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A New Artificial Treatment for the Reduction of Resistance in Ground Electrode

Hugo E. Martnez, Edward L. Fuentealba, Luis A. Cisternas, Hector R. Galleguillos, Jorge F. Kasaneva, and Osvaldo A. de la Fuente

AbstractThis study describes a resistance reduction additive (RRA) for reducing and maintaining reduced resistance of ground electrodes over time. The RRA employed was a mixture of inorganic salts, some of which occur as residues from industrial mineral processing in Chile. Chemical characteristics of the mixture are described, as well as results of measurements of electrical resistance of ground electrodes over time with and without RRA treatment. Measures are also given for current intensities and loss of electrode mass in test electrodes buried below ground with RRA and within cell containers having a specific capacity. Small scale tests were made on the effects of impulse current in test cells containing electrodes treated with the RRA. Index TermsChemical analysis, corrosion, grounding electrodes, resistance measurement. grounding,

I. INTRODUCTION

HE objectives that are pursued in the construction of a grounding system are several, and they obey different reasons. The most important thing is to guarantee the people security. However, to ensure good operation of the electric and electronic system is also of great importance [1], [2]. From the point of view of security, a grounding system must prevent people from being subjected to dangerous electrical potential differences [1][4]. Now, from the point of view of a good operation in an electric and electronic system, the grounding systems must complete high-priority functions, as shown in the following [1]: stable tensions between active phases and grounding, when a single-phase fault takes place in a power electric system; in the event of fault to ground, to provide a low impedance route; in the event of atmospheric discharges, to drive this great energy to ground; establishment of a voltage reference level.

There exist cases where the high resistivity of soil makes it difficult or even impossible to obtain low resistance values in the construction of a ground electrode. For this reason, there are, at present, natural and artificial means of modifying soils which cover ground electrodes which have low resistance characteristics. These include changing the nature of the overlying soil [1] and covering it with natural materials, such as bentonite [5], or artificial compounds, such as synthetic resins. This report presents results of values from test-scale ground electrodes with and without the application of current which have been treated with a resistance reduction additive (RRA) composed of raw materials and residual inorganic salts from Chile. Test times ranged over periods somewhat over one year. Although the result shown in this work only contains data between one or two years, similar results have observed for other tests for time period of over four years. Both tests, with and without application of current, were carried out at four locations including Antofagasta, Rancagua, Chuquicamata, Maria Elena nitrate deposit, and the town of Mejillones. Results are also presented on voltages and lightning current discharges in cells of specific dimensions containing a hemispherical electrode covered with the test material mentioned above for the reduction of resistance in ground electrode. II. CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF THE TEST PRODUCT The RRA used was the product of combining three types of mixtures of inorganic salts, which are here termed MA, MB, and MC, respectively. The following results were obtained in analysis of each of these mixtures by X-ray diffraction using a Siemens Co. model D5000 automatic computerized X-ray diffractometer. The mixture MA was composed primarily of halite (NaCl), H O] and and in lesser proportions of bloedite [Na Mg SO stevensite [montmorillonite group Ca Mg Si O OH H O]. The mixture MB was primarily halite and montmorilnH O]. Its minor lonite [Na Al Mg Si O OH compounds included huntite [Mg Ca CO ], ankerite [Ca Fe Mg CO ], and calcite (CaCO ). Inorganic salt mixture MC was composed primarily of halite, with minor fractions including gismondine H O), ankerite, diaspora, hanskite (CaAl Si O SO Cl], Montmorillonite, and saponite [Kna CO [Mg Si Al O OH H O]. Following X-ray diffraction analysis of qualitative composition, quantitative evaluation was done for some of the more important elements and compounds present in the salt mixtures.

Manuscript received September 24, 2002. This work was supported under Project PROIM Industrial Minerals: New Opportunities for development of the country, University of AntofagastaChile. H. E. Martnez and E. L. Fuentealba are with the Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile (e-mail: hmartinez@uantof.cl; efuentealba@uantof.cl). L. A. Cisternas and H. R. Galleguillos are with the Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile (e-mail: lcisternas@uantof.cl; hgalleguillos@uantof.cl). J. F. Kasaneva is with the Physics Department, University of Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile (e-mail: jkasaneva@uantof.cl). O. A. de la Fuente is with the Department of System Engineering, University of Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile (e-mail: ofuentes@uantof.cl). Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRD.2004.824760

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TABLE I CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF INORGANIC MIXTURES

TABLE II MEASUREMENT OF ACIDITY IN THE RRA

Fig. 1.

Placement of test electrodes in soils of the University of Antofagasta.

III. TESTS OF ELECTRODES WITHOUT APPLICATION OF CURRENT Test electrodes consisted of copper rods (pikes) 1 m in length and 5/8 inches in diameter. These were buried horizontally in a ditch about 0.5 m wide and 0.6 m deep, where tests were carried out without injection or circulation of current.
TABLE III MEASURES OF RESISTIVITY IN THE CELL

A. II Region, Antofagasta After having carried out various tests during 1997 [2], [3] and carrying out definitive determinations on the proportions of elements which formed the RRA, six test electrodes were installed on the terrain of the University of Antofagasta, where soil resistivity was about 3000 -m . Electrodes were installed about 4 m apart. Fig. 1 presents a schematic diagram of the positions of the six sample electrodes. Sample RA was an electrode installed directly in the soil with no RRA. Sample RB was an electrode improved using a resistance reduction additive sold widely in the electrotechnical market, treated with 25 l of tap water. Samples RC, RD, and RE were electrodes to which had been added 7, 14, and 21 kg of the RRA described above, treated, respectively, with 25, 50, and 60 l of tap water. Sample RF was a test electrode which received a single application of 14 kg of the RRA over 20 cm of earth which covered it and was then treated with 25 l of tap water. The resistance of the tap water is 10,4 -m Fig. 2 shows the comparative values of resistance in the six ground electrodes as a function of time. Fig. 3 presents graphs of Fig. 2, reducing the scale of the ground resistances of the ground electrodes in order to better emphasize the development of resistance over time in the test electrodes of the experimental ground electrodes which were artificially enhanced with RRA. It can be seen that the ground electrode with the least resistance was that having the largest quantity of RRA (RE), followed in descending order by RD and RC, and that the values remained practically fixed over time. B. VI Region, Rancagua Similar testing was carried out in Chiles VI Region, where the soils are of an agricultural type. The sites measured were located near the towns of Malloa and Rengo. In Malloa, a 1.5-m rod (pike) 5/8 inches in diameter was installed, the resistance of which (unimproved) was about 43 . This was improved artificially by the addition of 7 kg (RC) of RRA. The test electrode placed at Rengo had a resistance of 383 prior to improvement. It was treated with 14 kg (RD) of RRA. This test region was affected by unusual climatic conditions during the experimental

Results of chemical analyses are listed in Table I. Determination of cations was made using atomic absorption spectroscopy (AA) using a Varian Co. Model 220FS instrument. Chlorides and carbonates were analyzed volumetrically and sulfates by gravimetry. Elemental analyses were converted to compositions by minerological substance using the Minerology Module of HSC Chemistry for Windows software [8]. The results are a best estimate, given that several solutions to the problem exist. The proximate composition of mixture MA was 70% halite, 26% bloedite, and 4% stevensite. The MB mixture contained about 85% gismondine, 12% ankerite, and 3% halite, and the MC mixture was about 64% huntite, 35% halite, and 1% montmorillonite. Table II compares the results of pH measurement [6], [7] on a specific quantity of the RRA with that of a soil sample from the II Region. This measurement is also given for three different weights of RRA (1, 2, and 3 g) in a constant volume of distilled water. Determination of resistivity of the RRA was done in a 10 10 cm, containing copper-plate cell measuring 10 electrodes. Results of the resistivity tests are given in Table III. Based on the average resistivity results from above, a value was obtained of 0.22 - . A comparable result reported in [7] was 0.23 - at 23 C. It is important to indicate that the resistivity value can be further lowered by altering the proportions of raw materials and salts in the composition of the RRA described above.

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Fig. 2. Resistances of six ground electrode test electrodes without current circulation.

Fig. 4. Measures of resistance in ground electrodes in Region VI, Chile.

Fig. 3. Enlargement of Fig. 5.

Fig. 5. Resistance of a ground electrode without current circulation at Chuquicamata. TABLE IV MEASURES OF RESISTANCE IN GROUND ELECTRODES IN REGION VI, CHILE

period (MayOctober 2000), experiencing extreme drought followed by extreme rains. Table IV lists the results obtained with the preceding ground electrodes, carried out by personnel of Electric Company of the Compaia General de Electricidad (CGE). It is important to state here that these results confirmed that RRA was insoluble. Fig. 4 shows the graphs of ground electrodes as a function of time, from Table IV. According to the results obtained in the VI Region of Chile, there was a decrease in resistance to ground with an increase in the quantity of RRA. C. II Region, Chuquicamata, Maria Elena, and Mejillones Three test electrodes were installed, using 14 kg (RD) of RRA. The resistance in the ground electrode without application of current in Chuquicamata, Maria Elena, and Mejillones is shown in Figs. 57.

IV. TEST USING CIRCULATION OF RESIDUAL CURRENT Sets of three test electrodes were installed as described above, using 14 kg (RD) of RRA, at each of two mining centers in northern Chile, II Region. One set was installed at the Chuquicamata copper mine and another at the Maria Elena nitrate deposits. A third set was installed at the port of Mejillones. Low levels of current were applied to each of these electrodes through a dimmer switch (domestic lighting type) to simulate a residual current. Electrodes were recovered at 4-mo intervals in order

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Fig. 6. Elena.

Resistance of a ground electrode without current circulation at Maria

Fig. 7. Resistance of a ground electrode without current circulation at Mejillones.

to determine the loss of mass of the electrodes due to corrosion. This procedure was also carried out on three electrodes at the University of Antofagasta using the above methods with 7, 14, and 21 kg of RRA (RC, RD, and RE) , plus low-level fixed current. It should be noted that the Chuquicamata and Maria Elena sites are located in the Atacama desert which is exceedingly dry and has intense solar radiation. The schematic diagram presented in Fig. 8 shows the circuit used to circulate the electric current in each of the grounding test systems. The measure of the resistance, in agreement with Fig. 8, is made through the quotient among the voltage, regarding the neutral, of the current feed and the current at the beginning of the electrode. A. Chuquicamata Fig. 9 shows the variation in resistances of the ground electrode of the three electrodes placed at the interior of the Chuquicamata mine. Sample R3CC showed high values for resistance as the RRA had been incorrectly placed at initiation. However, the remaining two electrodes increased in value resistance about 6 mo after installation. In order to determine the effect of adding water, on November 10, 2000, samples 1 and 2 were treated with 40 l tap water. It was observed (with surprise) that in sample 1, the resistance decreased from 3194 to 102 over a period of 15 min and remained at this level for over two weeks. Sample 2 did not respond as quickly, but over a period of two weeks, the ground resistance decreased from 7307 to 9.6 . Fig. 10 shows the curves from Fig. 9 with a reduced scale on the resistance axis. The test electrode recovered for mass determination (R3CC) which initially weighed 1132.58 g, weighed 1130.98 g after 4 mo, suggesting the loss of 0.4 g of the electrode mass per month.

Fig. 8.

Scheme of introduction of ground current to test electrodes.

Fig. 9. Resistance of a ground electrode with current circulation at Chuquicamata.

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Fig. 10.

Enlargement of Fig. 9.

Fig. 12.

Enlargement of Fig. 11.

Fig. 11.

Variation in resistances of ground electrodes at Maria Elena.

Fig. 13. Current in three electrodes installed in soils of the University of Antofagasta.

C. Antofagasta B. Maria Elena Variation in resistance of the ground electrodes for three electrodes installed at the Maria Elena nitrate deposits is shown in Fig. 11. Sample R3CC from this site had also been incorrectly installed, resulting in a high resistance value compared to the other two electrodes. Fig. 12 shows the development of resistance over time of the ground electrodes. The electrode recovered was R3CC; at installation, its weight was 1211.34 g, and after 4 mo, its weight was 1119.40 g, suggesting a loss of mass of 22.98 g/mo. This value, as the result for Chuquicamata, can be considered low. A linear approximation gives 100 years to complete mass lost. In Figs. 13 and 14, the results of magnitudes of intensities of current and resistance of ground electrodes consisting of the three electrodes with RRA treatments (7, 14, and 21 kg) are shown installed on the terrain of the University of Antofagasta, similar to RC, RD, and RE of Fig. 1. The installation date was August 31, 1999. D. Mejillones Fig. 15 shows the variations in the resistance of ground electrodes consisting of three electrodes placed at the Mejillones substation of the EDELNOR electric company. Sample R3CC from this site had also been incorrectly installed, explaining its

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Fig. 14. Resistances of ground electrodes in three electrodes in soils of the University of Antofagasta treated with 7, 14, and 21 kg of RRA.

Fig. 16. Record of voltage waves and current in an electrode of the ground electrode type treated with RRA.

Fig. 17.

Cell used for testing impulse current. TABLE V HEMISPHERICAL ELECTRODE WITH INDUSTRIAL FREQUENCY VOLTAGE RMS

RESISTANCE

OF THE

Fig. 15.

Variation in resistances of ground electrodes at Mejillones.

high value compared to the other two electrodes. The recovered electrode from this site was R3CC which, prior to installation, weighed 1120.04 g, and after 4 mo weighed 1117.43 g, suggesting a loss of electrode mass of 0.65 g/mo. Fig. 16 shows the results of waveform tension applied and current circulated through the electrodes at the sites mentioned above. V. TESTS WITH IMPULSE CURRENT In this test, the test electrode was in the form of a hemisphere with a radius of 2.51 cm. The hemisphere is placed in a copper cell containing the RRA. Fig. 17 shows the dimensions of the cell and the placement of the RRA. First, the resistance of the electrode is measured

at a frequency voltage root mean square (rms) of 50 Hz. These results are given in Table V. Subsequently, the average resistance of the electrode measured within the RRA at industrial frequency voltage was about 1.35 . Tests were later carried out with impulse current of 50/200 , with negative polarity on the ground electrode described above. The results are shown in Table VI. Fig. 18 shows one of the records of voltage and current in the tests carried out at the High Voltage Laboratory of the

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TABLE VI IMPULSE TESTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors thank the High Voltage Laboratory of the Department of Electrical Engineering of the Universidad de Chile. They also thank Codelco Chile Chuquicamata, EDELNOR Electric Company, SQM Chemical Company, and CGE Electrical Company. REFERENCES
[1] A. Barachini, Tratamiento de los electrodos para tomas de tierra por intermedio de procedimientos artificiales, Revista Electrotcnica Argentina, Jan./Feb. 1982. [2] H. Martnez, Nuevo procedimiento que reduce artificialmente la resistencia de las puestas a tierra en suelos de alta resistividad, in I Conferencia Internacional del rea Andina del IEEE, Isla Margarita, Venezuela, Sept. 810, 1999. , Tratamiento alternativo artificial que reduce y mantiene las re[3] sistencias de puesta a tierra de suelos con alta resistividad, in Proc. XIII Congreso Chileno de Ingeniera Elctrica, Universidad de Santiago, Chile, Nov. 812, 1999. [4] P. Ortuondo and S. Navarro, Mtodos para mejoramiento de puesta a tierra en terrenos de alta resistividad, Endesa Chile, Revista Electrotcnica Argentina, 1976. [5] W. R. Jones, Bentonite rods assure ground rod installation in problem soil, IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol. PAS-99, pp. 13431346, July/Aug. 1980. [6] Soil Quality. Determination of pH, Std., ISO 10 390, 1994. [7] Soil Quality. Determination of Specific Electrical Conductivity, Std., ISO 111 265, 1994. [8] Outokumpu HSC Chemistry for Windows, Versin 4.0, Users Guide, Outokumpu Research Oy, Finland, 1999.

Fig. 18.

Record of voltage and current in impulse test. Hugo E. Martinez was born in 1953. He received the B.S. degree in electrical engineering from Technical University of Chile, Santiago, Chile, the M.Sc. degree in electrical engineering from the University of Chile, Santiago, Chile, the B.S. degree in electrical engineering from Technical University of Chile, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Universidad Politcnica of Madrid, Madrid, Spain. His research interests include grounding systems and polluted insulators. Dr. Martinez is a member of IEEE Chilean Society and CIGRE.

Department of Electrical Engineering of the University of Chile, Santiago. was the most Results in Table VI suggest that the representative value, which showed a final averaged value of 0.89 .

VI. CONCLUSION A resistance reduction additive (RRA) was developed from natural resources and inorganic salt residues obtained from mining activity in the Antofagasta Region of Chile, which allowed reduction of resistance and extended the life of electrical ground electrodes. The RRA developed for the ground electrodes was not highly corrosive, as ground electrodes treated with the additive showed a less than 1 g of loss in mass per month without the presence of circulating current. This additive is recommended for use in ground electrodes in both neutral ground or service soils based on observations that in ground electrodes maintained with circulating current for periods of over a year, there was rapid response in lowering their resistance upon treating them with water. In insulating soils in protection ground also without circulating currents, the RRA maintained its resistance value for periods greater than a year without the addition of water. The product developed showed 34% less resistance to impulse current (out standard) with respect to the industrial frequency voltage.

Edward L. Fuentealba was born in 1972 in Tom, Chile. He received the B.S. degree in electrical engineering with a minor in industrial engineering from the University of Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile. Currently, he is an Assistant Professor in the Electrical Engineering Department, University of Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile. His current research area is electrical power systems.

Luis A. Cisternas was born in 1961. He received the B.S. degree in chemical engineering from the Catholic University of the North, Antofagasta, Chile, and the Ph.D. degree in chemical engineering from the University of WisconsinMadison. Currently, he is a Professor in the Chemical Engineering Department, University of Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile. His current interests areas are processes design and industrial minerals applications. Dr. Cisternas is a member of American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE).

Hector R. Galleguillos was born in 1954 in Pedro de Valdivia, Chile. He received the B.S. degree in chemical engineering from the Catholic University of the North, Antofagasta, Chile, and the Ph.D. degree in chemistry from the University of Laguna, Laguna, Spain. Currently, he is an Associate Professor in the Chemical Engineering Department, University of Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile. He has been involved in research on thermodynamic of electrolyte solutions and industrial minerals. Dr. Galleguillos is a member of Sociedad Iberoamericana de Electroqumica (SIBAE).

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Jorge F. Kasaneva was born in 1952. He received the B.S. degree in physics from the University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain and the B.S. degree in electronic engineering from the Catholic University of the North, Antofagasta, Chile, and the Ph.D. degree in physics from the University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain, in 1990. Currently, he is an Associate Professor of physics at the University of Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile. He has been involved in a research project on material science.

Osvaldo A. de la Fuente was born in 1969 in Santiago, Chile. He received the B.S. degree with double majors in industrial engineering and mines engineering from the University of Chile, Santaigo, Chile, in 1994 and 1995, respectively. Currently, he is an Assistant Professor in the Industrial Engineering Department, University of Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile. His current research interest is minerals economics.