Bo co Th nghim Thng tin s & Truyn s liu I HC NNG TRNG I HC BCH KHOA KHOA IN T VIN THNG

BO CO TH NGHIM

THNG TIN S & TRUYN S LIU

GVHD: Nguyn Thanh Sn SVTH : T 6 Nhm : 09A+B

Nng 2009 - Trang 1 -

Bo co Th nghim Thng tin s & Truyn s liu

SINH VIN THC HIN T 6

TT 1 2 3 4 5 6 H v tn ng Th Nguyn Tho Nguyn Th Bo Trm ng Thanh Quang Trn Phc Thnh Trng Th Kim Ng Champakham Amphavanh Lp 06DT1 06DT1 06DT1 06DT1 06DT2 06DT1 Nhm 9B 9B 9A 9B 10A 10A Ghi ch

kimnga1988@gmail.com

NI DUNG BO CO
1. File PDF Bo co Th nghim Thng tin s v Truyn s liu: BaocaoTN.pdf 2. File MATLAB: lab4.m

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Bo co Th nghim Thng tin s & Truyn s liu

BO CO TH NGHIM THNG TIN S V TRUYN S LIU

I. Mc ch th nghim: Th nghim nhm tm hiu: - M phng hot ng ca h thng thng tin s c nhiu. - Mi quan h gia t s tn hiu trn nhiu SNR v xc sut li. - M iu khin sa li c th sa bit li v gim xc sut li vi SNR c nh. II. Phn l thuyt : 1. S khi ca CD player :

CODER
SRC_CODED D

D/A

TX_CODED

RX_CODED

DEST_CODED

DECODER

DEST_DECODED

TRANSMITTER

Nhiu

RECEIVER

2. Cc ngun nhiu nh hng n h thng : Trong CD player th ngun nhiu c th xut pht t cc ngun gc sau y: - Li bit trn mt a (do b try xc, li sao chp, ) - Li do chuyn ng nhit ca cc electron. - Li lng t ha 3. M khi Hamming (7,4): 3.1 nh ngha: - M khi c c trng bi 2 s nguyn n v k, v mt ma trn sinh hay a thc sinh. T m n bit c to ra duy nht t k bit tin v (n-k) l s bit kim tra. - M khi (7,4) c ngha l c 4 bit tin, k hiu bi vector m, c m ho thnh 7-bit c k hiu bi vector x, theo nh bng sau y: Vector tin m T m x Vector tin m T m x 0000 0000000 1000 1101000 0001 1010001 1001 0111001 0010 1110010 1010 0011010 0011 0100011 1011 1001011 0100 0110100 1100 1011100 0101 1100101 1101 0001101 0110 1000110 1110 0101110 0111 0010111 1111 1111111 Vi: x = m G (modulo 2) 3.2 Ma trn sinh G: 1 0 G= 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1

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Bo co Th nghim Thng tin s & Truyn s liu 3.3 Ma trn kim tra H: 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 H= 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 3.4 Gii m sa li: - Sau khi vector t m i qua mt h thng c nhiu th vector nhn c s l: y = x + e (modulo 2) Bn thu s gii m ti to li cc bit tin ban u. Qu trnh ny s to ra vector syndrome s xc nh bit li: s = y HT (modulo 2) Vi HT l ma trn chuyn v ca ma trn H trn: 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 H T = 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 -

Bng quan h gia Syndrome v v tr bit li :

Syndrome 000 100 010 001 110 011 111 101 V tr bit li 0000000 1000000 0100000 0010000 0001000 0000100 0000010 0000001

Gi tr thp phn ca syndrome s cho bit v tr hng trong ma trn E c cha v tr bit li tng ng: 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 E= 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

Khi : y(corrected) = y + e (modulo 2) = x + e + e (modulo 2) = x

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Bo co Th nghim Thng tin s & Truyn s liu III. Cc bc tin hnh th nghim : 1. Bc 1: To dy bit ngun cha m ha : SRC_Uncoded - Dng hm randn to ra dy s ngu nhin Code: data = randn(1,bits); ngha: to ngu nhin 1 dy d liu c bits gi tr - S dng hm to ra vector hng SRC_Uncoded t data, gi s y chnh l mt dy bit ca mt on nhc c ghi trn CD hoc l gi n mt my tnh khc qua modem. sign Code: for i = 1:length(data)
SRC_Uncoded(i)=sign(data(i)); if(SRC_Uncoded(i)<0) SRC_Uncoded(i)=0; end end

ngha: SRC_Uncoded c di bng data, SRC_Uncoded s c gi tr l 1 nu gi tr data tng ng ln hn 0 v ngc li th SRC_Uncoded s c gi tr 0. Nh vy, ta to ra c vector hng SRC_Uncoded c chiu di l bits. Vi (Avect=2;bits=10000;)ta c 20 gi tr u tin ca dy SRC_Uncoded l : 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 2. Bc 2: M ho dy bit ngun SRC_Uncoded thnh dy bit SRC_Coded - p dng m Hamming i vi dy bit SRC_Uncoded to ra dy bit SRC_Coded - u tin nhm cc bit trong vector SRC_Uncoded thnh cc nhm 4 bit. Cc nhm 4 bit ny s c m ha thnh cc nhm 7 bit theo qui lut m ha nh sau: mi nhm 4 bit c gi l mt vector tin m, ta ly vector tin m ny nhn vi ma trn sinh G to ra vector m ha x c di 7 bit. Code : SRC_Coded = zeros(1, 7/4*length(SRC_Uncoded));
j = 1; for k = 1:4:length(SRC_Uncoded) SRC_Coded(j:j+6)=SRC_Uncoded(k:k+3)*G; SRC_Coded(j:j+6)=mod(SRC_Coded(j:j+6),2); j=j+7; end

ngha: + u tin ta khi to dy SRC_Coded di 7/4 di ca dy bit SRC_Coded + Nhm tng 7 bit ca SRC_Coded v gn cho n gi tr l nhm 4 bit tng ng ca SRC_Uncoded nhn vi ma trn sinh G + Dng hm mod cho 2 chuyn cc gi tr tnh c thnh bit 0 hoc 1. - Kt qu sau khi m ha: trng hp (Avect=2;bits=10000;)ta c 35 bit u tin ca dy SRC_Coded c to ra t 20 bit u ca SRC_Uncoded l : 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 Kt qu ny hon ton ph hp vi bng m phn L thuyt a ra. - Tr li cu hi: C gi thit cho rng nh trn ta m ho tng nhm 4 bit nn c th l dng d liu ny m phng cho mt h thng ngun ch to ra cc nibbles d liu (=4 bit). Tuy nhin nu dng d liu vo l byte (hay 2-byte word) th vn khng c s khc bit no. V khi m ho theo tng nibble nh vy, sau khi gii m ta s khi phc li c cc nibble ca dng d liu ch gm byte hoc l t 2-byte. Do , d liu vn c m bo. - Trang 5 -

Bo co Th nghim Thng tin s & Truyn s liu 3. Bc 3: iu ch : TX_Uncoded v TX_Coded - Tip theo ta iu ch tn hiu TX_Uncoded v TX_Coded s dng phng php BPSK, binary phase-shift keying - Mc ch: chuyn dy tn hiu ri rc thnh tn hiu lin tc truyn i. Code : TX_Uncoded
for i = 1:length(SRC_Uncoded) if SRC_Uncoded(i)== 1 TX_Uncoded(i)=+A; else TX_Uncoded(i)=-A; end end

TX_Coded
for i = 1:length(SRC_Coded) if SRC_Coded(i)== 1 TX_Coded(i)=+A; else TX_Coded(i)=-A; end end

ngha: + TX_Uncoded c di bng SRC_Uncoded v mi gi tr ca TX_Uncoded tng ng vi SRC_Uncoded quy c sau: SRC_Uncoded = 0 TX_Uncoded = -A SRC_Uncoded = 1 TX_Uncoded = +A + Thc hin tng t, ta cng c dy TX_Coded t dy SRC_Coded. Kt qu ng vi trng hp (Avect=2;bits=10000;)20 gi tr u tin ca TX_Uncoded to ra l : 2 -2 2 2 2 2 -2 2 2 2 -2 2 2 -2 -2 2 2 2 2 -2

4. Bc 4: To nhiu - S dng hm randn to ra tn hiu nhiu ngu nhin c chiu di bng chiu di ca dy bit TX_Uncoded. Code : noise = randn(1,length(TX_Uncoded)); ngha : to tn hiu nhiu vi di bng di TX_Uncoded. Kt qu ng vi trng hp (Avect=2;bits=10000;)20 gi tr TX_Uncoded to ra l : -0.3523 -0.0651 -2.0183 0.8706 -1.9353 -1.3341 -0.3318 -0.1216 0.8147 -0.9353 -0.1565 0.3706 2.1644 -0.4792 -0.4437 1.0424 0.3744 -0.4300 1.5192 -1.2724 Kt qu ng vi trng hp (Avect=2;bits=10000;)35 gi tr TX_Coded l : 0.1356 0.1030 0.5155 0.8807 -0.4785 0.7491 -0.2994 -0.9914 0.9222 0.7642 -0.4548 -1.5414 0.4495 -1.1081 0.9412 0.4134 -1.9976 -1.1263 -0.7549 -0.1229 -1.8075 -0.9063 0.8070 0.7001 1.1902 - Trang 6 u tin ca nhiu i vi

u tin ca nhiu i vi 0.8674 2.0945 -2.0847 0.0754 -0.5155 1.6484 -0.7597 0.1513 -1.3739 0.5092

Bo co Th nghim Thng tin s & Truyn s liu - S dng hm hist v biu nhiu. Biu ny s cho bit c bao nhiu mu nhiu xut hin trong mt di gi tr Code : if A_index == 1
figure; hist(noise, 20) Noise_histogram_values = hist(noise, 20); title('Noise diagram'); end

ngha : Xut ra biu cc mu nhiu. Tn hiu thu c: cng thm nhiu vo tn hiu RX_Coded = TX_Coded + noise; Code :
RX_Uncoded = TX_Uncoded + noise;

Kt qu ng vi trng hp l : 1.6477 -2.0651 0.0647 0.6659 2.8147 1.0647 4.1644 -2.4792 2.3744 1.5700

(Avect=2;bits=10000;)20 gi tr u tin ca RX_Uncoded -0.0183 -2.3318 -2.1565 -2.4437 3.5192 2.8706 1.8784 2.3706 3.0424 -3.2724

Kt qu ng vi trng hp (Avect=2;bits=10000;)20 gi tr u tin ca RX_Coded l : 2.1356 -1.8970 -1.4845 2.8807 -2.4785 2.8674 3.6484 -1.2509 -2.2994 -2.9914 2.9222 2.7642 0.0945 1.2403 -2.4548 -3.5414 -1.5505 0.8919 2.9412 -4.0847 2.1513 -1.5866 0.0024 0.8737 1.2451 -2.1229 -1.9246 0.6261 -3.8075 1.0937 -1.1930 2.7001 3.1902 1.4845 -1.4908 So snh RX_Uncoded v TX_Uncoded bc 3: T kt qu trn ta thy : RX_Uncoded = TX_Uncoded + Nhiu Kt qu ny cng hon ton tng t cho RX_Coded v TX_Coded.

5. Bc 5 : Gii iu ch to dy bit DEST_Uncoded v DEST_Coded - bc ny, bn thu s khi phc tn hiu tng t tr li thnh cc tn hiu ri rc thng qua b chuyn i A/D gi l b gii iu ch. Tc l cc bit d liu t tn hiu RX nhn c chuyn i thnh dy tn hiu DEST. - S dng b detector c mc ngng l 0V khi phc bit d liu : Nu RX>= 0 th gii iu ch c DEST l bit 1, RX<0 gii iu ch c DEST l bit 0. - To ra DEST_Uncoded t RX_Uncoded : for i = 1:length(RX_Uncoded) Code:
DEST_Uncoded(i)=sign(RX_Uncoded(i)); if(DEST_Uncoded(i)<0) DEST_Uncoded(i)=0; end end

Tng t, to ra DEST_Coded t RX_Coded : Code: for i = 1:length(RX_Coded)

DEST_Coded(i)=sign(RX_Coded(i)); if(DEST_Coded(i)<0) DEST_Coded(i)=0; end end

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Bo co Th nghim Thng tin s & Truyn s liu Vi (Avect=2;bits=10000;)ta c 20 gi tr u tin ca dy DEST_Uncoded l : 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 So snh DEST_Uncoded vi tn hiu ban u SRC_Uncoded, nhiu v nhn xt: Ta thy, trong 20 bit u tin ca DEST_Uncoded th bit th 3 l khc so vi d liu ngun SRC_Uncoded. Mu nhiu th 3 l nguyn nhn gy ra li ni thu. Ti v tr bit th 3, pht i l TX_Uncoded : 2. Do xut hin nhiu m ln l : 2.0183 nn tn hiu thu tr thnh 2 2.0183 = 0.0183. Do , bit ny ban u phi l 1, nhng sau khi cng nhiu th s cho ra bit 0, do khi thu gy ra li ti bit ny.

6. Bc 6: Gii m to ra DEST_Decoded - y l qu trnh gii m, ngc li vi bc 2 (m ha), tc l dy bit nhn c s c nhm thnh cc nhm 7 bit, khi phc li 4 bit tin. Tuy nhin, p dng c kh nng gii m sa li ca m Hamming th cn xc nh c c li bit xy ra hay khng bng cch s dng ma trn kim tra parity H. Nu c xut hin bit li th dng syndrome m n to ra xc nh bit li v sa n. Nh vy, giai on ny s lm nhim v sa li v khi phc vector tin tc. j = 1; Code :
for k = 1:7:length(DEST_Coded) % Compute syndrome syndrome=mod(DEST_Coded(k:k+6)*HT,2); % Compute error index in the table based on syndrome synd_int = bin2dec(int2str(syndrome)); e = E(synd_int+1,:); % Reconstruct an original signal by adding error % to the received signal corrected_y = mod(DEST_Coded(k:k+6)+ e,2); DEST_Decoded(j:j+3) = corrected_y(4:7); j = j + 4; end

ngha: + u tin nhm tng 7 bit ca DEST_Coded ri tnh syndrome bng cch nhn tng nhm 7 bit vi ma trn HT (chuyn v ca ma trn kim tra H), sau ly modulo 2. + syn_int : s thp phn tng ng vi chui bit triu chng syndrome va tm c, trong : int2str(syndrome) : chuyn vector syndrom sang chui nh phn. bin2dec : chuyn chui nh phn sang s thp phn. khi , ch s (index) ca vector li tng ng vi triu chng syndrome l syn_int + 1 (v ch s vector li t 1 n 8, syn_int c gi tr t 0 n 7) + e : l vector li cn tm, c xc nh bng cch ly vector hng trong ma trn li E, vi ch s hng l syn_int+1. + corrected_y : vector 7 bit sau khi c sa li t vector 7 bit (k k+6) trch t dng bit cha gii m DEST_Coded. + Cui cng l gii m c 4 bit tin trong dng bit c gii m DEST_Decoded bng cch tch ly 4 bit cui ca vector 7 bit corrected_y (bit 4 n 7). Vi (Avect=2;bits=10000;)ta c 20 gi tr u tin ca dy DEST_Decoded l : 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 So snh vi dng bit ngun SRC_Uncoded: 20 bit u ca DEST_Decoded hon ton trng vi 20 bit u ca SRC_Uncoded gii m thnh cng. - Trang 8 -

Bo co Th nghim Thng tin s & Truyn s liu - Tr li cu hi: Ti sao vn cn bit li khi dng m khi Hamming (7,4) ? Xt ton b dng bit trong trng hp c m ha v gii m th kt qu ni nhn c t li hn so vi khi khng m ha. Tuy nhin, sau khi m ha v gii m vi m khi Hamming (7,4) th vn tn ti 1 s li nht nh. Nguyn nhn l do y l m Hamming (7,4) nn nu nhm 7 bit c li th ch sa c li trong trng hp xy ra 1 bit li. Trng hp c 2 bit li tr ln th b trng triu chng vi trng hp xy ra 1 bit li no hoc trng triu chng khng c li nn s khng th sa li c. 7. Bc 7: Tnh xc sut li - Gi pr_error_un, pr_error_en ln lt l vector xc sut li trong trng hp khng m ha, m ha. - Trong , mi phn t trong pr_error_un, pr_error_en l xc sut li tng ng vi cc gi tr ca bin tn hiu truyn i A trong vector bin tn hiu Avect. Vy, pr_error_un, pr_error_en c di bng di vector Avect. - Gi uncoded_errors, coded_errors ln lt l tng s li ca dng bit thu trong trng hp khng m ha, m ha trong mi trng hp bin A. - C s v m code tnh uncoded_errors v coded_errors : + Tnh uncoded_errors: Ta xor 2 vector SRC_Uncoded v DEST_Uncoded bng cch cng 2 vector vi nhau sau ly modulo 2, kt qu l 1 vector c bit l 1 ti v tr SRC_Uncoded v DEST_Uncoded c bit khc nhau, v ngc li Sau ta tnh tng cc gi tr trong vector tng modulo 2 , gi tr thu c chnh l s li bit. + Tnh coded_errors: Ta cng lm tng t nh tnh uncoded_errors cho 2 dng bit SRC_Coded v DEST_Coded thu c coded_errors. Code:
uncoded_errors = sum(mod(SRC_Uncoded+DEST_Uncoded,2)); coded_errors = sum(mod(SRC_Uncoded+DEST_Decoded,2));

C s v m code tnh pr_error_un v pr_error_en : + Vi mi trng hp ca bin A, ta thm 1 phn t xc sut li vo 2 vector trn. + i vi vector pr_error_un : uncoded_errors Vi mi gi tr A, ta thm 1 phn t xc sut li c gi tr l vo cui length ( data ) vector pr_error_un c sn. + i vi vector pr_error_en : coded_errors vo cui Vi mi gi tr A, ta thm 1 phn t xc sut li c gi tr l length ( data ) vector pr_error_un c sn. Code:
pr_error_un=[pr_error_un, uncoded_errors/length(data)]; pr_error_en=[pr_error_en, coded_errors/length(data)];

Tnh SNR: + SNR l vector t s tn hiu trn nhiu, ng vi mi gi tr ca A, ta thm 1 phn t c gi tr 10lg (A^2/2) vo cui vector SNR c sn. Code: SNR=[SNR,10*log10(A^2/2)];

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Bo co Th nghim Thng tin s & Truyn s liu Vi (Avect=2;bits=10000;)gi tr ca SNR, uncoded_errors v coded_errors l :
A = 2.000, SNR = Uncoded Errors = 3.01 dB 232, Coded Errors = 41

Vi (Avect=1;bits=10000;)gi tr ca SNR, uncoded_errors v coded_errors l :

A = 1.0000, SNR = -3.01 dB Uncoded Errors = 1592, Coded Errors = A = 2.0000, SNR = 3.01 dB Uncoded Errors = 4481, Coded Errors = 1354

Vi (Avect=2;bits=200000;)gi tr ca SNR, uncoded_errors v coded_errors l :

872

Vi (Avect=sqrt(2);bits=200000;)gi tr ca SNR, uncoded_errors v coded_errors l :

A = 1.4142, SNR = 0.00 dB Uncoded Errors = 16024, Coded Errors = 8933

So snh v nhn xt hiu qu ca vic m ha: + Li sinh ra khi khng m ha ln hn so vi khi m ha. + Nh vy hiu qu ca vic m ha l nhm gim bit li trong qu trnh truyn tn hiu do nhng tc ng bi nhiu.

8. Bc 8: Lp li th nghim vi cc gi tr khc nhau ca A v a ra cc nhn xt, kt lun: - C th y ta lm th nghim vi cc gi tr ca A l:

Avect=[0.5,1/sqrt(2),1,sqrt(2),2,2*sqrt(2),4];

Ln lt thc hin vi bits = 10000 v bits = 200000 Tr li cu hi: a) Gi tr ca kt qu khng nhng ph thuc vo gi tr ca A m ta chn m cn ph thuc vo chiu di ca dng d liu. C th l: Kt qu cho thy, vi cng chiu di dng d liu th xc sut li s gim khi A tng ln. Bi v khi tng gi tr ca A, tc l tng bin xung truyn i, lc qua qu trnh truyn nhiu cng vo s khng nh hng nhiu n gi tr bin so vi khi gi tr A b; ngha l vi gi tr A b th nhiu cng vo c th gy o du bin , v khi gii iu ch, ti s cho ra bit c gi tr ngc li so vi gi tr gc, cn vi A ln th nhiu kh lm o du bin hn. Xt 2 trng hp di bit l 10000 v 200000, xc sut li trong trng hp bits = 200000 nh hn trng hp bits=10000. V nhiu trn ng truyn gy ra mt s li i vi dng d liu c truyn i, m nhiu thng khng ko di v nhng nh hng ln th ch tc ng vi thi im. Chnh v vy, vi dng bit cng di th tuy tng s li s nhiu ln, nhng t l li so vi di dng d liu cng b nn xc sut gy li s b. b) M phng vi cc thng s khng sinh ra li th v ch: V thc t, tn hiu khi truyn qua bt k h thng no cng c li do nhiu tc ng. Do , vic m phng thc cht l xem xt gii php no truyn thng tin l tt nht, c xc sut li t nht, nn mt m phng cho xc sut li l 0 th khng th ni ln c phng php truyn thng tin l tt hay xu v iu ny hon ton khng c trong thc t. Theo th trong 2 trng hp bits = 10000 v bits = 200000, ta thy xc sut li trong trng hp bits = 10000 l trong khong 10-4 n 10-3 (ln hn 10-4 ), cn xc sut li trong trng hp bits = 200000 l trong khong 10-5 n 10-4 ( ln hn 10-5 ). Kt qu ny hp l vi nhng phn tch trn. c) di ca dng d liu m phng c xc sut li l 10-7 Da vo 2 trng hp chn di dng d liu (bits) trn, ta c th c tnh di dng bit m phng xc sut li 10-7 l 100.000.000. Lc xc sut li khong 10-8 n 10-7 - Trang 10 -

Bo co Th nghim Thng tin s & Truyn s liu 9 . Bc 9: V th: 9.1 Trng hp Avect=2; bits=10000: 9.1.1 Biu gi tr nhiu :
Noise diagram 1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0 -4

-3

-2

-1

9.1.2 th quan h gia SNR v xc sut li:

10
-1

BPSK vs. (7,4) Hamming Code performance

Probability of Decoder Error

10

-2

10

-3

2.5

3 Eb/No [dB]

3.5

4.5

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Bo co Th nghim Thng tin s & Truyn s liu 9.2 Trng hp Avect=[0.5,1/sqrt(2),1,sqrt(2),2,2*sqrt(2),4]; bits=10000: 9.2.1 Biu gi tr nhiu :
Noise diagram 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 -4

-3

-2

-1

9.2.2 th quan h gia SNR v xc sut li :

10
0

BPSK vs. (7,4) Hamming Code performance

Probability of Decoder Error

10

-1

10

-2

10

-3

-10

-8

-6

-4

-2 0 Eb/No [dB]

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Bo co Th nghim Thng tin s & Truyn s liu 9.3 Trng hp Avect=[0.5,1/sqrt(2),1,sqrt(2),2,2*sqrt(2),4]; bits=200000: 9.3.1 Biu gi tr nhiu :
x 10
4

Noise diagram

4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5

0 -5

-4

-3

-2

-1

9.3.2 th quan h gia SNR v xc sut li

BPSK vs. (7,4) Hamming Code performance

10

10 Probability of Decoder Error

-1

10

-2

10

-3

10

-4

10

-5

-10

-8

-6

-4

-2

0 Eb/No [dB]

10

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Bo co Th nghim Thng tin s & Truyn s liu - Ch thch: ng mu xanh l trng hp khng m ha, mu l trng hp m ha 9.4 Nhn xt : - Da vo th v ta thy, xc sut li s gim khi tng bin tn hiu truyn i hoc tng di dng d liu.

---THE END---

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