]*, *

Consonants: p b O f v + t d =
e L 4e -L k g w

THE ENGLISH SOUND SYSTEM:
43 PHONEMES

Vowels: (bit) ) (meet) ] (test) (bad) (are)
(but)
C (sorry) O (walk) (book) 4 (pool) ) (girl)
(*=schwa)

Diphthongs: C (I) ] (day) O (boy) C ( house)
*u (go), * (dear) , ]* (chair), * (poor)

Consonants: p b O f v + (both) (this) t d = e
(show) L (pleasure) 4e (chicken) -L (jam) k g
(ring)

VOWELS AND CONSONANTS
WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE
BETWEEN
VOWELS

and

CONSONANTS ?
VOWELS, DYPHTHONGS,
CONSONANTS
VOWELS are oral, voiced and egressive sounds
produced without any obstruction to the
airstream coming from the lungs

DIPHTHONGS are oral, voiced, egressive
glides from one vowel to another vowel uttered
with the same emission of sound

CONSONANTS are sounds produced with an
egressive flow of air coming out of the mouth or
the nose accompanied by obstruction or friction
in the articulators


Vowels

/ ) ] C O
4 ) [*]= schwa/

Short vowels
rich, English, live, busy, women, build
] test, bread, friend, says, bury, guest
bad, have, January, thank, marry
C spot, what, orange, holiday, sorry, wash
must, done, love, sun, son, month, London,
country, blood, enough
bush, butcher, pudding, woman, wolf,
book, could
Long vowels
after, father, are, party

) church, girl, early, work, world, journal

) meet, dream, please, ski, people

O wall, caught, daughter, bought, law,
walk

4 pool, who, move, tomb, through, fruit
THE ENGLISH VOWELS

O The distance between
the tongue and the
palate: open, half-
open, close
O The part of the tongue
that is raised: front,
central, back
O The length: long (
tense), short ( lax)
O The position of the
lips: rounded, neutral,
spread

Minimal pairs with vowels
fit slip sin
) feet sleep seen

pan sad sat
] pen said set

C pot spot cot
O port sport caught

Diphthongs
a diphthong is an oral, voiced, egressive glide from
one vowel to another vowel uttered with the same
emission of sound

the first element is normally more audible than the
second

closing diphthongs: C ] O C *
centring diphthongs: *, ]*, *
triphthongs: C*, ]*, O*, C*,
**

Closing diphthongs
] late, baby, rain, reign, they,
great

C life, I, night, die, eye, buy

O boy, joy, coin, choice, moist

C house, shout, about, down

* go, so, dont, home, road, soul
Centring diphthongs
* dear, idea, beard, beer, here

]* share, Mary, area, wear, chair, their,
there, where

* poor, insure, plural, jury

Minimal pairs with diphthongs
O ball saw call born
* bowl so coal bone

) were fur bur bird
]* where fair bear bared

Non-phonemic symbols
schwa [*] central, short sound
it occurs only in unstressed syllables
It is a word of Hebrew origin, referring to a weak
or missing vowel sound

[i] and [u] represent the long phonemes /)/ and
/4/ in unstressed position
e.g. happy [O)], react [)g4]
you [4], situation [4e4]e}]

Group these words according to the pronunciation of
the grapheme <a>: car, all, radio, lake, map, again,
final, start, today, hand, small
[]

[] ..

[]] ..

[O]

[*]

answers
[] map, hand
[] car, start
[]] radio, lake, today
[O] all, small
[*] again, final

CONSONANTS
ORAL ( the air through the mouth)
most consonants are oral
but three are
NASAL ( the air through the nose) i.e
/m/ mouse
/n/ no
/ / sing
Consonants can be classified
according to
PLACE OF ARTICULATION e.g. Bilabial
/p/ pen, /b/, bull, /m/ man

MANNER OF ARTICULATION e.g. Plosives
/t/ top, /k/ cat, /d/ do, /g/ get

VOICING consonants can be voiced or voiceless
depending on the vibration or otherwise of the
vocal cords e.g. /s/ versus /z/


UNUSUAL IPA SYMBOLS
(FOR ITALIANS)
both , father
/+/ // dental fricatives
shop, pleasure,
/e/ /L/ palato-alveolar fricatives
China, John
/4e/ /-L/ palato-alveolar affricates
Sing, playing
/ / velar nasal
hall, hell
/h/ glottal fricative



Manner of articulation
plosives: p b t d k g
fricatives: f v + = e L
nasals: O
affricates: 4e -L
liquids:
semi-vowels (or approximants):


Place of articulation
bilabial: p b O
labiodental: f v
dental: +
alveolar: t d =
palato-alveolar: e L 4e -L
palatal:
velar: k g
glottal:
Consonant minimal pairs
4 tin taught trill
+ thin thought thrill

sip niece ice
= zip knees eyes

sin ban ran
sing bang rang

Voicing
vibration of the vocal cords inside the
larynx
the voiceless consonant phonemes are:
/O, 4, g, , +, , e, /
the voiced consonant phonemes are:
O /p, -, _, +, , =, -L, O, , , ,
, , /

O inflections: [] after a voiceless consonant, [=] after a vowel or a voiced
consonant, [=] after a fricative or affricate sound
e.g. books [pg], claps [gO]
trees [4)=], pens [penz],
buses /p=/, washes /Ce=/




Syllabic consonants
a syllabic consonant occurs as the nucleus of
syllables

e.g. //
couple [gO}], middle [O-}],
able []p}],

//
listen [}], rotten [C4}],
sudden [-}]
The semivowels /w/ and /j/
They are phonetically similar to vowels, but
phonologically they behave like consonants
because they precede vowels in syllables and
require the indefinite article a rather than
an.

e.g. A young man /j/
a wet carpet /w/


/r/: rhoticity and r-linking
in RP only pre-vocalic /r/ is pronounced,
whereas post-vocalic /r/ is silent:
red []-], arrive [*C+]
car [g], hard [-]
r-linking: in RP if a word ending with silent /r/
is followed by another word beginning with a
vowel, the /r/ is pronounced to link the two
words
e.g. the car is parked in the street
[* g

= Og4 * 4)4]
in American English the [r] is always
pronounced


English / Italian phonemes in
contrast
long/short vowels opposition
leave [)+] vs live [+]
I want to leave and I want to live
laxness: the pronunciation of the six short vowel
with little tension in the articulators /, ], , , C, /
aspiration: in plosives pain [O]]
tea [4)], [h] hotel [*4]]

English / Italian phonemes in
contrast
O non-voicing of syllable initial [] + consonant
e.g. small [OO], slim [O], snail []], swim
[O] [*=OO, *=O, *=], *=O]
O inflections: [] after a voiceless consonant, [=] after a
vowel or a voiced consonant, [=] after a fricative or
affricate sound
e.g. books [pg], claps [gO]
trees [4)=], pens [penz], needs /)-=/
buses /p=/, washes /Ce=/
O Failing to aspirate /h/ at the beginning of stressed
syllables
e.g. art should non be confused with heart


English / Italian phonemes in
contrast
O dental fricatives, which are very frequent in English, e.g
definite articles and demonstratieves /+, / thriller
[*4)]]
O non-voicing of syllable initial [] + consonant
e.g. small [OO], slim [O], snail []], swim
[O] [*=OO, *=O, *=], *=O]
O inflections: [] after a voiceless consonant, [=] after a
vowel or a voiced consonant, [=] after a fricative or
affricate sound
e.g. books [pg], claps [gO]
trees [4)=], pens [penz], needs /)-=/
buses /p=/, washes /Ce=/

Pronunciation of the regular past
tense.-ed
e.g. liked Cg4]
lived [+-]
needed [)--]
wanted [C4-]
O regular past tense and past participle
inflections <-ed> [4]after a
voiceless consonant, [-] after a vowel
or a voiced consonant, [-] after [t]
and [d]
Sentences in phonetic transcription
[C- Cg 4* 4]g O
]4e ]g4 *]
Id like to take up French next year

[) Cg4 ) 4O**
4 gp]
We liked the atmosphere in that club

[C* C4 *= +]) ]
4]
Our flight was very late

[4 +]) gC- *+ 4 4
* ]O]
Its very kind of you to help

The syllable
a phonological unit made up of one or more
phonemes. A minimum syllable is made of a
vowel (V). The most common syllable in English
is made by Consonant+Vowel+Consonant

V are []
CV tea [4)]
VC arm [O]
CVC did [--]

SYLLABLES IN ENGLISH AND IN ITALIAN
closed syllables end in a consonant and are
the most common in English (60%)
e.g. stop, get, bed
open syllables end in a vowel and they are
the most common in Italian (70%)
e.g. Cane, camera, figlio

Italian speakers tend to add a vowel sound at the
end of English closed syllables
e.g. book [bk] rather than [bk]

Stress
The prominence given to a syllable


in phonetic transcription stress is indicated by a
vertical line (stress mark) preceding the
stressed syllable. Polysyllabic words may have a
primary and a secondary stress

happiness [O*]
newspaper [4=^O]O*]
Stress patterns 2 syllables
TYPE (strong + weak)
e.g. money [O)]
river [+*]
breakfast [p]g*4]

TYPE (strong + strong)
e.g. background [pg_C-]
phoneme [*)O],
pillow [O*]
Stress patterns 2 syllables
TYPE (weak + strong)
e.g. result [=4]
report [OO4]
believe [p)+]

TYPE (strong + strong)
e.g. although [O*]
myself [OC]]
tycoon [4Cg4]
Stress shift
predicative
my son is fourteen
[OC = O4)]

attributive
I lost fourteen pounds

[C C4 O4) OC-=]

digest [-C-L]4] to digest
[-C-L]4]
export []gOO4] to export
[gOO4],
desert [-]=*4] to desert
[-=)4].
Stress patterns 3 syllables
TYPE (strong + weak + weak)
e.g. family [O*)], manager
[O*-L*]

TYPE (strong+weak+strong)
e.g. telephone [4]*], summertime
[O*4CO]

the suffix -ate is always strong in verbs but weak in
adjectives and nouns
e.g. operate v. [CO*]4] hesitate v.
[]=4]4]
fortunate adj. [O4e**4] chocolate n.
[4eCg*4]
Stress pattern 3 syllables
TYPE (strong + strong + weak)
e.g. newspaper [4=^O]O*] grandmother
[_-^O*]

TYPE (weak + strong + weak)
e.g. remember [O]Op*] agreement
[*_)O*4]

TYPE (strong + strong + weak)
e.g. sensation []]e}] unhealthy
[]+)]

TYPE (strong + weak + strong)
e.g. afternoon [^4*4] understand
[^-*4-]
Stress and suffixes
Germanic rule: stress on the first syllable
answer [*] vs Romance rule: stress
on the penultimate or final syllable reply
[OC]

suffixes carrying stress
-ee addressee
[^-])]

Stress and suffixes
suffixes that are not stressed (stress is left on
the root word):
-ful wonderful
[-*}]
-less meaningless
[O)*]
-ment development
[-+]*OO*4]

suffixes that assign stress to the penultimate
syllable:
-ic economic
[^)g*COg]
-ics linguistics
[_4g]
Underline the word which does not have the same stress
pattern in the lists below.

trouble Britain cigar jingle poker

alone perhaps respect Turkey deny


colleague outline someone control Monday

upstairs divert goodbye thirteen freedom

president dictation Arabic diplomat visitor

imitate photograph glorify wonderful obedient

newsreader important grandfather homecoming headhunter

vacation sincerely suspicion professor library

vibration lefthanded dangerous unlikely organic

ANSWERS.

trouble Britain cigar jingle poker

alone perhaps respect Turkey deny


colleague outline someone control Monday

upstairs divert goodbye thirteen freedom

president dictation Arabic diplomat visitor

imitate photograph glorify wonderful obedient

newsreader important grandfather homecoming headhunter

vacation sincerely suspicion professor library

vibration lefthanded dangerous unlikely organic