2.

8 Basic Newton - Raphson (NR) Techniques

Before discussing the application of NR technique in load ow solution, let us rst review the basic
procedure of solving a set of non-linear algebraic equation by means of NR algorithm. Let there be
n equations in n unknown variables x
1
, x
2
, x
n
as given below,
f
1
(x
1
, x
2
, x
n
} = b
1
f
2
(x
1
, x
2
, x
n
} = b
2


f
n
(x
1
, x
2
, x
n
} = b
n

(2.33)
In equation (2.33), the quantities b
1
, b
2
, b
n
as well as the functions f
1
, f
2
, f
n
are known.
To solve equation (2.33), rst we take an initial guess of the solution and let these initial guesses be
denoted as, x
(0)
1
, x
(0)
2
, x
(0)
n
. Subsequently, rst order Taylors series expansion (neglecting the
higher order terms) is carried out for these equation around the initial guess of solution. Also let
the vector of initial guess be denoted as x
(0)
= x
(0)
1
, x
(0)
2
, x
(0)
n

T
. Now, application of Taylors
expansion on the equations of set (2.33) yields,
f
1
{x
(0)
1
, x
(0)
2
, x
(0)
n
) +
f
1
x
1
x
1
+
f
1
x
2
x
2
+ +
f
1
x
n
x
n
= b
1
f
2
{x
(0)
1
, x
(0)
2
, x
(0)
n
) +
f
2
x
1
x
1
+
f
2
x
2
x
2
+ +
f
2
x
n
x
n
= b
2


f
n
{x
(0)
1
, x
(0)
2
, x
(0)
n
) +
f
n
x
1
x
1
+
f
n
x
2
x
2
+ +
f
n
x
n
x
n
= b
n

(2.34)
Equation (2.34) can be written as,

f
1
(x
(0)
}
f
2
(x
(0)
}

f
n
(x
(0)
}

f
1
x
1
f
1
x
2

f
1
x
n
f
2
x
1
f
2
x
2

f
2
x
n

f
n
x
1
f
n
x
2

f
n
x
n

x
1
x
2

x
n

b
1
b
2

b
n

(2.35)
In equation (2.35), the matrix containing the partial derivative terms is known as the Jacobin
39
matrix (J). As can be seen, it is a square matrix. Hence, from equation (2.35),

x
1
x
2

x
n

= |J|
1

b
1
f
1
(x
(0)
}
b
2
f
2
(x
(0)
}

b
n
f
n
(x
(0)
}

= |J|
1

m
1
m
2

m
n

(2.36)
Equation (2.36) is the basic equation for solving the n algebraic equations given in equation
(2.33). The steps of solution are as follow:
Step 1: Assume a vector of initial guess x
(0)
and set iteration counter k = 0.
Step 2: Compute f
1
(x
(k)
}, f
2
(x
(k)
}, f
n
(x
(k)
}.
Step 3: Compute m
1
, m
2
, m
n
.
Step 4: Compute error =max ||m
1
| , |m
2
| , |m
n
||
Step 5: If error (pre - specied tolerance), then the nal solution vector is x
(k)
and print
the results. Otherwise go to step 6.
Step 6: Form the Jacobin matrix analytically and evaluate it at x = x
(k)
.
Step 7: Calculate the correction vector x = x
1
, x
2
, x
n

T
by using equation (2.36).
Step 8: Update the solution vector x
(k+1)
= x
(k)
+x and update k = k+1 and go back to step 2.
With this basic understanding of NR technique, we will now discuss the application of NR
technique for load ow solution. We will rst discuss the Newton Raphson load- ow (NRLF) in
polar co-ordinates.
2.9 Newton Raphson load ow (NRLF) in polar co-ordinates
For NRLF techniques, the starting equations are same as those in equations (2.27) and (2.28), which
are reproduced below:
P
i
=
n

j=1
V
i
V
j
Y
ij
cos(
i

j

ij
} (2.37)
Q
i
=
n

j=1
V
i
V
j
Y
ij
sin(
i

j

ij
} (2.38)
Now, as before let us again assume that in a n bus, m machine system, the rst m buses
are the generator buses with bus 1 being the slack bus. Therefore, the unknown quantities are;

2
,
3
,
n
(total n-1 quantities) and V
m+1
, V
m+2
, V
n
(total n-m quantities). Thus the total
number of unknown quantities is n1 +nm = 2nm1. Against these unknown quantities, the
specied quantities are; P
sp
2
, P
sp
3
, P
sp
n
(total n-1 quantities) and Q
sp
m+1
, Q
sp
m+2
, Q
sp
n
(total
n-m quantities). Hence, the total number of specied quantities is also (2n m 1}. Let the
vectors of unknown quantities be denoted as = |
2
,
3
,
n
|
T
and V = |V
m+1
, V
m+2
, V
n
|
T
.
Similarly let the vector of the specied quantities be denoted as P
sp
= |P
sp
2
, P
sp
3
, P
sp
n
|
T
and
Q
sp
= |Q
sp
m+1
, Q
sp
m+2
, Q
sp
n
|. Also note from equations (2.37) and (2.38) that the real and reactive
power injections at any bus are functions of and V. Thus, these injection quantities can be
40
written as P
i
= P
i
(, V} for i = 2, 3, n and Q
i
= Q
i
(, V} for i = (m+ 1}, (m+ 2}, n.
For proceeding with NRLF, we assume initial guesses of the bus voltage angles {
(0)
) and the bus
voltage magnitudes (V
(0)
}. Subsequently, Taylors series expansion of equations (2.37) and (2.38)
yields (following the same procedure as in the basic N-R technique),

P
2

P
2

n
P
2
V
m+1

P
2
V
n

P
n

P
n

n
P
n
V
m+1

P
n
V
n
Q
m+1

Q
m+1

n
Q
m+1
V
m+1

Q
m+1
V
n

Q
n

Q
n

n
Q
n
V
m+1

Q
n
V
n

n
V
m+1

V
m+1

P
sp
2
P
2
{
(0)
, V
(0)
)

P
sp
n
P
n
{
(0)
, V
(0)
)
Q
sp
m+1
Q
m+1
{
(0)
, V
(0)
)

Q
sp
n
Q
n
{
(0)
, V
(0)
)

(2.39)
In equation (2.39), the quantity P
i
{
(0)
, V
(0)
) is nothing but the calculated value of P
i
with
vectors
(0)
, V
(0)
. As a result, commonly, the quantity P
i
{
(0)
, V
(0)
) is denoted as P
cal
i
. With
these notations, equation (2.39) can be written as,
_
J
1
J
2
J
3
J
4
_ _

V
_ = _
P
sp
P
cal
Q
sp
Q
cal
_ = _
P
Q
_ (2.40)
In equation (2.40) the vectors P
cal
and Q
cal
are dened as; P
cal
= |P
cal
2
, P
cal
3
, P
cal
n
|
T
and
Q
cal
= |Q
cal
m+1
, Q
cal
m+2
, Q
cal
n
|. Also note that the vectors and P
sp
are of dimension (n 1} 1
each and the vectors V and Q
sp
are of dimension (nm}1 each. Therefore, from equations (2.39)
and (2.40),
J
1
=
P

P
2

2
P
2

P
2

n
P
3

2
P
3

P
3

n

P
n

2
P
n

P
n

(2.41)
J
2
=
P
V
=

P
2
V
m+1
P
2
V
m+2

P
2
V
n
P
3
V
m+1
P
3
V
m+2

P
3
V
n

P
n
V
m+1
P
n
V
m+2

P
n
V
n

(2.42)
41
J
3
=
Q

Q
m+1

2
Q
m+1

Q
m+1

n
Q
m+2

2
Q
m+2

Q
m+2

n

Q
n

2
Q
n

Q
n

(2.43)
J
4
=
Q
V
=

Q
m+1
V
m+1
Q
m+1
V
m+2

Q
m+1
V
n
Q
m+2
V
m+1
Q
m+2
V
m+2

Q
m+2
V
n

Q
n
V
m+1
Q
n
V
m+2

Q
n
V
n

(2.44)
In equations (2.41) to (2.44) the sizes of the various matrices are as follows: J
1
(n1}(n1},
J
2
(n1} (nm}, J
3
(nm} (n1} and J
4
(nm} (nm}. Now, equation (2.40)
can be written in compact form as,
|J| |X| = |M| (2.45)
In equation (2.45), the matrix J = _
J
1
J
2
J
3
J
4
_ is known as the Jacobian matrix, the vector X =
_

V
_ is known as the correction vector and the vector M = _
P
sp
P
cal
Q
sp
Q
cal
_ is known as the
mismatch vector. Further, the size of the matrix J is (2nm1} (2nm1} while the sizes of
both the vectors X and M is (2n m 1} 1.
Equation (2.45) forms the basis of the NRLF (polar) algorithm, which is described below. Please
note that in the algorithm described below it is assumed that there is no generator which violates
its reactive power generation or absorption limit. The case of violation of reactive power generation
or absorption limit would be dealt with a little later.
Basic NRLF (polar) algorithm
Step 1: Initialise

V
(0)
j
= V
sp
j
0
o
for j = 2, 3, m and

V
(0)
j
= 1.00
o
for j = (m+ 1}, (m+
2}, n. Let the vectors of the initial voltage magnitudes and angles be denoted as V
(0)
and
(0)
respectively.
Step 2: Set iteration counter k = 1.
Step 3: Compute the vectors P
cal
and Q
cal
with the vectors
(k1)
and V
(k1)
thereby forming
the vector M. Let this vector be represented as M = |M
1
, M
2
, M
2nm1
|
T
.
Step 4: Compute error = max (|M
1
| , |M
2
| , |M
2nm1
|}.
Step 5: If error (pre - specied tolerance), then the nal solution vectors are
(k1)
and
42
V
(k1)
and print the results. Otherwise go to step 6.
Step 6: Evaluate the Jacobian matrix with the vectors
(k1)
and V
(k1)
.
Step 7: Compute the correction vector X by solving equation (2.45).
Step 8: Update the solution vectors
(k)
=
(k1)
+ and V
(k)
= V
(k1)
+ V . Update
k = k + 1 and go back to step 3.
In the above algorithm, the Jacobian matrix needs to be evaluated at each iteration. Therefore,
the element of the Jacobian matrix needs to be found out analytically. This is discussed next.
Formation of Jacobian matrix elements for NRLF (polar) technique
To derive the elements of the Jacobian matrix, let us revisit equations (2.37) and (2.38).
P
i
=
n

j=1
V
i
V
j
Y
ij
cos(
i

j

ij
} = V
2
i
G
ii
+
n

j =1
i
V
i
V
j
Y
ij
cos(
i

j

ij
} (2.46)
Q
i
=
n

j=1
V
i
V
j
Y
ij
sin(
i

j

ij
} = V
2
i
B
ii
+
n

j =1
i
V
i
V
j
Y
ij
sin(
i

j

ij
} (2.47)
In the above two equations, the relations G
ii
= Y
ii
cos(
ii
} and B
ii
= Y
ii
sin(
ii
} have been used.
From the expressions of the P
i
and Q
i
in equations (2.46) and (2.47) respectively, the elements of
the Jacobian matrix can be calculated as follows.
Matrix J
1
_=
P

_ (in this case, i = 2, 3, n, j = 2, 3, n)

P
i

j
=
n

k =1
i
V
i
V
k
Y
ik
sin(
i

k

ik
}; j = i (2.48)
P
i

j
= V
i
V
j
Y
ij
sin(
i

j

ij
}; j i (2.49)
Matrix J
2
_=
P
V
_ (in this case, i = 2, 3, n, j = (m+ 1}, (m+ 2}, n)
P
i
V
j
= 2V
i
G
ii
+
n

k =1
i
V
k
Y
ik
cos(
i

k

ik
}; j = i (2.50)
P
i
V
j
= V
i
Y
ij
cos(
i

j

ij
}; j i (2.51)
43
Matrix J
3
_=
Q

_ (in this case, i = (m+ 1}, (m+ 2}, n, j = 2, 3, n)

Q
i

j
=
n

k =1
i
V
i
V
k
Y
ik
cos(
i

k

ik
}; j = i (2.52)
Q
i

j
= V
i
V
j
Y
ij
cos(
i

j

ij
}; j i (2.53)
Matrix J
4
_=
Q
V
_ (in this case, i = (m+ 1}, (m+ 2}, n, j = (m+ 1}, (m+ 2}, n).
Q
i
V
j
= 2V
i
B
ii
+
n

k =1
i
V
k
Y
ik
sin(
i

k

ik
}; j = i (2.54)
Q
i
V
j
= V
i
Y
ij
sin(
i

j

ij
}; j i (2.55)
With these expressions of Jacobian elements given in equations (2.48)-(2.55), the Jacobian matrix
can be evaluated at each iteration as discussed earlier.
Now, in the basic NRLF (polar) algorithm described earlier, the generator Q-limits have not
been considered. To accommodate the generator Q-limits, at the beginning of each iteration, reac-
tive power absorbed or produced by each generator is calculated. If the calculated reactive power
is within the specied limits, the generator is retained as PV bus, otherwise the generator bus is
converted to a PQ bus, with the voltage at this bus no longer held at the specied value. The
detailed algorithm is as follows.
Complete NRLF (polar) algorithm
Step 1: Initialise

V
(0)
j
= V
sp
j
0
o
for j = 2, 3, m and

V
(0)
j
= 1.00
o
for j = (m+ 1}, (m+
2}, n. Let the vectors of the initial voltage magnitudes and angles be denoted as V
(0)
and
(0)
respectively.
Step 2: Set iteration counter k = 1.
Step 3: For i = 2, 3, m, carry out the following operations.
a) Calculate,
Q
(k)
i
=
n

j=1
V
(k1)
i
V
(k1)
j
Y
ij
sin{
(k1)
i

(k1)
j

ij
)
b) If, Q
min
i
Q
(k)
i
Q
max
i
; then assign |

V
(k)
i
| = V
spec
i
and the i
th
bus is retained as PV bus
for k
th
iteration.
c) If Q
(k)
i
> Q
max
i
, then assign Q
sp
i
= Q
max
i
or, if Q
(k)
i
< Q
min
i
, then assign Q
sp
i
= Q
min
i
. In
44
both the cases, this bus is converted to PQ bus. Hence, its voltage magnitude becomes an unknown
for the present iteration (thereby introducing an extra unknown quantity) and to solve for this extra
unknown quantity, an extra equation is required, which is obtained by the new value of Q
sp
i
(as
shown above). Therefore, when the i
th
bus is converted to a PQ bus, the dimensions of both V
and Q vectors increases by one.
In general, if l generator buses (l (m1}} violate their corresponding reactive power limits at
step 3, then the dimensions of both V and Q vectors increases from (n m} to (n m+ l}.
However, the dimensions of both P and vectors remain the same. Therefore, the size of
matrix J
2
becomes (n 1} (n m+ l}, that of matrix J
3
becomes (n m+ l} (n 1} and the
matrix J
4
becomes of size (nm+l}(nm+l}. The size of matrix J
1
, however, does not change.
Hence, the size of the matrix J becomes (2n m 1 l} (2n m 1 l} while the sizes of both
the vectors X and M (in equation (2.45)) becomes (2n m 1 l} 1. Of course, if there is
no generator reactive power limit violation, then l = 0.
Step 4: Compute the vectors P
cal
and Q
cal
with the vectors
(k1)
and V
(k1)
thereby forming
the vector M. Let this vector be represented as M = |M
1
, M
2
, M
2nm1l
|
T
.
Step 5: Compute error = max (|M
1
| , |M
2
| , |M
2nm1l
|}.
Step 6: If error (pre - specied tolerance), then the nal rotation vectors are
(k1)
and
V
(k1)
and print the results. Otherwise go to step 7.
Step 7: Evaluate the Jacobian matrix with the vectors
(k1)
and V
(k1)
.
Step 8: Compute the correction vector X by solving equation (2.45).
Step 9: Update the solution vectors
(k)
=
(k1)
+ and V
(k)
= V
(k1)
+ V . Update
k = k + 1 and go back to step 3.
In the next lecture, we will look at an example of NRLF (polar) technique.
45