HC VIN CNG NGH BU CHNH VIN THNG

X L M THANH, HNH NH
(Dng cho sinh vin h o to i hc t xa)
Lu hnh ni b










H NI - 2007




HC VIN CNG NGH BU CHNH VIN THNG






X L M THANH, HNH NH

Bin son : TS. NGUYN THANH BNH
THS. V NGUYN QUC BO

LI NI U

Ti liu hng dn hc tp mn "X l m thanh v hnh nh" dnh cho khi o to t
xa chuyn ngnh in t vin thng. Ti liu ny s gii thiu nhng kin thc c bn v x l m
thanh v hnh nh. c bit, tc gi ch trng ti vn x l tn hiu ng dng trong mng vin
thng: l cc phng php nn tn hiu, lu tr, cc tiu chun nn tn hiu m thanh v hnh
nh. Nhng kin thc c trnh by trong ti liu s gip hc vin tip cn nhanh vi cc vn
thc tin thng gp trong mng vin thng.
V khi lng kin thc trong lnh vc x l m thanh cng nh hnh nh rt ln, v vi
qu thi gian qu eo hp dnh cho bin son, ti liu hng dn ny cha thu tm c ton b
kin thc cn c v lnh vc x l m thanh v hnh nh. tm hiu v mt s vn c trong
cng mn hc i hi hc vin phi nghin cu thm trong s sch tham kho c tc gi
cp ti trong phn cui ca ti liu ny.
Ni dung cun sch c chia lm hai chng:
- Chng 1: K thut x l m thanh
- Chng 2: K thut x l hnh nh.
c th hc tt mn ny, sinh vin cn phi c kin thc c bn v x l tn hiu s.
Cc kin thc ny cc bn c th tm hiu trong cun X l tn hiu s dnh cho sinh vin i
hc t xa ca Hc vin.
y l ln bin son u tin, chc chn ti liu cn nhiu s st, rt mong cc bn c
trong qu trnh hc tp v cc thy c ging dy mn hc ny ng gp cc kin xy dng.
Trong thi gian gn nht, tc gi s c gng cp nhp, b xung thm ti liu hng dn c
hon chnh hn.
Mi kin ng gp ngh gi v theo a ch email: binhntptit@yahoo.com


Tp. H Ch Minh 19/05/2007
Nhm bin son







2

3

CHNG 1 K THUT X L M THANH

1.1 TNG QUAN V X L M THANH
1.1.1 Gii thiu s lc v m thanh & h thng x l m thanh
1.1.1.1 c tnh ca m thanh tng t [1]
Mc ch ca li ni l dng truyn t thng tin. C rt nhiu cch m t c im
ca vic truyn t thng tin. Da vo l thuyt thng tin, li ni c th c i din bi thut
ng l ni dung thng ip, hoc l thng tin. Mt cch khc biu th li ni l tn hiu mang
ni dung thng ip, nh l dng sng m thanh.

Hnh 1.1 Dng sng ca tn hiu ghi nhn c t m thanh ca ngi
K thut u tin dng trong vic ghi m s dng cc thng s v c, in cng nh
trng c th lm nn nhiu cch thc ghi m ng vi cc loi p sut khng kh khc nhau. in
p n t mt microphone l tn hiu tng t ca p sut khng kh (hoc i khi l vn tc). D
c phn tch bng cch thc no, th cc phng php khi so snh vi nhau phi dng mt t l
thi gian.
Trong khi cc thit b tng t hin i trng c v x l m thanh tt hn nhng thit b
c in, cc tiu chun x l th hu nh khng c g thay i, mc d cng ngh c v x l tt
hn. Trong h thng x l m thanh tng t, thng tin c truyn t bng thng s lin tc
bin thin v hn.
H thng x l m thanh s l tng c nhng tnh nng tng t nh h thng x l m
thanh tng t l tng: c hai hot ng mt cch trong sut v to li dng sng ban u
khng li. Tuy nhin, trong th gii thc, cc iu kin l tng rt him tn ti, cho nn hai loi
h thng x l m thanh hot ng s khc nhau trong thc t. Tn hiu s s truyn trong khong
cch ngn hn tn hiu tng t v vi chi ph thp hn. Trong gio trnh ny, tp trung cp
n h thng s x l m thanh.
Thng tin dng truyn t ca m thoi v bn cht c tnh ri rc [2], v n c th
c biu din bi mt chui ghp gm nhiu phn t t mt tp hu hn cc k hiu (symbol).
Cc k hiu t mi m thanh c th c phn loi thnh cc m v (phoneme). Mi ngn ng c
cc tp m v khc nhau, c c trng bi cc con s c gi tr t 30 n 50. V d nh ting
Anh c biu din bi mt tp khong 42 m v.
Tn hiu thoi c truyn vi tc nh th no? i vi tn hiu m thoi nguyn thy
cha qua hiu chnh th tc truyn c lng c th tnh c bng cch lu gii hn vt l
ca vic ni lu lot ca ngi ni to ra m thanh thoi l khong 10 m v trong mt giy. Mi

4
mt m v c biu din bi mt s nh phn, nh vy mt m gm 6 bit c th biu din c
tt c cc m v ca ting Anh. Vi tc truyn trung bnh 10 m v/giy, v khng quan tm
n vn luyn m gia cc m v k nhau, ta c th c lng c tc truyn trunh bnh
ca m thoi khong 60bit/giy.
Trong h thng truyn m thoi, tn hiu thoi c truyn lu tr v x l theo nhiu
cch thc khc nhau. Tuy nhin i vi mi loi h thng x l m thanh th c hai iu cn quan
tm chung l:
1. Vic duy tr ni dung ca thng ip trong tn hiu thoi
2. Vic biu din tn hiu thoi phi t c mc tiu tin li cho vic truyn tin hoc lu
tr, hoc dng linh ng cho vic hiu chnh tn hiu thoi sao cho khng lm gim
nghim trng ni dung ca thng ip thoi.
Vic biu din tn hiu thoi phi m bo vic cc ni dung thng tin c th c d
dng trch ra bi ngi nghe, hoc bi cc thit b phn tch mt cch t ng.
1.1.1.2 Khi nim tn hiu
L i lng vt l bin thin theo thi gian, theo khng gian, theo mt hoc nhiu bin
c lp khc, v d nh:
m thanh, ting ni: dao ng sng theo thi gian (t)
Hnh nh: cng sng theo khng gian (x, y, z)
a chn: chn ng a l theo thi gian
Biu din ton hc ca tn hiu: hm theo bin c lp
V d:
5 2 ) (
2
= t t u

2 2
6 2 ) , ( y xy x y x f =
Thng thng cc tn hiu t nhin khng biu din c bi mt hm s cp, cho nn
trong tnh ton, ngi ta thng dng hm xp x cho cc tn hiu t nhin.
H thng: l thit b vt l, thit b sinh hc, hoc chng trnh thc hin cc php ton
trn tn hiu nhm bin i tn hiu, rt trch thng tin, Vic thc hin php ton cn c gi
l x l tn hiu.
1.1.1.3 Phn loi tn hiu:
Tn hiu a knh: gm nhiu tn hiu thnh phn ,cng chung m t mt i tng no
(thng c biu din di dng vector, v d nh tn hiu in tim (ECG-ElectroCardioGram) ,
tn hiu in no (EEG ElectroEncephaloGram), tn hiu nh mu RGB.
Tn hiu a chiu: bin thin theo nhiu hn mt bin c lp, v d nh tn hiu hnh nh,
tn hiu tivi trng en.
Tn hiu lin tc theo thi gian: l tn hiu c nh ngha ti mi im trong on thi
gian [a,b], k hiu ) (t x .

5

Hnh 1.2 Tn hiu lin tc theo thi gian
Tn hiu ri rc thi gian: l tn hiu ch c nh ngha ti nhng thi im ri rc khc
nhau, k hiu ) (n x .

Hnh 1.3 Tn hiu ri rc theo thi gian
Tn hiu lin tc gi tr: l tn hiu c th nhn tr bt k trong on ] , [
max min
Y Y , v d tn
hiu tng t (analog).

Hnh 1.4 Tn hiu lin tc gi tr
Tn hiu ri rc gi tr: tn hiu ch nhn tr trong mt tp tr ri rc nh trc (tn hiu
s).

6

Hnh 1.5 Tn hiu ri rc gi tr
Tn hiu analog: l tn hiu lin tc v thi gian, lin tc v gi tr.

Hnh 1.6 Tn hiu analog
Tn hiu s: l tn hiu ri rc v thi gian, ri rc v gi tr.

Hnh 1.7 Tn hiu s
Tn hiu ngu nhin: gi tr ca tn hiu trong tng lai khng th bit trc c. Cc tn
hiu trong t nhin thng thuc nhm ny
Tn hiu tt nh: gi tr tn hiu qu kh, hin ti v tng li u c xc nh r,
thng thng c cng thc xc nh r rng
1.1.1.4 Phn loi h thng x l
Gm hai loi h thng l h thng tng t v h thng s. Trong h thng x l s: l
h thng c th lp trnh c, d m phng, cu hnh, sn xut hng lot vi chnh xc cao,
gi thnh h, tn hiu s d lu tr, vn chuyn v sao lu, nhc im l kh thc hin vi cc
tn hiu c tn s cao

7
1.1.1.5 H thng s x l m thanh [3]
nhy ca tai ngi rt cao, n c th phn bit c s lng nhiu rt nh cng nh
chp nhn tm bin m thanh rt ln. Cc c tnh ca mt tn hiu tai ngi nghe c c th
c o c bng cc cng c ph hp. Thng thng, tai ngi nhy nht tm tn s 2kHz v
5kHz, mc d cng c ngi c th nhn dng c tn hiu trn 20kHz. Tm ng nghe c
ca tai ngi c phn tch v ngi ta nhn c kt qu l c dng p ng logarith.
Tn hiu m thanh c truyn qua h thng s l chui cc bit. Bi v bit c tnh chtt ri
rc, d dng xc nh s lng bng cch m s lng trong mt giy, d dng quyt nh tc
truyn bit cn thit truyn tn hiu m khng lm mt thng tin.


Hnh 1.8 nhn c tm mc tn hiu khc nhau mt cch phn bit, tn hiu nh-
nh ca tn hiu nhiu phi nh hn hoc sai bit gia cc mc . T s tn hiu trn nhiu
phi ti thiu l 8:1 hoc l 18dB, truyn bi 3 bit. 16 mc th t s tn hiu trn nhiu phi l
24dB, truyn bi 4 bit.
1.1.1.6 M hnh ha tn hiu m thanh [4]
C rt nhiu k thut x l tn hiu c m hnh ha v p dng cc gii thut trong vic
khi phc m thanh. Cht lng ca m thoi ph thuc rt ln vo m hnh gi nh ph hp vi
d liu. i vi tn hiu m thanh, bao gm m thoi, nhc v nhiu khng mong mun, m hnh
phi tng qut v khng sai lnh so vi gi nh. Mt iu cn lu l hu ht cc tn hiu m
thoi l cc tn hiu ng trong thc t, mc d m hnh thc tin th thng gi nh khi phn
tch tn hiu l tn hiu c tnh cht tnh trong mt khong thi gian ang xt.
M hnh ph hp vi hu ht rt nhiu lnh vc trong vic x l chui thi gian, bao gm
vic phc hi m thanh l m hnh Autoregressive (vit tt AR), c dng lm m hnh chun
cho vic phn tch d on tuyn tnh.

8
Tn hiu hin ti c biu din bi tng gi tr ca P tn hiu trc v tn hiu nhiu
trng, Pl bc ca m hnh AR:
[ ] [ ] [ ]

=
+ =
P
i
i
n e a i n s u s
1
(1.1)
M hnh AR i din cho cc qu trnh tuyn tnh tnh, chp nhn tn hiu tng t nhiu
v tn hiu tng t iu ha. Mt m hnh khc ph hp hn i vi nhiu tnh hung phn tch
l m hnh auto regressive moving-average (ARMA) cho php cc im cc cng nh im 0.
Tuy nhin m hnh AR c tnh linh ng hn trong phn tch hn m hnh ARMA, v d mt tn
hiu nhc phc tp cn m hnh c bc 100 > P biu din dng sng ca tn hiu, trong khi
cc tn hiu n gin hn ch cn biu din bng bc 30. Trong nhiu ng dng, vic la chn bc
ca m hnh ph hp cho bi ton sao cho m bo vic biu din tn hiu l tha vic khng lm
mt i thng tin ca tn hiu l vic hi phc tp. C rt nhiu phng php dng c lng
bc ca m hnh AR nh phng php maximum likelihood/least-squares [Makhoul, 1975], v
phng php robust to noise [Huber, 1981, Spath, 1991], v.v Tuy nhin, i vi vic x l cc
tn hiu m nhc phc tp th thng thng s dng m hnh Sin (Sinusoidal) rt c hiu qu
trong cc ng dng m thoi. M hnh Sin rt ph hp trong cc phng php dng gim
nhiu. Tn hiu c cho bi cng thc sau
[ ] [ ] ( )

=
nT
i i
P
i
i
dt t n a n s
n
0
1
sin (1.2)
y l m hnh tng qut i vi cc iu ch bin v iu ch tn s, tuy nhin li
khng ph hp i vi cc tn hiu tng t nhiu, mc d vic biu din tn hiu nhiu c th
c biu din bi s lng hm sin rt ln.
1.1.1.7 Kin trc h thng s x l m thanh
i vi my tnh s x l m thanh, ngi ta thng dng phng php iu ch xung
(Pulse Code Modulation , vit tt PCM). Dng sng m thanh c chuyn sang dy s PCM nh
sau, xt tn hiu hnh sin lm v d:
Tn hiu gc l tn hiu nh Hnh 1.9

A
i
r

D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
Time

Hnh 1.9 Dng sng m thanh nguyn thy
K n, s dng mt microphone thu tn hiu m thanh (trong khng kh) v chuyn
i thnh tn hiu in, tm in p ng ra ca microphone 1 volt nh Hnh 1.10.

9
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
Time
+1.0
+0.5
0
-0.5
-1.0

Hnh 1.10 Dng sng ca tn hiu in
Tn hiu in p dng tng t sau c chuyn thnh dng s ha bng thit b
chuyn i tng t-s (analog-to-digital converter). Khi s dng b chuyn i 16bit
tng t-s, tm s nguyn ng ra c gi tr 32,768 n +32,767, c m t nh hnh
1.11.
C
o
n
v
e
r
t
e
r

O
u
t
p
u
t
Time
+32,767
+16,383
0
-16,384
-32,768

Hnh 1.11 Ng ra ca b chuyn i tn hiu tng t sang tn hiu s
V s lng im d liu l v hn nn khng th ly tt c cc im thuc trc thi gian,
vic ly mu s c thc hin trong mt khong thi gian u n. S lng mu trong
mt giy c gi l tn s ly mu (sampling rate). Hnh 1.12 m t 43 mu c ly
C
o
n
v
e
r
t
e
r

O
u
t
p
u
t
+32,767
+16,383
0
-16,384
-32,768
1 43

Hnh 1.12 Thc hin vic ly mu
Kt qu ca vic ly mu l mt chui gm 43 ch s biu din cho cc v tr ca dng
sng ng thi gian gian l mt chu k (hnh 1.13).
R
e
c
o
r
d
e
d

V
a
l
u
e
+32,767
+16,383
0
-16,384
-32,768
1 43

Hnh 1.13 Kt qu ca vic ly mu cc gi tr

10
My tnh sau s xy dng li dng sng ca tn hiu bng vic kt ni cc im d liu
li vi nhau. Dng sng kt qu c m t Hnh 1.14.
R
e
c
o
r
d
e
d

V
a
l
u
e
+32,767
+16,383
0
-16,384
-32,768
1 43

Hnh 1.14 Dng sng c ti to li
Lu rng c mt vi im khc bit gia dng sng nguyn thy v dng sng ti to
(Hnh 1.9 v Hnh 1.14), l do:
A. Cc gi tr c to ra ti b chuyn i tn hiu tng t sang tn hiu s l cc s
nguyn v c lm trn gi tr.
B. Hnh dng ca tn hiu ti to ph thuc vo s lng mu c ghi nhn.
Tng qut, mt dy s hu hn (i din cho tn hiu s) ch c th biu din cho mt
dng sng tn hiu tng t vi chnh xc hu hn.
1.1.1.8 Tn s ly mu
Khi chuyn i mt m thanh sang dng s, iu cn lu l tn s ly mu ca h thng
x l phi m bo tnh trung thc v chnh xc khi cn phc hi li dng sng tn hiu ban u.
Theo nh ly mu Nyquist v Shannon, tn s ly mu quyt nh tn s cao nht ca tn
hiu phc hi. ti to li dng sng c tn s l F , cn phi ly F 2 mu trong mt giy. Tn
s ny cn c gi l tn s Nyquist. Tuy nhin, nh l Nyquist khng phi l ti u cho mi
trng hp. Nu mt dng sng hnh Sin c tn s l 500Hz, th tn s ly mu 1000Hz. Nu nh
tn s ly mu cao hn tn s Nyquist s gy ra tnh trng hiu ng l nh hng n bin
ca tn hiu v tn hiu b cng nhiu, tuy nhin lc th cc thnh phn hi tn s thp li c tn
hiu chnh xc hn khi c phc hi.
1.1.2 Nhc li mt s khi nim ton hc trong x l m thanh
1.1.2.1 Php bin i z [5]
Php bin i z ca mt chui c nh ngha bi cp biu thc
( )

=
n
n
z n x z X ) ( (1.3a)

=
C
n
dz z z X
j
n x
1
) (
2
1
) (

(1.3b)
Bin i z ca ) (n x c nh ngha bi biu thc (1.6a). ) (z X cn c gi l dy
cng sut v hn theo bin
1
z vi cc gi tr ca ) (n x chnh l cc h s ca dy cng sut.
Min hi t ROC l { < ) (z X z }, l nhng gi tr ca z sao cho chui hi t, hay ni cch
khc

11

<
n
n
z n x ) ( (1.4)
Thng thng, min hi t ca z c dng:

2 1
R z R < < (1.5)
V d: Cho ) ( ) (
0
n n n x = . Theo cng thc (1.3a), ta c
0
) (
n
z z X

=
V d: Cho ) ( ) ( ) ( N n u n u n x = . Theo cng thc (1.3a), ta c

1
1
0
1
1
). 1 ( ) (

= =

z
z
z z X
N
N
n
n

V d: Cho ) ( . ) ( n u a n x
n
= . Suy ra z a
az
z a z X
n
n
n
<

= =

,
1
1
) (
1
0

V d: Cho ) 1 ( ) ( = n u b n x
n
. Then
1
1
1
1
) (

=

= =

bz
z b z X
n
n
n
, b z <
Bng 2.1 Chui tn hiu v bin i z tng ng
Chui tn hiu Bin i z
1. Tuyn tnh
) ( ) (
2 1
n bx n ax + ) ( ) (
2 1
z bX z aX +
2. Dch
) (
0
n n x +
) (
0
z X z
n

3. Hm m
( ) n x a
n
) (
1
z a X


4. Hm tuyn tnh nx(n)
dz
z dX
z
) (

5. o thi gian x(-n)
) (
1
z X
6. Tng quan x(n)*h(n) X(z)H(z)
7. Nhn chui x(n)w(n)

d z W X
j
C

1
) / ( ) (
2
1

1.1.2.2 Php bin i Fourier
Bin i Fourier ca tn hiu ri rc thi gian c cho bi biu thc

jwn
n
jw
e n x e X

= ) ( ) ( (1.6a)

dw e e X n x
jwn jw
) (
2
1
) ( (1.6b)
Bin i Fourier l trng hp c bit ca php bin i z bng cch thay th
iw
e z = .
Nh m t trong Hnh 1.4, trong mt phng z, tn s w l gc quay. iu kin tn ti bin
i Fourier l 1 = z , nh vy

12
<

) (n x (1.7)


Hnh 1.15 Vng trn n v thuc mt phng z
Mt c tnh quan trng ca bin i Fourier ca mt chui l ) (
iw
e X l hm iu ha w,
vi chu k l 2 .
Bng cch thay
iw
e z = bng 2.1, c c c bng bin i Fourier tng ng.
1.1.2.3 Php bin i Fourier ri rc
Trong trng hp tn hiu tng t, tun hon vi chu k N
< < + = n N n x n x ) (
~
) (
~
(1.8)
Vi ) (
~
n x c th c dng l tng ri rc cc tn hiu sin thay v tch phn nh cng thc
(1.9b). Php bin i Fourier cho chui tun hon nh sau

=
1
0
2
) (
~
) (
~
N
n
kn
N
j
e n x k X

(1.9a)

=
=
1
0
2
) (
~ 1
) (
~
N
k
kn
N
j
e k X
N
k x

(1.9b)
Chui x(n) hu hn, c gi tr bng 0 vi 1 0 N n , c php bin i z l.

=
1
0
) ( ) (
N
n
n
z n x z X (1.10)
Nu chia ) (z X thnh N im trn vng trn n v,
N k j
k
e z
2
= , 1 ,..., 1 , 0 = N k , ta
c:

=
1
0
2 2
) ( ) (
N
n
kn
N
j k
N
j
e n x e X

, 1 ,..., 1 , 0 = N k (1.11)
Chui tun hon v hn ) (
~
n x c cng thc t x(n) nh sau

=
+ =
r
rN n x n x ) ( ) (
~
(1.12)

13
Ta nhn thy rng cc mu ) (
2
k
N
j
e X

t phng trnh (1.9a) v (1.11) chnh l cc h s
Fourier ca chui tun hon ) (
~
n x trong phng trnh (1.12). Nh vy, mt chui c chiu di N
c th c biu diwnx bi php bin i Fourier ri rc (DFT) nh sau:

=
1
0
2
) ( ) (
N
n
kn
N
j
e n x k X

, 1 ,..., 1 , 0 = N k (1.13a)

=
=
1
0
2
) (
1
) (
N
k
kn
N
j
e k X
N
n x

, 1 ,..., 1 , 0 = N n (1.13b)
iu khc bit duy nht gia biu thc (1.12) v (1.9) l k hiu (loi b k hiu ~ khi
ni n tn hiu tun hon) v gii hn hu hn 1 0 N k v 1 0 N n . Lu mt
iu l ch dng php bin i DFT cho tn hiu tun hon c tnh cht l module ca N .

N
k
n x
n x rN n x n x
)) ((
( ) ( ) (
=
= + =

=
module N ) (1.14)
Bng 2.2 Chui v bin i DFT
Chui tn hiu Bin i N im DFT
1. Tuyn tnh
) ( ) (
2 1
n bx n ax + ) ( ) (
2 1
k bX k aX +
2. Dch
N
n n x )) ((
0
+
) (
0
2
k X e
kn
N
j


3. o thi gian
N
n x )) ((
) (
*
k X
4. Kt hp

=

1
0
)) (( ) (
N
m
N
m n h m x
X(k)H(k)
5. Nhn chui x(n)w(n)

=

1
0
)) (( ) (
1
N
r
N
r k W r X
N


1.2 M HNH X L M THANH
1.2.1 Cc m hnh ly mu v m ho thoi
1.2.1.1 Ly mu tn hiu min thi gian v ti to tn hiu lin tc [6]
x l mt tn hiu lin tc bng cc phng tin x l tn hiu s, ta phi i tn hiu
lin tc ra dng mt chui s bng cc ly mu tn hiu lin tc mt cch tun hon c chu k
l T giy. Gi ) (n x l tn hiu ri rc hnh thnh do qu trnh ly mu, tn hiu lin tc ) (t x
a
, ta
c
) ( ) ( nT x n x
a
= < < n (1.15)
Cc mu ) (n x phi c lng ha thnh mt tp cc mc bin ri rc ri mi c
a vo b x l s. Hnh 1.16 minh ha mt cu hnh tiu biu cho h thng x l tn hiu tng

14
t bng phng php s. Trong cc phn sau, ta b qua sai s lng ha pht sinh trong qu trnh
bin i A/D

Hnh 1.16 Cu hnh h thng x l tn hiu tng t bng phng php s
xc nh quan h gia ph ca tn hiu lin tc v ph ca tn hiu ri rc to ra t qu
trnh ly mu tn hiu, lin tc , ta ch n quan h gia bin c lp t v n ca tn hiu
) (t x
a
v ) (n x

s
F
n
nT t = = (1.16)
nh l ly mu: mt tn hiu lin tc c bng tn hu hn, c tn s cao nht l B Hertz
c th khi phc t cc mu ca n vi iu kin tn s ly mu B F
s
2 mu / giy
1.2.1.2 Ly mu tn hiu min tn s v ti to tn hiu lin tc
Ta bit tn hiu lin tc c nng lng hu hn th c ph lin tc. Trong phn ny, ta
s xt qu trnh ly mu ca cc tn hiu loi mt cch tun hon v s ti to n hiu t cc
mu ca ph ca chng
Xt mt tn hiu lin tc ) (t x
a
vi mt ph lin tc ) (F X
a
. Gi s ta ly mu ) (F X
a

ti cc thi im cch nhau F Hertz. Ta mun ti to ) (F X
a
hoc ) (t x
a
t cc mu ) (F X
a

Nu tn hiu tng t ) (t x
a
c gii hn thi gian l giy v
s
T c chn
> 2
s
T th aliasing khng xy ra v ph ) (F X
a
c th c khi phc hon ton t cc mu.
1.2.1.3 Ly mu tn hiu min tn s v ti to tn hiu ri rc
Xt mt tn hiu ri rc khng tun hon ) (n x c php bin i Fourier:

=
n
n j
e n x X

) ( ) ( (1.17)
Gi s ta ly mu ) ( X tun hon ti cc im cch nhau rad. V ) ( X tun hon
vi chu k 2 , ch c cc mu trong phm vi tn s c bn l cn thit. thun tin, ta ly N
mu cch u nhau trong khong 2 0 theo khong cch N / 2 =
Xt N k / 2 = , ta c

n
N kn j
e n x k
N
X
/ 2
) (
2

1 ,..., 1 , 0 = N k (1.18)
Xt tn hiu

=
=
l
p
lN n x n x ) ( ) ( nhn c bng cch lp li tun hon ) (n x ti mi
N mu, tn hiu ny tun hon vi chu k N , do c th c trin khai theo khai trin
Fourier

N kn j
N
k
p
e k
N
X
N
n x
/ 2
1
0
)
2
(
1
) (

=
= , 1 ,..., 1 , 0 = N n (1.19)
Mch
lc

A/D
Mch x l tn
hiu s

D/A
Mch
lc
Tn hiu
lin tc
) (t x
a
) (n x ) (n y ) (t y
a

) ( ' t x
a

15
T cng thc ) (n x
p
trn, ta nhn thy c th khi phc tn hiu ) (n x
p
t cc mu ca
ph ) ( X . Nh vy, ta phi tm ra mi tng quan gia ) (n x
p
v ) (n x c th thc hin
khi phc ) (n x t ) ( X
V ) (n x
p
l s m rng tun hon ca ) (n x , nn ) (n x c th c khi phc t ) (n x
p

nu khng c aliasing ci thi gian, ngha l nu ) (n x c thi gian gii hn nh hn hoc bng
chu k N ca ) (n x
p
.
1.2.1.4 Cc chun m ha m thoi trong cc h thng x l thoi [7]
Chun m ha m thoi thng thng c nghin cu v pht trin bi mt nhm cc
chuyn gia ginh ht thi gian v tm huyt thc hin cc cng vic kim nghim, m phng
sao cho m bo mt tp cc yu cu a ra p ng c. Ch c cc t chc vi ngun ti
nguyn khng l mi c th thc hin c cc cng vic kh khn ny, thng thng, thi gian
ti thiu cn thit hon thnh mt chun trong trng hp gp nhiu thun li trong qu trnh
l khong bn nm ri.
iu ny khng c ngha l mt chun c a ra th khng c li hoc khng cn
phi ci tin. Do , cc chun mi lun lun xut hin sao cho tt hn chun c cng nh ph
hp vi cc ng dng trong tng lai.
Hi ng chun l cc t chc c trch nhim trong vic gim st vic pht trin cc
chun cho mt ng dng c th no . Sau y l mt s hi ng chun ni ting c nhiu
nh cung cp sn phm tun theo
Lin minh vin thng quc t - International Telecommunications Union (ITU): Cc
chun vin thng ca ITU (chun ITU-T) c uy tn trong vic nh ra cc chun m ha
m thoi cho h thng mng in thoi, bao gm cc mng v tuyn ln hu tuyn.
Hip hi cng nghip vin thng - Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA): c
trch nhim ban hnh cc chun m ha thoi cho cc ng dng c th, l mt thnh vin
ca Vin tiu chun quc gia Hoa K - National Standards Institute (ANSI). TIA thnh
cng trong vic pht trin cc chun s dng trong cc h thng tng i t bo s Bc
M, bao gm cc h thng s dng chun a kt phn thi gian - Time division multiple
access (TDMA) v a truy nhp phn chia theo m - Code division multiple access
(CDMA).
Vin tiu chun vin thng chu u - European Telecommunications Standards Institute
(ETSI): ETSI c cc hi vin t cc nc cng nh cc cng ty Chu u, l t chc a
ra cc chun sn xut thit b ti Chu u. ETSI c thnh lp bi nhm c nh hng
nht trong lnh vc m ha m thoi l nhm di ng c bit - Groupe Speciale Mobile
(GSM), a ra rt nhiu chun hu dng v c trin khai rt nhiu trn th gii
B quc phng Hoa K - United States Department of Defense (DoD). DoD c lin quan
n vic sng lp cc chun m ha thoi, c bit n vi cc chun lin bang Hoa K
(U.S. Federal) dng nhiu cho cc ng dng qun s
Trung tm pht trin v nghin cu cc h thng v tuyn ca Nht Bn - Research and
Development Center for Radio Systems of Japan (RCR). Cc chun t bo s c pht
hnh bi RCR.


16
Bng 2.3 Cc chun m ha m thoi chnh
Nm
hon
thnh
Tn chun Tc bit truyn
(kbps)
Cc ng dng
1972
a
ITU-T G.711 PCM 64 S dng cng cng
1984
b
FS 1015 LPC 2.4 Lin lc bo mt
1987
b
ETSI GSM 6.10 RPE-
LTP
13 V tuyn di ng s
1990
c
ITU-T G.726 ADPCM 16, 24, 32, 40 S dng cng cng
1990
b
TIA IS54 VSELP 7.95 H thng thoi t bo s TDMA
Bc M
1990
c
ETSI GSM 6.20 VSELP 5.6 H thng t bo GSM
1990
c
RCR STD-27B VSELP 6.7 H thng t bo Nht
1991
b
FS1016 CELP 4.8 Lin lc bo mt
1992
b
ITU-T G.728 LD-CELP 16 S dng cng cng
1993
b
TIA IS96 VBR-CELP 8.5, 4, 2, 0.8 H thng thoi t bo s CDMA
Bc M
1995
a
ITU-T G.723.1 MP-
MLQ/ACELP
5.3, 6.3 Lin lc a phng tin, in
thoi truyn hnh
1995
b
ITU-T G.729 CS-ACELP 8 S dng cng cng
1996
a
ETSI GSM EFR ACELP 12.2 S dng cng cng
1996
a
TIA IS641 ACELP 7.4 H thng thoi t bo s TDMA
Bc M
1997
b
FS MELP 2.4 Lin lc bo mt
1999
a
ETSI AMR-ACELP 12.2, 10.2, 7.95,
7.40, 6.70, 5.90,
5.15, 4.75
S dng cng cng vin thng
a
l c m t mt phn
b
l c gii thch y
c
l c m t ngn gn m khng c m t k thut chi tit
1.2.1.5 Kin trc ca h thng m ha m thoi [8]
Hnh 1.17 m t s khi ca h thng m ha m thoi. Tn hiu m thoi tng t lin
tc c t ngun cho trc s c s ha bi b mt b lc chun, b ly mu (b chuyn i
thi gian ri rc), v b chuyn tn hiu tng t sang tn hiu s. Tn hiu ng ra l tn hiu m
thoi thi gian ri rc vi cc gi tr ly mu cng ri rc ha. Tn hiu ny c xem l tn hiu
m thoi s.

17

Hnh 1.17 S khi ca h thng x l tn hiu thoi
Thng thng, hu ht cc h thng m ha m thoi c thit k h tr cc ng dng
vin thng, vi tn s gii hn gia 300 v 3400Hz. Theo l thuyt Nyquist, tn s ly mu ti
thiu phi ln hn hai ln bng thng ca tn hiu lin tc thi gian. Gi tr 8kHz thng c la
chn l tn s ly mu chun cho tn hiu thoi. B m ha knh thc hin vic m ha hiu chnh
li ca chui bit truyn trc khi tn hiu c truyn trn knh truyn, ni m tn hiu s b thay
i do nhiu cng nh giao thoa tn hiu. B gii m thc hin vic hiu chnh li c c
tn hiu m ha, sau tn hiu c a vo b gii m c c tn hiu m thoi s c
cng tc vi tn hiu ban u. Lc ny, tn hiu s s c chuyn sang dng tng t thi
gian lin tc. B phn thc hin vic x l tn hiu thoi ch yu ca m hnh h thng x l thoi
l b m ha v gii m. Thng thng, khi x l cc bi ton v truyn thoi, m hnh c n
gin ha nh Hnh 1.18
V d tn hiu thoi ng vo l tn hiu ri rc thi gian c tc bit l 128kbps c a
vo b m ha thc hin m ha chui bit hoc thc hin nn d liu thoi. Tc ca chui
bit thng thng s c tc thp hn tc ca tn hiu ng vo b m ha. B gii m nhn
chui bit m ha ny v to ra tn hiu thoi c dng l ri rc thi gian v c tc bng vi tc
ca tn hiu ban u truyn vo h thng.

Hnh 1.18 S khi n gin ha ca b m ha m thoi

18
1.2.1.6 Kin trc tng qut ca b m ha gii m m thoi [9]

Hnh 1.19 M t s khi tng qut ca b m ha v gii m m thoi.
i vi b m ha, tn hiu m thoi u vo c x l v phn tch nhm thu c cc
thng s i din cho mt khung truyn. Cc thng s ngy c m ha v lng t vi m ch
s nh phn v c gi i nh l mt chui bit c nn. Cc ch s ny c ng gi v
biu din thnh chui bit, chng c sp xp th t truyn da vo cc thng s quyt nh
trc v c truyn n b gii m.

Hnh 1.20 M hnh chung ca b m ha m thoi. Hnh trn: b m ha, hnh di: b
gii m.
B gii m thc hin vic phn tch chui bit nhn c, cc ch s nh phn c phc
hi sau qu trnh phn tch v dng kt hp vi cc thng s tng ng ca b gii m c

19
c cc thng s c lng t. Cc thng s gii m ny s kt hp vi nhau v c x l
to li tn hiu m thoi tng hp.
1.2.1.7 Cc yu cu cn c ca mt b m ha m thoi [10]
Mc tiu chnh ca ca m ha thoi l ti a ha cht lng nghe ti mt tc bit no
, hoc ti thiu ha tc bit ng vi mt cht lng c th. Tc bit tng ng vi m
thoi no s c truyn hoc lu tr ph thuc vo chi ph ca vic truyn hay lu tr, chi ph
ca m ha tn hiu thoi s, v cc yu cu v cht lng ca m thoi . Trong hu ht cc b
m ha m thoi, tn hiu c xy dng li s khc vi tn hiu nguyn thy. Tc bit truyn b
gim bi vic biu din tn hiu m thoi (hoc cc thng s trong m hnh to m thoi) vi
chnh xc b gim, v bi qu trnh loi b cc thng tin d tha ca tn hiu. Cc yu cu l
tng ca mt b m ha thoi bao gm:
Tc bit thp: i vi chui bit m ha c tc bit t l thun vi bng thng cn cho
truyn d liu. iu ny dn n nu tc bit thp s lm tng hiu sut ca h thng.
Yu cu ny li xung t vi cc cc c tnh tt khc ca h thng, nh l cht lng ca
m thoi. Trong thc t, vic nh i gia cc la chn ph thuc vo p dng vo ng
dng g.
Cht lng thoi cao: tn hiu m thoi gii m phi c cht lng c th chp nhn
c i vi ng dng cn t. C rt nhiu kha cnh v mt cht lng bao gm tnh d
hiu, t nhin, d nghe v cng nh c th nhn dng ngi ni.
Nhn dng ting ni / ngn ng khc nhau: k thut nhn dng ting ni c th phn bit
c ging ni ca ngi ln nam gii, ngi ln n gii v tr con cng nh nhn dng
c ngn ng ni ca ngi ni.
Cng mnh trong knh truyn nhiu: y l yu t quan trng i vi cc h thng
truyn thng s vi cc nhiu nh hng mnh n cht lng ca tnh hiu thoi.
Hiu sut cao i vi cc tn hiu phi thoi (v d nh tn hiu tone in thoi): trong h
thng truyn dn kinh in, cc tn hiu khc c th tn ti song song vi tn hiu m
thoi. Cc tn hiu tone nh l a tn tone i Dual tone multifrequency(DTMF) ca tn
hiu m bn phm v nhc thng thng b chn vo trong ng truyn tn hiu. Ngay c
nhng b m ha thoi tc thp cng c th khng th to li tn hiu mt cch hon
chnh.
Kch thc b nh thp v phc tp tnh ton thp: nhm mc ch s dng c b
m ha m thoi trong thc t, chi ph thc hin lin quan n vic trin khai h thng
phi thp, bao gm c vic b nh cn thit h tr khi h thng hot ng cng nh cc
yu cu tnh ton. Cc nh nghin cu m ha m thoi n lc trong vic tm kim hin
thc bi ton trin khai trong thc tin sao cho c hiu qu nht.
tr m ha thp: trong qu trnh x l m ha v gii m thoi, tr tn hiu lun
lun tn ti, chnh l thi gian trt gia m thoi ng vo ca b m ha vi tn hiu ng
ra ca b gii m. Vic tr qu mc s sinh ra nhiu vn trong vic thc hin trao i
ting ni hai chiu trong thi gian thc.
1.2.2 Cc m hnh dng trong x l m thanh [11]
1.2.2.1 M hnh quang ph
1.2.2.1.1 M hnh sin

20
Tn hiu m thanh c th c trin khai t tp hp cc m hnh sin nu nh c c dng

=
=
I
i
t j
i
i
e t A t y
1
) (
) ( ) (

(1.20)
Vi

=
t
i i
d t ) ( ) ( , ) (t A
i
v ) (t
i
l thnh phn bin v tn s tng ng ca
thnh phn sin th i . Trong thc t, tn hiu c xem xt l tn hiu ri rc thi gian thc, nh
vy ta c th vit li
( ) ( )

=
=
I
i
i i
n n A n y
1
cos ) ( ) ( (1.21)
Vi . ) ( ) (
, 0
0
i
nT
i i
d n + =

(1.22)
V c bn, nu nh I c gi tr v cng ln, th bt c tn hiu m thanh no cng c th
c trin khai t m hnh sin, php tnh gn ng c p dng tnh ton trong m hnh ny.
Thc t, tnh hiu nhiu cng c trin khai thnh v s cc tn hiu sin, v ta tch vic x l
ring tn hiu ny thnh phn x l Stochastic ( ) c k hiu l ) (n e .
( ) ( ) + =

n n A n y
i
I
i
i
cos ) ( ) (
0

) (n e (1.23)
Thnh phn c th c tnh bng php bin i Short-Time Fourier s dng lu
hnh 1. Phng php ny c ng dng trong cc phn mm sms, vit tt ca tng hp m hnh
ph - spectral modeling synthesis.

Hnh 1.21 Phn tch cc thnh phn hnh sin ca phn stochastic

21
Pht hin nh v ghp (Peak detection and continuation): thc hin vic phn tch
cc thnh phn hnh sin t tn hiu thng d, ta phi tm c v ghi ch li cc nh tn s ni
tri, tc l cc thnh phn hnh sin nm vai tr chnh trong cng thc phn tch c. Mt chin
thut c s dng thc hin iu ny l v bng ch dn trong cc khung STFT.
thc hin vic phn chia phn no l tn hiu, phn no l nhiu, cc tn s v pha phi
c xc nh mt cch chnh xc. Ngoi ra, qu trnh tng hp li hai tn hiu c n
gin, bin ca cc thnh phn nn c ni suy gia cc khung tn hiu, v php ni suy tuyn
tnh thng c s dng. Cc tn s cng nh pha ca tn hiu cng c th c ni suy, tuy
nhin cn phi lu l php ni suy tn s c nh hng cht ch n php ni suy pha.
Tng hp li cc thnh phn sin: Trong giai on tng hp li, cc thnh phn sin c th
c to bi bt k phng php no nh my to dao ng s, my to dao ng bng sng hoc
tng hp ly mu bng sng, hoc k thut da trn c s FFT. K thut FFT c s dng nhiu
do tnh tin li khi tn hiu c nhiu thnh phn hnh sin.
Trch tn hiu thng d (Extraction of the residual): Vic trch ph ca tn hiu nhiu
thng d c th c thc hin min tn (c m t trong hnh 1) hoc trc tip t min thi
gian.
S hiu chnh ph thng d (Residual spectral fitting): thnh phn stochastic c m
hnh ha l tn hiu nhiu bng rng, c lc bi khi c trng tuyn tnh. Ph cng ca tn
hiu thng d c th c xp x bng gi tr trung bnh ca hm piecewise-linear. Vic tng hp
trong min thi gian c th c thc hin bng php o FFT, sau khi n nh c mt tp
cng mong mun v mt tp pha ngu nhin.
Hiu chnh m thanh: m hnh sin l mt m hnh hu dng v n cho php p dng vic
truyn cc m thanh nhc ly t vic ghi bng thc t. Hnh 1.22 m t mt cc bc thc hn
cho vic hiu chnh tn hiu m nhc

Hnh 1.22 C cu t chc cho vic biu din vic truyn tn hiu m nhc
1.2.2.1.2 Tn hiu sin + nhiu + nt m
Trong m hnh sin + nhiu, iu c bn l cc tn hiu m thanh l tng hp ca nhiu tn
hiu sin tn s thp v cc loi nhiu bng rng hu nh dng tnh. Khi , mt thnh phn ca
m thanh khng c xem xt n, l nt m. Vic hiu chnh m thanh c th c thc

22
hin d dng bng cch tch ring thnh phn nt m xt ring. Thc t, hu ht cc dng c
m nhc m rng trng ca mt nt nhc khng lm nh hng n cht lng x l.
Vi l do ny, mt m hnh mi l sin + nhiu + nt m c pht ha dng trong vic
phn tch m thanh. tng chnh ca vic trch m m trong thc t t vic quan st rng, cc
tn hiu hnh sin trong min thi gian c nh x qua min tn thnh cc nh c v tr xc nh,
trong khi cc xung ngn i ngu trong min thi gian khi c nh x qua min tn li c
dng hnh sin. Nh vy, m hnh sin c th c ng dng trong min tn s biu din cc tn
hiu hnh sin. S ca vic phn tch SNT c m t trong Hnh 1.23.

Hnh 1.23 Phn tch tn hiu m thanh theo m hnh sin + nhiu + nt m
Khi DCT trong Hnh 1.23 m t hot ng ca php ri rc cosin.
Php bin i, c nh ngha nh sau:

( )

+
=
1
0
2
1 2
cos ) ( ) (
N
n
N
k n
n x k C

(1.24)
Php bin i DCT thc hin vic mt xung c bin i thnh dng cosin v ngc li.
1.2.2.1.3 M hnh LPC
M ha d on tuyn tnh c th c s dng m hnh ph tnh. Tng hp LPC c
m t trong lu trong Hnh 1.24. V bn cht, m hnh chnh l gii thut tr tng hp thc
hin mt tnh hiu c ph c c lc bi mt b lc cc. Tn hiu kch thch c th s dng
chnh tn hiu thng d e c c qua qu trnh phn tch, hoc c th d dng cc thng tin ca
tn hiu thoi/phi thoi.

Hnh 1.24 Tng hp LPC
1.2.2.2 M hnh min thi gian
Vic m t m thanh trong min tn rt c hiu qu, tuy nhin trong mt vi ng dng,
tin vic nghin cu vic tng hp m thanh, vic phn tch trong min thi gian li c u th hn.

23
1.2.2.2.1 My to dao ng s
Ta nhn thy mt m thanh phc tp uc tng hp t nhiu thnh phn hnh sin bng
php tng hp FTT
-1
. Nu nh cc thnh phn hnh sin khng qu nhiu, vic tng hp tng thnh
phn c thc hin bng cch ly gi tr trung bnh ca my to dao ng s.

n j j n j
e e e
0 0 0
) 1 (
=
+
(1.25)
Vi ) ( ) (
0
n jx n x e
I R
n j
+ =

dng s phc, mi bc nhy thi gian c nh ngha

nh sau:
) ( sin ) ( cos ) 1 (
0 0
n x n x n x
I R R
= + (1.26)
) ( cos ) ( sin ) 1 (
0 0
n x n x n x
I R I
+ = + (1.27)
Thng s bin v pha ban u c th tnh da theo pha ban u
0
0
j
e v thc hin vic
lch pha vo s m. Tn hiu ) 1 ( + n x
R
c th c tnh theo cng thc sau
) 1 ( ) ( cos 2 ) 1 (
0
= + n x n x n x
R R R
(1.28)
p ng xung ca b lc nh sau

( )( )
1
0
1
0
1 1
1
cos 2 1
1
) (
2 1
0


=
+
=
z j z j
R
e e
z z
z H

(1.29)
Gi tr cc ca b lc biu thc 10 nm trn chu vi ng trn n v.
Gi
1 R
x ,
2 R
x l hai bin trng thi ca hai mu troc ca tn hiu ng ra
R
x , pha ban
u
0
c th c tnh theo h phng trnh sau
( )
0 0 1
sin =
R
x (1.30)
( )
0 0 2
2 sin =
R
x (1.31)
My to dao ng s c bit hu ch trong vic biu din tng hp tn hiu i vi cc b
vi x l a mc ch, khi cc php ton trn du chm ng c trin khai. Tuy nhin, phng
php ny dng cho vic to tn hiu sin c hai bt li:
Vic cp nht thng s yu cu tnh ton trn hm cosin. y l mt iu kh i vi
iu ch tc m thanh, do phi thc hin php tnh cosin ng vi tng mu trong
min thi gian
Thay i tn s ca my dao ng s s lm thay i bin tn hiu sin. Khi b
phn logic iu khin bin cn c s dng iu chnh hn ch ny.
1.2.2.2.2 My to dao ng bng sng
Trong phng php kinh in v linh ng nht v tng hp cc dng sng c chu k (bao
gm tn hiu dng sin) l vic c lp i lp li mt bng cha ni dung ca mt dng sng
c lu tr trc. Nu dng sng c tng hp dng sin, i xng th vic lu tr cho php
ch cn lu tr chu k, v vic tnh ton s hc s c ni suy cho c chu k.
t [ ] buf l b m c ni dung cha l chu k ca dng sng, hoc bng dng sng.
My to dao ng dng sng hot ng lp li theo chu k qut bng dng sng l bi s ca gia
s I v c ni dung ca bng dng sng ti v tr .

24
Gi B l chiu di ca b m,
0
f l tn s m ta mun to tn s ly mu
s
F , khi gi
tr ca gia s I l:

s
F
Bf
I
0
= (1.32)
S thay i tn s ly mu
Bi ton thit k my to dao ng bng sng c th chuyn thnh bi ton thay i tn s
ly mu, v d nh bin i tn hiu c ly mu ti tn s ly mu
1 , s
F thnh tn hiu c ly
mu ti tn s
2 , s
F . Nu
M
L
F
F
s
s
=
1 ,
2 ,
, vi L v M l cc s nguyn ti gin, vic thc hin thay
i tn s ly mu c th c nh hin bng cc bc:
1. Tng tn s ly mu bng h s L
2. S dng b lc thng thp
3. Gim tn s ly mu bng h s M

Hnh 1.25 S khi phn r ca qu trnh thay i tn s ly mu

Hnh 1.26 V d v thay i tn s ly mu vi
2 / 3 / = M L

1.2.2.2.3 Tng hp ly mu bng sng
Tng hp ly mu bng sng l phn m rng ca my dao ng bng sng i vi

25
Dng sng phn tch khng phi dng sin
Bng dng sng c lu tr vi nhiu chu k
Cc tn hiu iu khin rt quan trng trong vic nhn c m thanh t nhin
1.2.2.2.4 Tng hp ht (vi Giovanni De Poli)
Cc bng sng ngn c th c c vi nhiu tc khc nhau, v kt qu l m iu c
th chng cho vo nhau trong min thi gian. Trong phng php min thi gian, vic tng hp
m thanh ny c gi l tng hp ht. Tng hp ht bt u t tng vic phn tch m thanh
trong min thi gian c thay th bng biu din chng thnh mt chui cc thnh phn ngn
c gi l ht. Cc thng s ca k thut ny l cc dng sng ca ht th ) (
k
g , v tr trong
min thi gian
k
l v bin
k
a

=
k
k k k g
l n g a n s ) ( ) ( (1.33)
Khi s lng ht ln, th vic tnh ton s tr nn phc tp. Tnh cht ca cc ht v cc
v tr trong min thi gian quyt nh m sc ca m thanh. Vic la chn cc thng s ty thuc
vo cc tiu chun a ra bi cc m hnh th hin. Vic la chn cc m hnh biu din lin quan
n cc qu trnh hot ng m cc qu trnh ny c th nh hng n m thanh no theo
nhiu cch khc nhau.
Loi c bn v quan trng nht ca tng hp ht (tng hp ht bt ng b) l phn phi
cc ht khng theo quy lut trong min tn s -thi gian. Dng sng ht c dng
( ) i T f i i g
s k d k
2 cos ) ( ) ( = (1.34)
Vi ) (i
d
l ca s c chiu di l d mu, dng iu khin nhp thi gian v bng tn
ph
k
f .
1.2.2.3 Cc m hnh phi tuyn
1.2.2.3.1 iu pha v iu tn
K thut tng hp phi tuyn thng dng nht l iu tn (FM). Trong lin lc thng tin,
FM c dng trong cc thp k gn y, nhng ng dng ca n trong gii thut tng hp m
thanh trong min thi gian ri rc c bit n vi ci tn John Chowning. V bn cht,
Chowning thc hin cc nghin cu trn cc phm vi khc nhau ca vic to ting rung bng
cc b to dao ng n gin, v thu c kt qu l cc tn s rung nhanh s to ra cc thay i
y kch tnh. Nh vy, iu ch tn s ca mt my to dao ng cng to ra tn hiu m
thanh c ph phc tp. M hnh FM ca Chowning nh sau:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) n n A n I n A n x
c m c
+ = + = sin sin sin ) ( (1.35)
Vi
c
l tn s sng mang v
m
l tn s iu ch, I l ch s iu ch. Phng trnh
(16) thc t cng l phng trnh iu pha. Tn s tc thi ca phng trnh (16)
( ) n I n
m m c
cos ) ( = (1.36)
Hoc: ) 2 cos( ) ( n f If f n f
m m c
= (1.37)
Hnh 1.27 m t vic trin khai pd ca gii thut FM n gin. Tn s iu ch c
dng iu khin trc tip b to dao ng, trong khi tn s sng mang dng iu khin b

26
to pha n v, to pha theo chu k. Vi tn s sng mang, tn s iu ch v ch s iu ch cho
trc, ta c th d dng d on cc thnh phn ph tn s ca m thanh kt qu.

Hnh 1.27 Phn trin khai phn phi pd ca iu pha.
Vic phn tch da trn c tnh lng gic
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) [ ]

+ + + =
+ =

s frequencie side
k
m c
k
m c k
carrier
c
m c
n k n k I J n I J A
n I n A n x
1
0
sin 1 sin ) ( ) sin( ) (
sin sin ) (


(1.38)
Vi ) (I J
k
l bc th k ca hm Bessel. Cc hm Bessel c v trn hnh 9 ng vi
nhiu gi tr k trn trc s lng side-frequencies v gi tr I trn trc ch s iu ch.

Hnh 1.28 Cc gi tr ca hm Bessel.

27
Bng thng c gi tr xp x bng
( )
m m
I I I BW 2 24 . 0 2
27 . 0
+ = (1.39)
1.2.2.3.2 Mo phi tuyn
Khi nim tng hp m thanh bng mo phi tuyn Nonlinear distortion (NLD) rt n
gin: ng ra ca mch to dao ng c dng nh l thng s ca mt hm phi tuyn. Trong
min thi gian ri rc s, hm phi tuyn c lu tr trong mt bng, v ng ra ca b dao ng
c dng nh l ch s truy nhp vo bng. iu th v ca NLD l l thuyt ny cho php
thit k mt bng mo cho bi cc c im k thut ca mt ph mong mun.
Nu b to dao ng c dng tn hiu sin, ta c th tnh ton NLD nh sau
) cos( ) (
0
n A n x = (1.40)
( ) ( ) n x F n y = ) ( (1.41)
Vi hm s phi tuyn, dng a thc Chebyshev. a thc Chebyshev cp n c nh
ngha quy nh sau:
1 ) (
0
= x T (1.42)
x x T = ) (
1
(1.43)
) ( ) ( 2 ) (
2 1
x T x xT x T
n n n
= , (1.44)
v c tnh cht:
n T
n
cos ) (cos = (1.45)
Nh vy, vi tnh cht (31), nu hm mo phi tuyn l a thc Chebyshev cp m, gi
tr ng ra y c c bng cch s dng b dao ng sin n n x
0
cos ) ( = , nh vy
( ) n m n y
0
cos ) ( = l hi bc m ca x .
Ph ca y(n) vi:

=
k
k
n k h n y ) cos( ) (
0
(1.46)
l:

=
k
k k
x T h x F ) ( ) ( (1.47)
Ngoi cc m hnh trn, cc m hnh vt l cng c p dng trong vic tng hp, x l
m thanh nh mch dao ng vt l, mch dao ng i v mch phn phi cng hng mt
chiu
1.2.3 M hnh thi gian ri rc [12]
Trong hu ht cc trng hp lin quan n x l thng tin, vic biu din tn hiu sao
cho m bo tnh tin li trong phn tch m vn khng lm mt i tnh cht ca tn hiu l iu
m cc nh khoa hc quan tm. Sng m thanh xut pht t li ni ca ngi c tnh cht t nhin
v ngu nhin nht. Phn tch ton hc thun tin nht l xem sng m thanh l mt hm s theo
bin thi gian t . Ta k hiu ) (t x
a
l dng sng tng t theo thi gian t .

28

Hnh 1.29 Biu din tn hiu m thoi
Trong gio trnh ny, ta dng k hiu ) (n x m t cho chui s. Trong trng hp ly
mu tn hiu m thoi, mt chui c th c xem nh l mt dy cc mu ca tn hiu tng t
c ly mu mt cch u n vi thi gian ly mu l T, khi tn hiu sau khi ly mu c
k hiu bi ) (nT x
a
. Hnh 1.1 m t mt v d ca vic tn hiu m thoi c biu din c hai
dng l tn hiu tng t v dng chui cc mu c ly mu tn s l 8kHz.
Xung n v c nh ngha nh sau:
1 ) ( = n 0 = n
0 = ngc li (1.48)
Chui bc n v c k hiu
1 ) ( = n u 0 n
0 = 0 < n (1.49)
Hm m

n
a n x = ) ( (1.50)
Nu a dng s phc,
0
jw
re a = , th
) sin (cos ) (
0 0
0
n j n r e r n x
n n jw n
+ = = (1.51)

29


Hnh 1.30 (a) Ly mu n v, (b) n v bc, (c) hm m thc v (d) hm sin suy gim


Hnh 1.31 S khi (a) h thng n ng vo/n ng ra; (b) h thng n ng vo/a ng ra
Khi h thng gm nhiu ng ra, tn hiu chui ng ra s c biu din bng mt vector
c m t nh Hnh 1.31.
H thng tuyn tnh dch bt bin l h thng c bit hu dng cho vic x l tn hiu m
thoi. H thng c c trng bi p ng xung, ) (n h , khi tn hiu ng ra c tnh bi
cng thc

=
= =
k
n h n x k n h k x n y ) ( * ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( (1.52a)

30

=
= =
k
n x n h k n x k h n y ) ( * ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( (1.52b)
vi * l php chp hai tn hiu
1.3 L THUYT V CC BI TON C BN
1.3.1 Phn tch d on tuyn tnh [12]
D on tuyn tnh (Linear prediction, vit tt l LP) l mt phn khng th thiu ca hu
ht tt c gii thut m ha thoi hin i ngy nay. tng c bn l mt mu thoi c th c
xp x bng mt kt hp tuyn tnh ca cc mu trong qu kh. Trong mt khung tn hiu, cc
trng s dng tnh ton kt hp tuyn tnh c tm bng cch ti thiu ha bnh phng trung
bnh li d on; cc trng s tng hp, hoc cc h s d on tuyn tnh (LPC) c dng i
din cho mt khung c th.
Trong phn chng 3, s sp xp LP theo h thng da trn m hnh ngc t ng
Trong thc t, phn tch d l mt tin trnh c lng tm cc thng s ca AR, m
cc thng s ny c cho bi cc mu ca tn hiu. Nh vy, LP l mt k thut nhn dng vi
cc thng s ca mt h thng oc tm t vic quan st. Vi gi nh l tn hiu thoi c m
hnh nh l tn hiu AR, iu ny c chng minh tnh ng n ca n trong thc tin.
Mt cch biu din LP khc l phng php c lng ph. Nh trnh by trn, phn
tch LP cho php vic tnh ton cc thng s ca AR, c nh ngha trong mt ph cng
sut (PSD) ca chnh bn thn tn hiu. Bng cch tnh ton LPC ca mt khung tn hiu, ta c th
to ra mt tn hiu khc theo cch thc c ni dung ph gn nh tng ng vi tn hiu gc.
LP cng c th c xem nh l mt qu trnh loi b cc d tha khi thng tin b lp li
trong mt s trng hp cn kh. Sau cng, vic truyn d liu c th khng cn thit nu nh d
liu cn truyn c th c d on trc. Bng cch thc chuyn ch cc d tha trong mt tn
hiu, s lng bit cn thit mang thng tin s t hn v nh th s t c mc tiu nn d
liu.
Trong phn ny s cp n bi ton c bn ca phn tch LP c nh r, kt hp
vi vic hiu chnh li cho ph hp theo hng cc tn hiu ng, cng nh v d v cc gii thut
cn thit cho qu trnh d on tuyn tnh.
1.3.1.1 Bi ton d on tuyn tnh
D on tuyn tnh c m t nh l mt bi ton nhn dng h thng, vi cc thng s
ca mt m hnh AR c c lng t bn thn tn hiu. M hnh c trnh by Hnh 1.32.
Tn hiu nhiu trng ] [n x c lc bi qu trnh tng hp AR c c tn hiu AR ] [n s , vi
cc thng s AR c k hiu l i a
^
. D on tuyn tnh thc hin c on ] [n s da vo M
mu trong qu kh:
] [ ] [
1
^
i n s a n
M
i
i s
=

=
(1.53)
Vi
i
a l cc c lng ca cc thng s AR c xem l cc h s d on tuyn tnh
(LPC). Hng s M trong cng thc l bc d on. Nh vy, vic d on d trn t hp tuyn
tnh ca M mu trong qu kh ca tn hiu, chnh v th vic d on mang tnh tuyn tnh. Li
d on c tnh bng cng thc:

31
] [ ] [ ] [
^
n s n s n e = (1.54)

Hnh 1.32 H thng nhn dng di dng d on tuyn tnh

Hnh 1.33 B lc li d on
Li d on chnh l sai bit gia mu tht s v mu c lng. Hnh 1.33 m t lu
tn hiu thc hin b lc li d on. B lc c ng vo l tn hiu AR v ng ra chnh l tn
hiu li d on.
Ti thiu ho li
Bi ton nhn dng h thng bao gm vic c lng cc thng s AR i a
^
t ] [n s .
thc hin vic c lng, tiu chun phi c thit lp. Trong , bnh phng trung bnh li d
on c tnh bi cng thc:
{ }

+ = =

=
2
1
2
] [ ] [ ] [
M
i
i
i n s a n s E n e E J (1.55)
c ti thiu ha bng cch la chn LPC thch hp. Thng s LPC ti u c th c
tm bng cch thit lp cc o hm ring phn ca J khi
i
a tin ti zero:

32
0 ] [ ] [ ] [ 2
1
=

+ =

=
k n s i n s a n s E
a
J
M
i
i
k
(1.56)
Vi M k ,..., 2 , 1 = , khi (4.4) xy ra th
i i
a a
^
= , lc ny LPC chnh bng cc thng s
AR.
li d on
li d on ca b d on c cho bi cng thc

{ }
{ }

=
] [
] [
log 10 log 10
2
2
10 2
2
10
n e E
n s E
PG
e
s

(1.57)
L t s gia bin tn hiu ng vo v bin ca li d on theo n v decibels (dB).
li d on l thng s o lng cht lng ca b d on. Mt b d on tt hn c kh nng
to ra li d on nh hn vi li cao hn.
Ti thiu ha bnh phng trung bnh li d on
T Hnh 1.33, ta c th nhn xt khi
i i
a a
^
= , th ] [ ] [ n x n e = ; nh vy li d on tng
t nh dng tn hiu nhiu trng to ra tn hiu AR ] [n s . y l trng hp ti u khi li bnh
phng trung bnh c ti thiu ha, vi
{ } { }
2 2 2
min
] [ ] [
x
n x E n e E J = = = (1.58)
Khi , li d on t gi tr ln nht.
iu kin ti u c th t c khi bc ca b d on ln hn hoc bng bc ca qu
trnh tng hp AR. Trong thc t, M thng l s cha bit trc. Mt phng php n gin
c th c lng c gi tr M t tn hiu ngun l v biu li d on nh l mt hm
ca bc d on. Vi phng php ny, ta c th quyt nh c bc ca d on ng vi li
bo ha, khi khi tng bc d on th li khng tng. Gi tr ca bc d on ti im tha
iu kin bo ha ny c xem l gi tr c lng tt nht cho bc ca tn hiu AR.
Sau khi xc nh c gi tr M, hm chi ph J t gi tr ti thiu khi
i i
a a
^
= , dn n
] [ ] [ n x n e = . V khi , li d on s bng vi gi tr tn hiu u vo ca b tng hp qu trnh
AR.
1.3.1.2 Phn tch d on tuyn tnh cho tn hiu ng
Tn hiu thoi trong thc t l tn hiu ng, nn LPC phi c tnh ng vi tng khung
tn hiu. Trong mt khung tn hiu, mt tp LPC c tnh ton v dng i din cho cc thuc
tnh ca tn hiu trong mt chu k c th, vi gi nh rng s liu thng k ca tn hiu vn
khng thay i trong mt khung. Qu trnh tnh ton LPC t d liu tn hiu c gi l phn tch
d on tuyn tnh.
Bi ton d on tuyn tnh cho tn hiu ng c pht biu li nh sau: y l bi ton
thc hin vic tnh cc gi tr LPC ng vi N im d liu vi thi gian kt thc l m:
] 1 [ + N m s , ] 2 [ + N m s , , ] [m s . Vector LPC c vit nh sau:
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
T
M
m a m a m a m a ...
2 1
= (1.59)

33
Vi M l bc d on
li d on
li d on ca b d on c cho bi cng thc
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]

+ =
+ =
m
N m n
m
N m n
n e
n s
m PG
1
2
1
2
10
log 10 (1.60)

Vi
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] i n s m a n s n s n s n e
M
i
i
+ = =

=1
^
; 1 + = N m n , , m (1.61)
Cc LPC [ ] m a
i
c tnh ton t cc mu trong chu k. li d on nh ngha
cng thc (4.23) l mt hm theo bin thi gian m.
V d: Nhiu trng c to ra bi b to s ngu nhin phn phi u, sau c lc
bi b tng hp AR vi
534 . 1
1
= a 1
2
= a 587 . 0
3
= a 347 . 0
4
= a 08 . 0
56
= a
061 . 0
6
= a 172 . 0
7
= a 156 . 0
8
= a 157 . 0
9
= a 141 . 0
10
= a
Khung tng hp ca tn hiu AR c dng cho phn tch LP, vi tng cng l 240 mu.
c lng t ng tng quan khng hi qui s dng ca s Hamming. Phn tch LP c thc
hin vi bc t 2 n 20. Hnh 1.34 tm tt kt qu, vi li d on c tnh ton ti 2 = M
v t gi tr cao nht ti 10 = M . Cc bc ln hn 10 khng cho c li cao hn na, cho
nn ta c th ch cn xt n 10 = M .

Hnh 1.34 li d on (PG) l mt hm theo bin bc d on M

34
1.3.1.3 Gii thut Levison-Durbin
Thng thng, vic tnh ton ma trn nghch o khng n gin, tuy nhin i vi bi
ton ny, cc h s gii thut c th c tnh thng qua tnh ton ma trn tng quan. Hai gii
thut Levison-Durbin v Leroux-Gueguen l hai gii thut rt ph hp cho vic tnh ton LP ca
cc h thng trin khai trong thc t.
Gii thut Levison-Durbin thc hin vic tm b d on bc th M t b d on bc
th ) 1 ( M . y l qu trnh lp quy cho n khi tm c ln u tin b d on bc zero,
sau s dng b bc zero s c dng tnh b d on bc 1 v qu trnh tip tc cho n
khi tnh ton c b d on c bc cn tm.
Gii thut: bin u vo l cc h s t tng quan [ ] l R , gi tr tnh c l cc LPC v
RC
nh tr ban u: 0 = l , tp [ ] 0
0
R J =
Thc hin quy, M l for ,..., 2 , 1 =
o Bc 1: Tnh ton RC th l , [ ] ( ) [ ]

+ =
1
1
) 1 (
1
1
l
i
l
i
l
l
i l R a l R
J
k ,
o Bc 2: Tnh ton cc LPC ng vi b d on bc l
;
) (
l
l
i
k a =
;
) 1 ( ) 1 ( ) (

=
l
i l l
l
i
l
i
a k a a 1 ,..., 2 , 1 l i
Dng nu M l =
o Bc 3: Tnh gi tr bnh phng trung bnh li d on tng ng vi
li gii ti bc l
( )
2
1
1
l j l
k J J =


Gn 1 + = l l , quay li bc 1
1.3.1.4 Gii thut Leroux-Gueguen
Bi ton s dng gii thut Levinson-Durbin da trn cc gi tr ca cc LPC, bi v
chng c thuc mt tm vc rng v gi tr bin ca bin ca cc LPC khng th tnh c
ng vi c s l thuyt. Vn xy ra khi gii thut c p dng cho tnh ton trn du chm
tnh. Gii thut Leroux-Gueguen khc phc im yu ny ca gii thut Levison-Durbin.
Leroux v Gueguen [1979] xut mt phng php tnh ton cc RC t cc gi tr t
tng quan m khng cn phi tnh thng qua cc LPC. Do , bi ton lin quan n tm ng
vi iu kin du chm tnh c gii quyt. Xt thng s sau
[ ] [ ] [ ] { } [ ]

=
= =
l
i
l
i
l l
k i R a k n s n e E k
0
) ( ) ( ) (
, (1.62)
Vi
[ ] n e
l ) (

= li d on s dng b lc d on li bc th l

) (l
i
a
= LPC ca b d on bc th l

35
] [k R
= gi tr t tng quan ca tn hiu ] [n s
nh l:
[ ] [ ] 0
) (
R k
l
(1.63)
Sinh vin c th t chng minh
Bng 1.4 m t cc thng s cn thit ng vi mi bc l trong gii thut Leroux-Gueguen
l
Cc thng s cn thit
M
1 M
[ ] [ ] M
M M ) 1 ( ) 1 (
, 0


2 M
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] M M
M M M M ) 2 ( ) 2 ( ) 2 ( ) 2 (
, 1 , 0 , 1


3 M
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] M M
M M M M ) 3 ( ) 3 ( ) 3 ( ) 3 (
, , 2 , 0 , , 2


4 M
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] M M
M M M M ) 4 ( ) 4 ( ) 4 ( ) 4 (
, , 3 , 0 , , 3




1
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] M M
) 1 ( ) 1 ( ) 1 ( ) 1 (
, , 2 , 0 , , 2 +
0
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] M M
) 0 ( ) 0 ( ) 0 ( ) 0 (
, , 1 , 0 , , 1 +
Gii thut:
nh tr ban u: 0 = l , tp [ ] [ ] M M k k R k ,..., 1 ,
) 0 (
+ = =
Thc hin quy, M l for ,..., 2 , 1 =
o Bc 1: Tnh ton RC th l ,
[ ]
[ ] 0
) 1 (
) 1 (

=
l
l
l
e
l
k

, dng khi M l =
o Bc 2: Tnh ton cc thng s
[ ] [ ] [ ] . ,... 1 , 0 ,..., 1 ;
) 1 ( ) 1 ( ) (
M l l M k k l k k k
l
l
l l
+ + + = =


o Gn 1 + = l l , quay li bc 1
1.3.1.5 So snh gii thut Levison-Durbin v Leroux-Gueguen
Gii thut Leroux-Gueguen ph hp hn cho cc bi ton du chm tnh i vi cc bin
trung gian c bin c bit trc. Nhc im ca gii thut ny l ch c cc gi tr RC l
kt qu tr v, l kt qu khng cn thit i vi b lc li. i vic cc b lc c dng trc tip,
cc gi tr LPC c th c c nu dng mt trong hai gii thut.
Vic s dng b lc mt cao thng trong vic tnh ton LP thng khng n gin do s
lng tnh ton. Ngoi ra, i vi trng hp thi gian bin i, cc h s c cp nht t khung
thi gian ny n khung thi gian khc s lm cho vic tnh ton cng phc tp hn i vi cu
trc li. Ngoi ra, phng php Leroux-Gueguen s dng bin i RC-sang-LPC khng cung
cp vic lu tr li cc bc tnh ton quan trng so vi gii thut Levinson-Durbin. Tt c cc
iu trn lm cho gii thut Levinson-Durbin thng dng hn trong thc tin, c bit l i vi
cc bi ton s.

36
Trong cc bi ton ng dng thc t, gii thut Levison-Durbin dng trong iu kin du
chm tnh phi c cn nhc k sao cho m bo cc bin phi nm trong tm vc cho php.
1.3.2 D on tuyn tnh trong x l thoi [13]
i vi vic n gin ha m hnh x l thoi, gii thut d on tuyn tnh (LPC) l mt
trong nhng gii thut p dng to cc b m ha chun cho vic x l m hot ng tn s
thp. tc 2.4kbps, b m ha FS1015 LPC [Hng Tremain, 1982] l mt bc tin vt bt
trong ngnh x l m thanh; mc d cht lng ca m thanh c gii m khng cao, nhng h
thng gii m n gin v d hiu. Thut ng m ha d on tuyn tnh xut hin t khi vic
to ra m thanh thoi s dng bt k gii thut ng dng m hnh LPC, trong chun FS1015 l
chun in hnh.
Ban u, trong vic pht trin cho vic truyn thng bo mt thuc cc ng dng qun s,
b m ha FS1015 c c trng bi tn hiu thoi m tng hp ng ra thng cn n cc nhn
vin vn hnh tng i c hun luyn s dng. Mc d hu ht cc b m ha thoi da vo
cng ngh LP t c hiu sut cao hn ngy nay, nhng v c bn, hot ng ca chng l c
ngun gc t LPC, vic ci tin nhm mc ch t c cht lng tt hn v hiu sut m ha
ti u hn.
1.3.2.1 M hnh x l tn hiu thoi
M hnh x l thoi da vo m hnh m ha d on tuyn tnh c m t trong Hnh
1.35. M hnh c dng da vo vic quan st cc c tnh c bn ca tn hiu thoi v bt
chc k thut to m thanh thoi ca ngi. B lc tng hp c m phng theo s pht m,
khu m ca ming ngi. Tn hiu li ng vo ca b lc hoc tn hiu kch thch mch c m
phng theo dng xung truyn ng (m thanh thoi) hoc l nhiu ngu nhin (m thanh phi
thoi). Nh vy, ph thuc vo trng thi m thanh thoi hay phi thoi ca tn hiu, mch chuyn
c thit lp v tr thch hp sao cho ng vo tng ng s c chn a vo mch. Mc
nng lng ca tn hiu ng ra wojc iu khin bi thng s li.
Lm cch no m hnh ph hp vi ng cnh ca m ha m thoi? Xt cc mu thoi
mt cch ring l ng vi tng khung tn hiu khng chng ln nhau. ng vi tng on khung
ngn, thuc tnh ca tn hiu v c bn l hng s. Trong mi khung, cc thng s ca m hnh
c c lng t cc mu thoi, cc thng s bao gm:
Dng: tn hiu thuc khung l thoi hay phi thoi
li: lin quan ch yu n mc nng lng ca khung
H s lc: nh r p ng ca b lc tng hp
Chu k m thanh: trong trng hp i vi khung thoi, l chiu di thi gian gia
cc xung kch thch lin tip nhau.
Qu trnh c lng thng s c thc hin ng vi tng mi khung, cc kt qu chnh
l cc thng tin ca khung. Nh vy, thay v truyn cc xung PCM, cc thng s ca m hnh s
c gi i. Gim gim thiu nhiu v s mo tn hiu, cc bt truyn c cp pht theo ch nh
ng vi tng thng s, v t s nn ti u c th t c.

37

Hnh 1.35 M hnh LPC tng hp ting ni
Vic c lng cc thng s l nhim v ca b m ha. B gii m s s dng cc thng
s c lng ny v dng m hnh to thoi tng hp m thoi.

Hnh 1.36 Hnh v cc cc khung phi thoi
Hnh 1.36 m t mt khung tn hiu phi thoi c 180 mu (s dng b m ha FS1015).
Cc mu nguyn thy c x phn tch LP qua qu trnh tng hp LPC dng cho vic tng hp
m thoi da trn m hnh Hnh 1.35. Tn hiu ca tn hiu nguyn thy v tn hiu sau khi tng
hp c v ging nhau do mt ph c sut c dng tng ng, c m t trong Hnh 1.37.

38

Hnh 1.37 S ca mt khung m thanh phi thoi, Hnh bn tri: tn hiu nguyn thu; Hnh
bn phi: tn hiu tng hp. ng nt t l gi tr mt ph cng sut dng phng php d
on LPC.

Hnh 1.38 S khung tn hiu m thanh thoi. Hnh trn: tn hiu nguyn thy; Hnh di: tn
hiu tng hp.




39

Hnh 1.39 S ca mt khung m thanh thoi, Hnh bn tri: tn hiu nguyn thu; Hnh
bn phi: tn hiu tng hp. ng nt t l gi tr mt ph cng sut dng phng php d
on LPC.
1.3.2.2 Cu trc ca gii thut dng m hnh LPC
1.3.2.2.1 B m ha (Encoder)
Hnh 1.40 m t s khi ca b m ha. Tn hiu thoi ng vo u tin s c phn
ct thnh cc khung tn hiu khng chng ln nhau. B lc u dng hiu chnh ph ca tn
hiu ng vo, b nhn dng ting ni phn loi khung hin ti ang x l l tn hiu thoi hay phi
thoi v cc ng ra mt bit biu th trng thi ca m thoi.
Tn hiu ra ca b lc u c dng phn tch LP, mch bao gm mi LPC . Cc h
s ny s c lng t ha vi cc ch s c truyn nh l thng tin ca khung. Cc LPC
c lng t ho dng xy dng b lc d on li, dng lc cc tn hiu m thanh t b
lc u c c tn hiu d on li ng ra.

Hnh 1.40 S khi ca b m ha LPC

40
1.3.2.2.2 Tnh ton cng sut
Cng sut ca chui li d on ng vi hai trng hp khung thoi v khung phi thoi l
khc nhau. K hiu chui li d on l ] [n e , [ ] 1 , 0 N n vi N l chiu di ca khung.
Trng hp tn hiu l phi thoi:
[ ] n e
N
p
N
n

=
=
1
0
2
1
(1.64)
Trng hp tn hiu l m thoi, T l chu k ln nht ca tn hiu thnh phn

[ ]
[ ]
[ ]

=
=
1
0
2
1
T T N
n
n e
T T N
p (1.65)
Vi [ ] l hm tnh gi tr nh hn hoc bng vi ton hng. Gi s rng T N > th vic
dng [ ] lun m bo rng vic tnh ton lun nm trong vng bin ca khung.
1.3.2.2.3 B gii m
Hnh 1.41 m t s khi ca b gii m theo m hnh to m LPC vi cc thng s
c iu khin bi lung bit. Gi s rng ca b to chui xung to ra cc xung c bin n
v, trong khi b to nhiu trng c tn hiu ng ra c bin khc i lng n v.
Vic tnh ton li c thc hin nh sau: i vi tn hiu l phi thoi, cng sut ca
tn hiu ca b lc tng hp phi bng vi li d on ca b m ha. K hiu li l g , ta c
p g = (1.66)
1.3.2.2.4 Gii hn ca m hnh LPC
Gii hn 1: Trong mt s trng hp, mt khung m thanh c c phn loi l tn hiu
dng thoi hay phi thoi.
Gii hn 2: Vic s dng hon ton nhiu ngu nhin hoc hon ton chui xung c chu
k to kch thch khng ph hp vi thc t l s dng tn hiu m thoi thc.
Gii hn 3: Thng tin v pha ca tn hiu nguyn thy khng c xem xt.
Gii hn 4: Phng php thc hin vic tng hp cc khung thoi, trong khi mt chui
xung dng kch thch b lc tng hp vi cc h s c c t vic phn tch LP vi phm nn
tng ca m hnh AR.
1.4 PHN TCH CHT LNG X L THOI
1.4.1 Cc phng php m ho
Dch v thoi l dch v c bn v quan trng nht trong cc dch v cung cp cho khch
hng ca cc nh khai thc di ng Vit Nam cng nh trn th gii. m bo h tr tt
khch hng nhm t c li th cnh tranh, cc nh khai thc di ng cn h tr tt dch v c
bn ny. Do , vic nh gi cc ch tiu cht lng cht lng thoi c vai tr rt quan trng.
Cc phng thc nh gi cht lng thoi c nhiu t chc vin thng (nh ITU,ETSI...)
nghin cu, xy dng. Trong phn ny trnh by mt s phng php nh gi cht lng thoi,
c bit l cho mng vin thng (c nh, di ng).
Vic nh gi cht lng thoi c vai tr rt quan trng i vi cc nh khai thc mng
thng tin di ng v c nh. V thoi l dch v thng tin c bn cho nn vic m bo cung cp
dch v ny vi cht lng n nh l mt yu t cnh tranh ca cc nh khai thc mng.

41
Phng php nh gi cht lng thoi c nhiu t chc tiu chun nh ITU-T,
ETSI, 3GPP thc hin chun ha. Bi bo phn tch bn cht ca mt s phng php nh gi
cht lng thoi c bn: phng php nh gi theo thang im MOS (Mean Opinion Score) da
trn khuyn ngh ITU-T P.800 [1], cc phng php nh gi da trn m hnh gic quan PSQM
(Perceptual Speech Quality Measurement) theo khuyn ngh ITU-T P.861 [2], PESQ (Perceptual
Evaluation of Speech Quality) theo khuyn ngh ITU-T P.862 [3] v phng php da trn m
hnh nh gi truyn dn E-model theo tiu chun ETR 250 [4] ca ETSI. Cc phng php ny
c so snh v u nhc im v phm vi ng dng.
1.4.2 Cc tham s lin quan n cht lng thoi
Cc tham s truyn dn c bn lin quan n cht lng thoi l:
Tham s nh gi cng m lng/tn hao tng th (OLR-Overall Loudness
Rating): OLR ca h thng phi khng c vt qu gii hn c nh ngha trong
khuyn ngh G.111 ca ITU-T. Cc gi tr nh gi tn hao pha pht v thu (SLR v
RLR) i vi h thng GSM c nh gi cho n giao din POI. Tuy nhin, tham s
nh hng chnh l c tnh ca MS gm c b chuyn i tng t - s (ADC) v s
tng t (DAC). Do vy, thng thng, ngi ta nh gi OLR ca giao din v tuyn.
Tr: thi gian truyn dn tn hiu gia hai u cui gy ra nhng kh khn trong vic hi
thoi. Tr bao gm: tr chuyn m thoi, tr m ha knh, tr mng v tr x l tn hiu
thoi loi b ting vng v gim nhiu ch Handsfree.
Ting vng (echo).
Ct ngng (clipping): l hin tng mt phn u hoc phn cui ca cm tn hiu thoi.
Cc tnh cht lin quan n nhy tn s.
Xuyn m (sidetone loss).
Nhiu nn...
1.4.3 Cc phng php nh gi cht lng thoi c bn
Vic nh gi cht lng thoi trong mng GSM cng nh cc h thng thng tin khc
(c nh v v tuyn) c th c thc hin bng cch nh gi cc tham s truyn dn c nh
hng n cht lng thoi v xc nh tc ng ca cc tham s ny i vi cht lng tng th.
Tuy nhin, vic nh gi tng tham s rt phc tp v tn km. Hin nay, vic nh gi cht
lng thoi c da trn mt tham s cht lng tng th l MOS (Mean Opinion Score).
Nhng phng php s dng MOS u mang tnh cht ch quan do chng ph thuc vo quan
im ca ngi s dng dch v. Tuy vy, chng ta c th phn chia cc phng php nh gi
cht lng thoi ra lm hai loi c bn:
Cc phng php nh gi ch quan: vic nh gi theo quan im ca ngi s dng v
mc cht lng c thc hin trong thi gian thc. Phng php ny c quy nh trong
khuyn ngh ITU-T P.800.
Cc phng php nh gi khch quan: s dng mt s m hnh c lng mc cht
lng theo thang im MOS.
Phng php nh gi khch quan c th c phn thnh:
a) Cc phng php so snh: da trn vic so snh tn hiu thoi truyn dn vi mt tn
hiu chun bit.

42
b) Cc phng php c lng tuyt i: da trn vic c lng tuyt i cht lng
tn hiu thoi (phng php ny khng s dng cc tn hiu chun bit); vd: INMD (s
dng trong khuyn ngh P.561 ca ITU-T).
c) Cc m hnh nh gi truyn dn: phng php ny xc nh gi tr cht lng thoi
mong mun da trn nhng hiu bit v mng; vd: m hnh ETSI Model.
Vic phn chia cc phng php nh gi c cho trn Trn thc t, cc thit b o c
th s dng kt hp nhiu phng php nh gi cht lng thoi. Tuy vy, trong cc phng
php ny th phng php so snh (hay cn gi l intrusive methods) c kt qu nh gi chnh
xc nht. Cc phng php nh gi cc cng c th c s dng cho mt s ng dng c th.

Hnh 1.41 Phn loi cc phng php nh gi cht lng thoi: a) Cc phng php so snh, b)
Cc phng php c lng tuyt i, c) Cc m hnh nh gi truyn dn
1.4.3.1 Phng php nh gi ch quan (MOS)
K thut ny nh gi cht lng thoi s dng i tng l mt s lng ln ngi nghe,
s dng phng php thng k tnh im cht lng. im nh gi bnh qun ca nhiu
ngi c tnh l im Mean Opinion Scoring (MOS). K thut thc hin tnh im MOS c
m t trong khuyn ngh P.800 ca ITU. Khuyn ngh P.830 th hin cc phng php c th
nh gi cht lng thoi cho cc b m ha. C hai khuyn ngh ITU ny m t: phng thc
nh gi, cch tnh im theo phng thc nh gi ch quan, gi tr ca im, tnh cht ca cc
mu thoi c s dng nh gi v cc iu kin khc m vic kim tra cht lng c thc
hin.
Phng thc nh gi theo MOS c th c thc hin theo cc bi kim tra hi thoi hai
chiu hoc bi nghe mt chiu. Cc bi kim tra nghe mt chiu s dng cc mu thoi chun.
Ngi nghe nghe mu truyn qua mt h thng v nh gi cht lng tng th ca mu da trn

43
thang im cho trc. P.800 nh ngha mt s hnh thc nh gi cht lng thoi theo phng
php ch quan:
Bi kim tra hi thoi (Conversation Opinion Test).
nh gi phn loi tuyt i (Absolute Category Rating (ACR) Test).
Phng thc phn loi theo suy hao (Degradation Category Rating (DCR)).
Phng thc phn loi so snh (Comparison Category Rating (CCR)).
Mi phng thc trn c mt thang im nh gi. V d: phng thc nh gi hi thoi
v ACR u c thang im tng t gi l im hi thoi v im cht lng nghe. Trong
phng thc hi thoi, ngi nghe c hi v quan im ca h i vi kt ni ang s dng.
ACR hi ch th v cht lng thoi. Thang im cho c hai phng thc trn nh sau:

im nh gi Cht lng thoi
5 Rt tt
4 Tt
3 Chp nhn c
2 Ti
1 Rt ti

y l thang im t 1-5 thng thng c s dng tnh MOS.
V d th hai l im n lc nghe trong phng thc ACR (ACR Listening Effort Score).
Trong phng thc ny, ch th c yu cu nh gi n lc ca h thc hin hiu ng ngha
ca cc cu chun s dng lm mu. Thang im c cho nh sau:
im nh gi

Mc c gng cn thc hin hiu cu

5 Khng cn c gng
4 Cn ch nhng khng cn c gng nhiu
3 Cn tng i tp trung
2 Cn tp trung
1 Khng hiu cu mu

Hin nhin, cc thng thc cho im theo MOS c mt s nhc im nh sau:
Phng thc ny mang tnh cht ch quan v kt qu ph thuc vo nhiu yu t khng
th kim sot ca ch th nh: trng thi tm l, thi i vi bi kim tra v trnh vn
ha. Trn thc t, phng thc nh gi cht lng thoi theo thang im MOS khng phi
l phng thc nht qun.

44
Phng thc ny rt tn km, i hi nhiu ngi tham gia v thit lp phc tp.
Khi cn thc hin o thng xuyn cc tham s cht lng th vic s dng phng php
nh gi cht lng ny l khng thc t.
Nhng hn ch ca phng php nh gi cht lng thoi da trn MOS cho thy cn c
mt phng thc nh gi khch quan, phng php ny c th thc hin mt cch t ng
nh gi cht lng thoi.
1.4.3.2 Cc phng php so snh da trn m hnh gic quan
1.4.3.2.1 Phng php PSQM
PSQM l k thut nh gi cht lng thoi c pht trin bi John G. Beerends v J. A.
Stemerdink thuc Trung tm nghin cu KPN H Lan. Trong khong t 1993-1996, nhiu k
thut nh gi cht lng thoi c ITU so snh xc nh k thut c chnh cao nht
(c lng gn nht vi phng php nh gi ch quan). Theo ITU, PSQM l k thut nh gi
cht lng thoi c tng quan ln nht vi cc kt qu theo phng php nh gi ch quan.
PSQM sau c ITU-T Study Group 12 thng qua v c cng b trong khuyn ngh
P.861 nm 1996. K thut ny c s dng rng ri v th hin chnh xc tng i cao.
PSQM l mt phng php tnh ton nhm c lng cht lng thoi theo kt qu ca
phng php nh gi ch quan theo khuyn ngh P.830 (MOS). Tuy nhin, PSQM tnh theo
thang im khc so vi MOS. im PSQM th hin lch gia tn hiu chun v tn hiu truyn
dn.
PSQM c thit k s dng cho tn hiu thoi (300-3400 Hz) qua cc b m ha
thoi. Phng thc ny c s dng o tn hao ca cc b m ha thoi ny da trn cc
thng s nhn thc ca con ngi. Phng thc ny s dng hiu qu i vi cc b m ha thoi
tc thp. Vic x l trong phng thc PSQM c th hin trn Error! Reference source not
found..
thc hin php o PSQM, mt mu ting ni c a vo h thng v c x l bi
mt b m ha thoi bt k. Nhng tnh cht ca tn hiu vo ging nh ca cc tn hiu s dng
cho php nh gi MOS c nh ngha trong chun ITU P.830.
Cc tn hiu vo c th l mu ting ni tht hoc ting ni nhn to theo khuyn ngh
ITU P.50. ITU-T khuyn ngh tn hiu vo c lc theo modified IRS (Intermediate Reference
System trong khuyn ngh ITU P.48) c nhng tnh cht c nh ngha trong ph lc ca
D/P.830. N m phng c tnh tn s ca my in thoi u cui.
Khi nhn c, tn hiu ra c ghi li. Sau , n c ng b v mt thi gian vi tn
hiu vo. Hai tn hiu ny c thc hin so snh bi cc thut ton PSQM. So snh c thc
hin theo tng phn on thi gian (khung thi gian) trong min tn s (c bit n l cc phn
t thi gian - tn s) hot ng da trn cc tham s ly t mt ph cng sut ca tn hiu vo
v ra ca cc phn t thi gian - tn s. Vic so snh da trn cc tham s nhn thc ca con
ngi nh: tn s v nhy m lng (khng ch ph thuc vo Mt ph cng sut - Spectral
Power Densities (SPD)).
im PSQM nm trong di t 0 n v cng. im s ny th hin lch v mt cm
nhn gia tn hiu ra v tn hiu vo. VD: im 0 th hin tn hiu ra v tn hiu vo hon ton
trng khp, nh gi l mc cht lng hon ho. im PSQM cng cao th th hin mc tn hao
cng ln v nh gi l mc cht lng thp. Trn thc t, gii hn trn i vi thang im
PSQM trong khong t 15-20.

45

Hnh 1.42 Phng thc nh gi cht lng thoi PSQM
1.4.3.2.2 Phng php PESQ
PESQ l phng php nh gi cht lng thoi so snh; phng php ny c m t
trong khuyn ngh ITU-T P.862 [] c s dng thay th cho khuyn ngh ITU-T P.861.
PESQ so snh tn hiu gc X(t) vi tn hiu suy gim Y(t) l kt qu ca vic truyn tn
hiu X(t) qua h thng thng tin. u ra ca PESQ l mt c lng v cht lng thoi nhn
c ca tn hiu Y(t).
Trong bc u tin ca PESQ, mt lot cc tr tn hiu gia tn hiu vo ban u v tn
hiu ra c xc nh; mi gi tr tr c tnh cho mt khong thi gian m c s khc bit v
tr so vi phn on thi gian trc . ng vi mi phn on thi gian, im bt u v kt
thc c xc nh. Mt thut ton sp xp da trn nguyn tc so snh gia kh nng c hai tr
trong mt on thi gian vi kh nng c mt tr trong on thi gian . Thut ton ny c th
x l thay i v tr trong c khong lng v trong thi gian tch cc thoi. Da trn tp cc tr
xc nh c, PESQ so snh tn hiu vo ban u vi tn hiu ra c sp xp bng cch s
dng mt m hnh gic quan. im mu cht ca qu trnh ny l chuyn i c tn hiu gc v
tn hiu b suy gim thnh dng biu din ca tn hiu m thanh trong h thng thnh gic ca
con ngi c tnh n tn s thnh gic v cng m. Qu trnh ny c thc hin theo nhiu
giai on: sp xp v mt thi gian, sp xp mc tn hiu v mc tn hiu nghe c cn chnh,
nh x thi gian - tn s, frequency warping v cn chnh cng m.
Trong PESQ, hai tham s li c tnh ton trong m hnh kinh nghim; chng c kt
hp li c lng im MOS.
Mt m hnh my tnh ca ch th bao gm m hnh gic quan v m hnh kinh nghim
c s dng so snh tn hiu u ra vi tn hiu gc s dng cc thng tin sp xp ly c t
cc tn hiu nh thi trong mun sp xp nh thi.

46

Hnh 1.43 M t phng php nh gi cht lng thoi PESQ
Phng php PESQ l c th s dng khng ch nh gi cc b m ha thoi m cn
nh gi cht lng thoi u cui n u cui. Cc h thng thng tin trn thc t c th b
nh hng ca nhiu khu lc, tr kh bin v cc tn hao do li knh truyn dn v vic s dng
cc b codec tc thp. Phng php PSQM c m t trong khuyn ngh ITU-T P.861 ch
c khuyn ngh s dng nh gi cc b codec thoi m khng tnh n cc yu t nh lc,
tr kh bin ... PESQ tnh n cc yu t ny nh s dng cn bng hm truyn dn, sp xp nh
thi, v mt thut ton mi thc hin xc nh tn hao trung bnh. PESQ c kim tra
trong iu kin kt hp nhiu yu t nh: lc, tr kh bin, tn hao m ha v li knh truyn dn.
Phng php ny c khuyn ngh s dng thay th cho PSQM nh gi cht lng thoi t
u cui n u cui.
1.4.3.2.3 M hnh nh gi truyn dn E-Model
E-model (tham kho ETR 250 [4], EG 201 050 [2] v khuyn ngh ITU-T G.107 [7])
c s dng lm mt cng c quy hoch truyn dn trong cc mng in thoi. N h tr
vic c lng cht lng tn hiu thoi t mt kt hp ca nhiu yu t can nhiu. E-model
khc so vi cc phng php nh gi cht lng phn tch trn:
y khng phi l mt cng c o m l mt cng c quy hoch mc d n c th s
dng kt hp vi cc php o.
N c lng cht lng thoi hai chiu v tnh n cc yu t nh: ting vng, tr ...
u vo ca E-model bao gm cc tham s c s dng ti thi im quy hoch. Lu
rng vic quy hoch c th c thc hin trc v sau khi trin khai mng. E-model c tnh n
cc tham s nh: nhiu, tr, ting vng v tnh cht ca thit b u cui m c chun ha
hoc c xc nh, c th o c. Ngoi ra, E-model xc nh trng s i vi nh hng
ca thit b s hin i (cc b codec tc thp, cc b ghp knh ...) n cht lng truyn dn.

47
Trong nhiu trng hp, s lng v chng loi cc thit b ny c xc nh ti thi im quy
hoch.
E-model da trn gi thit l cc tn hao truyn dn c th c chuyn i thnh
"psychological factors" v cc h s ny c tnh cng dn trn mt "psychological scale". Ni
cch khc, nhn thc ch quan v cht lng thoi c coi nh l tng hp ca cc tn hao
truyn dn.
E-model u tin thc hin tnh ton mt "gi tr gc" v cht lng (gi tr ny c xc
nh t nhiu trn mng). Mi tn hao thm vo c biu din di dng mt gi tr tn hao. Kt
qu ca php tr gi tr gc vi cc gi tr tn hao th hin c lng cht lng thoi cho mt
mng c th. Cui cng, kt qu cht lng thoi thu c c s dng c tnh t l thu
bao nh gi cht lng l tt hay ti. C th, E-model tnh mt h s nh gi truyn dn R nh
sau:
R = Ro - Is - Id - Ie + A (1.67)
H s ny bao gm: gi tr gc Ro, cc tn hao Is, Id v Ie v mt h s thun li (Advantage
factor) nh sau:
Ro m t t s tn hiu trn nhiu (SNR) ca kt ni. N bao gm tp m trong mng,
trong mi trng pha ngi ni v ngi nghe v nh hng ca tp m ti pha ngi
nghe, SNR c coi l mt tham s biu din cht lng c bn.
Is th hin cc tn hao nht thi bao gm: mc cng m, mc xuyn m vt qu
phm vi cho php v tn hao lng t (m ha PCM).
Id cha cc tn hao do tr v ting vng.
Ie bao gm cc tn hao gy ra bi cc k thut nn thoi (codec tc thp).
A cho php iu chnh cht lng trong nhng trng hp c bit nh thm vo cc yu
t phi k thut nh gi cht lng.
Cui cng, E-model s dng mt nh x phi tuyn tnh chuyn gi tr R thnh gi tr
MOS tng ng.
Nh vy, E-model cho php xc nh cht lng thoi nh phn tch tc ng ca nhiu
tham s truyn dn. Nh c th nh gi nh hng ca cc tham s ny i vi mc cht
lng tng th.
1.4.3.2.4 Kt lun
Phn 2.4.3.2 phn tch cc phng php nh gi cht lng c th s dng nh
gi cht lng thoi trong mng GSM. Nh phn tch trn, im MOS l ch tiu cht lng
tng th c s dng nh gi cht lng thoi. Phng php nh gi ch quan s dng s
liu vo l nhn xt ca khch hng v mc cht lng t tnh ton ra im nh gi bnh qun
MOS. Cc phng php nh gi khch quan s dng cc m hnh tnh ton c lng ra mc
cht lng quy i v MOS.
Da trn nhng u nhc im v phm vi ng dng ca cc phng php ny, s
dng nh gi cht lng thoi cho mng GSM ca VNPT c th s dng cc phng php nh
gi nh sau:
S dng PESQ nh gi cht lng thoi mt chiu t u cui n u cui.
M hnh nh gi E-Model c th c s dng phn tch h thng nhm xc nh cc
yu t nh hng n cht lng thoi.

48
Ngoi ra, nu c iu kin c th s dng kt hp phng php nh gi ch quan
kim chng li vic nh gi theo PESQ.
1.5 M HNH NG DUNG X L THOI
1.5.1 M hnh thi gian ng [14]
1.5.1.1 Tng quan
Nhn dng ting ni t ng (Automatic speech recognition-ASR) l mt lnh vc nghin
cu quan trng v c nhiu ng dng trn thc t, da trn vic lu tr mt hay nhiu mu m
thanh (template) ng vi tng t trong bng t vng nhn dng. Qu trnh nhn dng thc hin
vic so trng ting ni nhn c vi cc mu lu tr. Cc mu c khong cch o lng thp
nht so vi mu ting ni nhn c chnh l t c nhn dng. Gii thut dng tm c s
tng thch tt nht l da trn lp trnh ng (Dynamic Programming - DP), v mt trong cc
gii thut l gii thut m hnh thi gian ng (Dynamic Time Warping-DTW).
c th nm bt c kin thc v DTW mt cch nhanh chng, c hai khi nim cn
lm r
im c trng: l thng tin ca tng tn hiu c biu din di dng no .
Sai bit: dng o lng no c dng tnh ton c s tng thch, c hai
dng:
1. Cc b: tnh ton sai bit gia im c trng ca mt tn hiu mt tn hiu
khc.
2. Ton cc: tnh ton sai bit tng gia mt tn hiu tng vi mt tn hiu
khc c th c sai bit.
Vic phn tch im c trng bao gm vic tnh ton vector c trng vi khong thi
gian thng thng. i vi vic phn tch d on tuyn tnh, vector c trung bao gm vic tnh
ton cc h s d on (hoc cc php bin i gia chng). Mt loi vector c trng thngdng
dng trong nhn dng ting ni l Mel Frequency Cepstral Coefficients (MFCCs).
V cc vector c trng c th c nhiu phn t phc tp, nn gi tr trung bnh ca vic
tnh ton cn c thit lp. Php o sai bit gia 2 vector c trng c tnh ton bng n v
theo h Euclidean. Nh vy sai bit cc b gia vector c trng x ca tn hiu 1 v vector
c trng y ca tn hiu 2 c cho bi
( ) ( )
2
,

=
i
i i
y x y x d (1.68)
Mc d s dng h n v Euclidean cho vic tnh ton s tng phc tp hn so vi cc
h o lng khc, nhng n li cho tc dng nhiu hn vi sai bit ln i vi mt c trng
n. Nu nh vic quay lui trong qu trnh tm kim s tng thch nht cn thit th mt dy c
nhim v lu tr cc entry trc trong qu trnh x l tm kim, c gi l backtrace array.
1.5.1.2 Gii thut DTW i xng
Ting ni l mt qu trnh ph thuc vo thi gian. Ting ni c nhiu m tit tng t
nhau nhng vi khong thi gian pht m khc nhau, hoc c m tit ng m nhng khc ch
nhn m, v.v phn tch c s sai bit ton c gia hai mu ting ni (i din bi mt
chui cc vector), vn v thi gian phi c xem xt.

49
Bi ton c m t hnh 0, m t mt ma trn hai chiu theo thi gian s dng cho vic
canh chnh theo thi gian. Ct l m t cho ting ni mu (template) v dng l ting ni thu c
cn nhn dng. Trong hnh minh ha, tn hiu vo SsPEEhH c xem l mt dng nhiu ca
ting ni mu. Tn hiu vo ny s c so snh trng vi tt c cc mu ting ni c lu tr
trong h thng. Mu c tng thch tt nht s c sai bit nh nht so vi tn hiu vo cn
so snh. Gi tr sai bit ton cc l tng cc sai bit cc b ca vic so snh.

Hnh 1.44 M t canh chnh thi gian gia mu ting ni SPEECH v tn hiu ting ni u
vo SsPEEhH
Lm cch no c th tnh c tng thch tt nht (c gi tr sai bit ton cc
nh nht) gia tn hiu cn so snh v ting ni mu? Vic ny c thc hin bng cch c
lng tt c khong cch c th c, nhng cch ny khng hiu qu khi s lng khong cch c
dng hm m theo chiu di ca tn hiu ng vo. Thay vo , ta xem xt nhng rng buc tn
ti trong qu trnh so trng (hoc c th p t cc rng buc ny) v dng nhng rng buc ny
c c gii thut hiu qu hn. Cc rng buc c thit lp phi khng phc tp v cng
khng hn ch nhiu, nh:
Cc khong cch so trng khng th thc hin vic i lui;
Mi khung ca tn hiu cn so trng phi c dng trong qu trnh so trng;
Cc gi tr sai bit cc b c kt hp bng phng php cng dn vo gi tr sai bit
ton cc.
Mi khung trong tn hiu cn so trng vi mu ting ni c xem xt ng vi tng tnh
ton sai bit. Nu thi im ang xt l ) , ( j i , vi i l ch s ca khung tn hiu ng vo, j l
ca khung ting ni mu, th cc v tr trc l ), 1 , 1 ( j i ) , 1 ( j i , ) 1 , ( j i . tng
chnh ca lp trnh ng l ti v tr ) , ( j i , vic tnh ton d trn sai bit nh nht ca cc v tr
), 1 , 1 ( j i ) , 1 ( j i , ) 1 , ( j i .
Gii thut lp trnh ng thc hin cn phi ng b thi gian: mi ct ca ma trn thi
gian-thi gian c xem nh l mt s k v cc tnh ton trc , do , ng vi mt mu ting
ni c chiu di N , s lng bc so trng ti a l N .
Gi ) , ( j i D , ) , ( j i d tng ng l sai bit ton cc v sai bit cc b ti v tr
) , ( j i .
[ ] ) , ( ) 1 , ( ), , 1 ( ), 1 , 1 ( min ) , ( j i d j i D j i D j i D j i D + = (1)

50
Vi ) 1 , 1 ( ) 1 , 1 ( d D = l gi tr khi to ban u, gii thut ng dng qui vo vic tnh
ton cc sai bit ti ) , ( j i D . Gi tr cui ) , ( N n D chnh l gi tr chnh lch gia template v
tn hiu cn so snh, lu rng N s khc nhau ng vi mi template.
i vi vic nhn dng ting ni, gii thut DP khng cn phi chy trn cc my tnh c
b nh ln, vic lu tr c thc hin bi mt array, lu gia tng ct n trong ma trn thi
gian-thi gian. Ma trn c v tr u tin c gi tr l 0, nh vy ch nhng hng di chuyn trong
ma trn c m t hnh 1 mi c th xut pht t v tr ) , ( j i .

Hnh 1.45 Ba hng c tng thch tt nht c th i n t ) , ( j i trong gii thut DTW
i xng.
Phng trnh (1) c thc hin bng phng php quy. Tuy nhin, tr khi ngn ng
c ti u cho vic quy, phng php ny c th tn nhiu thi gian ngay c i vi
nhng tn hiu cn so snh c kch thc nh. Mt phng php khc c th ci tin c tc
x l cng nh cn b nh thc thi nh hn l dng hai vng lp, s dng hai array lu tr cc
ct k vi ma trn thi gian-thi gian.

Hnh 1.46 V tr ) , ( j i v ) 0 , (i c cc nh hng khc nhau. T ) 0 , (i ch c th i t
) 0 , 1 ( i . Tuy nhin ti ) , ( j i th c th i n 3 nh mc nh.
Gii thut tm chi ph ton cc nh nht:

51
1. Tnh ti ct 0, bt u t y ca . Gi tr chi ph ton c ca bng gi tr chi ph cc
b. Sau , tnh ton gi tr chi ph ton cc ca cc c kh nng cho c gi tr thp
bng cch ly gi tr chi ph cc b ca cng thm cho gi tr ton cc ca ngay di
, ny c gi l predCol (predecessor column).
2. Tnh gi tr chi ph ton cc ca u tin ca ct k tip l curCol. Gi tr cc b ca
cng thm cho gi tr ton cc ca pha di cng ca ct trc n.
3. Tnh gi tr ton cc ca cc cn li ca curCol.
4. curCol c nh l predCol v lp li bc 2 cho n khi tt c cc ct c tnh ton
xong.
5. Gi tr chi ph ton cc ti v tr ct cui cng, dng trn cc l gi tr cn tm.
M gii ca qu trnh nh sau:

1.5.1.3 Gii thut DTW bt i xng
Mc d gii thut c bn DP c u im l i xng (tt c cc khung ca tn hiu cn so
trng v mu ting ni cn tham kho c xem xt), tuy nhin gii thut vn cn yu im l ti
cc v tr ct v hng l thuc vo cc v tr ng cho c th sinh li.
Mt cch trnh vic ny l thc hin vic dng ) , ( j i d hai ln trong mi bc ti v tr
ng chp, iu ny dn n loi b li ti cc v tr ct v hng, gi gi tr li c lp
h
d ,
v
d
tng ng cho cc bc di chuyn theo hng v ct. Phng trnh (1) s tr thnh
[ ]
v h
d j i d j i D d j i d j i D j i d j i D j i D + + + + + + = ) , ( ) 1 , ( , ) ( ) , 1 ( ), , ( 2 ) 1 , 1 ( min ) , (
(2)
Vi gi tr
h
d ,
v
d c c qua thc nghim
Cc rng buc trong vic nhy n cc k tip:
) 2 , 1 ( j i n v tr ) , ( j i - gi l ng cho m rng ( c l 2)
) 1 , 1 ( j i n v tr ) , ( j i - gi l ong cho chun ( dc l 1)
) , 1 ( j i n v tr ) , ( j i - gi l ng ngang ( dc l 0)
Gi s rng mi khung ca tn hiu ng vo ch c xt n mt ln duy nht, nh vy ta
c th khng xt n vic chun ha di ca mu ting ni. Do vic tnh ton ti tng khc
nhau nn gii thut c gi l gii thut lp trnh ng bt i xng.



52

Hnh 1.47 Ba hng c gi tr so trng tt nht c th i n t ) , ( j i trong gii thut DTW bt
i xng.

Hnh 1.48 Cc v tr ti ) , ( j i , ) 0 , (i v ) 1 , (i c cc nh hng khc nhau. Ti
) 0 , (i ch c th i n ) 0 , 1 ( i ; ti ) 1 , (i c th i n ) 1 , 1 ( i hoc ) 0 , 1 ( i ; ti ) , ( j i c
th i n cc v tr chun.

Hnh 1.49 Vng t mu m t vng m cc hng di chuyn khng bao gi i n. Cc
hnh ch nht m t l cc trng hp c bit. Trong gii thut DTW i xng, dng 0 l trng

53
hp c bit, cn trong gii thut DTW bt i xng, dng 1 c x l khc vi cc trng hp
cn li.
Cc trng hp c bit thng xy ra ti v tr 1 2 = i j , v i j 2 = , gi tr chi ph ton
cc cho tng trng hp c tnh nh sau:
1 2 i : chi ph cc b + gi tr nh nht ti v tr predCol ] 1 [ j v
predCol ] 2 [ j
i 2 : chi ph cc b + gi tr nh nht ti v tr predCol ] 2 [ j
M gi ca qu trnh nh sau:

Gi tr chi ph nh nht l ct cui cng lu trong highestJ
1.5.2 M hnh chui markov n [15]
1.5.2.1 Tng quan
M hnh Markov (Hidden Markov Model - HMM) n c s dng trong vic thng k
m hnh to m thoi. Tnh hiu qu ca m hnh c th hin trong vic c th m t c im
ca tn hiu m thoi theo dng ton hc d dng cho vic x l tn hiu.
Cc trng thi ca HMM c c trc khi thc hin vic x l cc trng thi (trch cc
thng s). Nh th, ng vo ca HMM chnh l chui cc thng s vector ri rc theo thi gian.
1.5.2.2 nh ngha m hnh Markov n
M hnh Markov n l mt tp cc trng thi hu hn, m mi trng thi c lin quan n
hm phn phi xc sut. Vic chuyn tip gia cc trng thi c nh ngha bi mt tp xc
sut c gi l xc sut chuyn tip (transition probability). Trong mt trng thi c th, kt qu
c th c to ra da trn hm phn phi xc sut tng ng. Kt qu ny khng phi l mt

54
trng thi c th nhn thy c thng qua vic quan st cc trng thi, cho nn c gi l m
hnh Markov n.
Trong m hnh Markov n, cc k hiu sau y c s dng
- S lng trng thi ca m hnh, N .
- S lng k hiu quan st theo th t, M . Nu vic quan st l lin tc th c gi tr M
l v hn
- Tp cc trng thi xc sut chuyn tip { }
ij
a =
{ } i q j q p a
t t ij
= = =
+1
, N j i , 1 vi
t
q l trng thi hin ti.
- Xc sut trng thi chuyn tip phi tha mn rng buc trc giao sau
N j i a
ij
, 1 , 0 v

=
=
N
j
ij
a
1
1 , N i 1
- Hm phn phi xc sut ca mi trng thi { } ) (k b B
j
=
{ } M k N j j q v a p k b
t k t j
= = = 1 , 1 , ) ( vi
k
v nh ngha cho k hiu
quan st th k theo th t alphabet, v
t
a l vector thng s hin ti. iu kin
, 0 ) ( k b
j
M k N j 1 , 1 v

=
=
M
k
j
N j k b
1
1 , 1 ) (
- Nu vic quan st l lin tc th phi dng hm mt xc sut lin tc thay cho xc sut
ri rc. Trong trng hp ny, cc thng s ca hm mt xc sut lin tc phi c
nh r. Thng thng mt xc sut xp x vi trng s tng M ca phn b Gaussian

- ) , , ( ) (
1
t jm jm
M
m
jm t j
a c a b =

=
vi
- =
jm
c h s trng s
- =
jm
vector trung bnh
- =
jm
ma trn ng bin
jm
c tha cc iu kin , 0
jm
c M m N j 1 , 1 v

=
=
M
m
jm
N j c
1
1 , 1
- Trng thi ban u ca hm phn phi { }
i
= vi { } N i i q p
i i
= = 1 ,
K hiu ( ) , , B = dng cho HMM vi hm phn phi xc sut ri rc, v
( ) , , , ,
jm jm jm
c = dng cho HMM vi hm mt xc sut lin tc
Mt s ng dng m hnh Markov n trong thc tin l:
- ng dng HMM trong vic nhn dng m thoi c lp
- ng dng HMM trong vic nhn dng m thoi lin tc
- ng dng HMM trong vic x l cu trc a cp cho vn phm ting Anh
- ng dng HMM trong hc bn tho vit tay

55
1.5.2.3 ng dng HMM trong vic nhn dng m thoi c lp
Nhn dng c lp vi ngha tng qut l nhn dng m thoi da trn bt k loi n v
m thoi c lp, c th l mt t hoc l mt phn ca t hoc l mt s t lin tc nhau. c bit
vic nhn dng mt phn ca t trong ch c lp c th c c kt qu tt trong vic nhn
dng cc t lin tc nhau ng vi cng k thut nhn dng.
Trong vn nhn dng m thoi n v c lp, gi s t vng cha N m thoi n v, ta dng
h thng m t hnh 1.1

Hnh 1.50 B nhn dng m thoi n v c lp
C rt nhiu gii php cho vic nhn dng ny, v c rt nhiu cc tiu chun la chn ti
u, trong tiu chun MMI l phng php da vo Gradient. Phng php ny gm hai phn
nh: hun luyn v nhn dng, s dng mi mt HMM cho vic nhn dng tng n v m thoi.
1.5.2.4 ng dng HMM trong vic nhn dng m thoi lin tc
Trong ch c lp, ta s dng mt HMM cho tng n v m thoi, cn trong trng
hp nhn dng lin tc, h thng cn nhn dng mt chui cc m n v kt ni li vi nhau, i
khi cn nhn din c mt cu, hoc nhiu cu. Khi s lng cu c th rt ln. Phng php
thc hin cng tng t nh trong nhn dng m thoi c lp, bao gm hai bc hun luyn v
nhn dng. Bc hun luyn c th dng hoc l tiu chun MMI hoc l ML, v bc nhn dng
c th s dng cc phng php nh nhn dng trn c s Veterbi, xy dng cp , tm kim N-
tt nht v tnh ton hiu sut b nhn dng.
1.5.3 Mng nron
1.5.3.1 Tng quan
Mng neural nhn to (Artificial Neural Network - ANN) l mt m hnh x l thng tin
da trn c ch hot ng ca h thng thn kinh sinh hc, nh no b. Thnh phn chnh yu ca
m hnh ny l cu trc c bit ca h thng ny. N tp hp mt s lng ln cc phn t x l
kt hp ni ti (c gi l cc neuron) hot ng hp nht gii quyt cc bi ton c th. Mt
ANN s c cu hnh cho mt ng dng c th no , v d nh nhn dng m hnh hoc phn
loi d liu thng qua qu trnh hc. Vic hc trong h thng nhm mc ch iu chnh cc kt
ni thuc k tip hp c phn chia trong t bo m c sn gia cc neuron.
Neuron nhn to u tin c to ra vo nm 1943 bi nh nghin cu neuron hc
Warren McCulloch v nh logic hc Walter Pits. Nhng k thut thi khng cho php neuron
pht trin c cc th mnh ca n. Mng neuron ny nay c nhiu ci tin cng nh p ng

56
c cc yu cu t ra ca cc bi ton, mt s u im ca mng neuron ngy nay so vi thi
trc l:
1. Hc thch ng: c kh nng hc cch thc thc hin cng vic da trn cc d liu cho
sn trong qu trnh hun luyn hoc nh cc thng s ban u
2. Kh nng t t chc: mt ANN c th t thn t chc hoc miu t cc thng tin m n
nhn c trong sut thi gian hc
3. Hiu chnh li thng qua m ha thng tin d tha: c th hy mt phn mng lm cho
hiu sut h thng gim. Tuy nhin, mt s mng c kh nng nh c phn mng
hy.
1.5.3.2 Phng php hc ca no ngi
Trong no ngi, mt neuron s thc hin nhim v thu thp cc tn hiu t cc neuron
khc thng qua cc cu trc thn kinh phc tp c gi l dng cy. Neuron gi cac hot ng
in thng qua s mng, di, gi l si trc thn kinh axon, c phn chia thnh hng ngn
nhnh nh. Ti cui mi nhnh, mt cu trc c gi l khp thn kinh synapse s chuyn i
cc hot ng t axon thnh cc hiu ng in thc hin vic c ch hoc kch thch hoc ng
ny i vi cc neuron kt ni ti nhnh. Khi mt neuron nhn c tn hiu kch thch u vo
c mc so snh tng i ln so vi tn hiu cm ng vo, neuron s gi mt gai in n
axon ca n. Vic hc xy ra theo cch thc thay i hiu lc ca khp thn kinh dn n vic
truyn thng tin t mt neuron n mt neuron khc v s thay i.

Hnh 1.51 Cc thnh phn ca mt neuron

Hnh 1.52 Khp thn kinh
1.5.3.3 T neuron ngi n neuron nhn to
Thc hin qun l cc mng neuron bng cch u tin tm cch suy lun bn cht ca cc
neuron v cc kt ni ni ti bn trong. Sau thc hin vic lp trnh gi lp cc c tnh ny.
Tuy nhin, do nhn thc v cc neuron khng y cng nh nng lc ca vic tnh ton l c

57
gii hn, cho nn m hnh mng neuron nhn to so vi mng neuron ngi thuc dng l
tng v n gin hn.

Hnh 1.53 M hnh neuron

Hnh 1.54 M hnh ha m hnh neuron
M phng hot ng ca cc neuron thn kinh, mng neuron nhn to l h thng bao
gm nhiu phn t x l n gin (neuron) hot ng song song. Tnh nng ca h thng ny ty
thuc vo cu trc ca h, cc trng s lin kt neuron v qu trnh tnh ton ti cc neuron n l.
Mng neuron c th t d liu mu v tng qut ho da trn cc d liu mu hc.

Hnh 1.55 M hnh mng Neuron theo cc lp
Mt nhm cc neuron c t chc theo mt cch sao cho tt c chng u nhn cng
mt vector vo X x l ti cng mt thi im. Vic sn sinh ra tn hiu ra ca mng xut
hin cng mt lc. V mi neuron c mt tp trng s khc nhau nn c bao nhiu neuron s sn
sinh ra by nhiu tn hiu ra khc nhau. Mt nhm cc neuron nh vy c gi l mt lp mng.
Chng ta c th kt hp nhiu lp mng to ra mt mng c nhiu lp, lp nhn tn hiu u vo
(vector tn hiu vo x ) c gi l lp vo (input layer). Trn thc t chng thc hin nh mt b

58
m cha tn hiu u vo. Cc tn hiu u ra ca mng c sn sinh ra t lp ra ca mng
(output layer). Bt k lp no nm gia 2 lp mng trn c gi l lp n (hidden layer) v n l
thnh phn ni ti ca mng v khng c tip xc no vi mi trng bn ngoi. S lng lp n
c th t 0 n vi lp. M hnh neuron nhn to i hi 3 thnh phn c bn sau:
- Tp trng s lin kt c trng cho cc khp thn kinh.
- B cng (Sum) thc hin php tnh tng cc tch tn hiu vo vi trng s lin kt tng ng
- Hm kch hot (squashing function) hay hm chuyn (transfer function) thc hin gii hn u
vo ca neuron.
Trong m hnh neuron nhn to mi neuron c ni vi cc neuron khc v nhn c tn hiu
i
x t chng vi cc trng s
i
w . Tng thng tin vo c trng s l:

=
j j
x w Net .
1.5.3.4 ng dng mng neuron trong nhn dng ting ni
Mng neuron (Neuron Network) l mt cng c c kh nng gii quyt c nhiu bi
ton kh, thc t nhng nghin cu v mng neuron a ra mt cch tip cn khc vi nhng
cch tip cn truyn thng trong l thuyt nhn dng. Trong thc t, mng neuron c trin khai
c hiu qu trong nhn dng ting ni thng dng mng neuron lan truyn ngc hng (Back-
propagation Neural Network) hoc kt hp vi phng php m d on tuyn tnh LPC (Linear
Predictive Coding).
1.5.3.4.1 S lc v l thuyt nhn dng
L thuyt nhn dng l phng php xy dng mt h thng tin hc c kh nng: cm
nhn-nhn thc-nhn bit cc i tng vt l gn ging kh nng ca con ngi. Nhn dng c
gn cht vi 3 kh nng trn l mt lnh vc ht sc rng c lin quan n vic x l tn hiu
trong khng gian nhiu chiu, m hnh, th, ngn ng, c s d liu, phng php ra quyt
nh... H thng nhn dng phi c kh nng th hin c qu trnh nhn thc ca con ngi qua
cc mc:
- Mc 1- mc cm nhn: cm nhn c s tn ti cc i tng quan st, hay i tng m h
thng cn nhn dng. Mc ny cng a ra qu trnh thu nhn s liu qua cc b cm bin trong
h thng nhn dng, v d trong h thng nhn dng ting ni: i tng y l ting ni
(speech) v thu nhn u vo qua Micro hoc cc file m thanh .wav.
- Mc 2- mc nhn thc: y biu din qu trnh hc, m hnh ho i tng tin ti hnh
thnh s phn lp (classification) cc i tng cn nhn dng.
- Mc 3- mc nhn bit: t i tng quan st c th tr li nhn bit i tng l g ? Hay y l
qu trnh ra quyt nh.

Hnh 1.56 S tng quan ca h thng nhn dng
1.5.3.4.2 Nhn dng ting ni dng mng Neuron
Hnh 1.57 m t chc nng c bn ca h thng nhn dng ting ni

59

Hnh 1.57 S khi m t h thng nhn dng ting ni
Phng n la chn s nt ca tng lp trong mng: theo kinh nghim ca cc chuyn gia
v mng neuron trong cc bi ton phn lp c s dng mng lan truyn ngc hng, s dng 1
lp tnh ton l lp mng Kohonen lm lp n. Vic xc nh s neuron cho tng lp.
+ S neuron lp vo = s chiu ca vector vo
+ S neuron lp Kohonen = s gi tr cc tp tr li
+ S neuron lp ra = s lng kt qu u ra, s dng phng php m ho bng s bit biu din
s lng kt qu
Phng php hc cnh tranh ca lp n v qu trnh hc c ch o ti lp ra ca mng theo cc
bc sau:
+ Khi to trng s: cc thnh phn ma trn trng s c khi to bi gi tr ngu nhin
+ c tn hiu vo cho mng: d liu trong file mu cha thng tin mu hc v cho kt qu gm 2
thnh phn: mng 1 chiu cha vector tn hiu vo v mng 2 chiu cha ma trn trng s lin kt
ban u ca lp Kohonen
+ Hiu chnh ma trn trng s lp Kohonen: hiu chnh trng s lin kt neuron lp n Kohonen
sao cho mng c th hc mu tt nht.
Phng php nhn dng
- u vo: file cha d liu tn hiu ting ni cn nhn dng v file cha thng tin trng
s lin kt neuron lp n v lp ra. Ngoi ra u vo ngun m cng c th l t micro
thng qua sound card, lc ny d liu ting ni c c trong buffer d liu ca
Windows.
- u ra: kt qu cn nhn dng
Qu trnh nhn dng ting ni c thc hin qua cc bc:
+ c tn hiu vo: c d liu t file wav hoc t buffer d liu m thanh
+ X l tn hiu ging nh chc nng phn tch LPC trn
+ c ma trn trng s lin kt lp n v lp ra ca mng
+ Xc nh neuron trung tm
+ Tra cu kt qu: tra cu trn bn topo mng neuron a ra gi tr cn nhn dng.
60
CHNG 2: K THUT X L NH

2.1 TNG QUAN V X L NH V VIDEO S
X l nh s l lnh vc khoa hc tng i mi m v c quan tm nhiu hin nay.
Hai ng dng c bn ca x l nh l nng cao cht lng hnh nh v x l nh cng nh
video s vi mc ch lu tr hoc truyn qua cc h thng truyn dn hnh nh.
Trong phn ny, chng ta s cp ti nhng vn sau:
1- Gii thiu khi nim c bn v nh s v x l video s, xc nh ranh gii ca lnh
vc x l nh.
2- Gii thiu cc ng dng quan trng ca x l nh trong mt s lnh vc khoa hc
3- Xc nh cc giai on c bn trong qu trnh x l nh;
4- Gii thiu cc thnh phn ca h thng x l nh tng qut.
2.1.1 Khi nim c bn v x l nh
Hnh nh tnh c th c biu din bi hm hai chiu f(x,y), trong , x v y l ta
khng gian phng (2 chiu). Khi xt nh "en-trng", gi tr hm f ti mt im c xc
nh bi ta (x,y) c gi l chi (mc xm) ca nh ti im ny. Nu x,y,v f l
mt s hin hu cc gi tr ri rc, chng ta c nh s. X l nh s l qu trnh bin i nh
s trn my tnh (PC). Nh vy, nh s c to ra bi mt s hu hn cc im nh, mi
im nh nm ti mt v tr nht nh v c 1 gi tr nht nh. Mt im nh trong mt nh
cn c gi l mt pixel.
H thng th gic l c quan cm nhn hnh nh quang hc tng i hon ho, cho
php con ngi cm nhn c hnh nh quang hc trong thin nhin. ng dng quan trng
nht ca x l nh l bin i tnh cht ca nh s nhm to ra cm nhn v s gia tng cht
lng hnh nh quang hc trong h thng th gic.
Tuy nhin, mt ngi ch cm nhn c sng in t c bc sng hn ch trong vng
nhn thy c, do nh theo quan nim thng thng gn lin vi hnh nh quang hc m
mt ngi c th cm nhn. Trong khi "nh" a vo x l c th c to ra bi cc
ngun bc x c ph rng hn, t sng v tuyn ti tia gamma, v d: nh do sng siu m
hoc tia X to ra. Nhiu h thng x l nh c th tng tc vi nhng "nh" nu trn, v vy
trn thc t, lnh vc x l nh c phm vi tng i rng, v lin quan ti nhiu lnh vc
khoa hc khc.
C th tm phn bit cc h thng x l nh theo mc phc tp ca thut ton x l
nh sau:
1- X l nh mc thp: l cc qu trnh bin i n gin nh thc hin cc b lc
nhm kh nhiu trong nh, tng cng tng phn hay nt ca nh. Trong trng hp
ny, tn hiu a vo h thng x l v tn hiu u ra l nh quang hc.
61
2- X l nh mc trung: qu trnh x l phc tp hn, thng c s dng phn
lp, phn an nh, xc nh v d an bin nh, nn anh lu tr hoc truyn pht. c
im ca cc h thng x l nh mc trung l tn hiu u vo l hnh nh, cn tn hiu u ra
l cc thnh phn c tch ra t hnh nh gc, hoc lung d liu nhn c sau khi nn
nh.
3- X l nh mc cao: l qu trnh phn tch v nhn dng hnh nh. y cng l qu
trnh x l c thc hin trong h thng th gic ca con ngi.
2.1.2 Lnh vc ng dng k thut x l nh
Nh ni trn, cc k thut x l nh trc y ch yu c s dng nng cao
cht lng hnh nh, chnh xc hn l to cm gic v s gia tng cht lng nh quang hc
trong mt ngi quan st. Thi gian gn y, phm vi ng dng x l nh m rng khng
ngng, c th ni hin khng c lnh vc khoa hc no khng s dng cc thnh tu ca cng
ngh x l nh s .
Trong y hc cc thut tan x l nh cho php bin i hnh nh c to ra t ngun
bc x X -ray hay ngun bc x siu m thnh hnh nh quang hc trn b mt film x-quang
hoc trc tip trn b mt mn hnh hin th. Hnh nh cc c quan chc nng ca con ngi
sau c th c x l tip nng cao tng phn, lc, tch cc thnh phn cn thit
(chp ct lp) hoc to ra hnh nh trong khng gian ba chiu (siu m 3 chiu).
Trong lnh vc a cht, hnh nh nhn c t v tinh c th c phn tch xc
nh cu trc b mt tri t. K thut lm ni ng bin (image enhancement) v khi phc
hnh nh (image restoration) cho php nng cao cht lng nh v tinh v to ra cc bn
a hnh 3-D vi chnh xc cao.

Hnh 2.1.1 nh nhn c t v tinh dng trong kh tng hc
Trong ngnh kh tng hc, nh nhn c t h thng v tinh theo di thi tit cng
c x l, nng cao cht lng v ghp hnh to ra nh b mt tri t trn mt vng rng
ln, qua c th thc hin vic d bo thi tit mt cch chnh xc hn. Da trn cc kt
qu phn tch nh v tinh ti cc khu vc ng dn c cn c th d an qu trnh tng
trng dn s, tc nhim mi trng cng nh cc yu t nh hng ti mi trng sinh
62
thi. nh chp t v tinh c th thu c thng qua cc thit b ghi hnh cm nhn c tia
sng quang hc ( 450 520 nm = ) (hnh 2a), hoc tia hng ngoi ( 760 900 nm = ) (hnh
2b). Trn hnh 2a v 2b ln lt l nh b mt tri t nhn c t 2 ng ghi hnh ni trn, d
dng nhn thy s khc bit r rng gia hai nh. c bit trn nh 2b, hnh con sng c
tch bit rt r rng so vi vng nh hai bn b. Thit b thu hnh nhy cm vi vt th bc x
cc tia trong min hng ngoi s cho ra nhng bc nh trong vt th c nhit thp s
c phn bit r rng so vi vt th c nhit cao hn. Nh vy vic la chn cc thit b
ghi hnh khc nhau s to ra nh c c tnh khc nhau, ty thuc vo mc ch s dng trong
cc lnh vc khoa hc c th .


2.2.1a 2.2.1b
Hnh 2.1.2 - nh b mt tri t thu c t hai camera khc nhau
X l nh cn c s dng nhiu trong cc h thng qun l cht lng v s lng
hng ha trong cc dy truyn t ng, v d nh h thng phn tch nh pht hin bt kh
bn vt th c bng nha, pht hin cc linh kin khng t tiu chun (b bin dng) trong
qu trnh sn xut hoc h thng m sn phm thng qua hnh nh nhn c t camera
quan st.
X l nh cn c s dng rng ri trong lnh vc hnh s v cc h thng bo mt
hoc kim sot truy cp: qu trnh x l nh vi mc ch nhn dng vn tay hay khun mt
cho php pht hin nhanh cc i tng nghi vn cng nh nng cao hiu qu h thng bo
mt c nhn cng nh kim sot ra vo. Ngoi ra, c th k n cc ng dng quan trng khc
ca k thut x l nh tnh cng nh nh ng trong i sng nh t ng nhn dng, nhn
dng mc tiu qun s, my nhn cng nghip trong cc h thng iu khin t ng, nn nh
tnh, nh ng lu v truyn trong mng vin thng v.v.
2.1.3 Cc giai on chnh trong x l nh
1- Thu nhn hnh nh: y l giai on u tin v quan trng nht trong tan b
qu trnh x l nh. nh nhn c ti y chnh l nh gc a vo x l ti cc giai on
sau, trng hp nh gc c cht lng km hiu qu ca cc bc x l tip theo s b gim.
Thit b thu nhn c th l cc ng ghi hnh chn khng (vidicon, plumbicon v.v.) hoc thit
b cm bin quang in bn dn CCD (Charge-Coupled Device).
63
2- Tin x l nh: giai on x l tng i n gin nhm nng cao cht lng
nh tr gip cho cc qu trnh x l nng cao tip theo, v d: tng tng phn, lm ni
ng bin, kh nhiu v.v.
3- Phn on: l qu trnh tch hnh nh thnh cc phn hoc vt th ring bit. y
l mt trong nhng vn kh gii quyt nht trong lnh vc x l nh. Nu thc hin tch
qu chi tit th bi ton nhn dng cc thnh phn c tch ra tr nn phc tp, cn ngc li
nu qu trnh phn on c thc hin qu th hoc phn an sai th kt qu nhn c
cui cng s khng chnh xc.
4- Biu din v m t: l qu trnh x l tip sau khu phn on hnh nh. Cc vt
th sau khi phn an c th c m t di dng chui cc im nh to nn ranh gii mt
vng, hoc tp hp tt c cc im nh nm trong vng . Phng php m t thng qua
ranh gii vng thng c s dng khi cn tp trung s ch vo hnh dng bn ngai ca
chi tit nh nh cong, cc gc cnh v.v. Biu din vng thng c s dng khi chng ta
quan tm ti c tnh bn trong ca vng nh nh ng vn (texture) hay hnh dng skeletal.
5- Nn nh - bao gm cc bin php gim thiu dung lng b nh cn thit lu
tr hnh nh, hay gim bng thng knh truyn, cn thit truyn tn hiu hnh nh s.
6- Nhn dng: l qu trnh phn loi vt th da trn c s cc chi tit m t vt th
(v d cc phng tin giao thng c trong nh).
Cc qu trnh x l lit k trn u c thc hin di s gim st v iu khin da
trn c s cc kin thc v lnh vc x l nh. Cc kin thc c bn c th n gin nh v tr
vng nh ni c nhng thng tin cn quan tm, nh vy c th thu nh vng tm kim.
Trng hp phc tp hn, c s kin thc c th cha danh sch tt c nhng h hng c th
gp trong qu trnh kim sat cht lng thnh phm hoc cc nh v tinh c chi tit cao
trong cc h thng theo di s thay i mi trng trong mt vng. Ngoi vic iu khin
hat ng ca tng modul x l nh (hnh 2.1.3), c s kin thc cn s dng thc hin
vic iu khin tng tc gia cc modules. Trong hnh 2.1.3, qu trnh iu khin ni trn
c biu din bng mi tn hai chiu.

64

Hnh 2.1.3 Cc giai on x l nh s
2.1.4 Cc phn t ca h thng x l nh s
Cu trc mt h thng x l nh a dng dng thc hin cc giai on x l nh
cp trn c m t trn hnh 2.1.4.

Mn hnh
hin th
B x l
hnh nh
chuyn dng
My tnh
B nh
ngoi
B nh
trong
Phn mm
x l nh
Thit b thu
nhn hnh nh

Hnh 2.1.4 Cc thnh phn chnh ca h thng x l nh
Thit b thu nhn hnh nh: l thit b bin i quang-in, cho php bin i hnh nh
quang hc thnh tn hiu in di dng analog hay trc tip di dng s. C nhiu dng
cm bin cho php lm vic vi nh sng nhn thy hoc hng ngoi. Hai loi thit b bin i
quang in ch yu thng c s dng l n ghi hnh in t v chip CCD (Charge
Couple Device linh kin ghp in tch).
65
ng vidicon l i din tiu biu cho h n ghi hnh in t c s dng tng i
rng ri trong camera mu cng nh en trng. ng Vidicon c kch thc nh gn (ng
knh 18-25 mm, chiu di 10-12 cm), nh, cu to n gin, d s dng. n hnh ny s
dng nguyn l hiu ng quang in trong v nguyn l tch ly in tch.
Chip CCD l linh kin bn dn c kh nng bin i nng lng quang ph thnh tn
hiu in. Thnh phn chnh ca chip CCD l cc t in MOS (Metal-Oxide-
Semiconductor). T in MOS c hnh thnh bi ba lp: mt m t bng kim loi, cht
in mi nm gia l lp SiO
2
v mt m t bng lp bn dn loi p hoc n (hnh 2.1.5).

Nen ban dan "p"
ien cc kim loai
+U

Hnh 2.1.5 Cu trc t in MOS

Mt chui t in MOS phn b u trn b mt chip CCD c biu din trn hnh
2.1.6a, mi t in vi b mt cm quang l m bn dn s to ra mt im trn hnh nh thu
c.Theo phng php dch chuyn in tch, cc chip CCD c th chia ra lm hai loi:
CCD dng chui (mt chiu) v dng ma trn (hai chiu).
Trn Hnh 2.1.6a l cu trc chip CCD dng chui, qu trnh ghi (tch in) v c c
thc hin ti hai khu vc khc nhau, gi l min tch in v min nh. Hai khu vc trn c
ngn cch bi cng chuyn dch. Sau khi kt thc qu trnh tch in ti cc phn t cm
quang, in tch s c truyn song song qua cng chuyn dch vo thanh dch ngang (khng
nhy cm vi nh sng) tc min nh. Sau khi cng chuyn dch ng li, qu trnh ghi v
c ti hai min ni trn s c tin hnh song song.
66

Chip CCD s dng trong my quay video thng c cu trc ma trn (hnh 2.16b). Cc
phn t cm quang trong CCD tp hp thnh ma trn hai chiu, qu trnh c tn hiu c
thc hin theo chiu ngang v chiu dc. C nhiu cch t chc qu trnh ghi v c tn hiu
trong CCD, nhng ph bin nht l phng php dch chuyn tng nh. Khi s dng phng
php ny, trong chip CCD c thit k mt min nh, khng tip xc vi nh sng v c
din tch bng min tch ly l ma trn cc phn t cm quang.
in tch thu c ti min tch ly c chuyn v min nh. Sau , qu trnh ghi
nh ti min tch ly v c nh t min nh vo thanh dch ngang s c tin hnh song
song.Tng dng nh c dch chuyn xung thanh dch ngang, sau cc gi in tch ng
vi cc im trong dng nh s c y ra ln lt khi thanh dch. Sau khi ton b nh
trong min nh c c ra ht, mt nh mi t min tch ly s li c chuyn v y.Vi
nhng tnh nng vt tri trc ng ghi hnh in t c in, linh kin bin i - quang in
CCD c s dng rt rng ri trong cng ngh truyn hnh v nh s. Hu ht cc camera
quay video dn dng v bn chuyn nghip (semi-professional) c thit k trn c s chip
CCD.
B nh trong v ngoi trong cc h thng x l nh s thng c dung lng rt ln
dng lu tr nh tnh v ng di dng s. V d, lu mt nh s en trng kch thc
1024x1024 im, mi im c m ha bng 8 bits cn b nh ~1MB. lu mt nh mu
khng nn, dung lng b nh phi tng ln gp 3. B nh s trong h thng x l nh c th
chia lm 3 loi: 1- b nh m trong my tnh lu nh trong qu trnh x l. B nh ny
phi c kh nng ghi/c rt nhanh (v d 25 hnh/s); 2- b nh ngoi c tc truy cp
tng i nhanh, dng lu thng tin thng dng. Cc b nh ngoi c th l cng, th
nh flash v.v.. 3- B nh dng lu tr d liu. Loi b nh ny thng c dung lng ln,
tc truy cp khng cao. Thng dng nht l a quang ghi 1 ln (ROM) hoc nhiu ln
(ROM) nh a DVD c dung lng 4.7GB (mt mt). Ngoi ra trong h thng x l nh cn
s dng cc thit b cho php lu nh trn vt liu khc nh giy in, giy in nhit, giy trong,
c th l my in phun, in laser, in trn giy nh c bit bng cng ngh nung nng v.v.
Hnh 2.1.6 Cu trc chip CCD
a) dng chui
b) dng ma trn
67
B x l nh chuyn dng:
X dng chip x l nh chuyn dng, c kh nng thc hin nhanh cc lnh chuyn
dng trong x l nh. Cho php thc hin cc qu trnh x l nh nh lc, lm ni ng bao,
nn v gii nn video s v.v.. Trong b x l nh thng tch hp b nh m c tc cao.
Mn hnh hin th: H thng bin i in - quang hay n hnh (en trng cng nh
mu) c nhim v bin i tn hiu in c cha thng tin ca nh (tn hiu video) thnh hnh
nh trn mn hnh. C hai dng display c s dng rng ri l n hnh CRT (Cathode-Ray
Tube) v mn hnh tinh th lng LCD (Liquid Crystal Display). n hnh CRT thng c kh
nng hin th mu sc tt hn mn hnh LCD nn c dng ph bin trong cc h thng x
l nh chuyn nghip.
My tnh: c th l my tnh bn cng nh siu my tnh c chc nng iu khin tt
c cc b phn chc nng trong h thng x l nh s.
2.1.5 Biu din nh s
Trong phn ny, chng ta s cp ti mt s nhng kin thc c bn v k hiu c
s dng trong lnh vc x l nh. l cc vn v nh sng, mu sc, kh nng tip thu
hnh nh quanh hc ca h thng th gic. Tip theo l qu trnh bin i nh analog thnh tn
hiu nh s, cch biu din hnh nh s, nh hng ca qu trnh ly mu v lng t ha ti
cht lng nh s. Ngoi ra, trong phn ny s xt ti quan h tng quan gia cc im nh,
nhng kin thc c bn ny s c s dng rng ri trong cc phn sau ca bi ging ny.
2.1.5.1 nh sng, mu sc v hnh nh
Ph ca cc sng in t trong thin nhin tri di t tia gamma (10
-12
m) n sng
radio (10
-4
-10
4
m). Mt ngi ch cm nhn c nhng sng in t c bc sng t 380
nm (tia mu tm) n 780 nm (tia mu ) (hnh 2.1.7).



Hnh 2.1.7 Cc mu quang ph trong nh sng mt tri
Cc bc x in t c bit ni trn c gi l nh sng. Trong lnh vc x l nh,
ngi ta ch quan tm n phn nng lng bc x m mt ngi cm nhn c. Cc i
lng trc quang c s dng nh gi tnh cht ca ngun sng: quang thng, sng,
68
ri v chi. nh gi c tc ng ca nh sng ln mt ngi, chng ta phi lu
n hai yu t quan trng:
1 Mt c nhy cm khng ng u i vi cc tia bc x c bc sng khc nhau.
Trn th nhy ca mt ngi (Hnh 2.1.8) ta thy vng lc vng ( ~ 555 nm) l ni
nhy cm nht ca mt.
2 Mt phn b cng sut ca cc ngun sng trong thin nhin khng ng u
trn trc tn s (hnh 2.1.9).

tm
380
dng
460
luc
500
va ng
590
cam
630
o
700

o

n
h
a
y

Hnh 2.1.8 p ng ph ( nhy) ca mt ngi


1
2
3
0.5
1.0
1.5
400 500 600 700
Bc song (nm)
N
a
n
g

l

n
g

(
t

n
g

o
i
)
4

Hnh 2.1.9 th phn b cng sut ca cc ngun bc x:
1- Bu tri pha bc 2- n in 3- Mt tri
4- Ngun sng ng nng E
Trng hp tng qut, mt ngun bc x c th c trng bi hm mt phn b cng
sut trn trc tn s ( ) :
( )
( )

d
dP
= (Watt/m) (2.1.1)
- bc sng (m);
69
( ) P cng sut ngun bc x c bc sng (Watt);
Cng sut ton phn ca ngun nh sng c ph lin tc (nh sng mt tri, ng sng
n t nng v.v.) s bng:
( )

780
370
d P (2.1.2)
c trng cho phn nng lng bc x c ch (cm nhn c bng mt) ta a ra
khi nim quang thng F
( ) ( )

=
780
370
d V K F (lumen
1
) (2.1.3)
( ) V - hm nhy ph tng i ca mt ngi (khng c n v).
Trn th ( ) V (hnh 2.1.8) ta thy mt ngi cm nhn tt nht tia bc x c bc
sng 555 nm, do ( ) 1 555 = nm V .
K l h s t l gia quang thng v cng sut bc x.
Mt s v d v n v quang thng:
1- Bng n si tc c thng c h s pht sng l 8 15 lumen/watt, khi cng sut
bng l P=100 watt, quang thng ca n s bng lumen F 00 15 800 .
2- c hnh nh chi trn mn hnh 6x8m, quang thng ca n chiu phi t
l 8000 lumen.
Ni chung, quang thng ca mt ngun sng c th phn b khng ng u trong mi
phng hng. Do ta nh ngha i lng sng I c trng cho kh nng pht sng ca
ngun sng theo mt hng no (hnh 2.1.10):

=
d
dF
I , (candela
2
) (2.1.4)
- gc khi;
2
r
dS
d = (sr steradian)
dF quang thng truyn qua gc khi d.


1
Lumen (lat.) ngun sng
2
n v sng l candela (cd) l 1 trong su n v c bn h SI. 1 candela l sng o theo phng
vung gc ca b mt platin, nhit ng c, (2046,5 K), c din tch 1/60=0.0053 cm
2
.
70

d
F
d
S
o
A
r
d
S
d

n
r

Hnh 2.1.10 Minh ha sng ca ngun im
Gc khi ln nht l
2
2
4
4
r
r

= = , do sng trung bnh ca ngun im

3
s
bng ton b quang thng chia cho gc 4:

4
A A
tb
F F
I

= =

Th d: Bng n si tc cng sut P=100 watt, 800 1500 F lumen , s cho
sng trung bnh l:
candela
F
I
a
tb
120 60
4
1500 800
4
=

= =


Quang thng v sng l hai i lng c trng cho ngun sng.
ri E l i lng c trng cho b mt c chiu sng.
ri l mt phn b quang thng trn b mt c chiu sng:

dS
dF
E = (lux
4
) (2.1.5)
1 lux l ri ln mt b mt khi 1 m
2
b mt nhn c quang thng bng 1
lumen.
Xt b mt c chiu sng dS bi ngun im A (Hnh 2.1.10). Din tch b mt hnh
cu gii hn trong gc khi d l dS
0.
, l gc gia php tuyn ca dS v php tuyn dS
0
.

3
Ngun im l ngun sng c kch thc (d) nh hn nhiu ln so vi khong cch (l) n b mt c
chiu sng (l 10d).
4
lux (lat.) chiu sng
71

0
2 2
2
2
cos
;
cos
cos
S
S
dS dS
d
r r
dF Id I dS
E
dS dS dS r
I
E
r

=

= = =

=
(2.1.6)
Nh vy ri ca b mt c chiu sng bi ngun im t l nghch vi bnh
phng khong cch gia ngun sng v b mt .
Bng di y cho ta ri trong mt s trng hp:
2.1.6 Bng 2.1.1
Vt c ri sng ri (lx)
Mn hnh chiu bng (kino) 40-200
Trng quay (studio) 2000
Trang sch lc c 30
Vt th trong bng rm (ban ngy) 1000
Vt th ngoi nng 100000
chi L l i lng c trng cho b mt pht sng (trong khi ri c trng cho
b mt c chiu sng).
chi l mt sng trn b mt pht sng. chi c trng cho mc sng
ca ngun sng. Cho b mt pht sng S
0.
Theo hng trc giao vi S
0
, chi s bng:

2 0
0
( / )
I
L candel m
S
= (2.1.7)
n v chi cn gi l Nt ( Nt l chi ca ngun sng c din tch 1 m
2
v
cng sng l 1 candela theo hng vung gc vi b mt ngun sng)
Di y l chi ca mt s ngun sng:
Bng 2.1.2
Vt pht sng chi (cd/m
2
)
Mn hnh chiu phim 10-30
Bng hnh TV 40-80
Si tc n chiu sng 5 10
6
- 10
7
Mt tri 1.5 10
9
72

2.1.6.1 Mu sc v cc thng s c trng
Cm nhn v mu sc l kt qu ca s nhn bit ch quan ca mt ngi di tc
ng ca nh sng. gii thch c ch cm nhn mu ca mt ngi, cc nh khoa hc
a ra nhiu gi thuyt khc nhau, trong , thuyt ba thnh phn cm th mu, do nh bc
hc Nga Lmnxp a ra nm1756 c cng nhn rng ri hn c (T. Young nm 1801
cng a ra gi thit v ba nhm t bo cm nhn trong mt v m hnh mt ngi).
Theo thuyt ny, cc t bo hnh nn trn vng mc c th chia ra ba loi. Mi loi t bo c
bit nhy cm vi nhng vng ph nht nh trong di quang ph vng sng ngn (mu
xanh lam - B), vng sng trung (mu lc - G) v vng sng di (mu - R). Nu kch thch
ring r tng loi t bo, mt s cm nhn c cc mu sc bo ha tng ng. Khi qun st
hnh nh khng c nhng mu bo ha, ngun sng ca nh c cha tt c cc thnh phn
quang ph tc ng cng mt lc ln c ba loi t bo. Sng in t c bc sng khc nhau
tc ng ln cc t bo khng ng u, s khc bit v t l kch thch s to nn cm nhn
v cc sc mu khc nhau. Thuyt ba thnh phn cm th mu c chng minh qua nhiu
thc nghim v ph hp vi lut pha trn mu m chng ta s cp ti di y.
Trn phng din sinh hc (cm gic ch quan), nh sng c cm nhn thng qua ba
i lng chnh l: sng, sc mu v bo ha mu.
sng ph thuc vo cng sut ca ngun sng, ngun sng trng 500 W s c
sng ln hn ngun sng trng 15 W.
Sc mu (sc iu) l tnh cht c trng ca mu m qua ta nhn bit c mu ,
xanh, vng v.v.
bo ha mu l cng v sc mu qua ta c th phn bit c mu thm
hay mu nht v.v.
Khi nh gi v s lng ca cc i lng trn (bng cch o lng khch quan)
chng ta s s dng ba khi nim tng ng l: chi, bc sng tri v sch ca
mu. Sc iu ca ngun sng tng ng vi bc sng c nng lng ln nht trong
ph ca ngun sng , i lng ny c gi l bc sng tri . bo ha ca mt
mu c bc sng tri c tnh bng:
( ) /
E
p F F F

= + (2.1.8)
p l sch mu, i lng xc nh s lng nh sng trng trong ngun sng hay
pha long ca ngun sng . Nh vy, mu quang ph s c sch l 100% p = , i vi
mu trng 0 p = .
Da trn nhng tnh cht ca h th gic nh phn gii, tnh lu nh v thuyt ba
thnh phn cm nhn mu, to ra cm gic v mt mu no , ngi ta c th thc hin
pha trn cc mu c bn theo nhng phng php sau:
1. Phng php cng mu quang hc
73
Phng php ny da trn kh nng tng hp mu khi cc ngun bc x c chiu ln
mt mt phng. Cc ngun bc x c th c ri cng mt lc hay ni tip nhau vi mt tc
tng i ln (cn gi l php trn mu theo thi gian), khi , nh sng th cp phn x
t b mt ca mt phng trn s mang li cho ngi quan st cm nhn v mt mu sc tng
hp. Sc mu mi ph thuc vo t l cng sut ca cc bc x thnh phn (hnh 2.1.1).

Hnh 2.1.11 Trn cc mu c bn
2. Phng php trn mu khng gian
Khi trn mu khng gian, cc phn t nh mang sc mu c bn nm c lp vi nhau
trong khng gian, nu nhng phn t ny nm gn nhau v c knh thc nh th mt cm
nhn chng nh mt im nh, mu sc ca im nh ny ph thuc vo t l cng sut ca
cc mu c bn. Hnh dng ca cc phn t c th l cc im trn hay vch mu nh. T l
cng sut ca cc mu c bn c th thay i bng cch thay i chi ca cc phn t nh
tham gia trn mu hay thay i kch thc ca chng. Vic ti to hnh nh mu trn mn
hnh v tuyn thng c thc hin bng phng php trn mu trong khng gian.
3. Phng php tr
to ra mt mu mi, ngoi phng php cng cc mu n sc, ngi ta cn c th
s dng phng php loi b bt mt s mu t nh sng trng. Th d, nu cho nh sng
trng qua mi trng hp th (knh lc) cc tia mu , ta s nhn c mu l. Phng php
ny thng dng trong k thut nh mu, in n v trong hi ha. c im ca phng php
tr l chi ca mu c to ra bao gi cng nh hn chi ca mu trng ban u.
Ngoi ra, trong k thut truyn hnh stereo, ngi ta cn s dng phng php trn mu
mang tn binocular. Ngi ta pha trn hai hay nhiu mu bng cch tc ng cc mu
ring r ln mt phi v mt tri ca ngi quan st, kt qu l h th gic s cm nhn c
mt mu mi.
2.1.6.2 Cc nh lut trn mu c bn
Trn c s cc kt qu nhn c qua nhiu cng trnh thc nghim v cm nhn mu
sc ca h thng th gic, nh bc hc ngi c H.Grassmann a ra bn nh lut v
trn mu:
nh lut th nht: Bt k mt mu sc no cng c th to c bng cch trn 3 mu
c bn c lp tuyn tnh vi nhau.
Ba mu c gi l c lp tuyn tnh khi mt trong nhng mu khng th to ra
bng cch pha trn hai mu cn li c. Nh vy, ta c th vit ra c phng trnh so mu
nh sau:
74
f F r R g G b B = + + (2.1.9)
f F - ngun nh sng bt k, c n v l F v s lng nh sng l f ; R,G,B n
v mu c bn; , , r g b - s lng cc mu c bn R, G, B, cn gi l modul ca cc mu
.
Nm 1931, theo quy nh ca t chc quc t CIE (Commission Internationale
dEclairage - International Commission on Ilumination y ban quc t v nh sng) ba
ngun bc x n sc mu , lc v lam tng ng c bc sng:

nm
nm
nm
B
G
R
8 , 435
1 , 546
700
=
=
=

Ba mu trn c gi l ba mu c bn. Mi mu c bn s c mt mu b xung tng
ng, khi pha trn mu c bn v mu b xung ca n chng ta s nhn c mu trng. Cc
cp mu c bn v mu b xung l: L (Cyan), Lc Mn chn (Magenta), Lam Vng
(Yellow).
nh lut th hai: S bin i lin tc ca cc h s cng sut ca cc mu c bn s
dn dn s bin i lin tc ca mu sc tng hp, n chuyn t mu ny sang mu khc.
Khi thay i cng sut ca cc ngun sng c bn nhng gi nguyn t l cng sut th
mu tng hp s khng thay i sc , ch c s thay i v chi m thi. V vy, t l
tng i gia ba mu c bn R:B:G s quyt nh mu sc ca mu tng hp.
nh lut th ba: Mu sc tng hp ca nhiu ngun sng ch xc nh bi cc thnh
phn mu sc ca tng ngun sng ch khng ph thuc vo thnh phn ph ca chng.
Theo nh lut ny ta c th d dng nh lng mu sc ca nh sng tng hp c
to ra khi pha trn nhiu ngun sng vi nhau.
Cho phng trnh so mu ca 2 ngun sng l:

1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
F r R g G b B
F r R g G b B
= + +
= + +

Phng trnh so mu ca ngun sng tng s l:
( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
F F F r r R g g G b b B = + = + + + + + (2.1.10)
T phng trnh (2.1.10) ta thy rng, ta mu ca mu c to ra bng tng ta
mu tng ng ca cc mu dng trn.
nh lut th t: chi ca mu tng hp bng tng s chi ca cc thnh phn
mu.

R G B
L L L L = + +

75
2.1.6.3 Khng gian mu RGB
xc nh mt mu F, theo nh lut trn mu th nht, ta ch cn bit s lng ca
ba mu c bn trong phng trnh (2.1.9). V th mu F c th c biu din bng mt im
trong khng gian mu ba chiu rgb hay nh mt vector ni t gc ta ti im , cc
vector mu n v s l , , R G B

(Hnh 2.1.12). chi ca mu F s bng chiu di (modul)
ca vector F

, sc tng ng vi phng hng ca F

trong khng gian rgb. Tng ba

vector n v s cho ta mu trng chun.

g
r
b
G
B
R
E
F
0
f'F

Hnh 2.1.12 Khng gian mu rgb
Xt mt mu bt k trong khng gian mu rgb, xc nh bi phng trnh:
f F r R g G b B = + + (2.1.11)
Ta thy ba h s , , r g b cho ta bit c v s lng ln cht lng ca ngun sng.
Nu ch cn xt n cht lng hay thnh phn sc ca mu, chng ta khng cn bit n
gi tr tuyt i , , r g b , m ch cn bit n s lng tng i gia cc thnh phn mu c
bn R, G, B, tm c qua cc phng trnh sau:

;
;
r r
r
r g b m
g g
g
r g b m
b b
b
r g b m

= =

+ +



= =

+ +


= =

+ +

(2.1.12)
m r g b f = + + = - chi ca mu.
Chia (2.1.11) cho m ta nhn c mu F:
F rR gG bB = + + (2.1.13)
, , r g b - c gi l ta mu. Cc ta mu khng cho ta bit v chiu di ca
vector mu, nhng hon ton xc nh phng hng ca n trong khng gian mu ba chiu.
76
ng thc (2.1.13) cho php chng ta biu din sc ca mt ngun sng bt k nh mt
im trn hnh tam gic u RGB c chiu cao bng 1 (Hnh 2.1.13). Mt phng RGB cn gi
l mt phng n v. Nu v tr ca im mu F trong tam gic mu c bit trc, ta c th
tm ta mu bng cch k cc on thng vung gc t F n hai cnh v o chiu di ca
chng. Nu cho trc ta mu, ngi ta tm v tr ca im mu theo lut tm trng tm
ca tam gic mu. Sc mu ca nhng im nm ngoi tam gic RGB (nh im N trn Hnh
2.1.13) khng th nhn c khi ta cng ba mu c s, nhn c sc mu im N, mt
trong cc ta mu (ta mu - r) s phi l m.
K ng thng ni im N l mu quang ph c bc sng
N
v im trng ng
nng E, im
1
N l im ct ca ng EN v BG s c sc iu tng ng im N,
nhng sch mu thp hn (
1
N N
p p < ). Ni cch khc, bc sng tri ca tt c cc im
mu nm trn ng thng NE s bng
N
- tc bc sng ca mu quang ph N. Nh vy
khi cng ba mu R, G, B ta c th to ra tt c cc sc iu, nhng khng th to ra mi
bo ha.
R
G
B
F
b
g
r
550
500
450
600
E
N
N
1
A
C
N
2

400 500 600
, nm
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
r,g,b
r
g
b

Hnh 2.1.13 Biu mu RGB Hnh 2.1.14 c tuyn ta mu
trong h RGB
Mu quang ph l cc mu c sch mu tuyt i : 100% p

= , mu trng c
bo ha 0
E
p = , sch mu ti im
1
N c gi tr:

1
1
100%
N
N E
p
NE
= (2.1.14)
S dng phng trnh so mu (2.1.11) trong cc th nghim quang hc ngi ta xc
nh c quan h ca r, g, b theo bc sng (Hnh 2.1.14). Qua , v d, nhn c
ngun sng c sc mu tng ng mu quang ph vi bc sng 500 nm = , cn trn
77
ba mu R, G, B theo t l 1 17 1 39 0 78 , , , , . r g b = = = . S dng ta mu trn hnh
(2.1.14) ta c th tm v tr ca tt c mu quang ph trn mt phng mu n v. Cc mu ny
nm trn ng cong hnh mng nga RGAB. Hai u cui ca ng cong l im R v B.
Sc mu nm trn ng thng RB ( mn chn) khng phi l mu quang ph, nhng mu
ny thng gp trong thin nhin. Cc im nm ngoi ng mu quang ph l nhng mu
khng c thc, v sch mu ca chng ln hn 100%.
S dng tam gic mu, ta c th xc nh c lng sc mu (tng ng ta
mu) ca cc mu khc nhau. y cng l c s ng gi mt cch khch quan trung
thc ca tn hiu mu, cng nh xc nh sai s cho php i vi cc thng s ca h truyn
hnh mu.
Mc d h mu RGB tng i tin li cho vic th nghim v cc mu R, G, B l cc
mu thc, nhng ta c th nu ra mt s nhc im ca h mu ny:
1. to ra cc mu quang ph cng nh mt s mu khc (nm ngoi tam gic
RGB) mt trong nhng to mu trong phng trnh trn mu (2.1.13) s c gi tr m.
iu ny d gy nhm ln khi tnh ton.
2. Trong ba ta , , r g b khng c mt ta no cho ta bit trc tip chi
hay quang thng ca ngun sng.
3. tm c chi ca mu tng hp khi pha trn nhiu mu, cn phi bit c
ba ta mu , , r g b ca tt cc mu .
khc phc nhng nhc im ca h mu RGB, nm 1931, CIE xut mt
khng gian mu mi, k hiu l khng gian XYZ. Khi thit k biu mu mi ngi ta t
ra nhng yu cu nh sau:
1. Tt c cc mu thc phi c xc nh bi cc modul mu c gi tr dng.
Nh vy ta mu ca tt c cc mu thc (nm pha trong ng mu quang ph) phi
nm trong tam gic mu XYZ.
2. chi phi c biu din bng mt trc (Y)
3. im trng ng nng phi nm trng tm tam gic mu XYZ.
Khng gian XYZ do CIE cng b vi ba mu c bn X,Y,Z p ng c cc yu cu
trn. H to khng gian XYZ c chn lm sao cho cc vector mu thc (nm bn trong
ng mu quang ph) u i qua tam gic mu n v XYZ (Hnh 2.1.15). Nh vy, trong
phng trnh mu f F x X y Y z Z = + + cc thnh phn , , x y z s c gi tr dng cho
tt c cc mu thc.
Cc mu n v X,Y,Z u khng c thc v sch mu ca chng ln hn 100%.
nh gi mu sc ca mt ngun sng (khng tnh n chi ca ngun sng ), ngi ta
s dng tam gic mu n v vi cc ta mu , , x y z: 1 x y z + + = (Hnh 2.1.16).
78

g
b
E
0
r
Y
Z
X

Hnh 2.1.15 Khng gian mu RGB v XYZ
Quan st tam gic mu n v XZY ta thy rng:
1- Tt c cc mu thc u nm bn trong tam gic XYZ
2- To ca mu trng ng nng l: 1 3 /
E E E
x y z = = =
3- Cc mu n v X.Y.Z nm ngoi ng cong cc mu quang ph nn c bo ha
ln hn 100%.
thun tin cho vic s dng, tam gic mu n v XYZ c bin i thnh biu
mu trong h ta vung gc xy (Hnh 2.1.17).
700
600
550
500
x
z
y
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
E

y
x
E
0
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
0.2
520
580
700
F
1
y
1
x
1
y
E
y

x
E
C

Hnh 2.1.16 Biu mu trn mt
phng n v XYZ
Hnh 2.1.17 Biu mu XYZ theo CIE

79
2.1.6.4 H thng th gic
Tuy l thuyt x l nh ch yu da trn nn tng l thuyt ton v xc sut thng k,
nhng vic la chn cc phng php x l khc nhau cng nh vic nh gi cht lng
hnh nh u ra ca h thng ch yu da trn cm nhn ch quan ca c quan th gic. V
vy sau y chng ta s lm quen vi mt s vn c bn v cu to v kh nng phn tch
hnh nh ca h thng th gic.

vong mac
hoang iem
than kinh
th giac
thau knh
thuy tinh
dch
giac mac
iem mu
mong mat
truc nhn
mo mac

Hnh 2.1.18 Cu to ca mt ngi
Cu to ca mt ngi (ct dc) c trnh by trn Hnh 2.1.18. Trng mt c dng
hnh cu, ng knh khong 24 mm. Pha trc mt l gic mc (cornea) l mng trong
sut , c cu trc tng i cng, c ng knh khong 12 mm. Hai lp tip theo ca mt l
m mc (choroid) v vng mc (retina). M mc bao gm mt mng mch mu nh nui
dng cc c quan ca mt. Ni tip vi m mc l h thng c mt v mng mt. Mng mt
c th co gin iu tit lng nh sng i vo mt, m mng mt thay i vi ng
knh t 2 n 8 mm. H thng c mt cho php thay i cong ca hai b mt thu knh, do
thay i tiu c thu knh nhm hi t hnh nh ln vng mc. Thu knh cha 60-70%
nc, c mu vng nht, n hp th khong 8% nh sng nhn c ( hp th t l nghch
vi bc sng), cc tia c bc sng ngn (hng ngoi, cc tm ) c hp th bi protein
trong cu trc ca thu knh.
Phn ln nh sng c hi t vng hong im (fovea) trn vng mc, ni mt
cc t bo thn kinh th gic ln nht. C hai loi t bo cm nhn nh sng (receptors) l t
bo hnh nn (cones) v t bo hnh que (rods). Trong thnh phn vng mc c khong 7
triu t bo hnh nn v 130 triu t bo hnh que.


80

Hnh 2.1.19 Mt phn b t bo thn kinh th gic trn vng mc
Mt phn b cc t bo thn kinh th gic trn vng mc khng ng u: th trn
Hnh 2.4.19 cho ta thy mt phn b cc t bo hnh nn ( th 1) v hnh que ( th 2)
trn 1 mm
2

vng mc (tnh t tm hong im). C th thy cc t bo hnh nn tp trung ti
vng hong im, cn gi l vng nhn r nht. Vng ny c hnh bu dc rng 0.8 mm,
di 2 mm). T bo hnh que phn b xung quanh hong im. Cc t bo hnh que nhy cm
vi nh sng hn t bo hnh nn, nhng chng khng c cm th v mu sc. T bo hnh
nn ngc li km nhy cm vi s kch thch ca nh sng, nhng c kh nng phn bit
mu sc. Theo thuyt ba thnh phn cm th mu ca mt ngi, trong vng mc tn ti 3
loi t bo hnh nn, cc t bo ny c phn ng khc nhau i vi cc mu khc nhau. C
th, qua th nghim ta thy rng ba loi t bo hnh nn nhy cm vi ba mu khc nhau l
, Lc, v Lam. S cm th mu ca mt s ph thuc vo t l mc kch thch ca mi
loi t bo ni trn.

Hnh 2.1.20 T bo hnh que v hnh nn trong vng mc
Cc t bo cm quang bin i nng lng nh sng thnh cc xung in truyn n
b phn x l hnh nh trong no qua h thng dy thn kinh th gic (khong 800000 dy).
Mt vng nh trn vng mc khng nhy cm vi nh sng l ni tp hp cc dy thn kinh
th gic. Vng ny gi l im m ca mt. S d s dy thn kinh t hn s t bo cm quang
v mi dy c ni vi hng trm t bo hnh que v hng chc t bo hnh nn. Ring cc t
bo hnh nn trong vng hong im c ni trc tip vi t bo hch, do , phn gii
ca mt ti vng ny l cao nht.
Theo mt s cng trnh nghin cu v mt, ngi ta thy rng cc t bo cm nhn nh
sng trong mt bin i nng lng nh sng thnh cc xung in, nng lng nhit v nng
lng ho hc. c bit, nng lng cc xung in i vo dy thn kinh th gic ln hn
nhiu so vi nng lng ng sng ri vo mt, do c th kt lun l vng mc tn hiu
hnh nh khng ch c tip nhn m cn c bin i v nh sng l tn hiu iu khin
qu trnh bin i . Qu trnh bin i quan trng nht trong mt l qu trnh bin i
quang-ha hc. Di tc ng ca nh sng, cht cm quang rodopxin c trong nhng t bo
que tch ra thnh retinen v opxin t do. Retinen l mt dng vitamin A. ni nh sng cng
mnh th rodopxin b phn hu cng nhiu. Phn ng phn hu ny kch thch cc t bo th
gic lm cho cc t bo th gic pht ra lung xung ng truyn vo trung ng thn kinh. Khi
nh sng tt, retinen li kt hp vi opxin ti to rodopxin. Phn ng phc hi i hi mt
thi gian ngn; sau thi gian , t bo th gic s hng phn tr li. Trong khong thi gian
ny hnh nh c lu li trn vng mc (thi gian lu nh ko di khong 0.1-0.3s). Kh
81
nng nhn ph thuc vo lng rodopxin, nn khi mi ni sng vo ch ti, chng ta hu
nh khng nhn thy g. Sau vi pht, lng rodopxin tng ln, kh nng nhn c th tng ln
hng trm ln.
Phm vi cc mc sng m mt c th cm nhn c rt rng. Cc t bo que bt u
cm nhn c hnh nh c chi t 10
-4
-10
-5
cd/m
2
, cc t bo nn t 1 cd/m
2
. Khi chi
xp x 10

cd/m
2
cc t bo que b lo dn v lc ny, tc phn hy rodopxin ln hn tc
ti to, do lng rodopxin trong cc t bo hnh que gim i nhanh chng. chi t
10-10
4
cd/m
2
, ch cn cc t bo nn lm vic. Phn ng quang - ho hc ni trn v c ch
t iu chnh lng nh sng i vo vng mc l nguyn nhn mt c phm vi cm nhn
nh sng rng nh vy (~10
9)
.
Tuy nhin mt khng th cm nhn c cng mt lc tt c mc sng trong phm vi
rng nh ni trn. Trn thc t, mt ngi ch c th cm nhn mt khong nh gii hn t
min max
L L xung quanh mc chi trung bnh ca nh, khong ny ta gi l phm vi ng
ca mt. i vi hnh nh c mc chi trung bnh no , tt c mc chi ln hn
max
L s
cm nhn nh mc trng, tt c mc chi nh hn
min
L s c cm nhn nh mc en. Khi
mc chi trung bnh thay i, mt ngi s t ng iu tit di chuyn phm vi ng theo
mc chi trung bnh. y chnh l tnh cht thch nghi vi sng ca mt ngi. Th nghim
cho thy, khi mc sng tng ln, thi gian mt iu tit thch nghi vi mc mi rt nhanh
(khong vi giy). Ngc li, khi mc chiu sng gim th mt iu tit thch nghi tng
i chm (vi pht).
Nh ni trn, mt c nhy khc nhau vi cc tia bc x c bc sng khc nhau
( th 1, Hnh 2.1.21). Nhng khi cng nh sng nh (vng scotopic) th nhy ca
mt di chuyn v pha nh sng c bc sng ngn hn ( th 2, Hnh 2.1.21).

Hnh 2.1.21 p ng ph ( nhy) ca mt ngi.
Kh nng mt ngi cm nhn s thay i chi l khng lin tc.

n
L
n
+ L

82
Hnh 2.1.22 Kho st kh nng cm nhn chi ca mt ngi
Nu tng dn chi ca chi tit trong mt nh t mc chi nn (Hnh 2.1.22), lc u
mc d c s khc bit v c chi gia chi tit v nn, nhng ngi quan st khng pht
hin ra chi tit ny. Khi s chnh lch t ti mc ngng, ngi quan st bt u nhn dng
c chi tit nh.
Ngi ta nh ngha ngng cm nhn nh sng tuyt i ca mt l i lng
ngc vi gi tr chi nh nht ca im sng trn nn en m mt pht hin c trong
bng ti: 1
min
/ L = . Trn thc t ta thng gp hnh nh c khong chi ng l
min max
L L v c chi ca nn l
n
L . tng phn ca nh l t l
max min
/ k L L = .
Cc chi tit nh c chi khc vi chi nn ( )
n
L L L = , nu
min
L l mc
khc bit nh nht m mt cn nhn bit c, th t l ( )
min
n
/ /
n n
mi
L L L L = = gi
l ngng tng phn. Gi tr ph thuc vo kch thc ca chi tit hnh nh v chi
ca nn
Kt lun quan trng rt ra c dy l gi tr ngng tng phn ca mt ngi
0 > , hay ni cch khc, kh nng cm nhn tng phn ca mt mang tnh ri rc
(tng t nh phn gii ca mt). Chnh v vy, s lng cc mc xm cn c l hu hn
trong di ng cc mc chi
min max
L L ca nh s.
S lng mc xm m mt ngi cm nhn c cng mt lc ph thuc vo gi tr
ngng tng phn v tng phn ca nh:

( )
1
1
ln
ln
k
m

= +
+
(2.1.15)
Thay vo cng thc (2.1.15) gi tr tng phn trung bnh ca hnh nh trn display
100 k = , gi tr ngng tng phn 0 03 0 04 . ... . = , ta nhn c s sc xm cc i
mt cm nhn c s l 100 150 m = .
Trn thc t, tng phn k v s lng mc xm m b hn ch bi:
thng s k thut ca mn hnh hin th: kch thc, chi cc i, c tuyn
gamma v.v.
ch lm vic ca mn hnh: chi, tng phn;
iu kin quan st: khong cch t ni quan st n mn hnh, nh sng bn
ngoi.
Ngun nh sng bn ngoi
ng
L chiu vo mn hnh s lm gim tng phn ca nh
gc, v tng phn trong trng hp ny l:
max
max
min min
ng
ng
L L
L
k k
L L L
+
= < =
+
,
83
do s mc xm tnh theo (2.1.15) cng s gim i.
2.1.6.5 Biu din tn hiu hnh nh trong khng gian v thi gian
2.1.5.6.1 Hnh nh tng t
Nh cp ti phn trn, hnh nh c th biu din bng hm 2 chiu ( ) , f x y .
Gi tr hm f ti im c ta khng gian (x,y) l chi ca im nh (x,y). a s nh s
dng trong sch ny l nh en trng, chi ca cc im nh nm trong phm vi nht
nh t
min
L ti
ax m
L . Nu nh c to ra bi qu trnh vt l th gi tr cc im nh s t
l thun vi nng lng ca ngun bc x, v d nng lng sng in t, khi hm
( ) , f x y khc khng v hu hn: ( ) 0 , f x y < < .
Hm ( ) , f x y c th c c trng bi hai thnh phn l lng nh sng ri ln
cnh vt v s lng nh sng phn x li t cnh vt :
( ) ( ) ( ) , , , f x y i x y r x y =
vi ( ) 0 , i x y < < , ( ) 0 , 1 r x y < <
( ) , i x y - Hm biu din ri sng ca ngun ln b mt cnh vt.
( ) , r x y - Hm m t tnh phn x (hay hp th) nh sng ca cc vt th trong cnh vt.
Gi tr ln ca im nh en-trng c ta ( )
0 0
, x y c gi l mc xm hay
chi ca nh ti im ny: ( )
0 0
, l x y = ; chi nm trong khong
min ax m
L l L < < - c
gi l thang xm. Thng mc xm nh nht c quy v mc 0 (mc en) , cn mc trng
s tng ng vi gi tr chi ln nht 1 l L = .
2.1.5.6.2 Qu trnh ly mu v lng t ha tn hiu hnh nh
Tn hiu hnh nh nhn c t cm bin quang in thng c dng tng t, v d tn
hiu in p c bin thay i lin tc theo chi ca nh ngun. c th a tn hiu
hnh nh vo x l bng my tnh cn thc hin qu trnh s ha thng qua hai giai an: ly
mu v lng t ha.
Ly mu tn hiu: Qu trnh ly mu tn hiu c m t trn Hnh 2.1.23. Tn hiu
video ng vi mt dng nh AB l tn hiu mt chiu lin tc theo thi gian v c bin
bin i lin tc (Hnh 2.1.23). Khi ly mu, thi gian truyn dng AB c chia ra thnh
nhiu on bng nhau. Gi tr tn hiu ti cc im ly mu c nh du vung trn
th. Theo nh l ly mu Nyquist, nu tn s ly mu ln hn (hoc bng) hai ln tn s ln
nht trong ph tn hiu tng t, th tp hp cc mu ri rc nhn c hon ton xc nh tn
hiu .
bin i tip tn hiu thnh dng s, chng ta phi thc hin giai on lng t ha
cc mu va nhn c. y l qu trnh ri rc tn hiu theo bin . Trn Hnh 2.1.23
thang xm c chia thnh 8 mc ri rc t mc trng ti mc en. Lng t ha c thc
84
hin n gin bng cch tm gi tr mc lng t gn ging nht vi gi tr thc ca mu v
gn gi tr ny cho mu nh.
Kt qu nhn c sau khi ly mu v lng t ha l chui s ri rc m t bin i
chi trong mt dng nh. Nu thc hin qu trnh s ha cho tt c cc dng nh t trn
xung di, chng ta s nhn c nh s trong khng gian hai chiu.






Hnh 2.1.23 Qu trnh s ha tn hiu video
Khi s dng chip cm bin CCD, tn hiu hnh nh c ri rc trong khng gian hai
chiu. Vng nh c ly mu ph thuc vo s lng cc im cm quang phn b theo
chiu ngang v chiu dc trn b mt CCD (Hnh 2.1.24). Cht lng hnh nh s nhn c
ph thuc vo s lng im nh cng nh s mc lng t c s dng trong qu trnh m
ha.
85

a) b)
Hnh 2.1.24 Qu trnh hnh thnh nh ri rc trong chip CCD
a - nh tng t
b - nh ri rc trn b mt CCD
2.1.6.6 Tn hiu video
Thng tin th gic v mt vt th c truyn i bao gm tin tc v chi, mu sc v
v tr ca vt trong khng gian. Khi vt th chuyn ng hay khi ngun nh sng chiu
ln vt th thay i, cc tin tc trn u thay i. Nh vy, m hnh ton hc ca tn hiu hnh
nh l cc hm phn b chi L, sc mu v bo ho mu p trong khng gian v thi
gian:

( )
( )
( )
, , , ;
, , , ;
, , , .
L
p
L f x y z t
f x y z t
p f x y z t

=

(2.1.16 )
, , x y z - ta trong khng gian 3 chiu,
t - thi gian.
Nhng phng trnh trong (2.1.16) xc nh chi (L) v mu sc ( , p ) cho tng
im di chuyn trong khng gian v thi gian. H thng truyn hnh hin nay l h thng
truyn hnh phng, do khi truyn i cc nh en trng, phn b chi s l hm ba chiu:
( ) , ,
L
L f x y t = .
iu ny cho ta thy, ngoi gi tr chi tc thi L cn phi xc nh chnh xc v tr
ca im sng trong khng gian (hai chiu) mn hnh.
Khi bin i tn hiu hnh nh 3 chiu thnh tn hiu in 1 chiu ngi ta da trn 2
nguyn tc chnh l ri rc hnh nh (trong khng gian v thi gian) v qut hnh. Ri rc hnh
nh trong khng gian l phng php chia nh hnh nh ra thnh mt s hu hn cc thnh
phn ri rc. Mt phn t ca hnh nh l chi tit nh nht ca nh c chi v sc mu
khng thay i trn din tch chi tit . V mt l thuyt, s lng phn t nh cng nhiu
th nt ca nh cng cao. Nhng trn thc t, do s hn ch v phn gii ca mt ngi,
86
cc hnh nh ch cn phn chia ra thnh cc phn t c kch thc nht nh mt ngi
khng nhn ra cu trc ri rc ca hnh nh (Hnh 2.1.25). Chia nh thm nhng phn t ny
khng lm cho hnh nh r nt thm (theo cm nhn ca mt), trong khi , lng thng tin s
tng ln nhiu ln.

Hnh 2.1.25 Ma trn cc im nh ri rc nh v "phn t" nh
Sau khi hnh nh c ri rc, cc phn t c th c m ho v truyn i ring r
sang bn thu. Nhng chng ta khng th truyn song song tt c cc phn t v khi cn n
rt nhiu knh truyn. gii quyt vn ny, trong h thng truyn hnh ngi ta s dng
nguyn tc qut hnh: nguyn tc truyn ln lt theo thi gian tng phn t hnh nh.
Nguyn tc ny da trn c im lu nh ca mt ngi. S lu nh l kh nng m ngi
xem nh li n tng v nh trong mt thi gian no (~0.1- 0.3 giy) sau khi tc ng ca
nh chm dt. Chnh v vy, truyn i mt hnh nh tnh, ta chiu ln lt tt c
cc phn t ca mt nh tnh ln mn hnh, vo ng v tr tng ng ca cc phn t
nh trong hnh nh c truyn i. Nu tc chiu mt hnh nhanh hn thi gian lu
nh th mt ngi xem s thu nhn v lu li tt c cc phn t truyn i ti to ra mt
nh tnh hai chiu. Qu trnh truyn ln lt cc phn t ca nh gi l qu trnh qut
(scanning) nh.
Tip theo, khi "chiu" nhiu nh tnh nhn c bng phng php trn vi tn s
tng i ln (trn 10 hnh/giy), trong mi nh l mt pha ca hnh nh chuyn ng, th
ngi xem s c cm gic nh ang quan st chuyn ng lin tc. Tn s nh c la chn
p ng hai yu cu: 1- To cm gic v qu trnh chuyn ng lin tc ca nh; 2- nh
ng ti to trn mn hnh khng b chp. Trong cc h truyn hnh i chng, tn s c
chn l 25 (hoc 30) nh/giy. Khi qut theo phng php xen k, ngi ta chia nh thnh 2
mnh, trong mnh u tin s c truyn i cc dng l 1, 3, 5 , trong mnh tip theo
truyn i cc dng chn 2, 4, 6 (hnh 3.1.26). Nh vy ton b nh s c chia ra lm 2
mnh. Tn s nh s l 25 (30) Hz, tn s mnh l 50 (60) Hz.

87
Hnh 2.1.26 Qu trnh qut hnh xen k
Tn hiu video l tn hiu c phn tch (ri rc) c trong min tn s v min thi
gian:

Hnh 2.1.27 Tn hiu hnh nh ri rc trong khng gian (theo dng) v thi gian (theo
mnh)
Tn hiu video c to ra ti ng ghi hnh bng phng php qut xen k, tuyn tnh t
tri sang phi, trn xung di l hm ca thi gian, gi tr hm t l thun vi chi ca
cc phn t nh truyn hnh. Tn hiu video y (Hnh 2.1.28) s bao gm cc thnh phn
sau: tn hiu video, tn hiu ng b dng v mnh, tn hiu xo. Trong tn hiu video mu
cn c thm thnh phn mang tin tc v mu sc ca cc dng nh.

Hnh 2.1.28 Hnh dng tn hiu video
Tn hiu video c cc c im sau:
88
- Tn hiu video l tn hiu mang tnh cht xung: ngoi cc xung ng b v xung xa,
trong tn hiu video thng c s thay i bin t ngt, to ra bin trc v bin sau ca
cc "xung hnh";
- Tn hiu video l tn hiu n cc, c thnh phn mt chiu;
- Tn hiu video c th c coi l tn hiu tun hon vi tn s lp li l
= = 1/ ; 1/
H H V V
f T f T ;
Tn hiu video tng t cng nh tn hiu nh tnh phi c s ha trc khi a vo
h thng x l s.Cng nh trong cc h thng x l tn hiu mt chiu, qu trnh s ha tn
hiu hnh nh cng chia thnh 3 giai an:
1- Ri rc tn hiu trong min khng gian 2 chiu, y l qu trnh ly mu
2- S lng v hn cc mc xm trong tn hiu hnh nh tng t c thay bng s
lng hu hn cc mc lng t y l qu trnh lng t ha tn hiu
3- Mi mc lng t c biu din bng mt s nh phn - m ha tn hiu
So vi tn hiu mt chiu, qu trnh s ha tn hiu hnh nh trong khng gian hai chiu
c th c thc hin vi nhiu cu trc ly mu khc nhau v cc bc lng t khc nhau
nhm gim dung lng tn hiu s nhn c. Tuy nhin, trn thc t cu trc ly mu trong
a s trng hp c dng truc giao (hnh ch nht) vi gi tr bc lng t khng thay i,
v khi qu trnh s ha s n gin nht. Khi s dng cu trc ly mu trc giao, nh s
nhn c di dng ma trn cc im nh phn b theo dng v ct.
Qu trnh ly mu tn hiu video phi tha mn nh l ly mu Nyquist. V d: Tn
hiu video h PAL c b rng ph 5.0
PAL
B MHz = do tn s ly mu theo Nyquits phi
10MHz .
Trn thc t, tn s ly mu thng c la chn cao hn tng khong cch gia
di ph chnh v ph ph ca tn hiu video ri rc, khi thnh phn ph chnh c th c
tch ra (trong qu trnh khi phc nh gc) bng cc mch lc thng thp n gin. Ngoi ra,
tn hiu video tng hp (bao gm thnh phn mu) c ly mu vi tn s l bi s ca tn
s sng mang ph
s
f (sng mang mu). Vi h PAL, tn s ly mu s l 3
s
f (13,3 MHz)
hoc 4
s
f (17,7 MHz).
Trong h thng s ha tn hiu video theo thnh phn, ba tn hiu R, G, B hoc thnh
phn chi Y v hai tn hiu hiu mu R-Y, B-Y s c ly mu vi tn s p ng nh l
Nyquist v l bi s ca tn s dng theo c 2 tiu chun 525 v 625 dng/ nh. Tiu chun
CCIR-601 cho php s dng tn s ly mu l 13,5 MHz. S bt m ha tn hiu video l 8
hoc 10 bt.
Cc tiu chun ly mu video thnh phn: c nhiu tiu chun ly mu theo thnh phn,
imkhc nhau ch yu t l gia tn s ly mu v phng php ly mu tn hiu chi v
tn hiu mu (hoc hiu mu): l cc tiu chun 4:4:4, 4:2:2, 4:2:0, 4:1:1.
89
- Tiu chun 4:4:4: Tn hiu chi v mu c ly mu ti tt c cc im ly mu trn
dng tch cc ca tn hiu video. Cu trc ly mu trc giao (hnh 3.1.29)

Hnh 2.1.29 Cu trc ly mu theo chun 4:4:4
Tiu chun ly mu 4:4:4 cho cht lng hhnh nh tt nht, rthun tin cho vic x l
tn hiu video s. Tuy nhin, vi phng php ly mu ny, tc dng d liu video s s
tng i cao, v d khi s ha tn hiu video c phn gii 720x576 (h PAL), 8 bt lng
t /im nh, 25 nh/s lung d liu s nhn c s c tc : 3x720x576x8x25=
249Mbits/s
-Tiu chun 4:2:2: Tn hiu chi c ly mu ti tt c cc im ly mu trn dng tch
cc ca tn hiu video. Tn hiu mu trn mi dng c ly mu vi tn s bng na tn s
ly mu tn hiu chi (Hnh 2.1.30)

Hnh 2.1.30 Cu trc ly mu theo chun 4:2:2
-Tiu chun 4:2:0: Tn hiu chi c ly mu ti tt c cc im ly mu trn dng tch
cc ca tn hiu video. Cch mt im ly mu mt tn hiu mu. Ti dng chn ch ly mu
tn hiu mu C
R
, ti dng chn ly mu tn hiu C
B
. Nh vy, nu tn s ly mu tn hiu chi
l f
D
, Th tn s ly mu tn hiu mu s l f
D
/2.
90

Hnh 2.1.31 Cu trc ly mu theo chun 4:2:0
-Tiu chun 4:1:1: Tn hiu chi c ly mu ti tt c cc im ly mu trn dng tch
cc ca tn hiu video. Tn hiu mu trn mi dng c ly mu vi tn s bng mt phn t
tn s ly mu tn hiu chi (Hnh 2.1.32) Nh vy, nu tn s ly mu tn hiu chi l f
D
, th
tn s ly mu tn hiu mu C
R
v

C
B
s l f
D
/4.

im ly mu tn
hiu chi
im ly mu tn
hiu C
R
im ly mu tn
hiu C
B
Tiu chun
4:1:1

Hnh 2.1.32 Cu trc ly mu theo chun 4:1:1
2.1.6.7 Biu din tn hiu nh s
Sau khi s ha tn hiu hnh nh theo cc phng php nu trn, chng ta nhn
c ma trn gi tr mc xm ca cc im nh. Chng ta s s dng 2 cch biu din tn hiu
nh s. Cch th nht, cc im nh ri rc c sp xp theo ct v hng nh trn hnh
2.1.33. Ta ca cc im nh (x,y) l ri rc. Gc ta nm ti gc trn bn tri ca nh
( ) ( ) , 1,1 = x y .
91

Hnh 2.1.33 H ta biu din nh s
Nh vy, chng ta c th biu din nh s ni trn nh ma trn kch thc MxN:

( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
0,0 0,1 ... 0, 1
1,0 1,1 ... 1, 1
,
1,0 1,1 ... 1, 1
f f f N
f f f N
f x y
f M f M f M N

=





(2.1.17)
Mi phn t ca ma trn c gi l 1 im nh (image element hay pixel).
Trong mt s trng hp, chng ta c th s dng phng php m t nh s nh mt
ma trn thng thng:

0,0 0,1 0, 1
1,0 1,1 1, 1
1,0 1,1 1, 1
...
...
...
N
N
M M M N
a a a
a a a
A
a a a

=





(2.1.18)
Vi cch biu din trn, ( ) ( )
i, j
a f x i, y j f i, j = = = = , do hai ma trn trn hon
ton ging nhau.
i vi nh s, gi tr M v N phi l s nguyn dng. S lng mc xm c th gn
cho 1 im nh L thng c la chn sao cho
k
L 2 = , k l s nguyn dng.
Nh vy, s lng bits c s dng biu din 1 nh s s c xc nh theo cng
thc: b M N k = .
92
V d: nh s hin th trn mn hnh VGA c kch thc 640x480 im, s lng cc
mc xm l 256 (8 bits/mu) c th c lu li trong b nh c kch thc bng:
b 640 480 8 2457600 bits = = .
2.1.7 L thuyt ton ng dng trong x l nh v video s
Tn hiu hnh nh tnh sau khi c s ha c th c lu tr di dng ma trn 2
chiu cc bt. Cc dng v ct ca ma trn s tng ng vi dng v ct cc phn t nh
(pixel). i vi nh ng (video), kt qu qu trnh s ha s l ma trn 3 chiu cho thy phn
b cc im nh trong khng gian theo hng v ct cng nh qu trnh bin i hnh nh
trong min thi gian.
Qu trnh bin i tn hiu trong h thng x l nh s c th c m t bng cc thut
ton trong min khng gian v thi gian hoc cc thut ton trong khng gian tn hiu khc
da trn php bin i nh x khng gian, v d bin i Fourier, bin i Karhumen Loeve
v.v. Trong phn ny chng ta s lm quen vi cng c ton hc thng dng m t qu
trnh x l nh trong khng gian v cc php bin i khng gian mt v hai chiu (c s
dng rng ri trong cc h thng lc v nn nh).
Song song vi vic trnh by l thuyt ton, trong phn ny s a ra cc v d minh
ha mt s php bin i hnh nh c th. Nhiu v d s c thc hin da trn phn mm
Matlab. y l mt cng c tnh ton c xy dng trn c s cc php x l ma trn rt
thch hp cho vic m t cc gii thut x l nh s. Trong ti liu ny, tc gi s dng
Matlab 7.04 SP2. Du >> l k hiu khi u 1 hm trong mi trng Matlab.
2.1.7.1 Cc ton t khng gian
a) H thng tuyn tnh
H thng x l tn hiu s ni chung v x l nh ni ring u c th c m t thng
qua phng trnh sau:
( ) ( ) , , y m n T x m n =

(2.1.19)
( ) , x m n - nh s a vo h thng (l tn hiu 2 chiu);
( ) , y m n - nh s ti u ra h thng;
T ton t c trng ca h thng.
Trong gio trnh ny, chng ta s quan tm ch yu n cc h thng tuyn tnh. H
thng biu din bi (2.1) c gi l tuyn tnh khi v ch khi:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1 2 1 2
1 2
, , , ,
, ,
T ax m n bx m n aT x m n bT x m n
ay m n by m n
+ = + =

= +
(2.1.20)
a v b l cc hng s bt k.
Cc ton t thc hin vi nh 2 chiu thng c tnh cht tuyn tnh, v d cc php
dch chuyn trong khng gian, php chp, cc php bin i cng nh nhiu qu trnh lc
tuyn tnh m chng ta s xt cc chng sau.
93
b) Xung n v trong khng gian 2 chiu
Xung n v c s dng rng ri m t cc tc ng trc tip ln im nh trong
khng gian.
( )
1
,
0
khi m n
m n
khi m n

(2.1.21)
( ) , m A n B l im nh c mc chi ti a (1) ti v tr (A,B) trong khng gian.
p ng xung ca h thng l tn hiu nhn c khi xung n v c a vo h
thng:
[ ] ( ) , , h m n T m n =

(2.1.22)
c) M t qu trnh bin i tn hiu trong khng gian 2 chiu
Cho nh s gc l ma trn cc im nh c kch thc NxN. Trong trng hp tng
qut, p ng ca h thng tuyn tnh i vi tn hiu vo c th tm c thng qua p ng
xung nh sau:
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1
0 0
, , , ; ,

= =
=

N N
l k
y m n x l k h m l n k (2.1.23)
Khi h thng x l s l tuyn tnh v bt bin, ta c th tm c nh ra thng qua nh
gc ni trn v p ng xung ca h thng s dng tch chp:
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1
0 0
, , ;
N N
l k
y m n x l k h m l n k

= =
=

(2.1.24a)
hay ( ) ( ) ( ) , , , y m n x m n h m n = (2.1.24b)
2.1.7.2 Cc php tnh vi vector v ma trn
i vi tn hiu hnh nh, cc thut ton ni trn thng c thc hin trn ma trn
cc im nh hai chiu, do phn ny s gii thiu s lc v ma trn v cc php ton thc
hin trn ma trn.
a) Vector
Vector ct (ma trn ct) f , kch thc Nx1 l tp hp cc phn t ( ) f n vi n=1, 2, ...,
N sp xp theo ct dc:
94

( )
( )
( )
( )
1
2
.
.
f
f
f
f j
f N





=





(2.1.25)
Vector dng (ma trn dng) h, kch thc 1xN l tp hp cc phn t ( ) f n vi n=1, 2,
...,N sp xp theo dng ngang: ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 1 , 2 .. .. h h h h j h N =

(2.1.26)
b) Ma trn
Ma trn F, kch thc MxN l tp hp cc phn t F(m,n) vi m=1,2,..,M, n=1,2,...,N
c sp xp thnh M hng v N ct nh sau:
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
1,1 1, 2 ..... 1,
2,1 2, 2 ..... 2,
...............................................
,1 , 2 ..... ,
F F F N
F F F N
F
F M F M F M N



=




(2.1.27)
Lu rng, trong Matlab, a ch ca mi im nh c xc nh theo v tr hng v
ct trong ma trn ca im nh , v d F(2,1) l im nh nm hng th 2, ct th 1 trong
ma trn F. Cc biu din ny khc vi phng php biu din nh s c xt phn .
Ma trn NxN c gi l ma trn vung cp N.
Trong ma trn vung, tp hp cc phn t F(1,1), F(2,2),..F(NN) c gi l ng
cho chnh, ng cho cn li gi l ng cho ph.
Ma trn vung c cc phn t ngoi ng cho chnh bng 0 gi l ma trn cho. Ma
trn cho vi cc phn t trn ng cho bng 1 gi l ma trn n v, k hiu l I
n
.
c) Cng ma trn
Tng ma trn C=A+B ch xc c nh khi A v B c cng kch thc MxN. C cng
c kch thc MxN, cc phn t ca C l: C(m,n)= A(m,n)+B(m,n).
d) Nhn ma trn
Tch hai ma trn C=AB ch xc nh khi s lng ct ca A bng s dng ca B. Khi
nhn ma trn A c kch thc MxP vi B - PxN ta nhn c C c kch thc MxN:
95



( ) ( ) ( )
P
p 1
C m, n A m, p B p, n
=
=

(2.1.28)
Tnh ca hai ma trn khng c tnh giao hon.
V d 1.
S dng Matlab to ma trn v nhn ma trn
>> A=ones(2,3)
A =
1 1 1
1 1 1
>> B= magic(3)
B =
8 1 6
3 5 7
4 9 2
>> A*B
ans =
15 15 15
15 15 15

>> A= magic(3)
A =
8 1 6
3 5 7
4 9 2
>> B=eye(3,3)
B =
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
>> A*B
ans =
8 1 6
3 5 7
4 9 2
Tnh ca ma trn vung A v ma trn n v cng cp B chnh l ma trn A.
e) Ma trn nghch o
Ma trn nghch o ca ma trn vung A l ma trn
1
A

nu:
1
AA I

= v
1
A A I

= .
Nu tn ti ma trn nghch o ca ma trn A cp n th A c gi l kh nghch.
>> A=[1 2;3 4]
A =
1 2
3 4
>> inv(A)
ans =
-2 1
1.5 -0.5
>> A*inv(A)
ans =
1 0
0 1
Ma trn n v I c nghch o l chnh n.
f) Ma trn chuyn v
Ma trn chuyn v ca A thu c bng cch i ch hng thnh ct v ct thnh hng
v gi nguyn th t cc phn t trn hng. Ma trn chuyn v ca A k hiu l
T
A .
96
Nu
T
A A = , ma trn A c gi l ma trn i xng. Ma trn nhn c khi cng
T
A A + v nhn
T
AA l ma trn i xng.
Cho ma trn bt k:
>> A=[1 2 3;4 5 6]
A =
1 2 3
4 5 6
Ma trn chuyn v
T
A
>> A'
ans =
1 4
2 5
3 6
Tch
T
AA l ma trn i
xng:
>> A*A'
ans =
14 32
32 77
g) Tch v hng (scalar product) hai vector f v g kch thc Nx1:

( ) ( )
T T
N
n 1
k g f f g ,
k g n f n
=
= =
=

(2.1.29)
V d:
[ ]
1 1 1
2 . 3 =[1 2 3] 3 22
3 5 5


=




h) Tch ma trn ca hai vector f kch thc Mx1 v g kch thc Nx1 l ma trn:

( ) ( )
T
A=gf ,
A(m, n) g m f n =
(2.1.30)
V d:
1 1 1 1 3 4
2 3 = 2 [1 3 4] 2 6 8
3 5 3 3 9 12
X


=




i) Tch chp hai ma trn
Nh chng ta bit, i vi cc h thng x l tn hiu ri rc tuyn tnh v bt bin
quan h gia p ng (dy ra) v kch thch (dy vo) ca h thng c m t theo (2.1.23):
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1
0 0
, , ;
N N
l k
y m n x l k h m l n k

= =
=

(2.1.31)
i vi h thng x l nh, tn hiu vo v p ng xung thng c biu din di
dng ma trn hai chiu, do m t tc ng ca h thng ln tn hiu ta cn tm tch chp
hai ma trn. Tch chp hai ma trn kch thc
1 1
M N v
2 2
M N s l ma trn c kch
thc ( ) ( )
1 2 1 2
1 1 M M N N + + .
V d:
97
1 2 1
2 4 3
x(n,m)
-1 1
1 1
h(n,m)
1 1
1 -1
h(-n,-m)
n
m
m
n
2 1
2 4 3
x(n,m)
n
m
1 1
1
h(1-n,1-m)
y(1,1)=
-1x1= -1
1
2 4 3
n
m
1 1
h(1-n,2-m)
y(1,2)=
(1x1)+(-1x2)= -1
-1
1
-1
2
1
1

Hnh 2.1.23 Tch chp hai ma trn
x =
1 2 1
2 4 3
h =
-1 1
1 1
>> y = convn(x,h)
y=
-1 -1 1 1
-1 1 4 4
2 6 7 3
Khi tm gi tr tch chp cho cc im nm ti bin ca nh v d im y(1,1) (Hnh
2.1.23), cc im nh khng tn ti trong x(m,n) phi c gn cc gi tr nht nh. C nhiu
quy tc chn gi tr mc xm nh: mc nh bng 0, lp li cc gi tr mc xm trn ng
bin ca nh v.v. Ta s xt cc trng hp ny khi ni v cc phng php lc nh.
k) Bin i ma trn thnh mt vector (stacking operator)
Trong mt s trng hp, vic phn tch hnh nh 2 chiu s n gin hn khi ma trn F
cc im nh 2 chiu (
1 2
N N ) c bin i thnh vector ct c kch thc (
1 2
N N ,1),
lm c nh vy, chng ta sp xp ln lt cc ct (hay hng) ca F thnh 1 vector di.
Thao tc trn c th c m t thng qua vector
n
v (
2
1 N ) v ma trn
n
N
(
1 2 1
N N N ):
98

2
0 1
0 1
1
0 1
0





=


+






n
n
v n
n
N
(2.1.32)

[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
( )
( )
1 1
2 1 1
0
1 (N )
0
1 0 0
0 1 0 atrix
0 0 1
0
(N )
0
th
n
n zeros matrix N
n unit m
N
N n zeros matrix N

(2.1.33)
Ma trn F s c bin i thnh vector f nh sau:

2
N
n n
n 1
f N Fv
=
=

(2.1.34)
Bin i nghch t f thnh F l:

2
N
T
n
n=1
F= N f v

T
n
(2.1.35)
S dng cng thc (2.1.34) v (2.1.35) c th d dng xc nh quan h gia hai
phng php biu din hnh nh 2 chiu thng qua ma trn v vector. Phng php biu din
di dng vector gip thu gn ng k cc cng thc m t qu trnh x l nh v cho php
chng ta p dng nhng phng php x l tn hiu 1 chiu trong x l nh.
V d: Bin i ma trn F (3x3) thnh vector f
99

1 4 7
2 5 8
3 6 9
F


=



,
1 2 3
1 0 0
v 0 ; v 1 ; v 0
0 0 1


= = =



,

1 2 3
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 ; 0 1 0 ; 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
N N N







= = =








2
N
n n 1 1 2 2 3 3
n=1
f= N Fv N Fv N Fv N Fv = + +

1 1
1 1 0 0 1 0 0
2 0 1 0 0 1 0
3 0 0 1 0 0 1
1 1 0 0 0 0 1 4 7 0 0 0
0 0 0 2 5 8 0 0 0 0 2 0
0 0 0 3 6 9 0 0 0 0 3 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0









= = =









N Fv
Tng t ta c:
2 2
0
0
0
4
N Fv 5
6
0
0
0







=







;
3 3
0
0
0
0
N Fv 0
0
7
8
9







=








1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
f







=









2.1.7.3 Biu din h thng tuyn tnh bng ma trn
Vic phn tch cc ton t tuyn tnh trong x l nh s thun tin hn khi chng ta s
dng phng php biu din bng ma trn cp ti trn.

100
Khi tm p ng h thng, bit hm p ng xung, chng ta s dng (2.1.23):
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1
0 0
, , ;
N N
l k
y m n x l k h m l n k

= =
=

Cho tn hiu vo ( ) , x m n v p ng xung ( ) , h m n l cc ma trn vung 3x3, ta c:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
, 0,0 0, 0 1,0 1, 0 2,0 2, 0
0,1 0, 1 1,1 1, 1 2,1 2, 1
0, 2 0, 2 1, 2 1, 2 2, 2 2, 2
y m n x h m n x h m n x h m n
x h m n x h m n x h m n
x h m n x h m n x h m n
= + + +
+ + +
+ +

(2.1.36)
C th thy rng, v phi ca (2.1.36) l tch v hng ca hai vector ct x v
, m n
h :

( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
,
0,0 0, 0
1,0 1, 0
2,0 2, 0
0,1 0, 1
1,1 1, 1
2,1 2, 1
0, 2 0, 2
1, 2 1, 2
2, 2 2, 2
m n
x h m n
x h m n
x h m n
x h m n
x x h h m n
x h m n
x h m n
x h m n
x h m n










= =












C th thy rng, ma trn cc im nh X ng vi hm 2 chiu ( ) , x m n - c bin
i theo (2.1.34) nhn c vector x. Nu ma trn nh Y ng vi ( ) , y m n cng c
biu din tng t th vector
, m n
h s bin i thnh ma trn H:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0, 0 1, 0 2, 0 0, 1 1, 1 2, 1 0, 2 1, 2 2, 2
1,0 0,0 1, 0 1, 1 0, 1 1, 1 1, 2 0, 2 1, 2
2,0 1, 0 0, 0 2, 1 1, 1 0, 1 2, 2 1, 2 0, 2
0,1 1,1 2,1 0, 0 1, 0 2, 0 0, 1 1, 1 2, 1
1,1 0,1 1,1 1, 0
h h h h h h h h h
h h h h h h h h h
h h h h h h h h h
h h h h h h h h h
H h h h h h




= ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0, 0 1, 0 1, 1 0, 1 1, 1
2,1 1,1 0,1 2, 0 1,0 0, 0 2, 1 1, 1 0, 1
0, 2 1, 2 2, 2 0,1 1,1 2,1 0, 0 1, 0 2, 0
1, 2 0, 2 1, 2 1,1 0,1 1,1 1, 0 0, 0 1,0
2, 2 1, 2 0, 2 2,1 1,1 0,1 2,0 1, 0 0, 0
h h h h
h h h h h h h h h
h h h h h h h h h
h h h h h h h h h
h h h h h h h h h

(2.1.37)
Khi , phng trnh (2.1.23) c rt ngn nh sau:
y Hx = (2.1.38)
101
y l phng trnh c bn trong lnh vc x l nh tuyn tnh. Ma trn H c th c
chia thnh 9 ma trn kch thc 3 3 nh sau:

00 01 02
10 11 12
20 21 22
H H H
H H H H
H H H


=



(2.1.39)
Khi ( ) , x m n v ( ) , y m n c kch thc N N , Ma trn H c kch thc
2 2
N N ,
cc ma trn nh
m,n
H s c kch thc N N . Trong trng hp tng qut, H l ma trn
circulant khi, c to ra bi N N ma trn circulant theo cch sau:

0 1 1
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 1 1
0
1
l l l
k k k N
m m m
n n n
l l l
k k k N
H m m m
n n n
l l
k k
m m
n N



= = =





= = =




= = =

=


= = =




=




=

1 1
1 1
l
k N
m
n N n N

= =




= =

(2.1.40)
Theo (2.1.34) vector y tng ng ma trn nh Y c th tm c thng qua ma trn
X nh sau:

N
n n
n 1
y HN Xv
=
=

(2.1.41)
Ngoi ra, s dng (2.1.35) chng ta c th biu din ma trn Y thng qua vector y ca
nh:

N
T T
m m
m=1
Y= M yu

(2.1.42)
T (2.1.41) v (2.1.42) chng ta c th tm ra quan h gia ma trn nh vo v ra ca h
thng tuyn tnh:
( ) ( )
N N
T T
m n n m
m=1 n 1
Y= M HN X v u
=

(2.1.43)
C th chng minh c rng vic nhn H vi ma trn
T
m
M v
n
N s tch ra cc ma
trn circulant
m,n
H , nh vy ta c:
102

( )
N N
T
m,n n m
m=1 n 1
Y= H X v u
=

(2.1.44)
i vi h thng tuyn tnh tch c (separable), qu trnh tm tng chp (2.1.23) c
th c thc hin ln lt bng cch tnh tng theo m, sau theo n. Ta c th vit:
( ) ( ) ( ) , ; , , , =
c r
h m l n k h m l h n k (2.1.45)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1
0 0
, , , ,

= =
=

N N
c r
l k
y m n h m l x l k h n k (2.1.46)
Theo (2.1.45) ta thy trong cc ma trn circulant (2.1.40) thnh phn ( ) ,
r
h n k l
constant v c th a ra ngoi ma trn. Do ma trn circulant khi H c th bin i nh
sau ( rt gn, chng ta vit tt ( )
,
, =
n k
h h n k ):

0,0 1,0 0,0 1,0
0,0 1,0
0, 1 1, 1 0, 1 1, 1
0,0 1,0 0,0 1,0
0,1 1,1
0, 1 1, 1 0, 1 1,
... ...
... ...
... ...
... ...

=




c c N c c N
r rN
c N c N N c N c N N
c c N c c N
r rN
c N c N N c N c N N
h h h h
h h
h h h h
h h h h
h h
H
h h h h
1
0,0 1,0 0,0 1,0
0, 1 1, 1
0, 1 1, 1 0, 1 1, 1
... ...
... ...

=












T T
r c
c c N c c N
r N rN N
c N c N N c N c N N
h h
h h h h
h h
h h h h
(2.1.47)
Ma trn H c gi l tch Kronecker ca hai ma trn
T
r
h v
T
c
h .
2.1.7.4 Bin i khng gian tn hiu
Ngoi phng php phn tch tn hiu trong khng gian thc, trong nhiu trng hp
2.1.7.4.1 Bin i Fourier lin tc
Cp bin i Fourie lin tc mt chiu c nh ngha nh sau:
( ) ( )
2 ux

=

j
F u f x e dx (2.1.48)
( ) ( )
2 ux

=

j
f x F u e du (2.1.49)
( ) f x l hm lin tc, c bin thc x, j 1 = .
103
Cng thc (2.1.48) c gi l khai trin thun Fourier cn (2.1.49) khai trin nghch
Fourier.
Khai trin Fuorier 2 chiu (2D) c s dng tng i rng ri trong cc qu trnh x
l nh nh lc, xc nh bin nh, nn nh v.v. Cp bin i Fourier lin tc 2 chiu thun v
nghch s l:
( ) ( )
( ) 2 ux+vy
, ,

=

j
F u v f x y e dxdy (2.1.50)
( ) ( )
( ) 2 ux+vy
, ,



=

j
f x y F u v e dudv (2.1.51)
V d: Bin i Fourier ca xung hnh ch nht trong khng gian 3 chiu (hnh 3.1.24a)
c dng nh trn (Hnh 2.1.24b).

a) b)
Hnh 2.1.24 Ph Fourier ca xung hnh ch nht trong khng gian 3 chiu.
i vi tn hiu ri rc, mt bin, cp khai trin Fourier thun v nghch c dng nh
sau:
( ) ( )
ux
1
2
M
0
1

=
=

M
j
x
F u f x e
M
vi 0,1, 2... 1 = u M , (2.1.52)
( ) ( )
ux
1
2
M
0

=
=

M
j
u
f x F u e vi 0,1, 2... 1 = x M (2.1.53)
thc hin khai trin Fourier, chng ta phi s dng M
2
php nhn v php cng.
Cng nh tn hiu ri rc ( ) f x , khai trin Fourier ca n cho kt qu l M cc thnh phn
ri rc. D dng nhn thy rng, mi thnh phn ri rc trong F(u) l tng ca tch tt c cc
gi tr ca hm ( ) f x nhn vi cc hm cosin v sin c M tn s khc nhau. Nh vy c th
ni F(u) l biu din tn hiu f(x) trong min tn s v bin u xc nh cc tn s to nn tn
hiu ri rc f(x). C th ni, khai trin Fourier cho php chng ta m t mt hm thng qua
cc thnh phn tn s cha trong hm . Chnh v vy khai trin Fourie c th c s dng
nh 1 cng c quan trng m t v phn tch cc phng php lc tuyn tnh.
104
Trong trng hp tng qut, hm F(u) l hm phc, do n c th c biu din
di dng:
( ) ( )
( )
=
j u
F u F u e (2.1.54)
Modul ( ) ( ) ( )
1/ 2
2 2
= +

F u R u I u c gi l ph bin , cn hm
( )
( )
( )
arctg

=


I u
u
R u
gi l ph pha ca hm f(u). I(u) v R(u) l thnh phn thc v
o ca F(u).
Mt i lng khc c th suy ra t ph Fourier l ph cng sut ca tn hiu P(u):
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 2
P u F u R u I u = = + (2.1.55)
Ph nng lng cho chng ta thy phn b cng sut ca tn hiu trong min tn s.
Bin i Fourier c th c m rng cho hm ( ) , f x y c 2 bin. Khi ( ) , f x y lin
tc v ly tch phn c th cp bin i Fourier 2 chiu thun v nghch s l:
( ) ( )
( ) 2 ux+vy
, ,
j
F u v f x y e dxdy

=

(2.1.56)
( ) ( )
( ) 2 ux+vy
, ,
j
f x y F u v e dudv

=

(2.1.57)
u, v l bin tn s.
Cng nh trng hp bin i Fourier 1 chiu, ta c ph bin , ph pha v ph cng
sut cho trng hp 2 chiu:
( ) ( ) ( )
1/ 2
2 2
, , , F u v R u v I u v = +

(2.1.58)
( )
( )
( )
I u,v
, arctg
,
u v
R u v

=


(2.1.59)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 2
, , , , P u v F u v R u v I u v = = + (2.1.69)
2.1.7.4.2 Bin i Fourier ri rc 2 chiu
Bin i Fourier thun 2 chiu ca hm ri rc f(x,y) (m t nh s kch thc MxN)
c biu din nh sau:
( ) ( )
ux vy
1 1
2
M N
0 0
1
, ,



+


= =
=

M N
j
x y
F u v f x y e
MN
(2.1.70)
105
Nu c F(u,v) chng ta c th tm ra f(x,y) bng khai trin Fourier thun:
( ) ( )
ux vy
1 1
2
M N
0 0
, ,



+


= =
=

M N
j
u v
f x y F u v e (2.1.71)
Ph bin , ph pha v ph cng sut cng c xc nh nh sau:
( ) ( ) ( )
1/ 2
2 2
, , , = +

F u v R u v I u v (2.1.72)
( )
( )
( )
,
, arctg
,

=


I u v
u v
R u v
(2.1.73)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 2
, , , , P u v F u v R u v I u v = = + (2.1.74)
Gi tr ca ph Fourier ti im u=v=0 bng:
( ) ( )
1 1
0 0
1
0, 0 ,

= =
=

M N
x y
F f x y
MN
(2.1.75)
Nu f(x,y) hm biu din chi ca nh s th F(0,0) chnh l gi tr trung bnh ca
chi nh. V (0,0) l im gc ta khng gian tn s, ni tn s bng 0, nn thnh phn
F0,0) cn c gi l thnh phn mt chiu (DC) ca ph tn hiu.
V d: Trn Hnh 2.1.25a l nh chi tit hnh ch nht mu trng, kch thc 20x40
nm trn nh phng mu en. Ph 2 chiu ca nh trn nhn c bng khai trin Fourie (
3.1.70) biu din trn Hnh 2.1.25b. Trong trng hp ny, cc thnh phn ph ca tn hiu s
c nh s theo th t t u=1 ti u=M, v=1 ti v=N.
thnh phn mt chiu ca ph nm ti trung tm ca nh, chng ta phi thc hin
dch ph trong khng gian hai chiu, bng cch nhn hm f(x,y) vi ( )
x y
1
+
, khi theo
tnh cht ca khai trin Fourier, ph Fuorier phc s dch chuyn n v tr ( ) u M/ 2 = v
( ) v N/ 2 = :
( )( )
x y M N
f x, y 1 F u ; v
2 2
+




(2.1.76)
Ph 2 chiu ca nh sau khi dch chuyn c biu din trn Hnh 2.1.25c
Phm vi di ng (khong bin thin) ca gi tr cc h s khai trin Fourier c th cao
hn nhiu so vi gi tr ca thnh phn chi. V vy, nh ph hin th r hn trn mn
hnh, i khi ngi ta bin i cc gi tr ph theo hm logarit nh sau:
( ) ( ) D u, v clog 1 F u, v = +

(2.1.77)
c- hng s.
nh ph sau khi bin i bng ( 3.1.77 ) biu din trn Hnh 2.1.25d.
106



Hnh 2.1.25 Ph Fourier ca hnh nh 2D

2.2 PHN TCH CC K THUT X L NH V VIDEO
2.2.1 Khi nim v quan h gia cc im nh
2.2.1.1 Cc im nh ln cn
Mi im nh p ti ta (x,y) s c 4 im nh c gi l ln cn theo chiu ngang
v dc, l cc im ( ) ( ) ( )( ) x 1, y , x 1, y , x, y 1 x, y 1 + + . Tp hp 4 im ln cn
trn c k hiu l ( )
4
N p . Mi im ln cn nm cch im (x,y) 1 n v. 4 im nh ln
cn vi im (x,y) theo ng cho k hiu l ( )
D
N p , l cc im:
( ) ( ) ( )( ) x 1, y 1 , x 1, y 1 , x 1, y 1 x 1, y 1 + + + + . Tp hp 8 im ( )
4
N p v
( )
D
N p c gi l 8 im ln cn: ( )
8
N p . Trong trng hp khi im p nm bin ca
nh, cc im ln cn c th nm bn ngoi nh.
2.2.1.2 Mi lin kt (connectivity)
Mi lin kt gia cc im nh l khi nim quan trng, cho php xc nh cc gii hn
ca chi tit hay cc vng trong mt nh. Hai im nh c s lin kt vi nhau nu chng l
cc im ln cn v gi tr mc xm ca chng p ng 1 tiu chun no (th d nu chng
ging nhau). V d, i vi nh nh phn, 2 im nh c lin kt, khi chng nm trong b 4
ln cn v c gi tr ging nhau.
Cho V l tp cc mc xm dng nh ngha mi lin kt, v d trong nh en-trng,
gi tr cc mc xm thay i t 0-255, th V c th l 1 tp bt k trong s 255 gi tr ny.
Chhng ta c 3 loi lin kt:
107
1) Lin kt 4: hai im nh p v q c cc gi tr t V c lin kt 4 nu q nm trong tp
( )
4
N p .
2) Lin kt 8: hai im nh p v q c cc gi tr t V c lin kt 8 nu q nm trong tp
( )
8
N p .
3) Lin kt m (hn hp): hai im nh p v q c cc gi tr t V c lin kt m nu:
- q nm trong tp ( )
4
N p , hoc
- q nm trong tp ( )
D
N p v tp ( ) ( )
4 4
N p N q khng cha cc gi tr trong V.
Lin kt m l bin th ca lin kt 8 dng loi tr cc mi lin kt a hng (khng
r rng) c th gp khi dng lin kt 8. iu ny minh ha trn Hnh 2.2.1b. Lin kt 8 trn
Hnh 2.2.1 c biu din bng ng t nt l lin kt a hng, trong khi nu s dng
khi nim lin kt m, ta s xc nh 1 ng lin kt duy nht gia cc im nh c gi tr
bng 1 (Hnh 2.2.1c).

Hnh 2.2.1 Minh ha lin kt 8 v lin kt m.
ng kt ni (ri rc) gia hai im nh p c ta (x,y) v q c ta l (s,t) l
chui cc pixel khc nhau vi cc ta : ( ) ( ) ( )
0 0 1 1 n n
x , y , x , y ,..., x , y , trong :

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
0 0
n n
x , y x, y
x , y s, t
=
=

( )
i i
x , y v ( )
i 1 i 1
x , y

l cc im lin kt vi 1 i n . n c gi l chiu di ca
ng kt ni. Khi ( ) ( )
0 0 n n
x , y x , y = , ng ni c gi l khp kn.
Ty theo phng php xc nh lin kt,chng ta c ng kt ni 4, 8 hoc ng kt
ni m. Trn Hnh 2.2.1 m t 2 loi ng kt ni m v 8.
Cho S l mt tp cc im nh, hai pixel p v q c gi l lin kt trong S, nu tn ti
ng kt ni gia hai im p v q c to ra ch bi cc im trong tp S.
Vi bt c im p no t S, tt c cc pixel lin kt vi p trong S s c gi l thnh
phn lin kt ca S. Nu S trong ch tn ti mt thnh phn lin kt, th tp S gi l tp lin
kt.
Cho R l tp con cc im nh, R c gi l 1 vng nh nu R l tp lin kt. ng
bin ca vng R c to ra t tp nh cc im nh. Cc im ny c 1 hoc nhiu hn cc
im ln cn khng nm trong tp R.
108

2.2.1.3 Ton t x l im nh
Trong cc phn sau, chng ta s ni n cc php tnh thc hin vi hnh nh, th d
chia mt nh cho nh khc. Nh gii thiu trn, ta c th biu din nh s nh ma trn
cc im nh,tuy nhin trong trng hp tng qut, hai ma trn khng chia c cho nhau. V
vy, trn thc t, khi thc hin ton t chia 2 nh cho nhau, ngi ta chia cc pixel tng ng
ca 1 nh cho nh khc (vi iu kin cc im nh ca anh chia khc 0). V d, khi chia nh
f cho nh g, im nh th nht nhn c s l gi tr im nh th nht ca nh f chia cho
gi tr im nh th nht ca nh g. Tng t nh vy, cc ton t s hc v logic s c
thc hin cho cc pixel tng ng gia 2 nh.
2.2.1.3.1 Khong cch gia cc im nh
i vi cc pixels p,q,z vi cc ta (x,y), (s,t), (u,v), D l hm khong cch hoc
metric, nu:
( ) D p, q 0 , ( ) D p, q 0 = nu p=q
( ) ( ) D p, q D q, p =
( ) ( ) ( ) D p, z D p,q D q, z +
2.2.1.3.2 Khong cch Euclide gia p va q c nh ngha:
( ) ( ) ( )
1/ 2
2 2
e
D p,q x s y t

= +

(2.2.1)
2.2.1.3.3 Khong cch D
4
gia p va q c nh ngha:
( )
4
D p,q x s y t = + (2.2.2)
Cc pixels nm cch im (x,y) mt khong D
4
nh hn hoc bng gi tr r s to ra
hnh thoi c tm im ti (x,y).V d: pixels nm cch (x,y) mt khong
4
D 2 to ra hnh
thoi sau:

2.2.1.3.4 Khong cch D
8
gia p va q c nh ngha nh sau:
( ) ( )
8
D p,q max x s , y t = (2.2.3)
V d: pixels nm cch (x,y) mt khong
8
D 2 to ra hnh vung c tm im ti
im (x,y):
109

Pixels vi khong cch
8
D 1 = l 8 im ln cn ca pixel (x,y).
2.2.2 Cc phng php xc nh v d an bin nh
2.2.2.1 C s pht hin ng bin nh
Lm ni, pht hin v d on bin nh l vn quan trng trong phn tch nh. Nh
c nh ngha phn trc, ng bin ca mt vng nh R c to ra bi cc im
nh c mt hoc nhiu im ln cn khng nm trong tp lin kt R. Ni cch khc, mt im
nh c coi l nm trn ng bin nu ti v tr im nh c s thay i t ngt ca
mc xm. Nh vy, ng bin l ng ni cc im nh nm trong khu vc nh c thay i
t ngt v chi, ng bin thng ngn cch hai vng nh c cc mc xm gn nh
khng i.


Hnh 2.2.2 Minh ha khi nim ng bin ca nh
ng bin gia hai vng nh (c chi khc nhau) trong khng gian 2 chiu v s
thay oori chi trn ng bin.
Trong trng hp l tng, chi gia 2 vng nh thay i t ngt hoc tng dn
u. Tuy nhin, trn thc t, mc xm gia cc vng nh thay i tng i ngu nhin.
Chnh v vy qu trnh pht hin ng bin thng khng n gin v kt qu thng khng
han ton chnh xc.
C nhiu phng php pht hin ng bin khc nhau:
1- Phng php pht hin ng bin trc tip da trn cc phn tch v s thay i
chi ca nh. K thut ch yu dng pht hin bin l dng o hm. Khi ly o hm bc
nht ca nh ta c phng php gradient, khi ly o hm bc hai ta c k thut Laplace.
110
2- Phng php pht hin ng bin trong nh mu: phn tch nh mu thnh cc nh
n sc (R,G,B) v xc nh ng bin trn c s s thay i mu sc trong cc nh n sc
ni trn.
3- Phn tch nh thnh vng theo cc c im c trng (th d kt cu b mt
(texture)), ranh gii gia cc vng chnh l ng bin ca nh.
2.2.2.2 Phng php Gradient

Hnh 2.2.3 S khi tng qut ca h thng pht hin ng bin
S khi tng qut ca h thng pht hin ng bin biu din trn Hnh 2.2.3.
nh gc f(x,y) c a vo khi lm ni ng bin. y, bng phng php x l
tuyn tnh hoc phi tuyn nh F(x,y) c lm tng mc chnh lch chi gia cc vng
nh. nh G(x,y) l nh gc c tng cng bin ng bin gia cc vng nh. Sau
, ti khi so snh, ngi ta so snh gi tr cc im nh G(x,y) vi mc ngng T

xc
nh v tr cc im c muc thay i chi ln. Nu:
( )
L
G x, y T < - c s thay i mc chi t cao xung thp
( )
H
G x, y T > - c s thay i mc chi t thp ln cao.
L
T v
H
T l gi tr mc ngng thp v cao.
Vic la chn gi tr ngng rt quan trng trong qu trnh xc nh ng bin. Khi
gi tr T qu cao, cc ng bin c tng phn thp s b mt i, ngc li, khi T qu
thp, d xy ra hin tng xc nh bin sai di tc ng ca nhiu.
Phng php gradient l phng php d bin cc b da vo gi tr cc i ca o
hm. Gradient l vector cho thy tc thay i gi tr chi ca cc im nh theo hng
nht nh. Cc thnh phn ca gradient c tnh bi:
( ) ( ) ( ) f x, y f x dx, y f x, y
x dx
+
=

(2.2.4)
( ) ( ) ( ) f x, y f x, y dy f x, y
y dy
+
=

(2.2.5)
dx v dy l khong cch gia cc im theo hng ly x v y. Trn thc t thng dng
dx=1, dy=1. Khi nh s c biu din nh ma trn cc im nh phn b theo dng v ct,
gradient ri rc theo hng x s bng:
( ) ( ) ( )
x
G x, y f x 1, y f x, y = + (2.2.6)
Gradient theo hng y s l:
111
( ) ( ) ( )
y
G x, y f x, y 1 f x, y = + (2.2.7)

a) b)
c)

lm ni nhng ng bin dc, ta phi ly o hm ri rc theo chiu ngang v
ngc li. Kt qu qu trnh lm ni ng bin theo phng php gradient th hin trn hnh
2.2.4.
2.2.2.3 Lm ni bin bng ton t la bn
o hm ri rc hai chiu c th c thc hin bng cch ly tng chp gia nh gc
v mt n gradient. Mt s mt n c s dng lm ni cc ng bin theo hng nht
nh [ ]. Tn mt n c t theo hng thay i chi m mt n c p ng ln nht.

Hnh 2.2.4 Lm ni ng bin
s dng phng php gradient, a- nh
gc; b- ly o hm ring theo chiu y;
c- ly o hm ring theo chiu x;
112

nh c lm ni bin bng cc mt n trn biu din cc hnh sau:

Bc ng Bc

ng ng Nam
C th thy rng, cc mt n trn c tng gi tr cc h s bng 0, do p ng ca
mt n ti vng nh c chi khng i s bng 0.
2.2.2.4 K thut Laplace
Phng php gradient lm vic tt khi sng thay i tng i r nt. Khi mc xm
thay i chm, cc ng bin khng r nt, min chuyn tip tng i rng, phng php
hiu qu hn l dng o hm bc hai m chng ta gi l phng php Laplace. Ton t
Laplace c nh ngha nh sau:
113

2 2
2
2 2
f f
f
dx dy

= + (2.2.8)
Vic xp x o hm bc hai cho tn hiu ri rc (tm thi xt tn hiu mt chiu) c
thc hin nh sau:
( ) ( ) ( )
2
2
1 1 2
f
f x f x f x
x

= + +

(2.2.9)
thy s khc bit, chng ta quan st tc ng ca o hm bc mt v bc hai ti tn
hiu:


Hnh 2.2.5 Minh ha ng dng o hm bc mt v bc hai trong qu trnh tch bin
Nhn trn th kt qu o hm bc mt v hai (hnh 2.2.5 v 2.2.6) ta thy o hm
bc mt ly trong min mc xm gim dn khc khng, trong khi o hm bc hai ch khc
khng on u v on cui. ng bin gia cc vng trn nh thc thng c s thay
i chi nh trn, do c th thy o hm bc hai cho php xc nh v tr ng bin
tt hn o hm bc mt. Ti v tr im nh ring r, o hm bc 2 cho p ng mnh hn,
do cc chi tit nh (v c nhiu) s c lm ni r nt hn. ng nt tng i mnh
trn hnh nh cng s c lm ni nhiu hn khi s dng o hm bc hai. Cui cng, i
vi tnh hiu dng bc sng ln p ng ca c o hm bc mt v hai gn ging nhau.
Tuy nhin o hm bc 2 cho kt qu m v dng. Do trn hnh nh s c hiu ng
ng bin i.

114

Hnh 2.2.6 Dng tn hiu nhn c sau khi ly o hm bc 1 v bc 2
i vi tn hiu 2 chiu, o hm ring theo trc x v y bng:
( ) ( ) ( )
2
2
1, 1, 2 ,
f
f x y f x y f x y
x

= + +

(2.2.10)
( ) ( ) ( )
2
2
, 1 , 1 2 ,
f
f x y f x y f x y
y

= + +

(2.2.11)
Tan t Laplace hai chiu ri rc tnh theo (2.2.8) c dng:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
1, 1, , 1 , 1 4 , f f x y f x y f x y f x y f x y = + + + + +

(2.2.12)
Tan t trn c th c thc hin bi cc mt n sau:


Hnh 2.2.7 Mt n thc hin ton t Laplace v nh nhn c u ra
115
2.3 CC K THUT NN NH
2.3.1 Gii thiu chung v k thut nn nh
Cc h truyn hnh (tng t) NTSC, PAL, SECAM s dng nn thng tin video bng
cch gim rng bng tn thnh phn mu xung 1,2 MHz do nhy ca mt ngi c
gii hn i vi tn hiu mu tn s cao. Tiu chun nh dng video thnh phn 4:2:2 (
CCIR-601) dng rng bng tn tn hiu chi v mu l 5,75 MHz v 2,75 MHz ( 0,1 dB).
Sau khi s ha, tc bit tng cng ca tn hiu chi v mu l 270 Mbps. Gi tr ny rt cao,
khng th thc hin c vic truyn tn hiu video s qua v tinh vi rng di tn mt
knh 27 MHz hoc qua h thng truyn hnh qung b trn mt t vi tiu chun 78 MHz
cho mt knh truyn hnh tiu chun. Do vy, nn tn hiu video l cng on khng th thiu
khc phc c nhng kh khn trn.
Nn video trong nhng nm 1950 c thc hin bng cng ngh tng t vi t s nn
thp. S pht trin ca k thut s v vic s dng cng ngh s vo k thut truyn hnh lm
cho khi nim nn video tr thnh ti nng hi trong nhng nm gn y. T nhng
nm 1980, cc nh khoa hc t c nhng thnh tu quan trng trong vic nn tn hiu
video v audio. C rt nhiu hng sn xut thit b nn, nhng u da trn hai nh dng nn
rt ph bin l JPEG v MPEG.
Trong lnh vc truyn thng video, k thut x l tn hiu ch yu tp trung vo mc
ch nn. Ngi ta thng s dng 3 phng php nn i vi hnh nh da vo cc loi
d: d tha khng gian, d tha ph v d tha tm sinh l nhn.
Nn v c bn l mt qu trnh trong s lng s liu (data) biu din lng thng
tin ca mt nh hoc nhiu nh c gim bt bng cch loi b nhng s liu d tha trong
tn hiu video. Cc chui nh truyn hnh c nhiu phn nh ging nhau. Vy tn hiu truyn
hnh c cha nhiu d liu d tha, ta c th b qua m khng lm mt thng tin hnh nh.
l cc phn xa dng, xa mnh, vng nh tnh hoc chuyn ng rt chm,vng nh nn
ging nhau, m cc phn t lin tip hoc khc nhau rt t. Ngoi ra, tng h s nn
nh ng, chuyn ng trong nh truyn hnh phi c d bo, khi , ta ch cn truyn cc
thng tin v hng v mc (vector) chuyn ng ca cc vng nh khc nhau. Cc phn t
ln cn trong nh thng ging nhau, do ch cn truyn cc thng tin bin i. Cc h
thng nn s dng c tnh ny ca tn hiu video v cc c trng ca mt ngi (l km
nhy vi sai s trong hnh nh c nhiu chi tit v cc phn t chuyn ng). Qu trnh gii
nn nh l qu trnh xp x khi phc nh gc (thng thc hin pha thu).
Mt h thng nn video tiu biu (hay b m ho ngun) bao gm: b chuyn i, b
lng t ho, b m ho (Hnh 2.4.1)
B chuyn
i
B lng
t ha
Tn hiu
nn
B m
ha
Tn hiu
gc

Hnh 2.3.1: S khi h thng nn nh tiu biu
116
- B chuyn i: thng dng php bin i Cosin ri rc tp trung nng lng
tn hiu vo mt s lng nh cc h s khai trin thc hin php nn hiu qu hn l dng
tn hiu nguyn thy.
- B lng t ho: to ra mt lng k hiu gii hn cho nh nn vi hai k thut:
lng t v hng (thc hin lng t ho cho tng phn d liu) v lng t vect (thc
hin lng t ho mt ln mt khi d liu). Qu trnh ny khng thun nghch.
- B m ho: gn mt t m, mt dng bit nh phn cho mi k hiu.
Cc h thng nn c phn bit da trn s kt hp khc nhau gia 3 b x l trn v
c phn loi nh sau:
- H thng nn khng mt thng tin (lossless data reduction): thc hin ti thiu
tc bit m khng lm mo nh, h thng cn gi l nn ton bit hay c tnh cht thun
nghch.
- H thng nn c mt thng tin (loss data reduction): t c trung thc tt
nht i vi tc bit cho trc, h thng ph hp p dng cho tn hiu m thanh v hnh nh
v c h s nn cao.
Trong s Hnh 2.3.1, tng chuyn i v tng m ho l ni tn hiu x l khng b
tn tht, tng lng t l c tn tht. Ngoi ra, da trn quan im v tn tht chng ta c th
phn bit hai loi m ho nh sau: m ho entropy (m ho khng tn tht) v m ho ngun
(m ho c tn tht).
2.3.1.1 Cc k thut m ho entropy
K thut ny ch quan tm n o tin trong d liu m khng quan tm n ng
ngha ca tin. Sau y l mt s k thut m ho entropy hay dng trong h thng x l
video:
- M ho chiu di di lin tc (RLC - Run Length Coding): cc chui im nh
c cng chi (mc mu) s c m ho bng cp thng tin ( chi, chiu di chui).
- M ho bng cc loi b trng lp: cc chui c bit c thay th bng c v
s m lp.
- M ho dng mu thay th: y l dng m ho thng k m n thay th cc mu
hay lp li bng mt m.
- M ha vi di (ca t m) thay i (VLC- Variable-Length Coding)
Phng php ny cn c gi l m ha Huffman. Nguyn l ca n da trn xc sut
xut hin ca cc gi tr bin trng hp trong mt bc nh v vic gn mt t m ngn cho
cc gi tr c tn sut xut hin cao nht v t m di hn cho cc gi tr cn li. Khi thc
hin gii nn, cc thit lp m trng hp s c s dng to li gi tr tn hiu ban u.
M ha v gii m Huffman c th thc hin mt cch d dng bng cch s dng cc bng
tm kim. Nh vy, m Huffman da trn nguyn tc k t c tn s sut hin cng cao th
s bit m ho cng ngn.
117
2.3.1.2 Phng php m d on
Phng php m d on hay cn gi l iu xung m vi sai (DPCM Differential
Pulse Code Modulation) khng m ha thng tin c bin mi mu, m m ha thng tin
c bin vi sai (bin chnh lch) gia mu cho v tr d bo ( c to t cc mu
trc ). Phn tch thng k v phn b bin tn hiu video, ta thy phn b bin cc
mu tng ng vi cc im nh (pixel) v nguyn tc l phn b u, ngc li phn b v
chnh lch bin cc im nh c th hnh chung xung quanh im 0. Nu da trn
cc c trng thng k nh, th s khc nhau ny l khng ln lm v m ha n ch cn
gim s bit l (so vi vic m ha ton b bin cc mu).
Phng php DPCM cn s dng c im ca mt ngi (km nhy vi mc lng t
c chnh lch v chi gia im nh gn nhau, so vi mc lng t ha chnh lch nh)
v cho php dng c trng phi tuyn v lng t ha. Hnh 2.3.2 minh ha s khi b m
ha v gii m DPCM.

a) m ha DPCM

b) gii m DPCM
Hnh 2.3.2 S khi b m ha v gii m DPCM
Nhm trnh cc li c th xut hin trong khi truyn, mt mu y c gi i theo
chu k nht nh, cho php cp nht c cc gi tr chnh xc. M ha DPCM cng s dng
thm cc k thut d on v lng t ha thch nghi hon thin thm k thut ny.
2.3.1.3 Cc k thut m ho ngun
Cc k thut ny da trn ng ngha ca nh nn cn gi l k thut m ho hng ng
ngha. C 3 loi c bn l m ho chuyn i, m ho sai phn v lng t ho vect.
- M ho chuyn i: dng php bin i Fourier hay Cosin chuyn t min
thi gian hay min khng gian sang min tn s. y, chng ta quan tm n php chuyn
118
i Cosin ri rc (DCT - Discrete Cosine Transform). c im ca php bin i ny l tn
hiu nh trong min khng gian chuyn sang min tn s th cc thnh phn DC v cc thnh
phn AC mang hu ht cc thng tin cha trong nh gc. Trong , DC l thnh phn quan
trng nht mang chi trung bnh ca nh, cc thnh phn AC cha cc thng tin v chi tit
ca nh. Sau , khi qua tng lng t ho, cc h s t quan trng s b loi b bt v ch gi
li mt s h s h s u tin gi l h s DCT.
- M ho sai phn: cng c gi l m ho c on do ch m ho s khc bit
gia gi tr mu thc v gi tr c on, m ho sai phn thng dng cho video hnh nh
ng. Lp k thut ny bao gm: iu m xung sai phn, iu ch delta, iu m xung thch
nghi.
- Lng t ho vect: m ho tng khi hai chiu kch thc c nh (gi l vect)
v tra bng tm m ph hp nht. K thut ch thch hp cho d liu c cu trc bit trc.
2.3.1.4 Cc phng php nn nh trong h thng video thi gian thc
Vic la chn k thut nn ph thuc vo cht lng nh v gii hn thi gian tr. Cc
tiu chun v cc h thng nn nh da trn tu chn ny a ra cc chun ph hp. Trong
h thng truyn nh ng (video), ngi ta thng s dng phng php nn theo tiu chun
MPEG (nh MPEG-1, MPEG-2, MPEG-4). Trong , im nh l thnh phn c bn nht v
c nhm thnh tng khi 88 im nh (block), mt nhm 44 block ny hnh thnh mt
khi 1616 im nh gi l Macroblock(MB). Mt slice l mt dy cc MB lin tip gia hai
k hiu nh du ti ng b (sync.marker). Cc thnh phn cu trc cao hn ca chui video
l khung nh (frame), y chnh l cc nh thc s ca chui video. C 3 khung nh tiu biu:
khung I, khung P, v khung B. cui cng l nhm cc khung (GOP) bt u vi khung I v
kt thc vi khung P hoc B.
2.3.1.5 Cc tiu chun nn nh
Cc tiu chun quan trng bao gm:
- JPEG: dng cho nn nh tnh, pht trin bi s kt hp gia ITU-TS v ISO.
- MPEG-1, MPEG-2, MPEG-4, MPEG-7: do y ban ISO IEC/JTC1/SC29-
/WG11 pht trin cho m ho kt hp gia video v audio.
- H.261: do Nhm nghin cu XI pht trin v c bit rng ri nh tiu chun
m ho video cho cc dch v nghe nhn tc n64Kbps.
- ITU-TS H.263 cho cc ng dng in thoi thy hnh di tc di 64Kbps.
Mc d cc tiu chun c gii thiu trn ph hp cho tng loi ng dng ring bit.
Tuy nhin, chng cng c chung cc nguyn tc c bn. S khc bit gia cc chun ph
thuc ch yu vo yu cu c bit ca tng ng dng. Trong , tiu chun MPEG-4 c
xem nh mt chun tng qut ho ca chun H.263, v vy, vic kho st da trn chun ny
s c tnh cht p dng chung cho c hai chun.
2.3.1.6 Xc nh hiu qu ca qu trnh nn tn hiu s
Hiu qu nn c xc nh bng t l nn, ngha l t s gia s lng d liu ca nh
gc trn s liu ca nh nn.
119
phc tp ca thut ton nn, c xc nh bng s bc tnh ton trong c hai qu
trnh m ha v gii m. Thng thng th thut ton nn cng phc tp bao nhiu th hiu
qu nn cng cao nhng ngc li gi thnh v thi gian thc hin li tng. i vi thut
ton nn c tn tht th sai lch c xc nh bng s thng tin b mt i khi ta ti to li
hnh nh t d liu nn. Vi nn khng tn tht th chng ta c th c nhng thut ton m
ha cng gn vi entropy ca thng tin ngun bi v lng entropy ca ngun chnh l tc
nh nht m bt c mt thut ton nn khng tn tht no cng c th t c.
Ngc li, trong nn c tn tht th mi quan h gia t l nn v sai lch thng tin
c Shannon nghin cu v biu din di dng hm R
(D)
( hm

v sai lch thng tin). L
thuyt ca ng cng ch ra rng vi thut ton nn c tn tht th chng ta s c hiu qu nn
cao nht nhng ngc li ta li b mt thng tin trong qu trnh ti to li n t d liu nn.
Trong khi nn khng tn tht, mc d t c hiu qu thp, nhng ta li khng b mt
thng tin trong qu trnh ti to li n. V vy ta phi tm ra mt gii php nhm trung ha
gia hai thut ton nn ny tm ra mt thut ton nn ti u sao cho hiu qu cao m li
khng b mt mt thng tin.
2.3.1.7 d tha s liu
Nn s liu l qu trnh gim lng s liu cn thit biu din cng mt lng thng
tin cho trc. Cn phi phn bit gia s liu v thng tin. Thc t s liu v thng tin khng
ng ngha vi nhau. S liu (v do tn hiu) ch l phng tin dng truyn ti thng
tin. Cng mt lng thng tin cho trc c th biu din bng cc lng s liu khc nhau. V
d, nu hai ngi khc nhau dng s t khc nhau k cng mt cu truyn, s c hai
version khc nhau ca cu truyn v mt c cha s liu khng ch yu; n bao gm s liu
hoc t khng cho thng tin thch hp ln xc nh bit. l do n cha d tha s
liu.
d tha s liu l vn trung tm trong nn nh s. nh gi cho qu trnh thc
hin gii thut nn l t l nn (C
N
) c xc nh nh sau: Nu N
1
v N
2
l lng s liu
trong hai tp hp s liu cng c dng biu din lng thng tin cho trc th d
tha s liu tng i R
D
ca tp s liu th nht so vi tp s liu th hai c th c nh
ngha nh sau:
R
D
= 1- 1/C
N

trong :
C
N
= N
1
/N
2

Trong trng hp N1 = N2 th C
N
= 1 v c ngha l so vi tp s liu th hai th tp s
liu th nht khng cha s liu d tha. Khi N2 << N1 th CN tin ti v cng v R
D
tin ti
mt, c ngha l d tha s liu tng i ca tp s liu th nht l kh ln hay tp s
liu th hai c nn kh nh.
y c s kt hp gia t l nn v cht lng hnh nh. T l nn cng cao s lm
gim cht lng hnh nh v ngc li. Cht lng v qu trnh nn c th thay i ty theo
c im ca hnh nh ngun v ni dung nh. nh gi cht lng nh c ngh tnh s
120
bit cho mt im trong nh nn (Nb). N c xc nh l tng s bit nh nn chia cho tng
s im:
Nb = S bit nn/S im
Trong nn nh s, ba loi d tha s liu c th c nhn dng v phn bit.
D tha m ( Coding Redundancy)
Nu cc mc ca tn hiu video c m ha bng cc symbol nhiu hn cn thit
(tuyt i) th kt qu l c d tha m. gim d tha m, trong nn nh thng s
dng cc m VLC nh m Huffman, m RLC v.v...Lng thng tin v hnh nh c xc sut
thp hn.
D tha trong pixel (Interpixel Redundancy)
V gi tr ca bt k mt pixel no , cng c th c d bo t gi tr ca cc ln cn
ca n, nn thng tin t cc pixels ring l tng i nh. S tham gia ca mt pixel ring
vo mt nh l d tha. Nhiu tn (bao gm: d tha khng gian, d tha hnh hc, d tha
trong nh) c t ra phn bit s ph thuc ny ca cc pixels. Ta dng d tha trong
pixel ch tt c cc tn trn. gim d tha trong pixel ca mt nh, dy pixel hai
chiu dng cho vic nhn v ni suy, phi c bin i thnh mt dng c hiu qu hn.
Trong cc phng php nn nh s trnh by trong chng ny, ta dng php bin i cosin
ri rc (DCT) bin i pixel t min khng gian sang min tn s, bng cch ny s gim
c d tha s liu trong pixel min tn s cao.
D tha tm sinh l
Bng trc quan ta thy, s thu nhn cng sng thay i ch gii trong mt phm vi
nht nh. Hin tng ny xut pht t s tht l mt khng p ng vi cng nhy ca tt
c cc thng tin nhn thy. Thng tin n gin c tm quan trng t hn thng tin khc trong
vng nhn thy. Thng tin ny c gi l d tha tm l nhn. N c th c loi b m
khng nh hng ng k n cht lng thu nhn nh. Khc vi d tha m v d tha
trong pixel, d tha tm sinh l c lin quan n thng tin theo nh lng, n c quan h
ti vic lng t ha. iu c ngha l nh x mt khong rng cc gi tr u vo ln mt
s hu hn cc gi tr u ra. l ton t khng o ngc (mt thng tin) cho kt qu nn
s liu c tn hao.
2.3.1.8 Sai lch bnh phng trung bnh
Phng php nh gi cht lng nh nn thng dng nht l da trn mc sai lch
bnh phng trung bnh so vi nh gc - RMS (Root Mean Square) c tnh bi biu thc:

( )
n
2
'
i i
i 1
1
RMS X X
n
=
=

trong : RMS- sai lch bnh phng trung bnh

i
X - gi tr im nh gc
121

'
i
X - gi tr im nh sau khi nn
n - tng s im nh trong mt nh
Thng thng, khi gi tr RMS thp, cht lng nh nn s tt. Tuy nhin, trong mt s
trng hp cht lng hnh nh nn khng nht thit phi t l thun vi gi tr RMS.
2.3.2 Phng php nn nh JPEG
JPEG ( Joint Photographic Expert Group ) l tn ca mt t chc nghin cu v cc
chun nn nh (trc y l ISO) c thnh lp vo nm 1982. Nm 1986, JPEG chnh thc
c thit lp nh s kt hp gia nhm ISO/IEC v ITV. Tiu chun ny c th c ng
dng trong nhiu lnh vc : lu tr nh, Fax mu, truyn nh bo ch, nh cho y hc, camera
s v.v...
Tiu chun JPEG c nh ra cho nn nh tnh n sc v mu. Tuy nhin cng c
s dng cho nhiu ng dng vi nh ng bi v n cho cht lng nh khi phc kh tt v
t tnh ton hn so vi nn MPEG. Nn JPEG c th thc hin bi bn mode m ha l:
a) M tun t (sequential DCT-based) : nh c m ha theo kiu qut t tri qua
phi, t trn xung di da trn khi DCT.
b) M ha ly tin (progressive DCT-based) : nh c m ha bng kiu qut
phc hp theo ch phn gii khng gian cho cc ng dng trn kiu bng hp v do thi
gian truyn dn c di.
c) M ha khng tn tht (lossless) : nh c m bo khi phc chnh xc cho
mi gi tr mu ca ngun. Thng tin khng cn thit s mi ct b cho nn hiu qu nn thp
hn so vi phng php c tn tht.
d) M ha phn cp (hierarchical) : nh c m ha ch phn gii khng gian
phc hp, cho nhng nh c phn gii thp c th c truy xut v hin th m khng
cn gii nn nh nhng nh c phn gii trong khng gian cao hn.
M ha khng tn tht khng s dng cho video ng bi v n cung cp mt t l nn
khng cao. T l nn nh tnh c th t t 1/10 n 1/50 m khng lm nh hng n
cht lng hin th ca nh. Khai trin DCT c chn l k thut then cht trong JPEG v n
cho nh nn cht lng tt nht ti tc bit thp v gii thut chuyn i nhanh v d dng
thc hin bng phn cng. Trn Hnh 2.4.3 l s m ho tiu biu ca JPEG.
K thut nn nh JPEG cho php s dng hoc mnh (field) hoc nh (frame) nh mt
nh gc. Nu k thut nn dng mnh th nn trong nh s to ra hai nh trong mi nh truyn
hnh. V vy, khi bn v nn, thut ng nh khng lun lun ng ngha vi thut ng nh
trong lnh vc truyn hnh.
Trc khi a vo chuyn i DCT, nh gc phi c x l nn di tn tn hiu
hiu mu v chia nh thnh cc block. Vic nn ph tn hiu hiu mu lm gim d tha
tm sinh l. K thut ny da vo c trng h thng th gic ca con ngi (HVS: human
visual system). Mt ngi km nhy vi s thay i tn hiu mu hn s thay i tn hiu
122
chi. V vy, ta khng cn thit truyn i thng tin ca tn hiu mu vi tn s nh truyn
thng tin tn hiu chi.
Nh gii thiu trn, theo khuyn co CCIR 601-2, c rt nhiu phng php ly
mu thng tin tn hiu hiu mu. T l ly mu thng dng l 4:2:2 v 4:1:1. nh dng
4:2:2 ngha l c 4 mu tn hiu chi th c 2 mu cho mi loi tn hiu hiu mu. Ni cch
khc, c 2 mu tn hiu chi c 1 mu tn hiu hiu mu. nh dng 4:1:1 ngha l c 4 mu
tn hiu chi th c 1 mu cho mi loi tn hiu hiu mu. Gi s tn hiu hiu mu ch c
ly mu theo chiu dc v mi mu c 8 bit, s bit trung bnh trn mt pixel theo t l ly
mu 4:2:2 l 84/2, hay 16 bit/pixel. Theo t l 4:1:1 l 86/4, 12bit/pixel. K thut ly mu
tn hiu hiu mu c p dng c hai chiu ngang v dc. D nhin, iu ny lm gim hn
na lng thng tin v tn hiu hiu mu.
Trc khi thc hin bin i DCT, c nh c chia thnh cc khi ln ring bit khng
chng nhau (MB-Marco Block). Mi MB bao gm 4 block cc tn hiu chi (Y) v 2,4 hoc 8
block cc mu tn hiu hiu mu (Cr,Cb). S cc block ca tn hiu hiu mu ph thuc vo
tiu chun ly mu ca tn hiu video: 4:2:2, 4:1:1 hay 4:2:0 v.v.


Hnh 2.3.3 S m ha v gii m theo JPEG
123
Tt c cc block c cng kch thc v mi block l mt ma trn im nh 88 pixel
c ly t mt nh mn hnh theo chiu t tri sang phi, t trn xung di. Kch thc
block l 88 c chn bi hai l do sau:
a) Th nht, qua vic nghin cu cho thy hm tng quan suy gim rt nhanh
khi khong cch gia cc pixel vt qu 8.
b) Th hai, l s tin li cho vic tnh ton v thit k phn cng. Ni chung,
phc tp v tnh ton s tng nu kch thc block tng.
V d v vic chia thnh cc block ca hnh nh i vi h PAL. Phn tch cc ca tn
hiu video vi phn gii 576720 s c chia lm 7290 block tn hiu chi. V nh vy
s c 3645 MB.
Cu trc ca MB cng ph thuc vo loi nh qut. Nu qut lin tc th cc block bao
gm cc mu t cc dng lin tc (lc ny nn nh theo-frame). Ngc li, trong trng hp
qut xen k, trong mt block ch c cc mu ca mt na nh (nn nh theo-mnh). Tm li,
vic chia hnh nh thnh cc nh con (block, MB) s thc s c ngha cho bc chuyn v
tip theo.
2.3.2.1 Bin i cosin ri rc DCT
Cng on u tin ca hu ht cc qu trnh nn l xc nh thng tin d tha trong
min khng gian ca mt mnh hoc mt nh ca tn hiu video. Nn khng gian c thc
hin bi php bin i cosin ri rc DCT (Discrete Cosine Transform). DCT bin i d liu
di dng bin thnh d liu di dng tn s. Mc ch ca qu trnh bin i l thay i
d liu biu din thng tin: d liu ca nh con tp trung vo mt phn nh cc h s hm
truyn. Vic m ha v truyn ch thc hin i vi cc h s nng lng ny, v c th cho
kt qu tt khi to li tn hiu video c cht lng cao. DCT tr thnh tiu chun quc t
cho cc h thng m chuyn v bi n c c tnh gi nng lng tt, cho kt qu l s thc
v c cc thut ton nhanh th hin chng.
Cc php tnh DCT c thc hin trong phm vi cc khi 88 mu tn hiu chi Y v
cc khi tng ng ca tn hiu hiu mu. Vic chia hnh nh thnh cc block c thc
hin khi tin x l. Hiu qu ca vic chia ny rt d thy. Nu ta tnh ton DCT trn ton
b frame th ta xem nh ton b frame c d tha nh nhau. i vi mt hnh nh thng
thng, mt vi vng c mt s lng ln cc chi tit v cc vng khc c t chi tit . Nh
c tnh thay i ca cc nh khc nhau v cc phn khc nhau ca cng mt nh, ta c th
ci thin mt cch ng k vic m ha nu bit tn dng n.
a) DCT mt chiu
DCT mt chiu bin i bin tn hiu ti cc im ri rc theo thi gian hoc khng
gian thnh chui cc h s ri rc, mi h s biu din bin ca mt thnh phn tn s nht
nh c trong tn hiu gc. H s u tin biu din mc DC trung bnh ca tn hiu. T tri
sang phi, cc h s th hin cc thnh phn tn s khng gian cao hn ca tn hiu v c
gi l cc h s AC. Thng thng, nhiu h s AC c gi tr s gn hoc bng 0.
124
Qu trnh bin i DCT thun (FDCT) dng trong tiu chun JPEG c nh ngha
nh sau:
( ) ( )
1
0
2 (2 1)
( )cos
2
N
m
m k
X k C k x m
N N

=
+
=

(2.3.1)
Hm bin i DCT ngc (mt chiu):
( )
1
0
2 (2 1)
( ) ( )cos
2
N
k
m k
x m X k C k
N N

=
+
=

(2.3.2)
trong : X(k) l chui kt qu.
x(m) l gi tr ca mu m.
k-ch s ca h s khai trin.
m-ch s ca mu.
N- s mu c trong tn hiu
( )
1/ 2 0
1 0
k
C k
k

=
=

b) DCT hai chiu
tch tng quan ni dung nh cao hn, m ha DCT hai chiu (2-D) c dng cho
cc khi 88 gi tr cc im chi. Qu trnh bin i DCT tin FDCT (forward DCT) dng
trong tiu chun JPEG c nh ngha nh sau:
F(u,v)=
4
) ( ) ( v C u C
16
) 1 2 (
cos
16
) 1 2 (
cos ) , (
7
0
7
0
v k u j
k j f
j k
+ +

= =
(2.3.3)
trong :
f(j,k)- cc mu gc trong khi 88 pixel.
F(u,v)-cc h s ca khi DCT 88.
( ) ( )
1/ 2 , 0
,
1 , 0
u v
C u C v
u v

=
=

Phng trnh trn l mt lin kt ca hai phng trnh DCT mt chiu, mt cho tn s
ngang v mt cho tn s ng. Gi tr trung bnh ca block 8x8 chnh l h s th nht (khi
u,v= 0)
( )
7 7
0 0
1
0,0 ( , )
8
j k
F f j k
= =
=

(2.3.4)
Phng trnh ny cng tt c cc gi tr pixel trong khi 88 v chia kt qu cho 8. Kt
qu php tnh bng 8 ln gi tr pixel trung bnh trong khi. Do h s th nht c gi l
125
h s DC. Cc h s khc, di gi tr thnh phn mt chiu, biu din cc tn s cao hn
theo chiu dc. Cc h s v pha bn phi ca thnh phn mt chiu biu th cc tn s cao
hn theo chiu ngang. H s trn cng cn phi (0,7) s c trng cho tn hiu c tn s cao
nht theo phng nm ngang ca ma trn 88, v h s hng cui bn tri (7,0) s c trng
cho tn hiu c tn s cao nht theo phng thng ng. Cn cc h s khc ng vi nhng
phi hp khc nhau ca cc tn s theo chiu dc v chiu ngang.
Php bin i DCT hai chiu l bin i i xng v bin i nghch c th to li cc
gi tr mu f(j,k) trn c s cc h s F(u,v) theo cng thc sau:
( )
( ) ( )
7 7
0 0
(2 1) (2 1)
, ( , )cos cos
4 16 16
u v
C u C v j u k v
f j k F u v

= =
+ +
=

(2.3.5)
Nh vy, bin i DCT ging nh bin i Fourier v cc h s F(u,v) cng ging nhau
v ngha. N biu din ph tn tn hiu c biu din bng cc mu f(j,k). Bn thn php
bin i DCT khng nn c s liu, t 64 mu ta nhn c 64 h s. Tuy nhin, php bin
i DCT thay i phn b gi tr cc h s so vi phn b cc gi tr mu.
Do bn cht ca tn hiu video, php bin i DCT cho ta gi tr DC tc F(0,0) thng
ln nht v cc h s trc tip k n ng vi tn s thp c gi tr nh hn, cc h s cn li
ng vi tn s cao c gi tr rt nh.
Hnh v 2.3.4 l mt v d minh ha qu trnh DCT hai chiu ca mt khi 88
im nh (chi) c trch ra t mt nh thc. Nu dng qu trnh DCT cho cc tn hiu s
thnh phn Y, C
R
,C
B
th cc tn hiu C
B
,C
R
c bin cc i 128 ( gi tr nh phn trong h
thng ly mu 8 bit), cn tn hiu Y c mt khong cc i t 0 n 255 gi tr nh phn.
n gin vic thit k b m ha DCT, tn hiu Y c dch mc xung di bng cch tr
128 t tng gi tr pixel trong khi c khong cc i ca tn hiu ging nh i vi cc
tn hiu C
R
v C
B
. phn gii m DCT, gi tr ny (128) c cng vo cc gi tr pixel chi.
Gi tr h s DC ca khi DCT c mt khong t 1024 n 1016.
126


Hnh 2.3.4 M ha khi 8x8 bng DCT 2 chiu
i vi h s AC ( vi u,v=1,2,...,7), C(u) v C(v)=1 v cc gi tr cc i ca n nm
trong khong 1020 theo phng trnh FDCT. Khi 88 cc gi tr ca h s DCT a ra 1
gi tr DC ln (v d =591), biu din sng trung bnh ca khi 88 v cc gi tr rt nh
ca cc thnh phn tn s cao theo chiu ngang v chiu ng.
127
Nguyn tc chung l nu c s thay i nhiu gi tr pixel-n-pixel theo 1 chiu ca
khi pixel (ngang, ng, cho) s to ra cc gi tr h s cao theo cc chiu tng ng ca
khi h s DCT.
Khi nn nh theo JPEG, ma trn cc h s khai trin sau DCT phi c nhn vi bng
trng s Q(u,v) loi b mt phn cc h s c bin nh (thng l cc thnh phn cao
tn). Trn Hnh 2.3.5 m t qu trnh bin i DCT t nh gc (a) v ma trn h s DCT trc
(b) v sau (d) khi nhn vi Q(u,v) (c).

Hnh 2.3.5 Khai trin DCT v bng trng s Q(u,v).
V d c trnh by trong hnh v 2.3.6, qu trnh bin i DCT mt khi pixel c cc
gi tr pixels en ( gi tr=0) v trng (gi tr=255) xen k. Sau khi gim vi 128 thu c
cc gi tr pixels trong di ng +127 v 128. y l khi nh c s bin i ln nht v gi
tr bin cc im nh v cc h s DCT kt qu xc nh nhn xt ny. Mc d c nhiu h
s tn s bng 0, gi tr ca cc h s c tn s cao ng vai tr quan trng trong vic ti to
li hnh nh khi bin i DCT ngc.
128

Hnh 2.3.6 Khai trin DCT cho khi nh c chi dng bn c.
Tm li, DCT lm gim tng quan khng gian ca thng tin trong block. iu
cho php biu din thch hp min DCT do cc h s DCT c xu hng c phn d tha t
hn. iu ny c ngha l DCT gi mt phn ln nng lng tn hiu vo cc thnh phn bin
i c tn s tng i thp lu tr hoc truyn dn, to 0 v cc gi tr rt thp i vi
thnh phn tn s cao. Nh c tnh ca h thng nhn ca mt ngi, cc h s DCT c th
c m ha ph hp, ch cc h s DCT quan trng nht mi c m ha v truyn i.
DCT thun kt hp vi DCT nghch s khng cho tn tht nu di t m ca h s l 13
n 14 bits cho tn hiu video u vo c s ha bng cc mu di 8 bit. Nu h s c
lng t ha bng 11 bit (hoc ngn hn), th nn bng DCT s c tn hao.
2.3.2.2 Lng t ha
Bc tip theo ca qu trnh nn trong nh l lng t ha cc h s F(u,v) sao cho lm
gim c s lng bit cn thit. Cc h s tng ng vi tn s thp c cc gi tr ln hn,
v nh vy n cha phn nng lng chnh ca tn hiu, do phi lng t ha vi chnh
xc cao. Ring h s mt chiu i hi chnh xc cao nht, bi l n biu th gi tr chi
trung bnh ca tng khi phn t nh.
129
Bt k mt sai st no trong qu trnh lng t h s mt chiu u c kh nng nhn
bit d dng bi n lm thay i mc chi trung bnh ca khi. Ngc li, vi cc h s
tng ng vi tn s cao v c cc gi tr nh, th c th biu din li bng tp gi tr nh hn
hn cc gi tr cho php.
Chc nng c bn ca b lng t ha l chia cc h s F(u,v) cho cc h s v tr
tng ng trong bng lng t Q(u,v) biu din s ln nh hn cc gi tr cho php ca h
s DCT. Cc h s c tn s thp c chia cho cc gi tr nh, cc h s ng vi tn s cao
c chia cho cc gi tr ln hn. Sau , cc h s c lm trn (b i cc phn thp phn).
Kt qu ta nhn c bng Fq(u,v) mi, trong phn ln cc h s c tn s cao s
bng 0. H s lng t ha thun c xc nh theo biu thc:
Fq(u,v)=

) , (
) , (
v u Q
v u F
=s nguyn t gn nht

+
) , (
2
) , (
) , (
v u Q
v u Q
v u F
(2.3.6)
Cc gi tr Fq(u,v) s c m ha trong cc cng on tip theo.
Cn phi xc nh l trong qu trnh lng t ha c trng s c xy ra mt thng tin,
gy tn hao. y l bc tn hao duy nht trong thut ton nn. Mc tn hao ph thuc
vo gi tr cc h s trn bng lng t. Sau khi nhn cc h s lng t ha Fq(u,v) vi
Q(u,v) v bin i ngc DCT s khng nhn c block s cp cc mu f(j,k). Tuy nhin,
trong trng hp nh t nhin v la chn cc gi tr Q(u,v) thch hp, s khc nhau s nh
n mc m mt ngi khng phn bit c gia nh gc v nh biu din.
Cc thnh phn DC v tn s thp l cc thng s nhy cm nht ca khi pixel gc. H
s DC s c lng t vi chnh xc 12 bit nhm trnh cc nhiu xut hin gia cc khi
im nh. Ngc li, cc h s tn s cao c th lng t ha th vi chnh xc 2 bit-do
kh nng cm nhn ca mt ngi gim tn s cao. Theo , h s chia trong bng lng t
ha l nh i vi cc h s c tn s thp v tng t t i vi cc h s c tn s cao hn.
Trong hnh v di y, gi tr khi xc nh cho php cc gi tr tn hiu chi v tn
hiu mu c lng t khc nhau. Nhiu lng t i vi tn hiu mu kh nhn thy hn
i vi tn hiu chi, cho nn c th thc hin lng t ha th tn hiu mu.
Nh vy, khi DCT ng vai tr quan trng trong qu trnh lng t ha khi thit k h
thng nn video v n nh hng trc tip n vic cho li cht lng nh khi phc tt hay
xu.
130

Hnh 2.3.7 Cc bng lng t cho tn hiu chi v mu theo chun JPEG
Vic bin i sao cho cht lng hnh nh do mt ngi cm nhn tt, ph thuc vo
cc thnh phn tn s v s bin i chi tit nh tng vng trong min khng gian. Cc nh
cng chi tit th h s thnh phn tn s cao cng ln.
2.3.2.3 Qut zig-zag
m ha entropy cc h s c lng t ha Fq(u,v), trc ht, cn bin i mng
hai chiu ca cc h s Fq(u,v) thnh chui s mt chiu bng cch qut zig-zag.
Vic x l 64 h s ca khi 8x8 pixel bng cch qut zig-zag lm tng ti a chui cc
gi tr 0 v do vy lm tng hiu qu nn khi dng RLC.

Hnh 2.3.8 Qut zig-zag cc h s lng t ha DCT
2.3.2.4 M ha di chy (RLC)
Cc gi tr lng t ha c th ch biu din nh cc t m c di c nh hay ng
u, tc l cc gi tr lng t ha biu din bng cng mt s bit. Tuy nhin hiu qu ca
vic m ha khng cao. ci tin hiu qu ngi ta dng m ha entropy. M ha entropy
dng nhng c tnh thng k ca tn hiu c m ha. Mt tn hiu, y l gi tr pixel
hoc cc h s chuyn v, c cha mt lng thng tin (entropy) ty theo nhng xc sut ca
nhng gi tr hay s kin khc nhau xut hin. V d nhng t m no t xy ra hn s c
nhiu thng tin hn t m hay xy ra.
Khi dng m ha entropy c hai vn t ra: th nht, m ha entropy lm tng
phc tp v yu cu b nh ln hn so vi m di c nh. Th hai, m ha entropy gn
131
lin vi tnh khng n nh ca tn hiu video s lm tc bit thay i theo thi gian. Do ,
cn mt c cu iu khin b m khi m ha ngun tc bit bin i c ghp vi knh
tc bit hng.
B m ha entropy lm gim d tha thng k trong cc phn t c m ha
truyn. S d tha chnh l phn b xc sut khng ng u trn gi tr ca mi phn t.
Phn b xc sut cng lch khi phn b u th hiu sut m ha entropy cng tng. M
Huffman l mt trong nhng s m c s dng ph bin. Ngoi ra, trong m ha
entropy cn s dng m RLC s cho hiu sut nn rt cao.
K thut RLC c dng m ha c hiu qu cc h s DCT lng t ha hn l
dng trc tip cho s liu nh. Sau qu trnh qut zig-zag trn, RLC s c thc thi. Mt
h s khc 0 sau gi tr DC c m ha bng 1 t m bao gm 2 thng s: s lng 0 chy
trc 1 h s ring khc 0 v mc ca n sau khi lng t ha. RLC thc cht l vic thay th
cc h s c gi tr 0 bng s lng cc ch s 0 xut hin.
Hnh v 2.3.9 l mt v d v m ha entropy. Trong v d ny, chui mt chiu cc h
s DCT sau khi qut zig-zag vi cc gi tr ging nhau c gom li vi nhau bng m RLC.
Lc ny, chui mt chiu c cc on chui di c cng gi tr l cc symbol c dng:< chiu
di chui 0, gi tr>.
y, gi tr 10 khng c gi tr 0 no trc c biu din bng <0,10>; gi tr 2
c hai gi tr 0 ng trc c biu din bng <2,-2>v.v... Ring mt du c bit l End of
Block (EOB) c dng cho bit tt c cc h s tip theo trong khi bng 0. Trong v d
ny, ta c mt chui 49 t m vi gi tr 0. Nh vy ch xt ring 49 t m gi tr 0 c nn
xung ch cn 3 t m. iu ny chng t hiu sut nn rt cao ca m ha RLC. Nn bng
m RLC l qu trnh nn khng tn hao.

132

Hnh 2.3.9 Qu trnh m ha RLC
2.3.2.5 M ha di thay i VLC
Cc t m RLC tip tc c m ha bng cch t cc t m ngn cho cc mc c xc
sut xut hin cao v cc t m di cho cc mc c xc sut xut hin thp.
Bng 2.3.1 minh ha cc phn nhm cc h s AC.
Bng 2.3.2 l mt v d v bng m Huffman tng ng cho cc nhm. T m ngn bo
hiu kt thc khi (EOB) cho bit tt c cc h s cn li trong khi mang gi tr 0. Trong v
d khi h s DCT, h s DCT (40) c m ha DPCM bng cch dng gi tr DC (25) ca
khi DCT trc. M ha DPCM m rng thang biu din tn hiu Y t ( -1024 n 1016) n
(-2048 n 2032).





133
Bng 2.3.1 Phm vi gi tr cc h s trong cc nhm (category).

Bng 2.3.2 V d bng Huffman cho h s AC

Gi tr chnh lch h s DC c m ha VLC nh mt bng tm kim (lookup table).
u ra ca n l mt s nh phn Huffman da trn gi tr chnh lch cc h s DC ny. Cc
h s AC biu din bi cc t m RLC c m ha Huffman bng cc bng tm kim. u
ra kt hp vi gi tr chy (s lng s 0 trc h s AC) to mt s nh phn Huffman
134
biu din gi tr h s AC tng ng. Trong c hai trng hp m ha gi tr sai lch h s
DC v ln cc h s AC u s dng t m nh phn ngn nht biu din chng.
Ti u ra VLC, tt c cc t m ca cng mt khi DCT c kt hp to thnh mt
dng tn hiu ra. Trong v d trn, s liu tng ng vi khi DCT ban u (8x8x8 bit =512
bit) c gim thnh 48 bits sau khi m ha VLC. H s nn trong trng hp ny bng
512/48=10,6. H s nn cng thng c tnh bng s bit biu din im nh. Trong v d
trn, 48 bit biu din cho 64 im nh, theo thu c h s nn tng ng l 48/64=0,75
(bit/im nh). M ha VLC t n l mt k thut m ha khng tn tht, n cho php gim
thm tc dng bit ( c gii tng quan, lm trn, v gim qua qu trnh lng t ha
DCT). Qu trnh m ha VLC cho h s DC v cc h s AC c m t trong s khi
Hnh 2.3.10.

Hnh 2.3.10 S khi h thng m VLC cho h s DC (a) v AC (b)
2.3.2.6 B nh m
Sau khi m ha entropy, ta nhn c chui bit c tc thay i, ph thuc vo
phc tp ca nh. Nu phi truyn qua knh c tc c nh th ta cn phi c b nh m.
C ch iu khin b nh l m bo b nh khng trng (underflow) hoc khng trn
(overflow) bng c cu hi tip. B m ha kim tra trng thi y ca b nh m. Khi s
liu trong b nh m gn bng dung lng cc i, th cc h s bin i DCT c lng
t ha t chnh xc hn (tng t s nn). Trong trng hp ngc li, c ngha l b nh m
135
cha s liu qu t, th chnh xc ca vic lng t ha cc h s s tng ln. Qu trnh
ny c thc hin mt cch t ng.
2.3.2.7 Qu trnh gii nn
Qu trnh gii nn trong nh da trn c s thc hin thut ton ngc vi qu trnh
nn.
Hnh v 2.3.11 minh ha s khi ca qu trnh gii nn DCT. Cc bng Huffman v
lng t ha ging nh cc bng ca b m ha DCT c dng to li cc gi tr h s
DCT ca mt khi 8x8 pixel. Qu trnh lng t ha ngc R(u,v) c tin hnh theo biu
thc :
R(u,v)=Fq(u,v)Q(u,v) (2.3.7)

Hnh 2.3.11 S khi h thng gii m JPEG
Qu trnh bin i DCT ngc (IDCT) to li khi gi tr cc im ban u theo biu
thc:
( )
( ) ( )
7 7
*
0 0
(2 1) (2 1)
, ( , )cos cos
4 16 16
u v
C u C v
j u k v
f j k F u v

= =
+ +
=

(2.3.8)
Qu trnh tnh ton IDCT cng tng t nh qu trnh tnh ton FDCT. nh c khi
phc ( )
*
, f j k (ma trn trn Hnh 2.3.12d) khc vi nh gc (trn Hnh 2.3.5a). Sai s gia
cc gi tr khi phc v gi tr gc c tnh nh sau:
e(j,k)=f(j,k)-f*(j,k) (2.3.9)
nh gi cht lng nh khi phc, ta s dng cc i lng o l gi tr sai s trung
bnh bnh phng (RMSE) v h s bin nh tn hiu trn nhiu (PSNR: peak signal-to-
noise ration):
RMSE=

= =
7
0
7
0
) , ( ) , (
64
1
k j
k j e k j e
(2.3.10)
136
PSNR=20 lg

RMSE
255
(2.3.11)
Gi tr sai s tuyt i ca nh gii nn v nh gc cho hai hnh nh c chi tit khc
nhau c biu din trn Hnh 2.3.13a v 3.3.13b. Nh vy c th thy rng nh c phn b
chi dng bn c "kh nn" hn do cc thnh phn DCT tn s cao c bin ln.

Hnh 2.3.12 Khi phc cc im nh trong khi 8x8


Hnh 2.3.13 Sai s ca cc im nh c khi phc so vi gi tr ban u
a) nh (2.3.5a) c mc chi tit thp b) nh hnh bn c
137
2.3.2.8 M ha v gii m JPEG tun t
Thut ton nn v gii nn theo tng block 8x8 theo JPEG c phn tch trn c
gi l phng php nn tun t. S khi thut ton m ha v gii m tiu chun JPEG
tun t m t trn Hnh 2.3.14.
So lieu
anh nen
Lng t
hoa
DCT
Ma hoa
Entropy
Bang
lng t
Bang ma
hoa
So lieu
anh nen
Giai ma
Entropy
Giai
lng t
IDCT
Bang
lng t
Bang ma
hoa
Block 8x8
Block 8x8
a)
b)

Hnh 2.3.14 S o khoi ma hoa (a) va giai ma (b) JPEG
m ha JPEG, cc mu pixels u vo c nhm thnh 88 blocks. Mi block
c bin i FDCT thnh mt tp 64 gi tr, gi l cc h s DCT. Sau , 64 h s ny
c lng t ha. iu ny c ngha l cc h s khng cn chnh xc v mt s h s s
bng 0. Cc h s c qut zig-zag trc khi m ha entropy. Hiu qu ca qut zig-zag l
bin i ma trn 2 chiu thnh ma trn 1 chiu. H s u tin trong chui zig-zag l h s
DC. Tt c cc h s cn li l h s AC. i vi h s DC, sai lch gia gi tr hin ti v gi
tr DC trc c m ha. M ha entropy s dng m ha Huffman.
Qu trnh gii m ngc li vi qu trnh m ha. Cc tin trnh ging nhau nhng
ngc th t. Bng tham s s dng cho qu trnh m ha c mang i cng vi lung d
liu sau khi nn v c s dng cho gii m. Cc h s DCT c nhn vi cc h s gii
lng t v chuyn n khi bin i DCT ngc. u ra ca qu trnh l 88 block ca
pixels. D nhin, khi 88 block pixels ny khng ging hon ton khi pixels ban u bi v
c mt mt thng tin trong qu trnh m ha. Do qu trnh ny c coi l nn c tn
tht.
Trn quan im coi hnh nh ng l mt chui lin tip cc hnh nh tnh. Khi , tiu
chun JPEG c p dng cho vic nn nh ng v n c tn gi M JPEG.
138
2.3.2.9 Nn JPEG ly tin
Trong mt s ng dng, mt nh c th c s lng im nh ln v vic gii m, bao
gm truyn nh nn qua mng, c th mt nhiu pht. Trong nhng ng dng nh vy, cn
thit c tin trnh to nh th nhanh chng v sau ci thin cht lng ca n bng nhiu
ln qut. Kiu m ha JPEG ly tin thc hin nhiu ln qut, mi ln qut m ha mt tp
con cc h s DCT. V vy, m ha JPEG ly tin phi c b m ph ti u ra ca b lng
t v trc b m ha entropy. Kch thc b m phi ln cha tt c cc h s DCT
ca nh.

Hnh 2.3.15 Qu trnh gii m JPEG ly tin v tun t
Hnh v 2.3.15 m t s khc nhau trong qu trnh gii nn JPEG ly tin v JPEG tun
t.
Nn JPEG ly tin c th thc hin 3 gii thut sau:
1) Gii thut la chn ph (progressive spectral selection algorithm).
2) Gii thut xp x thnh cng (progressive successive approximation algorithm).
3) Gii thut kt hp (combined progresssive algorithm).
Trong gii thut la chn ph, cc h s DCT c nhm li theo nhiu nhm bng tn.
Nhn chung, h s DCT tn s thp c gi trc, v sau l cc h s DCT tn s cao. V
d, mt chui 4 nhm nh sau:
Band 1: ch c h s DC.
Band 2: h s AC
1
v AC
2
.
Band 3: h s AC
3
,AC
4
,AC
5
,AC
6
.
Band 4: h s AC
7
,, AC
63
.
Trong gii thut xp x, tt c cc h s DCT c gi i trc vi chnh xc thp
hn, v sau c ci tin li trong cc ln qut sau. V d, mt chui ba band nh sau:
Band 1: tt c cc h s DCT (chia 4).
Band 2: tt c cc h s DCT (chia 2).
139
Band 3: tt c cc h s DCT .
Gii thut kt hp kt hp c hai gii thut chia ph v xp x. H thng JPEG ly tin
hiu qu cho vic truyn cc nh phc tp. H thng ny hng n nhng ng dng yu cu
truyn nhanh cc nh c phn gii cao, cht lng cao v phc tp qua mng c bng
thng gii hn. Nhng ng dng bao gm truyn nh y hc, ng dng khm ph tri t v
v tr cng nh cc ng dng trn Internet.
2.3.2.10 Cc tham s tiu chun ca JPEG
Tiu chun JPEG xc nh cc tham s trong bng 2.3.3.
Bng 2.3.3. Tham s theo tiu chun JPEG.
Tham s c im
Tn hiu m ha RGB hoc Y v C
R
, C
B
Cu trc ly mu 4:4:4, 4:2:2 v 4:2:0
Kch thc nh ti a (im nh x im nh) 65 536 x 65 536
Biu din mu 8 bit cho h thng c bn
812 bit cho h thng m rng DCT
chnh xc ca qu trnh lng t ha v
bin i DCT
9 bit
Phng php lng t ha h s DC DPCM
Cu trc khi trong qu trnh lng t ha
thch nghi
16x16 bit
chnh xc cc i ca h s DC 11 bit
Bng lng t Sai lch gia cc gi tr Y v C
R
,C
B
Bin i RLC M Huffman
H s cn bng cc khi C th bin i
B chuyn ng Khng
Qut Tun t hay xen k
Knh truyn c qun l li
140

2.3.2.11 Phng php nn nh ng M JPEG
M JPEG l s m rng ca JPEG. V nn M JPEG ch thc hin trong mi nh, iu
dn n hiu qu (t s nn) thp hn so vi cc phng php nn nh ng MPEG s
c xt sau y.
Nn nh ng theo phng php M JPEG c dc im nh sau:
Tn hiu 48 Mbit/s ( h s nn 3,5 ) cho kt qu nh rt tt.
Tn hiu 36 Mbit/s ( h s nn 4,7 ) cho kt qu nh c nhiu vi mc cht
lng nht nh.
Tn hiu 24 Mbit/s cho kt qu nh c nhiu nhn thy, cht lng nh khi phc
khng dng cho mc ch chuyn dng.
Trong trng hp nn vi t s cao s xut hin cc vung ( Artifacts ) trn nh khi
phc, l cc c trng ca cc h s DC. Nu m ha nhiu ln th hiu ng trn s tng
ln.
Vi nhng c im trn, chun M JPEG c u im khi s dng trong cng ngh sn
xut chng trnh truyn hnh. V cc nh c m ha c lp vi nhau nn vic thc hin
dng chnh xc ti tng nh l hon ton c th thc hin c. y chnh l im mnh ca
M JPEG s dng trong cc thit b sn xut chng trnh tin dng cho studio v dng hu
k, lm k xo vi gi thnh h thng ph hp, khng gy tn hao trong qu trnh dng.
Tuy nhin, i vi cc thit b s dng nh dng nn M JPEG c cc nhc im :
Mc d s dng cng mt phng php nn M JPEG trong cc thit b ca
mnh, cc sn phm ca cc nh my khc nhau cng khng hon ton ging nhau v mt
biu din cng nh phng php x l i vi tn hiu video c nn. Chnh v vy cc thit
b ny rt kh c th trao i trc tip s liu cho nhau.
Cc thit b s dng phng php nn theo nh dng M JPEG khng th s
dng cho truyn dn, pht sng v tc dng bit sau khi c nn cn cao.
2.3.3 Chun nn MPEG
2.3.3.1 Gii thiu chung v MPEG
Nn tn hiu video theo chun MPEG (Moving Picture Experts Group) l phng php
nn nh ng khng nhng lm gim d tha khng gian (nh JPEG) m cn lm gim d
tha thi gian gia cc khung nh, y l khc bit so vi JPEG l chun nn nh tnh ch lm
gim d tha thng gian trong mt khung nh.
Chun MPEG nh ngha mt khi nim mi l nhm cc khung nh (GOP) gii
quyt d tha thi gian v cho php truy xut ngu nhin khi m ho MPEG dng lu tr.
Trong chun MPEG, ngi ta quy nh 3 loi khung nh ph thuc vo phng php nn: nn
trong khung nh (khung I), nn c on (khung P) v nn ni suy hai chiu theo thi gian
(khung B). Khung I lun lun l khung nh u tin trong nhm GOP, to im truy xut
ngu nhin chun.
141
Chun nn MPEG bao gm cc tiu chun nn video c tc lung bt (tng ng
cht lng nh video) khc nhau:
a) MPEG 1: (chun ISO/IEC 11172) c t thng 11-1992. MPEG 1 dng cho
nn ng c kch thc 320x240 v tc bit cn t 1 Mbit/s n 1,5 Mbit/s dng cho ghi
hnh trn bng t v a quang (CD), ng thi truyn dn trong cc mng (v d nh mng
my tnh). i vi m ha audio stereo, tc khong 250 Kbps. MPEG 1 c cc thnh
phn chnh sau y :
Phn 1 : ISO/IEC 11172 1 : H thng ghp knh Video, Audio MPEG
1 .
Phn 2 : ISO/IEC 11172 2 : Nn video MPEG 1.
Phn 3 : ISO/IEC 11172 3 : Nn audio MPEG 1.
Phn 4 : ISO/IEC 11172 4 : Conformance.
Phn 5 : ISO/IEC 11172 5 : Software.
b) MPEG 2 : l d n giai on hai ca ISO/IEC, c s dng cho cc ng dng
cao hn vi tc cn 10 Mbit/s cho vin thng, truyn hnh thng thng.
c) MPEG 3 : tiu chun nn tn hiu s xung cn 50 Mbps truyn tn hiu
truyn hnh c phn gii cao (HDTV). Sau , nhp chung vo MPEG 2 v thnh tiu
chun quc t MPEG 2 vo thng 11 nm 1994 (ISO/IEC 13818). Tiu chun MPEG 2
ny dng cho truyn hnh thng thng v truyn hnh c phn gii cao.
d) MPEG 4 : c thit k m ha Video/Audio vi tc thp (khong 914
Kbps) ch yu ng dng trong in thoi video, multimedia. MPEG 4 hon thin vo thng
10 1998.
e) MPEG 7 : chun ny c ngh vo thng 10 1998 v thnh chun quc t
vo thng 9 2001. MPEG 7 s l chun m t thng tin ca rt nhiu loi a phng tin.
M t ny s kt hp vi chnh ni dung ca n cho php kh nng tm kim nhanh v hiu
qu theo yu cu ngi dng. MPEG-7 c trng cho mt tp tiu chun biu din nhiu loi
thng tin multimedia khc nhau. Chnh v vy, MPEG-7 cn c gi l Giao thc m t
ni dung a phng tin.
Tiu chun MPEG l s kt hp gia nn trong nh v nn lin nh. Tc l phng
php nn c tn hao da trn s bin i DCT v b chuyn ng. MPEG dng biu din mu
bng YC
r
C
b
.

142

Hnh 2.3.16 H thng cc chun MPEG
2.3.3.2 B chuyn ng trong chun nn MPEG
Trong tt c cc trng hp, khi mt nh m ho dng khung tham kho th lun dng
k thut b chuyn ng nng cao hiu sut nn. Sau y, chng ta s cp n phng
php b chuyn ng.
Cc phng php b chuyn ng: c hai cch l b chuyn ng c on v ni suy.
Phng php c on b chuyn ng gi thit nh hin ti l mt php bin i t nh
trc , ngha l bin v hng dch chuyn khng cn thit phi ging nh trc .
Phng php ni suy b chuyn ng l k thut nhiu phn gii: ch m ho mt tn hiu
ph vi phn gii thp (khong 1/2 n 1/3 tc khung). nh c phn gii y s
c xy dng li qua ni suy nh c phn gii thp cng thm thnh phn sa sai. n v
x l nh m MPEG s dng l macroblock (MB) 1616 im nh. Trong nh m ho ni
suy, cc MB c th l loi nn trong khung hay nn lin khung. Trong k thut c on
chuyn ng, nu s dng k thut so snh khi (BMA - Block Matching Algorithm) th s
thu c cc vect chuyn ng theo tiu ch ti thiu ho sai s gia khi cn tm vect
chuyn ng v mi khi ng c.

Hnh 2.3.17 Minh ha qu trinh b chuyn ng theo gii thut BMA
2.3.3.3 Cc cu trc nh
MPEG nh ngha cc loi nh khc nhau cho php s linh hot cn nhc gia hiu
qu m ha v truy cp ngu nhin. Cc loi nh nh sau:
2.3.3.3.1 nh loi I (Intra-picture)
143
L nh c m ha ring, tng t nh vic m ha nh tnh trong JPEG. nh I cha
ng d liu ti to li ton b hnh nh v chng c to thnh bng thng tin ca ch
mt nh v d bo cho nh B,P. nh I cho php truy cp ngu nhin, tuy nhin cho t l
nn thp nht.
2.3.3.3.2 nh loi P (Predicted-picture)
L nh c m ha c b chuyn ng t nh I hoc nh P pha trc. nh P cung cp
cho h s nn cao hn nh I v c th s dng lm mt nh so snh cho vic b chuyn ng
cho cc nh P v B khc.
2.3.3.3.3 nh loi B ( Bi-directional predicted picture)
L nh c m ha s dng b chuyn ng t cc nh I hoc P pha trc v pha
sau. nh B cho t l nn cao nht.
2.3.3.3.4 nh loi D ( Dc-coded picture)
L nh c s dng trong MPEG-1 v MPEG-4 nhng khng c s dng trong
MPEG-2. N ging nh nh I, tuy nhin ch c thnh phn mt chiu u ra DCT c th
hin. N cho php d tm nhanh nhng cht lng nh thp.
2.3.3.4 Nhm nh (GOP)
i vi chun MPEG, cht lng nh khng nhng ph thuc vo t l nn trong tng
khun hnh m cn ph thuc vo di ca nhm nh. Nhm nh (GOP-Group of picture) l
khi nim c bn ca MPEG. Nhm nh l n v mang thng tin c lp ca MPEG.
MPEG s dng ba loi nh I, B, P. Trong , nh P, B khng phi l mt nh hon
chnh m ch cha s khc bit gia nh v nh xut hin trc n (i vi nh P) hay s
khc bit i vi c khun hnh xut hin trc v sau n (i vi nh B). c mt khun
hnh hon chnh nh P v B cn c d liu t cc nh ln cn, chnh v vy i vi MPEG mt
khi nim mi l GOP (nhm nh) c s dng. Mi GOP bt buc phi bt u bng mt
nh hon chnh I v tip sau n l mt loi cc nh P v B. Nhm nh c th m (Open) hoc
ng (Closed).
Nhm nh m lun bt u t mt nh I v kt thc mt nh trc nh trc nh I
tip theo, tc l nh cui cng ca GOP dng nh u tin ca GOP tip theo lm nh chun,
Hnh 2.3.18.

Hnh 2.3.18 Cu trc GOB m
144
Trong Hnh 2.4.18, nh P ( nh 4) c d bo trc trn c s nh I (nh 1). nh B
c d on t hai hng, nh B (nh 2) v nh B ( nh 3) c d on t hai nh I ( nh
1) v nh P (nh 4). nh B (nh 5,6) c d on t nh P (nh 4) v nh I tip theo (nh 6).
Mt iu ch l th t truyn nh v hin nh trn mn hnh l khng ging nhau.
i vi cu trc khp kn (ng), vic d on nh khng s dng thng tin ca GOP
khc. Trong trng hp ny, theo quy nh, nh cui cng ca mt GOP bao gi cng l nh
P (Hnh 2.3.19).

Hnh 3.3.19 Cu trc GOB ng
Nhm nh c xc nh bi hai thng s m v n. Thng s m xc nh s khung hnh
P v khung hnh B xut hin gia hai khung hnh I gn nhau nht. S n xc nh s khung
hnh B gia hai khung hnh P.
T l nn video ca MPEG ph thuc rt nhiu vo di ca GOP. Tuy nhin, GOP
di thng gy kh khn cho qu trnh tua, nh v, sa li... Do ty thuc vo tng khu
(sn xut, dng hnh, truyn dn, pht sng v..v) m ta chn di GOP thch hp. Trong sn
xut hu k, nu c yu cu truy cp ngu nhin vo bt c nh no, iu cng c ngha l
yu cu dng chnh xc n tng nh, GOP ng nhin s phi ch c duy nht nh I. Trong
trng hp ny, t l nn s t rt thp. tng t l nn cho truyn dn v pht sng, trong
GOP s lng nh P, B s phi tng ln. Lc ny khng cho php vic dng hnh cng nh
lm cc k xo trn chui hnh nh . Trong trng hp ny ta c th c GOP gm 12 nh.
2.3.3.5 Cu trc dng bit MPEG
to kh nng chng li khi truyn tn hiu qua knh c nhiu, b c on phi c
xc lp li (reset) thng xuyn v mi nh nn trong khung hay nn c on c phn
on thnh nhiu lt nh (slice) cho vic ti ng b ti b gii m pha thu. Cu trc dng
MPEG gm 6 lp: lp dy nh (sequence), lp nhm nh (GOP), lp nh (pictrue), lp ct lt
dng bit (slice), lp macroblock, lp khi (Block). Mi lp ny h tr mt chc nng nht
nh: mt l chc nng x l tn hiu (DCT, b chuyn ng) hai l chc nng logic (ti ng
b, im truy xut ngu nhin). Qu trnh to ra dng bit MPEG l ghp knh: kt hp cc
dng d liu vo, dng d liu ra, iu chnh ng b v qun l b m. C php dng
MPEG bao gm: lp dng bit (stream), lp gi (pack) v lp gi tin (packet) nh trong Hnh
2.3.20:
145
1. Khi. Khi 8x8 cc im nh tn hiu chi v tn hiu mu dng cho phng php
nn DCT.
2. T hp cu trc khi (macroblock): mt cu trc khi l mt nhm cc khi tng
ng vi lng thng tin cha ng trong kch thc 16x16 im trn bc nh. Cu trc khi
ny cng xc nh lng thng tin cha trong s thay i ty theo cu trc mu c s
dng. Thng tin u tin trong cu trc khi mang dng ca n (l cu trc khi Y hay Cr,
Cb) v cc vector b chuyn ng tng ng.
3. Mng (Slice): mng bao gm mt vi cu trc khi k nhau. Kch thc ln nht
ca mng c th bao gm ton b bc nh v kch thc nh nht ca mng l mt cu trc
khi. Thng tin u ca mng cha ng v tr ca mng trong ton b nh, v h s cn bng
lng t.
4. nh (Picture): lp nh cho php b gii m xc nh loi ca nh c m ha l
nh P, I hay nh B. Thng tin u dng ch th t truyn khung b gii m c th sp
xp cc nh li theo mt th t ng. Trong thng tin u ca nh cn cha cc thng tin v
ng b, phn gii v phm vi ca vector chuyn ng.
5. Nhm nh (GOP): nhm nh l t hp ca nhiu cc khung I, P v B. Cu trc
nhm nh c xc nh bng hai tham s m v n. Mi mt nhm nh bt u bng mt
khung I cho php xc nh im bt u tm kim v bin tp. Thng tin u gm 25 bit
cha m nh thi v iu khin.
6. on (chng trnh) video: on video bao gm thng tin u, mt s nhm nh v
thng tin kt thc on. Thng tin u ca on video cha ng kch thc mi chiu ca
nh, kch thc ca im nh, tc bit ca dng video s, tn s nh v b m ti thiu cn
c. on video v thng tin u to thnh mt dng bit c m ha gi l dng c bn
(Elementary Stream).

146


Hnh 2.3.20 Kin trc dng d liu MPEG
2.3.3.6 S khi b m ha MPEG
Qu trnh nn theo chun MPEG l s kt hp gia nn trong nh v nn lin nh. Tn
heu u vo c dng 4:2:2 hoc 4:2:0 c nn lin nh nhm to ra nh khc bit u ra
b cng. nh khc bit ny sau c nn trong nh qua cc bc: bin i DCT, lng t
ha, m ha. Cui cng nh ny c trn cng vi vector chuyn ng a n b khuych
i m s thu c nh nn. Ta xt v d b nn theo phng php trn, dng nh I v P
trong cu trc GOP (Hnh 2.3.21).
nh th nht trong nhm phi c m ha nh nh loi I. Trong trng hp ny, sau
khi ly mu ln u, tn hiu video c truyn n khi bin i DCT cho cc MB ring, sau
b lng t v m ha entropy. Tn hiu ra t b lng t ha c a n b lng t
ha ngc v bin i DCT ngc, sau c lu vo b nh nh.
Trong trng hp m ha nh loi P, mch nn chuyn ng lm vic. Trn c s so
snh nh ang xt v nh trong b nh, s xc nh c cc vector chuyn ng, sau d
bo nh. S chnh lch gia nh ang xt v d bo nh ca n c bin i DCT, lng t
ha v m ha entropy. Cng nh trong trng hp cc nh loi I, tn hiu ra t b lng t
ha c gii lng t ha v bin i DCT ngc ri cng vi nh d bo ang xt v lu
vo b nh.
147
Tc bit ca tn hiu video c nn khng c nh, ph thuc vo ni dung nh ang
xt. Ngc li, ti u ra b m ha, dng bit phi c nh xc nh tc cho dung lng
knh truyn. Do , ti u ra b m ha phi c b nh m ln. B m ha phi kim tra
trng thi y ca b nh m. Khi s liu trong b nh m gn bng dung lng cc i,
th cc h s bin i DCT ngc c lng t ha t chnh xc hn. Trong trng hp
ngc li, c ngha l b nh m cha s liu qu t, th vic lng t ha cc h s s tng
ln.

Hnh 2.3.21 B m ha MPEG tiu biu
2.3.3.7 Qu trnh gii m
Qu trnh gii m, theo l thuyt, l ngc li vi qu trnh m ha v c minh ha
trn Hnh 2.3.22.


Hnh 2.3.22 B gii m MPEG tiu biu
148
Chui tn hiu vo c gii m entropy ti VLD (Variable-Length Decoder). Sau
tch s liu nh (h s bin i DCT) ra khi cc vector chuyn ng. S liu s c gii
lng t ha v bin i DCT ngc. Trong trng hp nh loi I bt u mi nhm nh
trong chui, s nhn c nh u ra hon chnh bng cch trn. N c lu trong b nh
nh v c s dng gii m cc nh tip theo.
Trong trng hp nh loi P s thc hin gii lng t v bin i DCT ngc vi vic
s dng cc vector chuyn ng v nh lu vo b nh nh. Trn c s xc nh c d
bo n ang xt. Ta nhn c nh ra sau khi cng d bo nh v kt qu bin i DCT
ngc. nh ny cng c lu vo b nh c th s dng nh l chun khi gii m cc
nh tip theo.
2.3.3.8 Tiu chun MPEG-1
Chun MPEG-1 cho php vn dng nh ng linh hot nh mt dng d liu ca my
tnh. Do , ta c th truyn v nhn nh ng thng qua my tnh v mng vin thng.
MPEG-1 chn cc khi (MB-Macro Block) 16x16 thc hin qu trnh b chuyn ng.
Kch thc ny l s hi ha gia hiu qu nn bng cch b chuyn ng v vic lu tr cc
khi MB. Cc khi MB ny li c th chia ra lm nhiu loi khc nhau nh : Intra coded,
Forward prediction coded, Backward prediction coded v Bi-directional prediction coded.
Da trn cc khi MB, thng tin cc vector chuyn ng c lu tr cng vi tn hiu khc
bit (gia nh nn v nh d bo). S khc nhau gia vector ng hin ti v vector ng
truyn i trc c m ha bng m entropy.
Tn hiu video s MPEG-1 vo bao gm 1 tn hiu chi Y v 2 tn hiu hiu mu Cb v
Cr. T s tn s ly mu tn hiu chi so vi tn s ly mu hai tn hiu hiu mu Cb v Cr l
2:1 theo c hai chiu dng v mnh nh mt tn hiu khng chn. Trc khi m ha cc nh
c th c sp xp li theo trt t gii m bi v b gii m ch c th gii m c nh B
sau khi gii m nh I v P. Sau qu trnh gii m th trt t ca cc nh s c sp xp li
nh c.
Sau khi chn kiu nh cho mt nh vo, b m ha s nh gi chuyn ng cho mi
khi MB ca nh. Vi mi khi MB ny b m ha s to ra mt vector chuyn ng cho 1
nh P v 2 vector chuyn ng cho 1 nh B.
Ty thuc vo tng kiu nh m tn hiu sai lch (gia nh nn v nh d bo) c
nhn dng bng cch tm ra s khc nhau gia d on b chuyn ng v d liu thc s ca
MB hin ti. Tn hiu sai lch ny c chuyn n khi DCT 8x8 v lng t ha khi i qua
b lng t ha. Cc h s lng t ha DCT c qut theo trt t zig-zag v m ha bng
m entropy.
Mt b iu khin cng vi b m c nhim v iu chnh tc d liu a ra thng
qua iu chnh bc lng t. c th to ra c nh I v nh P trong b m trong qu
trnh m ha, th b gii m lng t v b chuyn i ngc DCT 8x8 c a vo nhm
to ra tn hiu sai lch.
2.3.3.9 Cu trc dng bit v cc tham s chnh ca chun nn MPEG-1
MPEG-1 l thut ton ch nh ngha c php (syntax) biu din dng bit m ha v gii
m. C php dng bit c cu to bng 6 lp : Sequence (chui nh), GOP = Group of
149
Picture (nhm nh), Picture (nh), Slice, macro block (MB), block (khi). Cu to v chc
nng ca mi lp c ch ra trong bng 2.3.4. Cc tham s chnh ca tiu chun MPEG-1
c minh ha trong bng 2.3.5.
Bng 2.3.4 Cc thng s MPEG-1.
Lp Cu to Chc nng
Sequence Gm nhiu GOP Dng bit video
GOP Gm t (1n) nh bt u
bng nh I
n v truy xut
Picture I, B, P
Slice
Gm nhiu Slice
Gm nhiu MB
n v m ha c bn
n v ti ng b phc hi li
Macro Block
(MB)
Vi 4:2:2 gm : 4 block Y, 1
block Cr v 1 block Cb
n v b chuyn ng
Block Gm 8x8 pixel n v tnh DCT

Bng 2.3.5. Tham s theo tiu chun nn MPEG-1.
Tham s c im
Tn hiu m ha Y v Cr, Cb
Cu trc ly mu 4:2:0
Kch thc nh ti a(im nh x im nh) 4095x4095
Biu din mu 8 bit
chnh xc ca qu trnh lng t ha v
bin i DCT
9 bit
Phng php lng t ha h s DC DPCM tuyn tnh
Cu trc khi trong qu trnh lng t ha
thch nghi
16x16 bit
chnh xc cc i ca h s DC 8 bit
Bin i VLC M Huffman
Bng VLC Khng th truyn ti
H s cn bng cc khi C th bin i
150
B chuyn ng Trong khung hnh v gia cc khung
hnh
Qut Tun t
chnh xc d on chuyn ng im nh
Tc khi nn 1,85 Mbps cho nn tham s
100 Mbps cho dng y tham s

Phng php nn MPEG-1 cho php truy cp ngu nhin cc khung hnh video, tm
kim thun v nghch trn dng tn hiu nn, bin tp v pht li trn dng tn hiu nn.
MPEG-1 l tp con ca MPEG-2, nn tt c cc b gii m MPEG-2 u c th gii m c
dng tn hiu MPEG-1.
2.3.3.10 Tiu chun MPEG-2
2.3.3.10.1 Gii thiu v chun MPEG-2
MPEG-2 l d n giai on 2 ca y ban ISO/PEC MPEG. MPEG-2 hng ti cc ng
dng rng ri hn v c tc bit cao hn MPEG-1, bao gm in t vin thng v truyn
hnh s th h k tip. Ni dung k thut c c kt vo 11/1993 thnh d tho ISO/IEC
13818 tn gi M ha chung nh ng v audio i km gm ba phn chnh: H thng;
Video; Th nghim. MPEG-2 c tin hnh ngay sau MPEG-1, nhm h tr vic truyn
video s tc bit ln hn 4 Mbps, bao gm cc ng dng DSM (phng tin lu tr s), cc
h thng TV hin i (PAL, NTSC, SECAM), cp, thu lm tin tc in t, truyn hnh trc
tip t v tinh, EDTV (truyn hnh m rng), HDTV (truyn hnh c phn gii cao) v...v.
MPEG-2 l chun nn video c tn tht. Cng ty Netholds Multichoice truyn 20
knh truyn hnh s cho B, H Lan, Luxembourge, Scandinavia, Trung ng, Chu Phi, ...
qua v tinh Pan Amsat vo thng 10/1995. H thng s dng trn mt triu b gii m
MPEG-2 set-top ca Phillips, Panasonic, Pace. Mng truyn hnh Dish ca Echostar c k
hoch truyn 150 knh truyn hnh s. C chu u (DVB), M (ATV), v nhiu hng khc
trn th gii (Galaxy, Shinawatra Satellite, ...) dng MPEG-2 trong cc h truyn hnh c
phn gii cao c th pht sng truyn hnh s trn mt t.
Chun MPEG-2 bao gm 4 phn chnh :
Cc h thng (ISO/IEC 13818-1).
Video (ISO/IEC 13818-2).
Audio (ISO/IEC 13818-3).
Cc h thng kim tra (ISO/IEC 13818-4).
Phn 1 a ra cu trc kt ni phc tp gia d liu audio v video v ng b thi gian
thc. Phn 2 a ra cch m ha tn hiu video v cng ch ra qu trnh gii m ti to li
151
cc khung nh. Phn 3 l cu trc m ha ca tn hiu audio v phn 4 l cc h thng kim
tra cc yu cu t ra ca MPEG-2.
MPEG-2 hot ng hon ton da trn cc c s MPEG-1, tuy nhin c thm mt vi
yu cu to thnh mt h thng y cho cc dch v nghe nhn:
H tr x l file hoc frame.
p dng vo nhiu lnh vc t tc bit rt thp n rt cao (t cht lng nh
rt thp n rt cao). MPEG-2 a ra cc dng thc c bn ng vi 6 profiles v mt s level.
MPEG-2 c tnh tng hp (compatibility) v tnh co dn (scalability) cao theo
khng gian v thi gian.
2.3.3.10.2 Cu trc dng bit video MPEG-2
Mt trong nhng khc bit chnh gia hai tiu chun MPEG-2 v MPEG-1 l ch
MPEG-2 c kh nng x l chui video xen k, v d nh dng thc ITU-R601. S m ha
c th thch nghi vi s la chn field hoc frame, trong MPEG-1 ch c mt mode c
nh. Hnh 2.3.23 ch ra cu trc dng bit video MPEG-2.

Chui
Header
GOP
Header
Header
nh
Lp slice
Lp MB
Lp block

Hnh 2.3.23 Cu trc dng bit vdeo MPEG-2
Chui video c m ha bt u bng Sequence Header, sau l chui m
rng (nu c) v cc nhm nh. Nu phn chui m rng (Sequence extension) khng c
xc nh (khng c m bo c thnh phn m rng), cc lp tip theo khi s thc hin mt
quy trnh ging nh MPEG-1 v l tng hp thun. Khi c thm phn m rng th phi
c thm cc c tnh m rng m ha hu hiu hn.
Header ca nhm nh (GOP) c chc nng tng t nh header ca MPEG-1.
Cc thng s quan trng dng m ha nh m rng c nh ngha trong extension
header ca nh. V c hai loi nh, lin tc v xen k nn cu trc nh cn phi c xc nh
r field trn hay field di hoc frame.
152

2.3.3.10.3 c tnh v cc mc trong MPEG-2
Nn MPEG-2 c mt chui cc mc (Level) v c tnh (Profile), c dng cho nhiu
ng dng khc nhau.
Cu trc tn hiu s trong tiu chun MPEG-2 rt phc tp. Vic s dng tiu chun
MPEG-2 khng phi lc no cng cn thit hoc c ngha. V th dn n vic phn chia
cu trc thnh cc tp con gi l profiles. C 6 nh ngha v profile:
Simple profile (profile n gin): c s cng c thp nht v s dng tc bit
thp v khng dng B frame. N tng ng vi c im k thut MPEG-1, ph hp vi
cc ng dng low-delay bi khng cn thit sp xp li cc frame.
Main profile (profile chnh): c tm ng dng kh rng. N rt quan trng v p
ng c phn gii i vi truyn hnh quy c. N cho cht lng nh tt hn vi cng
mt tc bit so vi low profile nhng thi gian tr hon khi m v gii m tng ln.
SNR profile scalable (profile phn cp theo SNR): c cc cng c ca main
profile v cho php phn cp theo t s tn hiu trn tp m. Tnh phn cp theo t s tn hiu
trn tp m c ngha l cht lng hnh nh v t s tn hiu trn tp m c tnh tha hip.
Chui nh c th chia thnh hai phn lp phn bit nhau v cht lng. Cc lp thp bao gm
nh c cht lng c s, lp cao bao gm cc lp hon thin hn i vi lp thp hn, cho
php khi phc cng nh nhng cht lng tt hn. Lp thp hn, v d cha tn hiu
video theo chun 4:2:0, cn lp cao hn vi tn hiu video trong chun 4:2:2. C th m ha
knh khc nhau cho cc lp ring. Trong trng hp ny, lp di c tn hiu video cht
lng thp hn ( v d lng t ha vi chnh xc thp). Cn lp cao hn th lp bo v
cho php khi phc li tn hiu video vi chnh xc y thng s knh truyn hoc b
m ha.
Spatially Scalable profile (phn cp theo khng gian): tng t vi SNR profile
nhng thm vo lp c bn lp nng cao cht lng phn gii nh (Picture Resolution
Enhancement layer). Tnh phn cp theo khng gian c ngha l c s tha hip i vi
phn gii. Chui nh c chia ra thnh hai lp tng ng vi cc phn gii khc nhau ca
nh. Lp thp hn bao gm nh c phn gii thp v d nh truyn hnh tiu chun, lp
cao hn bao gm nh c phn gii cao hn v d nh truyn hnh phn gii cao
(HDTV).
High profile (profile cao): gm cc c im ca spatial profile thm vo cu
trc ly mu 4:2:2. N bao gm ton b cc cng c ca spatially scalable profile cng thm
kh nng m ha cc tn hiu mu khc nhau cng mt lc. N c d nh dng cho
HDTV, cho php cc b thu HDTV gii m c hai lp hin th mt nh HDTV. High
profile l mt h thng hon ho c thit k cho ton b cc ng dng m khng hn ch
tc bit.
4:2:2 profile: tng t MP, nhng cho php mt tc bit cao hn. N gia tng
kch thc nh dc ln 576 lines vi chun qut 625/50 v 512 lines vi chun qut 525/60.
153
Vn hn ch cc mc c lin quan n phn gii cc i ca nh. C 4 mc hn
ch sau :
Low level (mc thp): ng vi phn gii ca MPEG-1, c ngha l bng
phn gii truyn hnh tiu chun.
Main level (mc chnh): phn gii ca truyn hnh tiu chun.
High 1440 level (mc cao 1440): phn gii ca HDTV vi 1440 mu/dng.
High level (mc cao): phn gii HDTV vi 1920 mu/dng.

Bng 2.3.6. Bng thng s chnh profile v level ca tn hiu chun MPEG-2.
Profile

Level
n gin
(Simple)
Chnh
(Main)
Phn cp
theo SNR
Phn cp
theo khng
gian
Cao
(High)
Thp
(Low)
4:2:0
352x288
4 Mbps
4:2:0
352x288
4Mbps
I, P, B

Chnh
(Main)
4:2:0
720x576
15 Mbps
I, P
4:2:0
720x576
15 Mbps
I, P, B
4:2:0
720x576
15 Mbps
I, P, B
4:2:0
720x576
20 Mbps
I, P, B
Cao 1440
(High
1440)
4:2:0
1440x1152
60 Mbps
I, P, B
4:2:0
1440x1152
60 Mbps
I, P, B
4:2:0,4:2:2
1440x1152
80 Mbps
I, P, B
Cao
(High)
4:2:0
1920x1152
80 Mbps
I, P, B
4:2:0,4:2:2
1920x1152
100 Mbps
I, P, B

Kt hp 4 level v 5 profile ta c t hp 20 kh nng v hin nay c 11 kh nng
c ng dng nh Bng 2.3.6 (theo ti liu ca Tektrronic). Trong cc ca Bng 2.4.6, ln
lt t trn xung l: t l ly mu (4:2:0 hoc 4:2:2); dng di ghi im nh theo chiu
154
ngang x theo chiu dc; dng di na l vn tc cao nht ca dng d liu sau khi nn; dng
cui cng l cc loi nh s dng nn.
2.3.3.10.4 ng dng MPEG-2 trong nn tn hiu video
Cc tnh cht nn tn hiu video
Tnh cht nn tn hiu video (hoc gim tc bit ca video BRR Bit rate reduction)
l s kt hp nhiu yu t khc nhau :
T l nn : t l nn t 2:1 n 150:1, ty thuc vo cht lng nh yu cu cho
tng ng dng.
Cht lng nh : cht lng nh cao thng dng cho khu x l nh, trong
khu hu k (dng hnh); gim hn trong khu ly tin (news), truyn dn pht sng.
Kh nng to nhiu ln : Trong qu trnh sn xut hu k, truyn dn pht sng;
tn hiu video gc phi i qua nhiu cng on, nn v gii nn.
i xng/ khng i xng : vi s nn i xng, s lng x l phn m
ha v gii m ging nhau. S MPEG-2 l khng i xng v cc cng on gii m t hn
so vi m ha.
Tr gia m ha v gii m : tr ny ph thuc vo cu trc v phc tp
ca b m ha, kch thc GOP v chui GOP. Trong truyn hnh, tr tng cng c th
chp nhn c l <1ms cho trng hp phng vn trc tip. Trong truyn dn pht sng th
vn ny t khc khe hn.
Kh nng dng hnh : dng hnh vi chnh xc 1 frame l yu cu cao trong
khu hu k. Hin ti, trong khu hu k phi gii m nhiu frames (I, B, P) v m ha li sau
khi cy mt on mi vo. Do c th thay i chiu di GOP xung cn nh I, cho nn
MPEG-2 cho php dng hnh vi chnh xc tng frame.
phc tp v gi thnh : c mt s tha hip gia k thut xp x chuyn ng
c hiu qu (nng cao hiu qu nn cao) v gim phc tp v gi thnh ca cc chip x l.
2.3.3.11 Tiu chun MPEG-4
MPEG-4 bao gm 2 phn l version 1 v version 2. Bt u t nm 1993 v hnh thnh
cc ngh vo thng 7 nm 1995. Cc ngh v audio v video c nh gi bi cc
chuyn gia v a ra bn tho vo thng 11 nm 1997 v tr thnh tiu chun quc t
ISO/IEC vo nm 1999. Nm 2000 MPEG-4 c b xung v nng cp ln thnh cc version
3 v 4.
c im chnh ca MPEG-4 l m ha video v audio vi tc bit rt thp. Thc t
tiu chun a ra vi 3 dy tc bit
- di 64 kbps
- 64 n 384 kbps
- 384 Kbps n 4 Mbps
155
c im quan trng ca chun MPEG-4 l cho php khi phc li ti pha thu, v vy
chun nn ny c bit thch hp i vi mi trng d xy ra li nh truyn d liu qua cc
thit b cm tay. Nhng profile v level khc trong MPEG-4 cho php s dng tc bit ln
n 38.4 Mbps v vic x l cht lng studio cn cc profile v level ln n 1.2Gbps.
MPEG-4 l chun quc t u tin dnh cho m ho cc i tng (object) video. Vi
linh ng v hiu qu do m ho tng i tng video, MPEG-4 t yu cu ng dng cho
cc dch v ni dung video c tnh tng tc v cc dch v truyn thng video trc tip hay
lu tr. Trong MPEG-4, khung nh ca mt i tng video (hay cn gi l phng i tng
video) c m ho ring l. S cch ly cc i tng video nh vy mang n mm do
hn cho vic thc hin m ho thch nghi lm tng hiu qu nn tnh hiu. Mc d tp trung
vo nhng ng dng tc bit thp nhng MPEG-4 cng bao gm c studio cht lng cao
v HDTV
Cc i tng khc nhau trong mt cnh gc c th c m ha v truyn i ring bit
nh l video object v audio object v c kt hp tr li ti b gii m. Cc loi object khc
nhau s c m ha vi nhng k thut khc nhau v vi cc cng c ph hp nht. Nhng
object khc nhau c th c to ra mt cch c lp v trong mt vi trng hp mt cnh
c th phn tch ring thnh object nn (background) v object cn cnh. V d: on video
quay trn bng c x l tch ring qu bng ra khi cnh sn c. Background (cnh
khng c qu bng ) s c truyn i v ai cng c th thy game thu ht khan gi nhng
ch nhng ngi c tr tin mi thy qu bng.
Hnh 2.3.24 cho thy cc khi nim chung v qu trnh m ha v gii m cc i tng
c lp trong chun nn MPEG-4.
My
quay
video
B
tch
cc
object
trong
nh
Mha
object
Mha
object
Mha
object
Mul
tip
lex
De
mul
tip
lex
Giim
object
Giim
object
Giim
object
Tng
hp
i
tng
Mn
hnh

Hnh 2.3.24 Nguyn l m ha tn hiu hnh nh trong MPEG-4
Nh bit khng c phng php m ha no c th gi l ti u hon ton. DCT v
php lng t ch ti u i vi cc nh c bng thng gii hn v cc nh c mc chi thay
i chm nhng s khng ti u vi nhiu chi tit nh c kch thc nh thng xut hin
trn on video. Mt v d n gin nu mt cnh c xen cc dng ch (text) th h thng
thng thng s xem cc ch nh l cc chi tit nh thng, do sau khi m ha bng
MPEG-1 hay MPEG2,cc chi tit nh c thm vo vi cch thc nh trn s to ra tn hiu
nng lng c tn s cao v cc cnh ca dng ch s khng c m ha tt bi DCT
Do vic thm ch vo nh hng rt ln n hiu sut m ha video. Tuy nhin c
th m ha cc ch theo mt cch n gin nh cc k t thuc m ASCII, v tr, font, kch
thc, mu, thng tin v khng gian c th c thm vo vi s bit tng i nh. Nhng
lm iu ny b gii m cn phi c kh nng to ra cc title t nhng thng tin c cung
156
cp v kha cc title ny khi qua b gii m video trc khi hin th. Vic gii m lung bit
video MPEG-4 yu cu b gii m c nhiu c ch gii m v kh nng thc hin cc hot
ng a hp. Trong MPEG-4 c th truyn nhiu lung text v vic chn b gii m lung
no trong s nhng lung trn kt hp vi video. Vic la chn ny c th do ngi xem
quyt nh hoc do cc thng tin khc c truyn trong lung bit.
Ba c tnh rt quan trng ca MPEG-4 l:
- Nhiu object c th c m ha vi cc k thut khc nhau v kt hp li b
gii m
- Cc object c th l cc cnh c c t camera hay t to nh text
- Cc thng tin trong lung bit c th hin th nhiu dng khc nhau t cng mt
lung bit (ty theo la chn ngi xem chng hn nh ngn ng)
MPEG-4 cho kh nng m ha video v audio hn hn MPEG-2 cng nh kh nng
khi phc li. Tuy nhin sc mnh tht s ca MPEG-4 l cc ng dng mi m c th xy
dng da vo vic m ha c lp cc object cho hiu sut m cao hn, v vic tch ring cc
object cho php tng tc cc object vi nhau c bit l cc chng trnh gio dc v cc tr
chi. V cng do kh nng tch bit cc object m c th thay i t l tm thi chng hn
nh vn duy tr phn gii ca cc object cn cnh quan trng nhng gim nh phong xung
tc thp hn nu h thng s dng c bng thng b hn ch hoc thiu ti nguyn (b nh,
tc tnh)
Tuy nhin cng c mt s nhc im l b gii m phi c kh nng gii m ht tt c
cc lung bit m n h tr v c kh nng kt hp. Do phn cng ca b gii m MPEG-4
phc tp hn so vi b gii m MPEG-2. V ngy nay th cng c nhiu b m thc hin gii
m bng phn mm nhng b gii m bng phn cng c th b hn ch v kh nng linh hot
2.3.3.11.1 Video trong MPEG-4
Trc khi tm hiu k thut nn video trong MPEG-4 cn tm hiu cu trc ca mt
cnh video c MPEG-4 nh ngha. Mt cnh tiu biu bao gm phong nh (background)
mt hoc nhiu i tng cn nh (foreground) chng hn nh vt, mt hoc nhiu ngi
v mt vi phn t ha. Trong MPEG-1 v 2 mt cnh c ly mu mt ln cho mt
khung v to ra cc bitmap s c m ha. MPEG-4 cng lm vic ging nh vy nhng n
c th gii quyt tng i tng ring r. n gin hn c th khng xt n cc vt
nh vy ngoi cc thnh phn ha cnh bao gm background, mt ngi c xem l
foreground. V d: ngi d bo thi tit ng trc nn mu xanh bin hay xanh l cy v
mt nn (background) khc chng hn nh bn thi tit gi l chroma keyed. Trong
studio nh mt ngi ng trc nn mu s c x l loi b nn mu v to thnh key
signal hay alpha channel din t hnh dng ca ngi cn cnh. Thng tin v hnh dng
ngi s c kt hp vi thnh phn cnh. Ni ngi ng th cnh nn c thay th bng
nh ngi v nhng ni khc ca nh nn th khng thay i. Trong thut ng ca MPEG-4
th ngi cn nh c xem l i tng video (video object) c tng trng bi hai phn
t l nh video ca ngi gi l texture v key signal hay alpha channel c xem l shape.

157
2.3.3.11.2 Cp ca video MPEG-4
Trc tin object phi c ly mu. Hu ht cc object c ly mu trong khong
thi gian khng i (gi l frame) v mi thi gian ly mu c gi l video object plane
(VOP). Nh vy mi object trong mt cnh c tng trng bi 1 chui cc VOP ngoi tr
cc object tnh c th dng mt VOP.
VOP bao gm d liu texture v thng tin v ng nt (shape) c dng ch nht hoc
d liu ng nt phc tp kt hp vi object. VOP cng ging nh cc frame ca cc
version trc ca MPEG c th c m ha vi intradata hoc s dng b chuyn ng.
Tip theo l nhm cc VOP vi nhau thnh GOV (Group of video object planes). GOV
tng t nh GOP (group of pictures) ca MEPG trc v cung cp im trong lung bit m
VOP c m ha c lp vi cc VOP khc v nh th n cung cp cc im truy xut ngu
nhin trong lung bit
VOL (Video object layer) cho php thay i t l m ha chui cc VOP hoc GOV.
Nhiu VOL tng ng vi nhiu t l ca chui (VOP hoc GOV) v mi t l ph hp vi
mt tp cc ti nguyn c th thng thng gii hn bng thng hoc gii hn kh nng tnh
ton. Mc video object (VO) bao gm mi thnh phn trong lung bit m t i tng video
c bit.
Cui cng l Video session (VS) l mc video cao nht ca cnh MPEG-4 bao gm tt
c i tng video c t nhin v t to trong mt cnh.
2.3.3.11.3 M ha ng nt (shape)
C hai loi ng nt vi i tng video trong MPEG-4 l ch nht v ty . Dng
ch nht ch n thun l ch phm vi ca nh nn t quan trng. Tuy nhin n vn c dng
tng tnh linh hot trong cc chun trc. Chng hn trong MPEG-2 phm v ca nh c
m ha trong phn header ca lung bit. Trong MPEG-4 kch thc ch nht ca i tng
video nn n gin l c th so snh nhng cng c th c cc i tng ch nht khc trong
cng mt session nh nh trong nh (picture in picture).
ng nt cng tng trng cho i tng video v bt k im no trong mt phng
nh n xc nh c i tng no c kt hp vi n th c th nhn thy c. ng nt
dng ch nht c gi l mask v c kch thc c th thay i theo kch thc ngang v
dc ln nht ca i tng. C hai kch thc ngang v dc ca mask l bi s ca 16 pixel.
ng nt ty c th c m ha nh d liu nh phn hoc d liu xm. ng nt
nh phn l dng n gin nht ch ra i tng l r rng hay khng r rng (thy c hoc
khng thy) bt k im cho.
2.3.3.11.4 M ha texture
M ha texture, l thut ng trong MPEG-4 tng ng vi vic m ha d liu nh
chuyn ng, da vo m ha MPEG-2 c m rng v ci tin. Cc i tng video c th
c m ha vi I-VOP, P-VOP, B-VOP. Hu ht cc profile MPEG-4 u s dng tiu
chun 4:2:0 v YUV m t i tng video texture.
158
Trong MPEG-4 khng phi tt c cc i tng video c cng kch thc v vic m
ha texture ch cn thit nhng khu vc l mt phn ca i tng. i vi nhng i
tng ch nht th n gin chn kch thc l bi s ca 16 pixel (mt macroblock) theo
mi hng v tt c cc macroblock s c x l. i vi cc i tng c ng nt phc
tp th ng bin (boundary) c nh ngha l tn hiu ng nt (shape signal). Phm vi
ca i tng cng c nh ngha bi dy hnh ch nht cc macroblock nhng m ha
texture c thc hin i vi ton b cc macroblock trn ng bin hoc phn bn trong
ng bin i tng
I-VOP c m ha nh khung I trong MPEG-2. MPEG-4 s dng b d on thch
ng i vi cc gi tr DC. B d on cng xc nh gradient sng ngang v dc v d
on gi tr DC t cc khi trn v bn tri theo hng ca gradient nh hn
S tng quan ca cc nh ngoi vic c li cho d on h s DC cn gip vic m
ha cc h s AC. Nhng vng texture ging nhau s to ra mt dy cc h s AC ging
nhau sau khi bin i DCT. Cc h s AC quan trng nht tng trng cho nng lng ln
nht ca texture ging nhau rt nhiu (c li cho qu trnh m ha). Cc h s ny thng
thng l cc h s khc zero trong hng u tin hoc ct u tin, chng thng c lng
t ha vi mc chnh xc cao nht. Trong MPEG-4 cc h s AC ca hng u tin hoc
ct u tin c d on t cc khi ngay trn v bn tri.
Vic lng t cc h s cng tng t nh phng php s dng trong MPEG-2 nhng
c ch qut cc h s v m ha vi chiu di t m thay i th c ci tin hn.
Cc phng php c chn c h s ra c xc nh da vo qu trnh d on
DC. Khi khng c d on DC th qut zigzag nh trong MPEG-2 c s dng. Nu h s
DC c d on t khi pha bn tri th s dng qut dc lun phin (Alternate-vertical
scanning) l h thng qut s c theo chiu dc trc tin. Tuy nhin nu h s DC c d
an t cc khi trn th chn qut ngang lun phin (Altrenate Horziontal scan).
ci thin hiu qu ca b m ha c chiu di thay i (VLC) trong MPEG-4 dng
hai bng VLC khc nhau.
2.3.3.11.5 M ha ng bin
Kh nng m ha nhng i tng c ng nt ty thng gp nhng tnh hung
c bit ng bin ca i tng. Khi , cc khi nm bn ngoi ng bin th khng
cn m ha texture. Nhng tt c nhng khi bn trong ng bin c m ha theo cc k
thut trnh by. M ha texture cn cho cc khi ng bin nhng trong cc khi ch
c mt phn thuc i tng. Trc khi m ha ng bin, ngi ta thc hin bin php
"m" (padding) cc khi ny. Nhng pixel khng phi l thnh phn ca i tng c gn
cho nhng gi tr bng nhau v bng vi gi tr trung bnh ca tt c cc pixel trong phn i
tng. Gi tr ca cc pixel bn trong i tng khng thay i. Vic thay i gi tr bn
ngoi i tng khng nh hng n kt qu sau cng bi v cc pixel ny khng c hin
th. Qu trnh trn c xem l lm gim thiu nng lng ca cc h s khi bin i DCT


159
2.3.3.11.6 Sprites
MPEG-4 c mt lai i tng khc thng c dng lm cnh nn l sprite. Sprite l
i tng video thng c kch thc ln hn mn hnh hin th. Sprite l i tng c s
dng lin tc trong mt cnh (tng t nh cnh nn tnh). Thng thng mt cnh ca game
bao gm cnh nn v mt s i tng nhn to di chuyn theo kch bn ca game v hnh
ng ca ngi chi. Trong qu trnh hnh ng cnh c nhn thy ch l mt vng nh
trong cnh nn, vng ny l thnh phn ca cng mt nh tnh (Hnh 2.3.25). MPEG-4 cung
cp kh nng truyn ton b cnh nn nh sprite v kh nng to cnh khc nhau bng cch
truyn cc thng tin cropping v wraping xc nh phn sprite s c hin th mt thi
im nht nh. Sau khi sprite c truyn i th ch c thng tin cropping/wraping cho sprite
v cc i tng cn nh (foreground) cn c truyn. Trong game in hnh mi phn ca
sprite c th c s dng nhiu ln v th lng d liu cn truyn s gim ng k.

Hnh 2.3.25 Cnh nn (sprite) c truyn i c kch thc ln hn kh nng hin th
ca mn hnh
Vic truyn ton b sprite ngay khi bt u chng trnh c th rt hiu qu nhng s
lm tng bng thng v thi gian truyn trc khi hot ng c th bt u. MPEG-4 s dng
phng php sau trnh vn ny. Sprite c th truyn tng phn khi cn. Mt phn sprite
cn thit ti thi im tc thi s c truyn i. Tt c cc cnh sprite s c lu tr b
gii m nh l mt phn ca sprite. Theo phng php khc, sprite c th c m ha lin
tip v truyn i ton b vi phn gii thp v phn gii cao hn s c truyn sau.
Sprite c m ha nh tn hiu chi vi hai thnh phn mu nh trong MPEG trc v
lun c m Intra bi v bn cht ca nh l tnh.
2.3.3.11.7 Animations
Nh bit mt trong s nhng im mnh ca MPEG-4 l kh nng truyn c i
tng t nhin cng nh cc i tng c t to ra (v d hnh animation) v kt hp chng
b gii m. Mt trong nhiu kh nng th v s dng i tng nhn to l mt ngi hot
hnh (facial animation). y cng l mt v d khc ca vic nh x texture thnh ng nt
chuyn ng nhng trong trng hp ny ng nt c ch nh bi m hnh li hay m
hnh 3D c hnh thnh bi cc node. V tr ca mi node c m ha s dng m ha d
on trc tng hiu sut m khi ng nt ca khun mt thay i.
160
Version 2 ca MPEG-4 c th thm vo thn hnh (body) ng. Thn hnh l mt i
tng c th to ra cc m hnh thn hnh o v ng di dng tp hp li 3D nhiu cnh.
Hai tp hp cc thng s nh ngha cho body: Tp hp cc tham s nh ngha body (BDP-
body definition parameter) v tp hp cc thng s ng body (BAP - body animation
parameter). Tp BDP nh ngha tp cc thng s bin i body mc nh thnh cc body
theo yu cu khch hng vi b mt body, kch thc body v texture. Cc tham s ng
body (BAP) cho php to ra chuyn ng vi cc m hnh body khc nhau. Nh vy, c th
ngay lp tc nhn BAP t lung bit thu m to ra s linh hot ca body. Khi thu c, BDP
c dng bin i body chung (body mt ngi chun chng hn) thnh cc body ring
bit da vo gi tr ca cc thng s. Bt c thnh phn no cng c th trng. Mt thnh
phn trng c th c thay th bng thnh phn mc nh tng ng khi body c biu
hin. Cc c im mc nh c xem nh cc c im chun. Cc c im ny c nh
ngha nh sau: bn chn ch n hng pha trc, hai cnh tay t hai bn ca body vi
lng bn tay hng vo trong body. Cc c im ny cng ngm nh trong tt c BAP c
gi tr mc nh.
M hnh body ngi c th h tr nhng ng dng khc nhau t m phng chuyn
ng thc ca ngi n cng ngh game s dng m hnh ging nh ngi.
2.3.3.11.8 Scalability
MPEG-4 cung cp ch phn cp cht lng tc thi v c nh mc i tng.
Trong c hai trng hp, k thut ny c s dng to ra lp c s (base layer) tng
trng cho cht lng thp nht t lung bit v mt hoc nhiu lp tng cng (enhancement
layer). Nhng lp ny c th c to ra bng vic m ha n gin. Cht lng hnh nh c
th c iu chnh th bng hai cch khc nhau. Nu bng thng b gii hn th lung bit
truyn i s ch bao gm ch lp c s hoc lp c s v mt vi lp tng cng bc thp.
Mt cch khc tt c cc lp c th c truyn i n b gii m, ti y s quyt nh
nhng lp no s c s dng gii m. Nu thit b hin th c phn gii thp hoc ti
nguyn tnh ton khng th lp tng cng c th b qua.
Down
Converter
Base
Layer
Encoder
Up
Converter
Base
Layer
Decoder
Multiplexer
Subtract
Enhancement
Layer
Encoder
Enhancement
VOL
Base layer VOL
Multiplexer
output
VOPs In

Hnh 2.3.26 B m ha phn cp cht lng MPEG-4
161
Hnh 2.3.26 m t s khi ca b m ha thc hin qu trnh phn cp cht lng
vi 2 mc c nh. Cc VOP ng vo c bin i xung cn phn gii thp v m ha
to ra lp c s. Lp c s c a ti ng ra v ti b tng hp Multiplexer. Lp c s
cn c gii m ti ch v a ti b up-converted c cng phn gii nh ng vo.
Tn hiu c phn gii cao ny s c so snh vi tn hiu ng vo ti b tr (Subtract),
nh sai bit u ra b tr c m ha ring b m ha lp tng cng. Ch rng mi
lung VOP sau khi m ha to thnh lp i tng video. Lp c s s dng c m ha Intra
v Inter trong khi lp tng cng ch s dng m ha d on.
Vic phn cp cht lng tm thi th n gin hn. Lung bit n ca VOP c chia
thnh cc lung nh. S VOP c yu cu s c gi n b m ha lp c s, phn cn
li c gi n mt hoc nhiu b m ha tng cng.
QUa strnh phn cp trong MPEG-4 c th c p dng ring r i vi mi i tng
c s. iu ny lm cho qu trnh m ha v gii m tro nn linh ng hn. Chng hn mt
b gii m trong h thng game khng c kh nng gii m tt c cc i tng tc
cao nht c th nn n ch chn gii m i vi cnh nn tc thp v chp nhn mc
chuyn ng nn b git, ng thi gii m vi tc cao i vi cc i tng cn nh lm
cho chuyn ng ca chng mn hn
2.3.3.11.9 M ha m rng (ACE: Advanced Coding Extension)
Version 2 ca MPEG-4 a ra ba cng c mi ci thin hiu sut m ha i vi i
tng video. Bao gm: B chuyn ng ton cc (GMC: global motion compensation), b
chuyn ng phn t (quarter pel motion compensation) v DCT hnh dng thch ng (shape-
adative DCT). Cc cng c ny ci thin hiu sut m n hn 50% so vi version 1 ty theo
lai nh v tc bit.
GMC cho php m ha ton b chuyn ng ca i tng vi mt vi thng s v ci
thin phn gii ca vector chuyn ng bng cch gim sai s do d on v s dng
d
Shape-adaptive DCT c th c dng ci thin hiu sut m ca nhng khi ng
bin khi khng phi tt c cc pixel u l phn t ca nh. Thay v s dng DCT hai chiu
8x8 th dng khi DCT mt chiu i vi hng dc c trc sau n hng ngang v ch
xt nhng pixel thuc i tng, gi l cc active pixel.
2.3.3.12 Chun H.261
Khuyn co H.261 ca CCITT l chun nn cho cc dch v hi ngh truyn hnh v
in thoi truyn hnh qua mng s dch v tch hp ISDN tc n64Kbps. Chun ny c
2 c tnh quan trng l ngng tr m ho ti a l 150ms v tr ny ph hp vi truyn
thng video hai chiu da vo cm nhn ca ngi xem v hnh nh phn hi trc tip v d
dng thc hin mch tch hp VLSI chi ph thp cho vic thng mi ho sn phm rng ri.
2.3.3.13 Chun H.263
H.263 l chun dnh cho video tc thp 46 Kbps dng trong cc ng dng hi ngh
t xa qua mng PSTN. Chun ny c c c tnh ca MPEG-1 v MPEG-2. M ho video ca
H.263 da trn chun H.261 v thc cht n l phin bn m rng ca H.261 vi phng
162
php m ho video kt hp DPCM/DCT. C hai chun ny u dng k thut chnh nh
DCT, b chuyn ng, m ho chiu di t m thay i, lng t ho v hng v x l trn
cp macroblock. Duy ch c khi nim v khung PB trong H.263 l kh c bit, tn PB c
ngun gc t P v B, l s kt hp ca P v B.
2.3.4 ng dng v nh gi kh nng kinh t ca cc tiu chun nn
Bng 2.3.7 tp hp cc ng dng ca cc tiu chun nn. nh dng MJPEG c hn ch
trong ng dng. N c dng ch yu trong my ghi hnh bng a (qu trnh m ha v gii
m trong cng mt n v).
Bng 2.3.7. Cc ng dng ca cc tiu chun nn.
ng dng Tiu chun
m ha
phn
gii cc i
Tc bit cc
i
Videophone
Hi ngh truyn
hnh
Truyn hnh cp
Truyn hnh

Studio / sn xut

HDTV / sn xut
HDTV / truyn
dn
H.261
H.261
MPEG-2
DPCM
MPEG-2
MJPEG
MPEG-
2(@4:2:2)
MPEG-2
MPEG-2
176x144
352x288
720x576
720x576

720x576

1920x1280
1920x1280
64 128 Kbps
0.384 1.554
Mbps
49 Mbps
< 50 Mbps

< 50 Mbps

100 Mbps
20 Mbps

Vic ra i chun MPEG-2 khng nh u th ca MPEG so vi MJPEG khi n p
ng c t khu sn xut n truyn dn v pht sng. Vi tim nng kinh t mnh th vic
u t thit b theo chun MPEG cho tt c cc khu trong truyn hnh l iu khng bn ci.
Nhng kh nng u t cho truyn hnh Vit Nam cn hn ch, chng ta li ang giai on
nghin cu v th nghim, cho nn vic tm gii php thch hp m bo iu kin kinh t,
cht lng hnh nh ph hp cho tng cng on l vn cn thit.
Trong khu pht sng, chun MPEG-2 MP@ML (4:2:0) l s la chn ti u c nguyn
nhn su sc v c yu t khch quan. Su sc l ngi ta phi tit kim ti a di thng ca
ng truyn, tng s lng chng trnh. MPEG-2 MP@ML s dng cc nh I, P, B v nn
vi h s nn rt cao, gim vn tc ca dng chng trnh cn rt thp pht qung b ti
cc my thu. V d c th, pht qua b pht p ca v tinh c di thng 36 MHz, s dng
nn MPEG-2 ta truyn c 1012 chng trnh. Yu t khch quan l mt ngi ch cm
nhn v phn tch n mt chng mc no l . Nu truyn tn hiu c vn tc cao
163
hn, mt ngi cng ch cm nhn thm khng ng l bao m s lng chng trnh phi
gim i ng k. iu ng ngha vi hiu qu pht sng thp. Tm li, mc ch u tin
ca pht qung b l nn lm sao pht c nhiu chng trnh.
Nh vy, vn ta quan tm y l la chn chun no trong cng on sn xut hu
k. i vi nn ca my ghi hnh cn phi ch gi cht lng tn hiu cn cho gia cng
x l trong studio. Cc phng php nn trong my ghi hnh s thc cht l x l ni ti trong
my gim vn tc dng s ghi ln bng cn va thp nhm gii quyt kh nhiu vn
thc t.
i vi MPEG-2, c th s dng MPEG-2 4:2:2P@ML trong khu hu k. V mt cht
lng, nu s dng my ghi cng ngh nn MPEG dng mt loi nh I cng thun li cho
vic dng in tng ng M-JPEG. Nhng cch gii quyt nh th l cha kinh t, v trong
h thng mch theo cng ngh nn MPEG, mch d on b chuyn ng l mch phc tp
nht v c gi thnh cao m li khng s dng (ch dng mt nh I, khng s dng nh P v
B). V mc tiu pht c nhiu chng trnh nn pht qung b s dng nn MPEG-2 vi
nhm nh y I, P, B v h s nn rt cao.
Qua phn tch trn, ta c th thy rng chun M-JPEG s dng trong cc thit b sn
xut chng trnh tin dng cho sn xut studio v dng hu k, lm k xo vi gi thnh h
thng ph hp.
164
PH LC: CC TIU CHUN M HO M THANH V
HNH NH TRONG TRUYN THNG A PHNG TIN
1. Cc tiu chun ca ITU- T cho m thanh
Cc tiu chun ITU-T cho m thanh bao gm G.711 G.722 G.722.1 G.722.2
G.723 G.723.1 G.726 G.728 G.729 G.729.1 G.729a

G.711 l chun ITU-T dng cho thoi ch yu trong cc h thng tng i, c pht
hnh chnh thc vo nm 1972.
G.711 trnh by cc mu iu ch xung m logarit cho tn hiu bng tn thoi, tn s
ly mu l 8000 mu trong mt giy.
C hai gii thut chnh c nh ngha trong chun ny, gii thut -law dng khu
vc Bc M, Nht v gii thut A-law dng khu vc Chu u v nhng nc cn li. C
hai gii thut iu tnh ton trn m logarit, nhng gii thut A-law c thit k c bit cho
mc ch thc hin cc php tnh trong qu trnh tnh ton sao cho n gin hn, chun ny
cng nh ngha mt chui cc gi tr m lp li c mc cng sut l 0 dB.
Hai gii thut -law c m ha dng cc mu PCM tuyn tnh 14-bit v A-Law l
13-bit vi mu 8-bit. Nh vy, b m ha G.711 s to c lung d liu bit c tc
64kbit/giy vi tn s ly mu l 8kHz.
G.722 l chun ITU-T dng cho m ha ting ni bng tn rng hot ng vi tc
truyn 32-64 kbit/giy. Cng ngh m ha da trn vic phn chia bng tn ADPCM.
G.722.1 cung cp c vic nn d liu vi tt bit thp. Mt bin th mi ca
G722.1 l G.722.2, c bit di tn l AMR-WB (Adaptive Multirate Wideband), cho php
vic nn vi tc thp hn na, c th p ng tt vi cc kiu nn khc nhau cng nh cc
thay i a hnh mng. Trong trng hp sau, bng thng c t ng bo tn khi c s
nghn mch cao. Khi vic nghn quay tr v mc bnh thng, th ch tc bit cao hn
v mc nn thp hn c phc hi.
Chun G.722 v d liu mu m thanh ti tc 16kHz, gp i tc x l ti cc
giao tip thoi truyn thng, kt qu l cht lng thoi tt hn.
Chun G.722.1, c bit qua tn khc l Siren, l mt chun quc t cho m ha
m thanh bng rng tc 24 v 32 kbps (bng thng thoi 50Hz-7kHz, tn s ly mu l
16 ksps)tc 16kb/giy), s dng trong cc h thng hi ngh truyn hnh c ph chun
vo 30 thng 09 nm 1999.
Chun G.722.1 l b nn da trn s bin i sao cho ti u ha c m thoi ln nhc.
phc tp tnh ton tng i thp i vi b nn cht lng cao, tr ca gii thut ca
hai im u cui l 40ms.
Phin bn G.722.1/Annex C, c ph chun bi ITU-T vo 14 thng 05 nm 2005,
cn c bit thng qua tn Siren14, c pht trin bi Polycom vi dng khng cn bn
quyn truyn vi tn s 14kHz (32ksps).
165
S lng m ha m thanh bng tn rng ITU i khi khng c hiu chnh xc.
Thc t, c ba loi m ha c bn phn bit, nhng iu c chung mt tn l G.722. u tin,
G.722 l m ha vi tn s 7kHz, s dng ADPCM hot ng vi tc truyn 48-64kbps.
Mt phin bn khc G.722.1 hot ng vi tc d liu bng mt na nhng c cht lng
tt nh G.722 vi phng php m ha da vo nn tng chuyn i. V chun G.722.2, hot
ng vi m thoi bng tn rng vi tc bit truyn rt thp, s dng gii thut CELP-
based.
V vn bn quuyn, n thi im ny, giy ng k bn quyn cho G.722 ht
hn, cho nn hin ti chun ny c xem nh l chun min ph. G.722.1 thuc bn quyn
ca tp on Polycom v chun G.722.2 cn c tn l AMR-WB, thuc quyn s hu ca tp
on VoiceAge.
G.722.2 (GSM AMR WB)
Adaptive Multi Rate - WideBand hay AMR-WB l mt chun m ha ting ni c
pht trin sau khi AMR s dng cng cng ngh tng t nh ACELP. M cung cp cht
lng m thoi tuyt vi bi v s dng bng tn thoi rng hn 50-7000 Hz khi so snh vi
cc m m thoi bng hp hin ang dng rng ri trong cc POTS vi 300-3400Hz. AMR-
WB c h thng ha thnh G.722.2, l mt chun m ha m thoi chun ITU-T.
Cc trng thi hot ng ca M: AMR-WB hot ng tng t AMR vi nhiu tc
bit khc nhau gm: 6.60; 8.85; 12.65; 14.25; 15.85; 18.25; 19.85; 23.05 v 23.85 kbps. Tn
hiu truyn vi tc thp nht cho cht lng thoi tt nht ng vi mi trng khng nhiu
l 12.65 kbps. Tc bit cao rt hu dng trong mi trng c nhiu v trong trng hp tn
hiu truyn l m nhc. Tc bit 6.60 8.85 cung cp cht lng chp nhn c khi so
snh vi m ha bng tn hp.
AMR-WB c chun ha cho vic s dng trong tng lai trong cc h thng mng
nh UMTS. Chun ny cung cp cht lng thoi tt hn rt nhiu v c chn dng cho
nhiu mng c h tr cho bng rng. Thng 10 nm 2006, kim nghim AMR-WB u tin
c thc hin trn h thng mng thc do T-Mobile v Ericssion phi hp ti c.
G.723 l mt chun ITU-T m ha m thoi bng tn rng, l chun m rng ca G.721
iu ch xung sai phn tng thch vi tc truyn 24 v 40 kbps cho cc ng dng thit b
nhn mch s, hin nay G.723 c thay th bi chun G.276, do hin ti chun ny l li
thi.
Chun G.723.1 l chun m ha m thanh cho thoi vi tnh nng nn thoi trong khung
30 mili giy, chu k 7.5ms cng c s dng. Nhc hoc m tone nh DTMF hoc fax ton
khng th truyn tin cy vi chun m ha ny, do mt s cc phng php khc nhu
G.711 hoc phng php ngoi dy bng tn dng truyn cc tn hiu ny.
Chun G.723.1 ch yu dng trong cc ng dng Voice over IP (VoIP) v yu cu bng
thng thp. N tr thnh chun ITU-T vo nm 1995, iu phc tp ca gii thut l yu cu
l di 16MIPS vi 2.2kByte v RAM.
166
C hai tc bit m G.723.1 c th hot ng:
o 6.3 kbit/s (s dng khung 24 byte), dng gii thut MPC-MLQ (MOS 3.9)
o 5.3 kbit/s (s dng khung 20 byte) dng gii thut ACELP (MOS 3.62)
G.726 l chun m ha ting ni ITU-T ADPCM truyn m thanh vi cc tc 16,
24, 32, v 40 kbps. L chun thay th cho c G.721 (ADPCM tc 32kbps) v chun G.723
(ADPCM vi tc 24 v 40 kbps). G.726 hot ng vi tn s l 16 kbps. Bn tc bit
thng s dng cho chun G.726 tng ng vi kch thc ca mt mu theo th t l 2-bits,
3-bits, 4-bits, v 5-bits.
Tc thng dng l 32 kbps, bi v y chnh l tc bng mt na so vi chun
G.711, nh th lm gia tng dung lng c mng ln 50%. Thng thng c dng trong
cc mng in thoi quc t cng nh h thng in thoi khng dy DECT.
G.721 c gii thiu ln u tin vo nm 1984, trong khi chun G.723 c gii
thiu vo nm 1988. C hai c gp chung thnh chun G.726 vo nm 1990.
G.727 c gii thiu cng thi im vi G.726, cng tc bt nhng ti u hn cho
mi trng PCME Packet Circuit Multiplex Equipment. iu ny t c bng cch nhng
b lng t ha 2 bit vo b lng t ha 3 bit, cho php hy b bit c trng s nh nht
trong chui bit truyn m khng c nh hng xu n tn hiu m thoi.
G.728 l chun ITU-T m ha m thoi vi tc 16kbps. Cng ngh s dng l LD-
CELP, Low Delay Code Excited Linear Prediction. tr ca m ch 5 mu ( 0.625 ms). D
on tuyn tnh c thc hin tnh ton vi b lc LPC ngc bc 50. Ng vo kch thch
c to ra m bo nhn c li VQ. Chun c a ra vo nm 1992 di dng
gii thut m du chm ng. Nm 1994, bn dng cho du chm tnh c pht hnh. G.728
c tc ln n 2400 bps. phc tp ca bng m l 30 MIPS, vi yu cu 2.2kByte v
RAM.
G.729 l mt gii thut nn d liu m thanh dng cho tn hiu thoi, nn tn hiu m
thanh vi khung 10 mili giy. Cc tone nhc nh DTMF hoc fax khng th truyn vi b m
ha ny, m phi s dng G.711 hoc phng php ngoi bng tn truyn cc tn hiu ny.
G.729 a s dng trong cc ng dng Voice over IP (VoIP) vi yu cu bng tn thp.
Chun G.729 hot ng tc 8 kbps, nhng cc phin bn m rng c th hot ng ti
6.4 kbps i vi mi trng truyn xu v 11.8 kbps vi yu cu cht lng thoi tt hn.
Trong thc t, ngi ta thng dng chun G.729a, tng t nh G.729 nhng c tnh
ton n gin hn, tuy nhin chun ny li khng cho chtl lng thoi tt hn.
Phin bn G.729b l mt chun c bn quyn, s dng module VAD pht hin tn
hiu thoi hay phi thoi. N cng bao gm mt module DTX dng quyt nh nng cp cc
thng s nhiu nn cho tn hiu phi thoi (cc khung nhiu). Cc khung ny c truyn
thc hin vic nng cp ny c gi l cc khung SID. Mt b to nhiu (CNG) cng c
tch hp trong chun ny, bi v trong mt knh truyn, nu vic truyn b dng li v l do
tn hiu l tn hiu phi thoi, th site cn li s xem nh ng kt ni ny b t. V th khi
s dng chun ny cn phi thn trng.
167
Nhng nm gn y, chun G.729 c nghin cu m rng h tr cho tn hiu
m thoi bng tn rng v m ha m thanh thnh chun G.729.1. B m ha G.729.1 c
thit k theo m hnh phn cp, tc bit v cht lng iu hiu chnh n gin bng cch
thc ct gim chui bit truyn.
G.729.1 thm chc nng bng tn rng so vi G.729 thng qua cc lp c nhng vo.
Lp u tin trn cng G.729 (12kps) vn l dng bng tn hp. 14 kbps thm vo cht lng
bng tn rng thng qua vic ti to ph, s dng ng gi thi gian v ng gi tn s (c
tc truyn cng thm l 2kbps). Cc lp khc ( ng vi tn bc 2 kbps) thm nhiu thng
tin v ni dung ca ph cc tn s cao v nh th lm gia tng cht lng tn hiu.
Cc m c pht trin bi s phi hp ca cc t chc: France Telecom, tp on
Mitsubishi Electric, tp on Nippon Telegraph v Telephone (NTT), v Universit de
Sherbrooke.
2. Cc tiu chun ca ITU- T cho hnh nh v Video.
Chun H.261 l chun ITU m ha tn hiu video nm 1990 c a ra truyn
trn h thng ng dy ISDN vi cc tc d liu l s nhn ca 64 kbps. Tc d liu
ca gii thut m ha c a ra c th hot ng c gia 40 kbps v 2 Mbps. Chun
h tr cc khung video CIF v QCIF vi phn gii 352x288 v 176x144 theo th t tng
ng (v 4:2:0 mu vi phn gii mu l 176x144 v 88x72 theo th t tng ng). Chun
cng xt n tnh hung d phng cho vic truyn cc hnh vi phn gii 704x576 ( c
hiu chnh vo nm 1994).
Chun H.261 l chun m ha tn hiu video s u tin c p dng trong thc t.
Vic thit k chun H.261 l mt n lc tin phong, cc chun m ha video ton cu sau ny
(MPEG-1, MPEG-2/H.262, H.263, v ngay c H.264) cng ch yu da trn chun ny.
Ngoi ra, cac phng php c s dng bi hi ng pht trin H.261 (ng u l Sakae
Okubo) cng tc pht trin chun vn c ng dng trong cc cng vic chun ha cc
chun sau ny trong lnh vc ny. Gii thut m ha s dng mt hybrid ca s chuyn dng
ca c on hnh nh ni ti v m ha truyn trong khng gian vi vic lng t v hng,
phn hnh theo kiu zig-zac v m ha entropy.
2.1 Chun H.261
Qu trnh c bn ca vic thit k c gi l macroblock. Mi macroblock bao gm 1
dy 16x16 cc mu luma v hay dy mu chroma 8x8 dng vic ly mu 4:2:0 v khng gian
muYCbCr.
D on hnh nh ni ti thc hin lai b cc d tha tm thi, vi cc vector chuyn
ng c dng h tr cho vic b m ha cho vic di ng. M di chuyn s dng
chuyn i cosin ri rc 8x8 (DCT) dng loi b cc d tha thuc khng gian, v cc h
s bin i lng t c phn hnh theo kiu zig-zac v m ha entropy (dng m Run-
Level variable-length) loi b cc d tha thng k.
Chun H.261 tht s ch nh r bng cch no gii m video. Cc nh thit k b
m ha c t do trong vic a ra cc gii thut m ha ca ring h, ngay c vi tn hiu
ng ra b m ha khng c t nhin nhm mc ch c th c gii m bng bt k b
gii m no min l c thit k theo ng chun. Cc b m ha cng c thit k tu
168
nhm thc hin qu trnh tin x l m chng mun ng vo video u tin mc nh thc
hin. Mt k thut hiu qu trong vn hu x l tr thnh phn t chnh yu ca cc h
thng tt nht da trn chun H.261 l lc gii kha. N thc hin vic gim s xut hin ca
vt nhn to nhiu c dng hnh khi gy ra bi vic b di ng theo dng khi v cc phn
chuyn i do vic thit k to ra. Vic lc gii kha tr thnh mt phn tch hp trong hu
ht cc chun hin nay, H.264 (ngay c s dng chun H.264, vic hu x l vn cho php
thc hn v c th cho c cht lng cao)
Vic lc c cp trong vic chun ha c nh hng n vic ci tin quan trng
gia kh nng nn v thit k H.261. Tuy nhi, H.261 vn l nh hng lch s chnh trong
lnh vc pht trin ca m ha video.
2.2 Chun H.262
Chun H.262 l mt chun m ha video s ITU-T. Chun ny lin quan n phn
video ca chun ISO/IEC MPEG-2 (c bit di ci tn ISO/IEC 13818-2). Chun ny
c pht trin do s hp tc ca ITU-T v cc t chc ISO/IEC JTC 1, v tr thnh chun
chung cho c hai t chc ny. ITU-T Recommendation H.262 v ISO/IEC 13818-2 c pht
trin v pht hnh di dng l chun quc t. Hai ti liu ny m t hu ht tt c cc kha
cnh ca chun.
2.3 Chun H263
Chun H.263 l chun m ha ITU-T thit k vo nm 1995/1996 dng cho gii php
m ha nn tc truyn thp cho cc dch v hi ngh truyn hnh.
M u tin c thit k trong cc h thng H.324 (PSTN hoc cc mch chuyn mch
mch khc truyn dch v hi ngh truyn hnh v in thoi truyn hnh), cng nh trong cc
h thgn dng m H.323 (hi ngh truyn hnh RTP/IP-based), H.320 (hi ngh truyn hnh
ISDN-based), RTSP (phng tin truyn thng dng streaming) v SIP (hi ngh Internet).
Hu ht ni dung Flash Video( dng trn cc site nh YouTube, Google Video, MySpace,
v.v.) c m ha di dng nh dng ny, tuy vn c site s dng m ha VP6, h tr
phin bn Flash 8. Tn hiu video H.263 c th c gii m bng th vin phi bn quyn
LGPL-licensed dng trong cc chng trnh nh ffdshow, VLC media player v MPlayer.
Chun H.263 c pht trin nh l mt phin bn nng cp da trn chun H.261, v
chun MPEG-1, MPEG-2. Phin bn u tin c hon thnh vo nm 1995 v hon ton
ph hp trong vic thay th cho H.261 vi tt c cc tc truyn. Hin ti c cc phin
bn H.263v2 (cn gi l chun H.263+ 1998) v chun H.263v3 (H.263++ 2000).
Chun m ha c ITU-T sau H.263 l H.264, cn c tn l AVC v MPEG-4 phn
th 10. Hu ht cc sn phm hi ngh truyn hnh cng ngh mi hin nay lun tch hp c
ba chun H.264, H.263 v H.261.
2.4 Chun H264
169
Chun H.264, MPEG-4 Part 10, hay AVC (dng cho Advanced Video Coding), l mt
chun m ha video s vi nn cc cao, l kt qu ca ITU-T Video Coding Experts
Group (VCEG) kt hp vi ISO/IEC Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG), c xem l
sn phm thng mi Joint Video Team (JVT). Chun ITU-T H.264 v ISO/IEC MPEG-
4 Part 10(ISO/IEC 14496-10) ng dng cc cng ngh l tng. Phin bn nhp u tin
c hon thnh vo thng 05 nm 2003.
Chun H.264 c t tn theo cng dng ITU-T H.26x ca cc chun video, trong khi
tn AVC c t tn da theo tn d n hp tc, vi tn ca d n l H.26L. Chun cn
c gi bng cc tn khc H.264/AVC, AVC/H.264, H.264/MPEG-4 AVC, MPEG-4/H.264
AVC nhm nhn mnh tnh k tha. i khi, cn c gi l m ha JVT vi l do l t
chc JVT pht trin.
Mc ch ca d n H.264/AVC l to ra mt chun c kh nng cung cp tn hiu
video cht lng cao vi cc tc bit truyn thp, nh hn hay bng mt na so vi tc
ca cc chun trc ( nh MPEG-2, H.263, hay MPEG-4 Part 2) vi tnh ng dng cao trong
thc t. Ngoi ra, chun phi p ng yu cu cung cp cch thc linh ng cho php chun
c ng dng rng ri trong nhiu trnh ng dng ( v d cho c tc bit cao v thyp hoc
phn gii cao hoc thp, v chy n nh trong nhiu h thng cng nh mng ( cho vic
broadcast, lu tr DVD, mng gi RTP/IP, v cc h thng tng i ang phng tin ITU-T)
2.5 Chun JVT
Chun JVT hon thnh vic nng cp, pht trin mt s tnh nng m rng so vi
chun nguyn thu, c bit di tn l Fidelity Range Extensions (FRExt). Cc phin bn
m rng h tr m ha video vi trung thc cao bng cch thc gia tng chnh xc ly
mu (bao gm m ha 10-bit v 12-bit) vi thng tin mu phn gi cao (gm cc cu trc
ly mu nh YUV 4:2:2 v YUV 4:4:4). Mt s tnh nng khc trong d n Fidelity Range
Extensions ( nh php bin i s nguyn chuyn mch tng thch 44 v 88, cc ma trn
trng s lng t ha da trn gic quan, m ha khng mt mt hnh ni ti hiu qu, h tr
cc khng gian mu cng thm v php bin i mu s d). Cng vic thit k trong d n
c hon thnh vo thng 7 nm 2004 v phin bn nhp c ra mt vo thng 09 nm
2004.







170
TI LIU THAM KHO

1. Anil K. Jain, Fundamentals of Digital Image Processing, Prentice Hall, 1988.
2. J. R. Parker, Algorithms for Image Processing and Computer Vision, Wiley,
1996.
3. Alan C. Bovik , Handbook of Image and Video Processing, Academic Press,
2000.
4. John R. Deller, John H. L. Hansen, John G. Proakis, Discrete-Time Processing
of Speech Signals, Wiley-IEEE Press, 1999.
5. R. C. Gonzalez, R. E. Woods, Steven L. Eddins, Digital Image Processing
Using MATLAB, Prentice Hall, 2003.
6. R. C. Gonzalez, R. E. Woods Digital Image Processing , Prentice Hall, 2002.
7. William K. Pratt, Digital Image Processing: PIKS Inside, Third Edition 2001
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
9. Michael Robin & Michel Poulin, Digital Television Fundamental, McCraw-Hill
Companies. Inc.
10. Hong Tin, Dng Thanh Phng Truyn hnh k thut s. NXB Khoa
hc v k thut, 2004.
11. Lng Mnh B, Nguyn Thanh Thy, Nhp mn x l nh s, NXB Khoa
hc v k thut, 1999.













171
MC LC

LI NI U 1
CHNG 1 K THUT X L M THANH 3
1.1 TNG QUAN V X L M THANH 3
1.1.1 Gii thiu s lc v m thanh & h thng x l m thanh 3
1.1.2 Nhc li mt s khi nim ton hc trong x l m thanh 10
1.2 M HNH X L M THANH 13
1.2.1 Cc m hnh ly mu v m ho thoi 13
1.2.2 Cc m hnh dng trong x l m thanh 19
1.2.3 M hnh thi gian ri rc 27
1.3 L THUYT V CC BI TON C BN 30
1.3.1 Phn tch d on tuyn tnh 30
1.3.2 D on tuyn tnh trong x l thoi 36
1.4 PHN TCH CHT LNG X L THOI 40
1.4.1 Cc phng php m ho 40
1.4.2 Cc tham s lin quan n cht lng thoi 41
1.4.3 Cc phng php nh gi cht lng thoi c bn 41
1.5 M HNH NG DNG X L THOI 48
1.5.1 M hnh thi gian ng 48
1.5.2 M hnh chui markov n 53
1.5.3 Mng nron 55
CHNG 2: K THUT X L NH 60
2.1 TNG QUAN V X L NH V VIDEO S 60
2.1.1 Khi nim c bn v x l nh 60
2.1.2 Lnh vc ng dng k thut x l nh 61
2.1.3 Cc giai on chnh trong x l nh 62
2.1.4 Cc phn t ca h thng x l nh s 64
2.1.5 Biu din nh s 67
2.1.6 L thuyt ton ng dng trong x l nh v video s 92
2.2 PHN TCH CC K THUT X L NH V VIDEO 106
2.2.1 Khi nim v quan h gia cc im nh 106
2.2.2 Cc phng php xc nhv d an bin nh 109
2.3 CC K THUT NN NH 115
2.3.1 Gii thiu chung v k thut nn nh 115
2.3.2 Phng php nn nh JPEG 121
2.3.3 Chun nn MPEG 140
2.3.4 ng dng v nh gi kh nng kinh t ca cc tiu chun nn 162
PH LC: GII THIU CC TIU CHUN M HA M THANH V
HNH NH TRONG TRUYN THNG A PHNG TIN 164
172
1. Cc tiu chun ca ITU- T cho m thanh 164
2. Cc tiu chun ca ITU- T cho hnh nh v Video 167
TI LIU THAM KHO 170











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