High Voltage Direct Current Transmission A Review, Part II Converter Technologies

Mohamed H. Okba1, Mohamed H. Saied2, M. Z. Mostafa3, and T. M. Abdel- Moneim3

M.Sc. Candidate, Electrical Engineering Dept., Testing, Measurement, and Protection Sect., Egyptian Electricity Transmission Co., Al Behira, EGYPT, Eng.Okba86@Gmail.com 2 Ph.D., Member, IEEE, GM, Electrical Engineering Dept., Abu-Qir Fertilizers & Chemical Industries Co., Alexandria, EGYPT, Mohammed.Saied@Gmail.com 3 Full-Prof, Member, IEEE, Electrical Engineering Dept., Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University, Alexandria, EGYPT
Abstract This paper is the 2nd part of the survey titled " High Voltage Direct Current Transmission - A Review, Part I". The main converter technologies and HVDC systems' components will be discussed in this complementary paper. Index Terms HVDC converters, HVDC converter technologies, Hierarchal Level, HVDC system components, HVDC schemes, HVDC transmission.
Fig. 1. HVDC system based on CSC technology with thyristors.
1

n this section, the three different basic converter technologies used in HVDC transmission systems is shown [1]-[4]. The first two, which are the most common ones, will be focused. A. Line-commutated Current-Source Converters (CSCs): The CSC-HVDC systems (also referred to as classic or conventional HVDC) represent mature technology today. This technology is well established for high power, typically around 1000 MW, and uses thyristor valves, as shown in Fig. 1 [5]. Such converters require a synchronous voltage source in order to operate. The basic building block used for HVDC conversion is the three-phase, full-wave bridge referred to as a 6-pulse, or Graetz, bridge. The term 6-pulse is due to six commutations or switching operations per period resulting in a characteristic harmonic ripple of 6 times the fundamental frequency in the DC output voltage. Each 6-pulse bridge is comprised of 6 controlled switching elements or thyristor valves. Each valve is comprised of a suitable number of seriesconnected thyristors to achieve the desired DC voltage rating. The DC terminals of two 6-pulse bridges with AC voltage sources phase displaced by 30 degrees can be connected in series to increase the DC voltage and eliminate some of the characteristic AC current and DC voltage harmonics. Operation in this manner is referred to as 12-pulse operation. In 12-pulse operation the characteristic AC current and DC voltage harmonics have frequencies of 12n1 and 12n respectively. The 30 degree phase displacement is achieved by feeding one bridge through a transformer with a wyeconnected secondary and the other bridge through a transformer with a delta-connected secondary. Most modern HVDC transmission schemes utilize 12-pulse converters to reduce the harmonic filtering requirements required for 6-pulse operation, e.g., 5th and 7thon the AC side and 6th on the DC side. This is because, although these harmonic currents still flow through the valves and the transformer windings, they are 180 degrees out of phase and cancel out on the primary side of the converter transformer.

I.

MAIN HVDC CONVERTER TECHNOLOGIES

Fig. 2 shows the thyristor valve arrangement for a 12 pulse converter with three quadruple valves, one for each phase. Each thyristor valve is built up with series-connected thyristor modules. Each thyristor valve is built up with series-connected thyristor modules [6]. Line-commutated converters require a relatively strong synchronous voltage source in order to commutate. The three phase symmetrical short circuit capacity available from the network at the converter connection point should be at least twice the converter rating for converter operation. Linecommutated CSCs can only operate with the AC current lagging the voltage so the conversion process demands reactive power [6]. A summary of the CSC-HVDC system configurations is introduced in [5]. The largest and longest CSC-HVDC projects details are illustrated in [7]. Recently, there have been a number of significant advances, where the developments associated with the CSCs technology, are well documented in [8],[9]. The CSC-HVDC configurations are also applied with some modifications to the VSC-HVDC ones. Part I of this paper outlined different VSC-HVDC schemes, while the following part will explain the VSCs technology in details. B. Self-Commutated Voltage-Source Converter (VSCs) As the development of semiconductor and control technologies, it became capable to apply VSCs, consisting of fully-controlled turn-off power electronic devices, to HVDC. This technology is gaining more and more attention as a result of the development and high advances especially in the insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs). Forced-commutated VSCs, that traditionally use gate turn-off thyristors (GTOs), or in most industrial cases IGBTs, the core component of these converters, Fig. 3, is well-established technology for medium power levels, thus far, with recent projects ranging around 300400MW power level [10], [11]-[22]. The VSC-HVDC is a novel technology developed in the late 90s of last century. It is a more flexible, economic, and environmental transmission method that can effectively solve a lot of problems found in the traditional systems.

number of trigonometric functions. The balance of neutralpoint voltage in DC-link is maintained by introducing an adjusting coefficient to change the working time of positive and negative small vectors. This method has simple structure, low cost, fast response, and better voltage equalization characteristics. Other advantages of the self-commutated VSC-HVDC system, that the reactive power can also be controlled at each terminal independent of the DC transmission voltage level. This control capability gives total flexibility to place converters anywhere in the AC network, since there is no restriction on minimum network short circuit capacity. The system even permits the so called "black start", that the VSC can be used to synthesize a balanced set of three-phase voltages like a virtual synchronous generator [10], [11]. Moreover, the dynamic support of the AC voltage at each VSC terminal improves the voltage stability, and can increase the transfer capability of the sending and receiving ends AC systems, thereby leveraging the transfer capability of the DC link. Fig. 4 shows the IGBT converter valve arrangement for a voltage source converter station [6]. As known, the reactive power demand of conventional HVDC is supplied from the AC filters which look capacitive at the fundamental frequency, shunt banks, or series capacitors which are an integral part of the converter station. Any surplus or deficit in reactive power from these local sources must be accommodated by the AC system [1], [28]-[29].This difference in reactive power needs to be kept within a given band to keep the AC voltage within the desired tolerance. The weaker the AC system or the further the converter is away from generation, the tighter the reactive power exchange must be to stay within the desired voltage tolerance. Fig. 5 illustrates the reactive power demand, reactive power compensation, and reactive power exchange with the AC network as a function of DC load current. C. Capacitor-Commutated Converters (CCCs) Converters with series capacitors connected between the valves and the transformers were introduced in the late 1990s for weak-system applications. These converters are referred to as capacitor-commutated converters (CCC). The series capacitor provides some of the converter reactive power compensation requirements automatically with load current and provides part of the commutation voltage, improving voltage stability. The overvoltage protection of the series capacitors is relatively simple since the capacitor is not exposed to line faults, and the fault current for internal converter faults is limited by the impedance of the converter transformers. The CCC configuration allows higher power ratings in areas where the AC network is close to its voltage stability limit [4]. D. HVDC Light: HVDC light is a technology for power transmission using high voltage direct current. It employs the latest in power semiconductor technology, the IGBT, and is based on VSCs which has characteristics well suited to meet the demands from the new markets.

Fig. 2. HVDC thyristor valve arrangement.

Fig. 3. HVDC system based on VSC technology built with IGBTs.

Thanking to self-commutated quality of IGBTs, new transmission technology has some advantages beyond the traditional one, such as; supplying power to a system without generators, rapidly controlling both active and reactive power, independently and simultaneously, enabling of bidirectional power transfer through reversal of the DC direction, high switch frequency and fewer harmonics, etc. [5]. The IGBTs, those new composite devices combining the advantages of the metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) and traditional giant transistor (GTR), are ideal full controlled devices for the VSCs [23]. To realize the required high voltage rating, IGBTs are connected in series. Unfortunately, this connection may lead to unequal voltage distribution problems between devices, mainly due to the spread of device parameters, different switching characteristics, and different delay time of driving circuits [24]. A description of the main circuit components and an overview of the basic design aspects of VSCs based HVDC systems, are introduced in [25]. Recently, not only the well-known two-level VSCs are used, but also three-level diode-clamped (also called neutralpoint-clamped, NPC) VSCs have been widely applied, for its better output waveforms with less harmonics and lower switching frequency [23]. Knowing that the pulse width modulation (PWM) is in general the core technology used for controlling the VSCs, as opposed to the thyristors based conventional HVDC, the output performance of three-level NPC converter mainly depends on the widely used space-vector pulse-width modulation (SVPWM) algorithms, thanks to the advantages of high utilization rates of DC voltage, accurate tracking, and easy to digital [26]-[27]. Several researches appeared recently qualifying modifying, and improving the system performance of VSCs. For example, a novel SVPWM algorithm, based on 60 coordinate system for three-level VSC, is introduced in [27] on the basis of the traditional algorithm. It simplified the calculations by omitting sector determining process and the calculation of a large

The newly developed PWM based VSCs have overcome the above weakness [35] and [40], and represent recent developments in the area of DC power transmission technology [10]. Different from the thyristor valves, where a relatively stiff alternating voltage of the AC system is a precondition for the valve commutation, the VSC can produce its own alternating-voltage waveform independent of the AC system. Thus, VSC-HVDC can even connect to a passive network with no other power source at all [41]-[42]. Today, there are about 100 HVDC installations world-wide (in operation or planned for the very near future) transmitting high power and employing the two distinct technologies; the CSC and VSC-HVDC. The experience with VSC-HVDC at commercial level scatters over the last 14 years [12], [13]-[16], [17] and [43]-[45]. The breakthrough was made when the worlds first VSC-based PWM-controlled HVDC system using IGBTs was installed in March 1997 (Hellsjon project, Sweden, 3 MW, 10 km distance, 10 kV) [13], [14]. Since then, more VSC-HVDC systems have been installed worldwide. A beneficial summery table of the worldwide SC-HVDC projects and their basic parameters is introduced in [5]. The table contains the power rating, AC and DC voltage levels, DC cables lengths, converter topology (2 or 3-level), commissioning year, projects names and targets, and the used semiconductors types. These worldwide projects cover different types of applications, e.g., back-to-back systems, wind energy applications, two controlled asynchronous connections for trading of electricity, power enhancement, and the powering of offshore platforms [15]-[17], and [19]-[22]. With the gradually reduced costs and losses, VSC-HVDC is becoming a competitive solution, which may extend the HVDC technology to broader applications than the traditional fields [43]-[45]. The recently proposed power-synchronization control for grid-connected VSCs has shown to be a feasible solution for VSC-HVDC connected to high-impedance weak AC systems, where the short-circuit capacity of the AC system is low [46]-[47]. By using power-synchronization control, the VSC emulates a synchronous machine. Therefore, it basically has no requirement on the short-circuit capacity of the AC system. On the other hand, the VSC contributes short-circuit capacity to the AC system, however, without increasing the short-circuit current during ac-system faults thanks to its current limitation capability. III. II. VOLTAGE-SOURCE VERSUS LINE-COMMUTATED, CURRENT-SOURCE CONVERTERS VSC-HVDC MULTILEVEL TOPOLOGIES

Fig. 4. HVDC IGBT valve arrangement.

Fig. 5. Reactive power compensation for conventional HVDC.

It has a standardized design, power ratings up to 200 MW [17]; short delivery times, and is friendly to the environment. The light concept uses extruded DC cables to transmit the power which are easy to install, and the resulting magnetic field is almost reduced to zero thanks to the bipolar cable arrangement. The performance during steady state and transient operation makes it very attractive for the system planner as well as for the project developer [13]-[17], [30][34]. The benefits are technical, economic, environmental, as well as operational. The most advantageous are the following: 1) Independent control of active and reactive power. 2) Feeding of power into passive networks (i.e. network without any generation). 3) Power quality control. 4) Short delivery times. 5) Reloadable/Leasable. 6) Unmanned operation. 7) Robust against grid alterations.

There is an inherent weakness with the conventional line commutated HVDC, i.e., the commutation of the converter valve is dependent on the stiffness of the alternating voltage supplied by the AC system. The converter cannot work properly if the connected AC system is weak [35], and [36]. Substantial research has been performed in this field [37][39]. The most outstanding contribution on this subject appeared in [37], which showed that the AC system can be considered as weak from two aspects: i) AC system impedance is high, and ii) AC system inertia is low. Either of the two network conditions may become an obstacle for HVDC applications.

Multilevel converters extend the well-known advantages of low- and medium-power converter technology into the highpower applications through HVDC power transmission. In general, there are numerous researches in the literature introducing the multilevel converter topologies [48][64].A comparison of three- versus two-level converters for different applications is presented in [65]. An improved diode-clamped (neutral-point clamped) VSC is introduced in [66].Two-cells, three-cells, and four-cells per-phase cascaded multi-cells converters (MLCs) are also discussed in [67]-[69]. The capacitor-clamped or flying-capacitor multilevel converters (FCMLC) are proposed in [52].A new three-level VSC, combining some desirable features of the two and three-level converters, is proposed in [70].

connection, and the other unit for delta connection. In single phase design the two valve windings are generally built on the same transformer unit. D. Converter Transformer System Arrangements Nearly all HVDC classic stations in the world are designed with converter valves connected in a twelve-pulse configuration, in order to reduce the dominant current harmonics [92]. This configuration is in is turn built up with two six-pulse valve groups connected in series. Each of these two is connected to the AC side via the converter transformers with a 30 degree phase difference. This is obtained by a Y/Y transformer connection to the first group, and Y/ connected to the second one with two three-phase transformers, Fig. 8. This standard twelve-pulse converter transformer system (CTS) can, however, is constructed in one of the arrangements shown in Figs. 8, 9, 10, and 11. a) b) c) d) Two three-phase two-winding transformers. Three single-phase three-winding transformers. Six single-phase two-winding transformers. One three-phase three-winding transformers.

Authors in [5] showed that, contributions for selected topologies that can be used to build HVDC systems, were made in numerous technical papers and are not limited to [56][64], [71]-[86].Referring to controlling strategies of these converters, several PWM, carrier-based, and space-vectorbased modulation strategies have been proposed for these converters, in for example [87]-[89]. These classical strategies were designed to provide adjacent state switching action in the converter, which yields the lowest possible output voltage and current total harmonic distortion (THD). Thanks to an emerging switching strategy controlling two-level VSCs [90], and three-level VSCs [70], different 25 space voltage-vectors are obtained instead of only 19 ones [91]. IV. MAIN COMPONENTS OF HVDC SYSTEMS

The main components of the HVDC transmission systems are [10]; quadruple thyristor valve, converter transformer, smoothing reactor, specially designed DC filters, AC filter capacitor, AC filter reactor, circuit breaker, disconnected, current transformer, voltage transformer, surge arrester, earthing switch, and AC (power line conditioner) filter [92], [93]. In the following section, some of these components will be outlined: A. Thyristor valves The thyristor valves make the conversion from AC into DC and thus are the central component of any HVDC converter station. A thyristor or valve module is that part of a valve in a mechanical assembly of series connected thyristors and their immediate auxiliaries including; heat sinks cooled by air, water or glycol, damping circuits, and valve firing electronics as shown in Fig. 6. B. Thyristor Valve Cooling The thyristors are stacked in the module with a heat sink on either side. The water connection to the heat sinks can be designed in parallel or series as shown in Fig. 7. The parallel cooling circuit provides all thyristors with the same cooling water temperature. This allows a better utilization of the thyristor capability. This principle offers the additional advantage that electrolytic currents through the heat sinks, the cause for electrolytic corrosion, can be avoided by placing grading electrodes at strategic locations in the water circuit. C. Converter Transformer The HVDC converter transformer is a very important component in a HVDC transmission system. In addition to its normal application to provide transfer of power between two voltage levels, it serves a number of additional functions like galvanic separation between the AC and DC systems. The converter transformer is generally built with two valve windings of equal power and voltage ratings. One of the windings is connected in star and the other in delta, the twelve pulse valve group configuration with two converter transformers, one in star-star connection and the other in stardelta connection. The HVDC converter transformer can be built as threephase units or as single-phase units depending on voltage and power rating. When built as three-phase transformers, there is generally one unit with the valve winding arranged for star

The decision making when designing the CTS with either single-phase or three-phase units with two- or three-winding transformers depends on many factors such as the voltage and power rating and system size. Each of the CTS arrangements has its own advantages and motivations. The single-phase unit has less limitation in term of transportation and is also attractive from the point of view of spares, since the same single-phase spare transformer can be designed to be used in both the Y-fed and -fed 6-pulse converter group. With the CTS with three-winding transformers, only half of the units are needed, as can be seen by comparing Figs. 9 and 10, respectively. However, for large HVDC installations the high power rating will make these large transformer units impractical [94]-[95].

Fig. 6. Components of the thyristor modules which make up a valve or quadric valve.

Fig. 7. Piping of module cooling circuit, parallel flow (top), series flow (bottom): a) thyristor, b) heat sink, c) connection piping, and d) manifold.

E. Functions Of The HVDC Converter Transformer The converter transformers transform the voltage of the AC bus-bar to the required entry voltage of the converter; the 12pulse converter requires two 3-phase systems which are spaced apart from each other by 30 or 150 electrical degrees. This is achieved by installing a transformer on each network side in the vector groups Yy0 and Yd5.

Fig. 11. One three-phase three-winding transformer connected to the twelve pulse converter.

F. HVDC Makes Special Demands On Transformers HVDC transformers are subject to operating conditions that set them apart from conventional system or power transformers. These conditions include: combined voltage stresses, high harmonics content of the operating current, and DC pre magnetization of the core. The valve windings which are connected to the rectifier and the converter circuit are subject to the combined load stress of DC and AC voltage, stress of transient voltages from outside, caused by lightning strikes or switching operations, and the high harmonics content of the operating current results from the virtually quadratic current blocks of the power converter. The odd-numbered harmonics with the ordinal numbers of 5, 7, 11, 13, and 17 cause additional losses in the windings and other structural parts. V. CONCLUSION

Fig. 8. Two three-phase two-winding transformers connected to the twelve pulse converter valves, at the right, with a 30 degree phase-shift.

Fig. 9. Three single-phase three-winding tranfs. connected to twelve-pulse converter valves, at the right, with DC side windings with 30o phase-shift.

This paper presented a review of HVDC transmission systems, where HVDC may be the only viable or most economical transmission choice for long-distance, bulk-power delivery, asynchronous interconnections, and long submarine cable crossings. Higher power ratings and alternative technologies broaden the traditional uses and open up new applications for HVDC transmission, e.g., economic underground power transmission without distance restriction, offshore power applications, resource diversification, congestion relief, replacement of reliability-must-run (RMR) generation, and mitigation of voltage instability. VI.
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Fig. 10. Six single-phase two-winding transformers connected to the twelve pulse converter valves, at the right, with a 30 degrees phase shift.

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