PLATO A contribution to Public Philosophy and Political Science: Crisis and Reflection Edited by Edward R. Statham, Jr.

(Lanham, Md.: Lexington Boo !, "##"$ %%. &#'(&)# PLATO A*+ T,E MO+ER* ES-APE .ROM POL/T/-AL RESPO*S/B/L/T0 John A. 12eg2en, Jr. 3hat do / mean by a modern 4e!5a%e 6rom re!%on!ibi7ity89 / mean it in the !ame !en!e a! one ob!er:er o6 %o7iti5a7 7i6e who noted a de5ade be6ore o2r 7ate!t 4527t2ra7 re:o72tion9 (&;<=('#$: a 4di!i772!ionment>, a bitter and di!5o2raged %e!!imi!m9 among many %o7iti5a7 !5ienti!t!. A 4!2!%i5ion that %o7iti5! i! on7y an o!5i77ation between :io7en5e and 6ra2d9 7ed them to de:ote attention to 4%henomena 6ormer7y he7d irre7e:ant or neg7igib7e.9 3hat wa! thi! 46e:er 6or 5on5rete re!ear5h i6 not an 2n5on!5io2! e!5a%e 6rom re!%on!ibi7ity89 .or in !%ite o6 4the ma!! o6 a552m27ated data, the 57ari6ied 5on5e%t!, the %re5i!e e!timation o6 o7d now7edge and the addition o6 new now7edge9 %eo%7e !ti77 4b2m%ed into the high, gray, terrib7e wa77 o6 the !ame o7d %rob7em!>.9 *ow, a! then, o2r 5o2r!e i! 57ear: 3e m2!t 4try to a!!e!! whether the di66i527tie! o6 5ontem%orary %o7iti5a7 %hi7o!o%hy deri:e 6rom !ti77 dee%er di66i527tie! be!etting>o2r who7e 527t2re>? we are in a %o!ition to e:a72ate 6air7y a552rate7y the need! to whi5h P7ato 5a77ed attention>.9
i

,annah Arendt noti5ed thi! !ame %rob7em: 4E!5a%e 6rom the 6rai7ty o6 h2man a66air!>ha! in 6a5t !o m25h to re5ommend it that the greater %art o6 %o7iti5a7 %hi7o!o%hy !in5e P7ato 5o27d ea!i7y be inter%reted a! :ario2! attem%t! to 6ind theoreti5a7 6o2ndation! and %ra5ti5a7 way! 6or an e!5a%e 6rom %o7iti5! a7together.9
ii

Mo!t diagno!e! o6 o2r 45ri!i! o6 527t2re9 a!!ign .or me, howe:er,

b7ame to the in!tit2tiona7 !tr25t2re! o6 %o7iti5a7 7i6e.

%arti527ar !tr25t2re! and re7ated %o7i5y i!!2e! them!e7:e! %ro:ide !ym%tom! o6 a dee%er %rob7em with 62ndamenta7 %rin5i%7e!. 3hat / ho%e to do, then, i! ret2rn the di!52!!ion to the origin! o6 %o7iti5a7 tho2ght in an attem%t to di!5o:er it! 6o2ndation!, whi5h !o bad7y need to be rearti527ated a! we mo:e into a new mi77enni2m. /t i! a 6itting time to 5on!ider again the :ita7 thing! P7ato had to !ay abo2t tho!e who ha:e what it ta e! to energi@e %2b7i5 7i6e. To !ay that a 5omm2nityA! thin er! are not a55e%ting their re!%on!ibi7itie! doe! not to25h the root o6 the %rob7em. Prior B2e!tion! need to be addre!!ed: +o tho!e thin er! ha:e 4any !%e5i6i5 572e! to !o72tion! o6 the %o7iti5a7 %rob7em!9 o6 the day8
iii

+o they ha:e any re!%on!ibi7ity to

%re!! 6or !o72tion!8 3hat i! the nat2re o6 %2b7i5 re!%on!ibi7ity8 Mo!t ana7y!e! o6 o2r 5ontem%orary 5ri!i! are !2%er6i5ia7 be5a2!e they by%a!! what Eri5 Coege7in 5a77ed 4re(theoreti@ation,9 4re6orm27ation o6 %rin5i%7e!.9
i:

They mere7y tran!%o!e 52rrent7y %o%27ar o%erating r27e!

witho2t being !en!ib7e that tho!e r27e! may %ro5eed 6rom de6e5ti:e %rin5i%7e!. P7ato 5an he7% 2! to re6orm27ate the %rin5i%7e! that m2!t 5on5ern tho!e who!e nat2ra7 gi6t! de!tine them to be !ha%er! o6 a 5omm2nityA! !e76( 2nder!tanding. Any wor o6 4re(theoreti@ation9 ha! to begin with 4the 5on5rete
:

hi!tori5a7 !it2ation.9

/n o2r 5a!e, mo!t ob!er:er! re5ogni@e the %re!en5e o6 or dying.9

:i

gra:e di!order!, whate:er they might be, and e:eryone now! that 4a 7i:ing organi!m that 6ai7! to rea5t to danger i! !i5 That o2r %2b7i5 /! thi! anyoneA! order i! endangered ha! been 57ear eno2gh 6or !ome time, b2t re!%on!e! are !ti77 5on62!ed, he!itant, 5ontradi5tory, and ha76(hearted. 6a27t8 The %rin5i%a7 re!%on!ibi7ity m2!t be a!!igned to tho!e who are ab7e to !ha%e their 5omm2nity one way or another b2t ha:e !hown 4ma!!i:e re!i!tan5e to 6a5e rea7ity9
:ii

and e:en 4!t2%idity9

:iii

in addre!!ing it! need!.

ix

/t ha! been !aid that the b7ame 6or thi! be7ong! to 4ignoran5e ma!B2erading in the g2i!e o6 now7edge9 and 4%o7iti5a7 !e76i!hne!!.9 E:ident7y, too many %otentia7 %2b7i5 7eader! ha:e 6a77en 6or the modern !o%hi!trie! o6 2ti7itarian %ragmati!m, mora7 re7ati:i!m, and %o!iti:i!m. They

ha:e be5ome 4hired %ro%agandi!t!,9 4di!%en!er! o6 mere in6ormation9 and o6 ex%edient !o72tion!. %hi7o!o%hy.
xi x

Berg!on 5a77ed them the 4!5ribe! and %hari!ee!9 o6

O6 the !o2r5e! o6 b7ame identi6ied by Coege7in, !e76i!hne!! i!

xii

!2re7y the more !ym%tomati5 o6 what 3a7ter Li%%mann 5a77ed the 4derangement9 o6 o2r %2b7i5 %hi7o!o%hy. Preten!e to now7edge may be no more than a !ym%tom o6 %ride or :anity, b2t inte77e5t2a7 !e76i!hne!! 5an %re:ent or at 7ea!t di!tort arti527ation o6 the %2b7i5 order. D7timate7y the %rob7em we are 5on!idering t2rn! on the re5o:ery o6 !o2nd rea!oning 6rom %remi!e! that 5orre!%ond to the rea7 wor7d: 4>the i!!2e be5ome! 6ina77y one o6 %hi7o!o%hy>. One m2!t a5B2ire a meta%hy!i5a7 6o52!>to dea7 with the %rob7em9 be5a2!e %o7iti5a7 %o!ition! ine:itab7y red25e to the a!!2m%tion o6 either an immanent or a tran!5endent order in the 6o2ndation! o6 %o7iti5a7 rea7ity.
xiii

// The re7ation between an indi:id2a7 and the gro2% o6 whi5h he i! a member i! a %erennia7 obEe5t o6 5on5ern and di!52!!ion. /t wi77 be ne5e!!ary to 57ari6y the nat2re o6 thi! re7ation!hi% be6ore %ro5eeding to ta e 2% the main B2e!tion o6 thi! !t2dy: what i! the re!%on!ibi7ity o6 a man o6 geni2! to hi! 5omm2nity8 -ertain7y the 5ir52m!tantia7 6a5tor! wi77 a66e5t %arti527ar in!tan5e!, b2t a! h2man being! a77 !hare a 5ommon nat2re whi5h i! both indi:id2a7 and !o5ia7, / %re!2%%o!e a 5ommon %oint o6 re6eren5e a55ording to whi5h a77 %arti527aritie! may be %ro%er7y 2nder!tood: On7y i! man 46277y man by :irt2e o6 hi! %arti5i%ation in a who7e whi5h tran!5end! hi! %arti527ar exi!ten5e.9
xi:

S25h a !tatement, a7tho2gh ta en 6or granted 6rom time immemoria7, !o2nd! !tart7ing to modern ear!, a552!tomed a! they are to %o7iti5a7 theorie! and !y!tem! who!e 5ontra5tarian %remi!e! are %re5i!e7y the o%%o!ite. The an5ient 1ree ! new the polis a! the mo!t de:e7o%ed 6orm o6 in!tit2tiona7 7i6e, !%ringing 6rom the %rin5i%7e that manA! political en:ironment

5on!tit2te! hi! e!!entia7 5ondition a! h2man.

x:

Thi! %rin5i%7e %ro5eed! 6rom

a meta%hy!i5a7 in!ight that :i!2a7i@e! the polis (the home o6 manA! !o5ia7 nat2re$ a! an entire and !e76(!266i5ient 7e:e7 o6 being 7o5ated between o2r 2ni:er!a7 home (kosmos$ and the indi:id2a7 !e76 ( psyche$. The three 7e:e7! o6 being dwe77 in one and the !ame rea7ity !2662!ed thro2gho2t by the %rin5i%7e o6 organi5 order. J2!t a! the :a!t wor7d o6 hea:en and earth i! !o e:ident7y harmonio2! and inter(5onne5ted, !o are the 7e!! ob:io2! 4wor7d!9 o6 the h2man 5ity and the indi:id2a7 mi5ro5o!m. And !o the 4order in the 5o!mo!, the polis, and the !o27! o6 indi:id2a7 men9 6orm! one 4interde%endent and organi5 who7e.9
x:i

A! P7ato wrote !o e7oB2ent7y in 5on!tr25ting hi! Politeia (the Republic$, the 3hen it %a!!ed into Roman 5i:i7i@ation, 4re%2b7i59 ( res publica$

polis i! both the 5o!mo! writ !ma77, and the !o27 writ 7arge. 5ontin2ed to mean the %2b7i5 thing! or a66air!. Po7iti5a7 7i6e wa! 7i6e in %2b7i5, meaning what ha! to do with 5ommon intere!t! and endea:or!. home!, whi5h were the indi!%en!ab7e !2%%ort 6or %o7iti5a7 7i6e.
x:ii

/t wa! /t wa! in

di!tin5t 6rom the %ri:ate or %arti527ar a66air! o6 indi:id2a7 men and their the %2b7i5 !%here that 5iti@en! 5oo%erated in the %2r!2it o6 the highe!t h2man goodF4the good 7i6e9Fea5h 5ontrib2ting the %arti527ar !hare o6 whi5h he wa! be!t 5a%ab7e. 3e !ti77 maintain thi! idea7, at 7ea!t !ymbo7i5a77y: e pluribus unum. /m%ortant im%7i5ation! 6o77ow. /6 5iti@en! are %2b7i5(!%irited and eager to identi6y with 5ommon goa7!, 5on!5io2! that ea5h indi:id2a7 i! nat2ra77y in5om%7ete and de%endent, their wi77! 5an 5on:erge in the a55om%7i!hment o6 527t2ra7 and !o5ia7 bene6it! 6or a77. Thi! 6e77ow!hi% 527minate! in what Ari!tot7e 5a77ed philiaFthe %er6e5t !o7idarity that enab7e! e:eryone to be !o 57o!e7y identi6ied 4that whate:er ha%%en! to any %art o6 the who7e i! 6e7t by ea5h member a! ha%%ening to him!e76.9
x:iii

.rom thi! brie6 re:iew o6 o2r 57a!!i5a7 heritage, it wo27d !eem 57ear that 4men o6 geni2!9 !ho27d 6ee7 ob7igated to maintain and %romote the 5ommon good by 5on5ei:ing o6 and a55om%7i!hing what they 5an be!t

5ontrib2te. P7ato be5ame !o wedded to thi! notion o6 %o7iti5a7 re!%on!ibi7ity that it %ermeated hi! tho2ght, both in the dia7og2e! and in the A5ademy. Let 2! t2rn to an ana7y!i! o6 hi! de:e7o%ment o6 thi! notion, !o a! to di!5o:er it! re7e:an5e 6or o2r 5ontem%orary %rob7em. /// / t2rn to P7ato 6or g2idan5e be5a2!e in the hi!tory o6 we!tern 527t2re, 4the great !ymbo7i5 inte77e5t2a7 6ig2re>ha! been the %hi7o!o%her, the 7o:er o6 wi!dom,9 and thi! !ymbo7 4ha! 6o2nd it! mo!t %ower627 ex%onent in
xix

P7ato.9

*ot on7y i! he ab!o72te7y 57ear abo2t the tran!5endent 6o2ndation!

o6 the inte77e5t2a7 and the %o7iti5a7 7i6e, b2t he i! eB2a77y aware o6 the 5on!tant 6or5e! tending toward the di!integration and reintegration o6 %o7iti5a7 5omm2nitie!, their 4rhythm o6 growth and de5ay.9 3e begin the ana7y!i!, then, with P7atoA! !ame ho%e627 a!!2ran5e that it i! %re5i!e7y in a time o6 5ri!i! that 462ndamenta7 %rob7em! o6 %o7iti5a7 exi!ten5e are more a%t to 5ome into :iew>.9
xx

A! the an5ient %hi7o!o%her! ex%erien5ed it, the polis wa! a77(in572!i:e, h2man7y !%ea ing. /t wa! in5on5ei:ab7e 6or a man to di!tan5e him!e76 6rom it %!y5ho7ogi5a77y. A! Ari!tot7e %2t it, one who 5o27d !2!tain him!e76 in i!o7ation 6rom the 5omm2nity 5o27d on7y be a god or a bea!t. B2t what o6 the !%e5ia7 indi:id2a7 who i! the !2bEe5t o6 thi! !t2dy8 ,i! heart, it wo27d !eem, i! not %rimari7y in the 5ity, b2t above it in the 4wor7d9 o6 eterna7 :eritie!. /t i! to them that he owe! %rimary a77egian5e. 3e !ha77 ha:e to 5on!ider whether by im%7i5ation thi! !%e5ia7 5a%a5ity ex572de! !omeone, or at 7ea!t ex52!e! him, 6rom the 5ommon %o7iti5a7 re!%on!ibi7itie!. .ir!t, howe:er, it i! ne5e!!ary to examine P7atoA! 5on5e%tion o6 the man who 7i:e!, a! it were, abo:e the polis at the !ame time that he 7i:e! in it. /n P7atoA! time, !25h a man wa! 5a77ed 4%hi7o!o%her.9 The P7atoni5 de:e7o%ment o6 the %hi7o!o%hi5a7 4nat2re9 begin! with the idea o6 !ee ing or !ear5hing 6or !omething %er5ei:ed a! 7a5 ing to him b2t ne5e!!ary 6or

5om%7etion, or %er6e5tion. The one who %o!!e!!e! thi! nat2re 5an ne:er be !ati!6ied with any degree o6 a55om%7i!hment. be5a2!e o6 thi!
xxi

,e 7ong! 46or %er6e5tion

xxii

now7edge o6 hi! own im%er6e5tion.9

3hat 4%er6e5tion9

mean! here i! di66i527t to gra!% 2n7e!! it i! 5on5reti@ed in term! o6 goa7! that 5arry !%e5i6i5 meaning. P7ato identi6ied two o6 the!e a! 2%%ermo!t, a7tho2gh they are in!e%arab7e. One i! 4wi!dom9 and the other 4:irt2e,9 and e!%e5ia77y the :irt2e o6 4goodne!!.9 Thro2gho2t the dia7og2e!, we !ee that 4%hi7o!o%hy9 i! in 6a5t what the word !ay!, 4the 7o:e o6 wi!dom,9 and that a 4%hi7o!o%her9 4m2!t ha:e an in!tin5ti:e 7o:e o6 wi!dom and 2nder!tanding,9 a! Republic C ex%7ain! in detai7.
xxiii

To !ay that a %hi7o!o%herA! heart i! intent 2%on wi!dom mean!

that he 4!ee ! to 2nder!tand thing!9 57ear7y and 5om%7ete7y, attaining to a 6277 45on!5io2!ne!! o6 what i!,9 o6 the who7e tr2thFabo2t him!e76, abo2t the wor7d, abo2t the a77. intGrie2re.9
xx: xxi:

-har7e! PGg2y 5a77ed it 42ne 5onnai!!an5e organiB2e

The %hi7o!o%her, then, i! eB2i:a7ent to a meta%hy!i5ian, a !t2dent o6 being a! being, and o6 it! 27timate So2r5e. St. A2g2!tine ob!er:ed that !in5e 1od is Being and 3i!dom, the %hi7o!o%her m2!t abo:e a77 be a 7o:er o6 1od. D7timate7y P7atoA! 5hara5teri@ation o6 the %hi7o!o%her de!5ribe! 4one who now!, 7o:e!, and imitate!>the A2thor o6 being, the 7ight o6 tr2th, and the gi:er o6 b7e!!edne!!,>in whom he 6ind! ha%%ine!!.9 a77 other nat2re! and way! o6 7i6e are mere7y h2man.9
xx:ii xx:i

P7ato him!e76

re6erred to the %hi7o!o%hi5 nat2re a! 4!omething di:ine,9 or god7i e, 4whi7e The %hi7o!o%herA! 4nat2ra7 di!%o!ition to get ho7d o6 thing!9 e:ent2a77y 5on5entrate! 2%on the meaning o6 human exi!ten5e be5a2!e the 5ity i!, a6ter a77, the theatre o6 hi! a5ti:ity in thi! wor7d. /t i! %rin5i%a77y in re6eren5e to hi! own 7i6e that he 4gra%%7e! with the my!tery o6 exi!ten5e.9 P7ato 6reB2ent7y in!i!ted that the B2e!t 6or wi!dom i! %a!!ionateF inten!e and a77(5on!2ming. A! he ex%7ained it, e!%e5ia77y in Republic C/, the 57o!er a %hi7o!o%her a%%roa5he! wi!dom, the more ardent i! the 2rge to

%o!!e!! it a! oneA! own. E:ent2a77y thi! eros !eem! to border on 4madne!!,9 2nrea!onab7e and 2n5ontro77ab7e.
xx:iii

Some !t2dent! o6 %hi7o!o%hy ha:e arg2ed that it i! %o!!ib7e 6or a man to be a %hi7o!o%her, e:en in the !en!e E2!t de!5ribed, witho2t reB2iring him to be :irt2o2!, or mora77y 2%right? that i!, witho2t in!i!ting that he a5t2a77y practice the tr2th he !ee ! to now. B2t P7ato, 6o77owing So5rate!, ex%7i5it7y denied that %o!!ibi7ity: 43hen tr2th ta e! the 7ead, we may 7oo to 6ind in it! train>a !o2nd 5hara5ter,9 6or a %hi7o!o%her 6ee7! 4re:eren5e9 6or the obEe5t o6 hi! %2r!2itF!ee ing not on7y the meaning o6 right and wrong, b2t a7!o to 5on!ider 4whether he does right or wrong.9 So5rate!F6or P7ato, the Phi7o!o%her par excellenceFhad !aid: 4A77 my anxiety wa! to do nothing 2nE2!t or wrong,9 6or the 4b2!ine!! o6 re6ormation i! the great b2!ine!! o6 e:ery man whi7e he 7i:e!,9 and hen5e o6 the %hi7o!o%her mo!t o6 a77.
xxix

So5rate! had a7!o he7d that i6 !omeone 4 now! what i! tr2e and good, >he 5annot a5t again!t it,9 b2t what 4 now!9 mean! here i! a matter o6 debate among !5ho7ar!. Sin5e a %hi7o!o%her remain!, a6ter a77, a h2man being and not a god by nat2re, it i! im%o!!ib7e that he be exem%t 6rom 4another 7aw,9 the one St. Pa27 6e7t in hi! member!. /6 e:ery morta7 i! !2bEe5t to 5on52%i!5en5e and %rone to !in, !o m2!t the %hi7o!o%her be, qua morta7. The %er!ona7 ex%erien5e o6 !25h 6ai7ing! may, indeed, be the mo!t %ower627 !tim272! o6 a %hi7o!o%herA! e66ort to di!5o:er the tr2th o6 hi! nat2re and hi! re!o7:e to a5t2a7i@e it (St. A2g2!tine 5ome! to mind$. A! the 1ree
xxx

%hi7o!o%her! and dramati5 %oet! rea7i@ed, the mora7 7i6e i! mar ed whi7e 7i6e end2re! by an 2nending !tr2gg7e again!t the god7e!! and the wret5hed. P7ato di!5o2r!ed at 7ength abo2t the %hi7o!o%herA! 7i6e o6 :irt2eF4the right way to 7i:e9Fand hi! manner o6 being and not E2!t seeming to be righteo2!. The Republic de:ote! 5on!iderab7e attention to the 4mora7 The ex5e77en5e and !e76(ma!tery9 o6 the man who i! animated by 4a nat2re in whi5h goodne!! o6 5hara5ter ha! been we77 and tr27y e!tab7i!hed.9 %hi7o!o%her i! that man 4who !et! hi! ho2!e in order, by !e76(ma!tery and di!5i%7ine 5oming to be at %ea5e with him!e76, and bringing into harmony

tho!e three %art!9 o6 hi! !o27Frea!on, !%irit, a%%etite. 3hat thi! entai7! i! the main to%i5 o6 5on:er!ation in boo ! /// and /C.
xxxi

/n !2m, 4the %hi7o!o%hi5a7 nat2re>i! !im%7y the idea77y good nat2re? h2man nat2re>in its fullness9F4a !ort o6 goodne!! in the 6277 6a5e o6 rea7ity, a !ort o6 goodne!! %er6e5t7y awa e and %er6e5t7y aware and in5redib7y dee%.9 The %hi7o!o%her ne5e!!ari7y %2r!2e! !im27taneo2!7y inte77e5t2a7 and mora7 %er6e5tion: On7y tho!e de!er:e to be 5a77ed %hi7o!o%her! who 7o:ing7y 45ontem%7ate the rea7itie! them!e7:e! a! they are 6ore:er in the !ame 2n5hanging !tate9 and who!e 4a66e5tion goe! o2t to Htho!eI !2bEe5t! o6 now7edge.9
xxxii

P7atoA! de!5ri%tion o6 the!e 4men o6 geni2!>en2merate! a77 the B2a7itie! that go to ma e 2% a great man.9 7o:e o6 money, meanne!!,
xxxiii

To tho!e a7ready mentioned, and 5owardi5e,9 6air(

he add! 4a gent7ene!! that i! !teady and di!5i%7ined,9 deta5hment 46rom the %retentio2!ne!!, mindedne!!, !o5iabi7ity, 4a mind endowed with mea!2re and gra5e,9 B2i5 ne!! 4to 7earn and to remember,9 magnanimity, and in!hi% with a77 the mora7 :irt2e!.
xxxi:

S25h a man i! 4at %ea5e with men, 6or he dwe77! in a

xxx:

ingdom o6 HinteriorI %ea5e, 5on!tant7y in the %re!en5e o6 a wor7d where inE2!ti5e i! neither done nor !266ered.9 B2t, e:eryone wi77 a! , 5o27d !25h a height e:er be !5a7ed by a5t2a7 h2man being!8 E:ident7y 4many o6 the mo!t eminent9 in o2r time or any other wo27d be 2nB2a7i6ied to Eoin !25h a 5om%any o6 giant! o6 tho2ght and :irt2e.
xxx:i

P7ato 5o27d hard7y be !2r%ri!ed or di!a%%ointed by the mani6e!t

inabi7ity or 2nwi77ingne!! o6 %2b7i5 men to !tri:e 6or !25h %er6e5tion. E:en in hi! day, when the mani6o7d engine! o6 di!tra5tion !o ty%i5a7 o6 modern 7i6e had not e:en been dreamed o6, P7ato admitted that 4a nat2re with a77 the B2a7itie! we reB2ired to ma e the %er6e5t %hi7o!o%her i! a rare growth, !e7dom !een among men.9
xxx:ii

1i:en the %aradigmati5 %2r%o!e o6 e:ery 6orm o6 %er6e5tion treated in the Republic, it i! 2nne5e!!ary 6or P7ato to !%e527ate abo2t the rea!on! it 5annot be ex%e5ted to o552r in ordinary ex%erien5e. E:en i6 the 46ew rare

!o27!9 6or whom the 4%hi7o!o%hi5 nat2re i! re!er:ed9

xxx:iii

were to be /! the

en5o2ntered, 5o27d they !2r:i:e 6or 7ong in o2r im%er6e5t wor7d8

reB2i!ite 4time and ed25ation9 a:ai7ab7e in whi5h to 527ti:ate a tr2e %hi7o!o%her !o that hi! 4inborn di!%o!ition9 5o27d be bro2ght to the mat2rity o6 4a nob7e 5hara5ter89
xxxix

P7ato him!e76 an!wered that 4the right training9

x7

wi77 !e7dom be a:ai7ab7e to yo2ng men with %hi7o!o%hi5a7 %otentia7 be5a2!e on7y %hi7o!o%her! 5o27d %ro:ide it. B2t the 5hie6 ob!ta57e i! endemi5 to the %hi7o!o%hi5a7 nat2re it!e76, and thi! did engage P7atoA! attention: 4Jeen wit! are a%t to 7o!e a77 !teadine!!.9 4E:ery one9 o6 the B2a7itie! be7onging to !25h a nat2re 4tend! to r2in it! %o!!e!!or and to wre!t hi! mind away 6rom %hi7o!o%hy.9 4A77 the good thing! o6 7i6e, a! they are 5a77ed, 5orr2%t and di!tra5t the !o279Fbea2ty, wea7th, %ower627 5onne5tion!.
x7i

S2re7y P7atoA! %oint i! that hi! logos abo2t %hi7o!o%hy and the %hi7o!o%her i! not meant to be %re!5ri%ti:e, b2t rather %ro%aede2ti5 and %edagogi5. 3hat intere!ted him wa! ind25ing ambitio2! and ta7ented yo2ng men to be more a52te7y aware o6 the enormo2! ga% between idea7ity and rea7ity !o that they might at 7ea!t be moti:ated to mo:e with re!o72tion 6rom where they and their 5om%anion! are to where they might be. And !2re7y it i! tr2e that the idea7 2nion o6 wi!dom and :irt2e ha! exer5i!ed an attra5tion at e:ery !tage o6 hi!tory. Cery many rea7 %er!on! 5o27d, in a77 hone!ty,
x7ii

re%eat P7atoA! own te!timony near the end o6 hi! 7i6e: / 6o77owed 4rea!on and E2!ti5e a! 57o!e7y a! h2man7y %o!!ib7e.9 E:ery 5o2ntry (not ex572ding o2r own$ i! immea!2rab7y better o66 6or the 4men b7e!t with a god7i e !%irit9 who 46e77 6rom hea:en9 into %2b7i5 a! we77 a! %ri:ate 5a%a5itie! to demon!trate that 4rea7 manhood9 5on!i!t! in 527ti:ating 4goodne!! and wi!dom9 whi7e mo:ing 4toward a de!tiny beyond nat2re.9 /C
x7iii

The 4giant! among men9 who 6it P7atoA! de!5ri%tion are tho!e who do not ba5 nee!. away 6rom !tri:ing 6or %er6e5tion 6or want o6 5o2rage or o%%ort2nity, b2t who a7!o tremb7e be6ore it! maEe!ty and a%%roa5h on their They rea7i@e that %ra5ti5a7 exigen5ie! do not %re:ent the e66ort to a%%roximate a nob7e mode7 !25h a! the one P7ato ha! %7a5ed be6ore them, 6or e:en he did not ex%e5t to !ee it 6277y a5t2a7i@ed in thi! wor7d. Sin5e we m2!t ha:e goa7! and m2!t %2r!2e them, why !ho27d the br2ti!hne!! o6 the h2man 5ondition %re:ent 2! 6rom attem%ting the highe!t 5on5ei:ab7e one!8 Sin5e P7ato 2nder!tood thi! better than a77 or :ery near7y a77 o6 the thin er! who 6o77owed him, / am 2!ing hi! word! and exam%7e, and e!%e5ia77y hi! in!i!ten5e that wi!e and :irt2o2! men ha:e a %o7iti5a7 re!%on!ibi7ity to be, among their own, !omething eB2i:a7ent, in the !e527ar order, to %rie!t!, %ro%het!, and %hi7o!o%her(%oet! 7i e P7ato him!e76. The 5hara5teri!ti5 way !25h men dea7 with %2b7i5 a66air! i! !ore7y needed i6 we wi!h to !2r:i:e the 5ontem%orary 5ri!i!Fand i6 they are to !a:e their !o27!. .rom the :ery o%ening o6 the Republic we 7earn that 4a thingA! 62n5tion i! the wor that it a7one 5an do, or 5an do better than anything e7!e.9 J2!ti5e (righteo2!ne!!$ 5an a%%ear on7y when men re5ogni@e their 4!%e5i6i5 ex5e77en5e or :irt2e9 and !tri:e e:ery day to %ra5ti5e it.
x7i:

/n the 5a!e o6 a

%hi7o!o%her, it i! 5ommon7y ex%e5ted that thi! reB2ire! withdrawa7 into an 4i:ory tower,9 and P7ato !eem! to agree: 4A man who!e tho2ght! are 6ixed on the tr2e rea7ity ha! no 7ei!2re to 7oo hate!.9
x7:

downward on the a66air! o6 men,

ta e %art in their B2arre7!, and 5at5h the in6e5tion o6 their Eea7o2!ie! and .2rther, 4anything whi5h may be an im%ediment, the good man And i6 at 7a!t ne5e!!ity %7ain7y
x7:i

o2ght to !how that he 2tter7y di!regard!.

5om%e7! him,>he ha! to 67ee, he m2!t be an exi7e>.9

/t i! written o6 the %hi7o!o%her Berg!on that i6 4he !aw a g7aring 5ontra!t between the %2rity o6 my!ti5a7 ex%erien5e and a77 !o5ia7 rea7ity, he ne:er tried>to introd25e %2re be7ie6 into the rea7m o6 !o5ia7 7i6e, to whi5h, by de6inition, it wa! 6oreign>. The mora7 hero>5o27d not be an a5tor on any %o7iti5a7 !tage>. ,e wa!, rather, the man who want!>to e!5a%e 6rom

%o7iti5!, 6rom the 2n(%oeti5 rea7itie! o6 e:eryday !o5ia7 7i6e.9 7in him (and e:ery man$ to it8

x7:ii

B2t 5an it be

tr2e that one 5annot 7i:e the 7i6e abo:e the polis witho2t !e:ering tie! that P7atoA! notion o6 %o7iti5a7 re!%on!ibi7ity demand! that the %hi7o!o%her 4de!5end9 to 4the 2n(%oeti5 rea7itie!9F%rimari7y for his own sake. Ja5B2e! Maritain, on5e a !t2dent o6 Berg!on, re6erred to the S%ani!h -i:i7 3ar, 47e %rG!ent o2:rage,9 a! 4into7Grab7e angoi!!e,9 4!a5ri7Kge,9 4terre2r.9 ,ere i! a %hi7o!o%her !o !tirred by an e:ent in the !o5io(%o7iti5a7 order a! to %re!5ribe 47e! grand! %rin5i%e! dA2ne mGta%hy!iB2e :raie9 a! the on7y way to render more habitab7e 47a 5itG tem%ore77e.9 MaritainA! !t2dent, 0:e! Simon, %ointed o2t that 4the man who now! meta%hy!i5! wi77 there6ore now the !o72tion! to %2b7i5 i!!2e! and %o7iti5a7 %rob7em!.9 tho2ght8 P7ato ga:e a !im%7e, e:en ob:io2! an!wer: A77 men, %hi7o!o%her! abo:e a77, 4m2!t thin o6 the 7and they dwe77 in a! a mother and n2r!e, whom they m2!t ta e tho2ght 6or and de6end again!t any atta5 , and o6 their 6e77ow 5iti@en! a! brother! born o6 the !ame !oi7.9
x7ix x7:iii

3hat i! the !o2r5e o6 the

5om%27!ion Maritain 6e7t whi5h hi! ma!ter %2t a!ide a! 2nworthy o6 a man o6

/ !ay 4%hi7o!o%her! abo:e a779

be5a2!e on7y they are ab7e to rea7i@e what it mean! to 7i:e in 4b7indne!!,9 the 5ondition o6 their 6e77ow! 4who are entire7y 52t o66 6rom now7edge o6 any rea7ity, and ha:e in their !o27 no 57ear %attern o6 %er6e5t tr2th, whi5h they might !t2dy in e:ery detai7 and 5on!tant7y re6er to.9
7

/6 they are to be

he7%ed, the %hi7o!o%her i! the on7y one who 5an he7% them. /6 he 5hoo!e! to 4e!5a%e 6rom %o7iti5!9 it i! the !ame a! 5ondemning hi! brother! to a 6ate he re5ogni@e! a! 2nworthy o6 h2man being!. /t i! not 5orre5t that he cannot he7% them witho2t r2ining him!e76, a! !ome ha:e im%7ied. tho2ght that he 5an and there6ore m2!t. /6 he i! tr27y a %hi7o!o%her, he 5ra:e! not on7y the wi!dom and goodne!! that %er6e5t hi! own nat2re, b2t a7!o 2nion with other men, !o that he might %er6e5t hi! social nat2re. .or P7ato and hi! 6o77ower! (5hie67y -i5ero, A2g2!tine, +ante, Thoma! More$, 7o:e ne5e!!ari7y ha! a %o7iti5a7 dimen!ion.
7i

P7ato 57ear7y

To mi!! thi! i! to mi!! the :ery ba!i! o6 the %hi7o!o%herA! 5i:i5 re!%on!ibi7ity. There 5annot be a rea7 di!tin5tion between %hi7o!o%hy and 6riend!hi%, 6or 6riend!hi% i! 4ba!ed on %hi7o!o%hy.9 %er%et2a77y in 7o:e9
7iii 7ii

A55ording to P7ato, 4the man !2!5e%tib7e to bea2ty i! norma77y and be5a2!e 7o:e 6o77ow! 2nder!tanding,
7: 7i:

and 45ognition

and 7o:e are>in!e%arab7e.9 That 47o:e

Thi! 7o:e i! not re!tri5ted to the 7o:e o6

wi!dom? or better, 7o:e o6 wi!dom i! not re!tri5ted to %2re 5ontem%7ation. now! no bo2nd!9 i! not E2!t a 57i5hG? it !er:e! to i772!trate the %oint that where:er the %hi7o!o%her !ee! an a%%roximation o6 the eterna7 :eritie! whi5h are hi! !%e5ia7ty (%rimari7y the 1ood$ hi! heart immediate7y rea5he! o2t to it. 3hat more :i:id a%%roximation 5o27d be %re!ent to a man who !ee! beyond a%%earan5e! than the !o27! o6 tho!e aro2nd him in the 5ity8 Dndo2bted7y it wa! on their a55o2nt that the %hi7o!o%hi5a7 nat2re 6ir!t !tirred. The %hi7o!o%her i! 6ir!t o6 a77 a h2man being, and men are attra5ted to their 6e77ow!F6ir!t to their bodie!, then to their !o27!, and 6ina77y to their 5a%a5ity to rea5h 6or the tr2th. Lo:e ma e! the %hi7o!o%her 6ee7 4at home with a77 man ind.9
7:i

/t remain! tr2e, o6 5o2r!e, that the ab!o72te7y be!t 7i6e 4i! not the %o7iti5a7 7i6e, b2t the 7i6e o6 5ontem%7ation>.9 Thi! i! the !ame a! !aying that e:ery manA! 6ir!t re!%on!ibi7ity i! to him!e76. B2t 5ontem%7ation a5B2ire! an ex%anded meaning when !een a! a %o7iti5a7 a5ti:ity it!e76Fnot in it!e76, b2t in it! e66e5t!. 3hen the %hi7o!o%her 4goe! down9 to mini!ter to hi! 6e77ow
7:ii

5iti@en! with 4eye! e:er t2rning ba5 ward,9 it i! thi! 2n!e76i!h !a5ri6i5e o6 what he 7o:e! be!t that i! the tr2e te!t and mea!2re o6 hi! 7o:e. h2mi7ity (whi5h i! a :ita7 %art o6 Ari!tot7eA! Be!ide! 7o:e, the %hi7o!o%herA! mini!try to the polis %ro5eed! a7!o 6rom magnanimity$Fthe a5 now7edgement o6 hi! ob7igation to maintain 5onta5t thro2gh 4the %o%27ar 7ang2age9 with that 45ommon, 2n5riti5a7>%re7iminary 2nder!tanding9 whi5h %re:ent! him 6rom be5oming 7o!t 4in the 57o2d! o6 mere !%e527ation.9 %ride and b7indne!!.
7:iii

The

re7ation between h2mi7ity and !ight i! the re:er!e o6 the re7ation between

.or the!e rea!on! the bios theoretikos i! in!e%arab7e 6rom the bios politikos? they are re:er!e 6a5e! o6 the !ame ex%erien5e. 3hen the %hi7o!o%her t2rn! hi! theoreti5a7 6a5e to the !2n, it i! im%o!!ib7e that hi! %o7iti5a7 6a5e wi77 not be i772minated. /n 7ater 7i6e, a %hi7o!o%her may enEoy the re%o!e o6 retirement in !o7it2de, b2t not e:en then in i!o7ation. ,e wi77 %re!er:e to the end that 46ee7ing 6or man, hi! need!, hi! greatne!!, and the !o7idarity whi5h bind! HhimI 57o!e7y9 to hi! 6e77ow 5iti@en!>. Rea7 7i6e i! a 7i6e in 5ommon, an immen!e 6ami7y 7i6e>? i!o7ation i! inh2man.9 Phi7o!o%her! 5annot b2t be a66e5ted by 4the 7aw o6 onene!! o6 heart9 and !o att2ned 4to the m2rm2r o6 the h2man ra5e9 that they are a7way! !ee ing way! to bring the b7ind 4o2t o6 their night,9 ennob7e them, and e:en !a:e !ome o6 them. with an eterna7 re!%on!ibi7ity>? he 6e7t him!e76 re!%on!ib7e 6or hi! %eo%7e.9 !en!e o6 ob7igation to !er:e a! 4g2ide o6 di!tre!!ed h2manity.9
7xi 7x 7ix

4/ ha:e ne:er met a man,9 PGg2y !aid abo2t a 6riend, 4!o m25h b2rdened> A %hi7o!o%her i! 6ree, o6 5o2r!e, to reEe5t that re!%on!ibi7ity, to !ti67e hi! B2t i6 he !o 4The 5hoo!e!, be be5ome! g2i7ty o6 de!troying the %o7iti5a7 bond, !o 6ar a! in him 7ie!, and e:en o6 im%eding the 6276i77ment o6 hi! own nat2re: mere7y the
7xii

%hi7o!o%her i!>5ontem%7ati:e, b2t hi! tho2ght! are 6r2it627 on7y i6 he i! not di!intere!ted Sin5e he ob!er:er, b2t !hare!, with !ym%atheti5 2nder!tanding, in the grande2r and mi!ery o6 !o5iety in it! !%e5i6i5 moment!.9 now! 4the nat2re and habit! o6 menA! !o27!,9 he 4wi77 be o6 the greate!t 2!e9 in exer5i!ing the %o7iti5a7 art, who!e highe!t 5on5ern i! 4the management o6>menA! !o27!.9 And the 5on:er!e m2!t a7!o be tr2e: /6 he ab!tain!, he 5an 5a2!e them the greate!t harm by re62!ing to em%7oy hi! 4! i77 to %rod25e>a77 the :irt2e! that 5an exi!t in the ordinary man.9
7xiii

P7atoA! So5rate! remar ed, a6ter !etting 6orth the 5a:e a77egory, that when the %hi7o!o%her 45a77! to mind hi! 6e77ow %ri!oner!,>he wi77 !2re7y be !orry 6or them,9 and !ti77 7ong to !et them 6ree.
7xi:

Thi! thread r2n! thro2gh

the dia7og2e!: 4Li:ing>in the 7o:ing adoration o6 !2%reme tr2th, him!e76 a harmonio2! being who ha! ri!en abo:e a77 5on67i5t in hi! own !o27, the

P7atoni5 %hi7o!o%her wi77 ine:itab7y !ee

e:erywhere to im%o!e harmony

7x:

2%on 5hao!, whi5h i! to 5hange e:i7 into good.9

The %hi7o!o%her(em%eror
7x:i

Mar52! A2re7i2! i! !aid to ha:e !%o en in thi! :ein abo2t the re!%on!ibi7ity o6 4the %hi7o!o%her, thi! %rie!t and he7%er o6 the god!.9 A 6amo2! 5a!e in %oint i! So5rate! him!e76? in hi! reEoinder to -rito that !ho27d he e!5a%e hi! 7ega7 %2ni!hment, 4the Law!9 wo27d right7y obEe5t: 4+id we not bring yo2 into 7i6e,9 did we not dire5t yo2r 2%bringing8 4-o27d yo2 !ay>that yo2 were not o2r o66!%ring89
7x:ii

D7timate7y, it i! the %o7iti5a7 :irt2e o6 E2!ti5e that 43e 5an 6air7y te779 o2r

ma e! thi! ine:itab7y tr2e. So5rate! !ay! to 17a25on in the Republic: %hi7o!o%her(r27er! that 4we ha:e bro2ght yo2 into exi!ten5e 6or yo2r 5o2ntryA! !a e a! we77 a! 6or yo2r own, to be 7i e 7eader! and ing(bee! in a hi:e.9 Be5a2!e o6 yo2r !2%erior ed25ation, 4yo2 are more 5a%ab7e o6 %7aying yo2r %art both a! men o6 tho2ght and men o6 a5tion.9 E2!ti5e, bea2ty, and goodne!! in their rea7ity.9
7x:iii

0o2 5an 4!ee a

tho2!and time! better9 than the 5a:e dwe77er! 4be5a2!e yo2 ha:e !een Be5a2!e he 4ha! 6o2nd hi! tr2e nat2re thro2gh 6inding hi! tr2e re7ation to 1od,9 thi! 4my!ti5 %hi7o!o%her9 be5ome! 4the exi!tentia7 re%re!entati:e9 o6 hi! 5ity, 4it! a5ti:e 7eader in the re%re!entation o6>the tr2th abo2t h2man exi!ten5e on the border o6 tran!5enden5e.9 ,e must be it! re%re!entati:e i6 he i! to !a:e him!e76, e:en i6 the %eo%7e wi77 not 6o77ow.
7xix

The 47abo2r and tra:ai79 he

de:ote! to the 5ity i! not E2!t 4!omething nob7e, b2t !omething ne5e!!ary.9 E:en a g7im%!e o6 4the 1ood it!e769 reB2ire! it to be ta en 4a! a %attern 6or the right ordering o6 the polis and o6 the indi:id2a7.9
7xx

Be5a2!e he wa! a %hi7o!o%her, P7ato ta2ght the thing! that are re5orded in the Republic and the Laws? be5a2!e he wa! a %hi7o!o%her, So5rate! 7i:ed tho!e thing! in %2b7i5, to hi! %er!ona7 2ndoing, and ha! been %ro57aimed a! a re!27t 4the on7y tr2e %o7iti5ian o6 a77 the Athenian!.9
7xxi

.or the!e rea!on! / am not %er!2aded that 4the genera7 5ontem%t in whi5h %hi7o!o%her! !in5e P7ato ha:e he7d the rea7m o6 h2man a66air!9 i! d2e to a tragi5 45on67i5t between the %hi7o!o%her and the polis,9 between hi!

47o:e o6 rea!on9 and hi! 4de!ire 6or the mora7 hea7th o6 hi! 6e77owman.9

7xxii

m2!t rather 5on572deFwith P7atoFthat the !e5ond !%ring! ne5e!!ari7y 6rom the 6ir!t and i! it! 5on!2mmation in thi! 7i6e. -ontem%7ation doe! not reB2ire one to 5ea!e to 7i:e among men, a! i6 an ex%erien5e o6 the eterna7 bring! abo2t %o7iti5a7 death. On the 5ontrary, it %ermit! %o7iti5! to be e7e:ated to a higher 7e:e7. Dnti7 the %ri:ate 5ontem%7ation o6 the 1ood b7o!!om! in %2b7i5 it i! in5om%7ete and o6 it!e76 !teri7e. /6 there i! a 45on67i5t9 here, it i! not between the interior 7i6e and externa7 a5tion, b2t between their harmonio2! re7ation!hi% and the di!order inherent in an im%er6e5t wor7d. That 5on67i5t, / thin , i! the rea7 rea!on men o6 tho2ght !o o6ten t2rn away 6rom %o7iti5a7 re!%on!ibi7ity. B2t it i! a 5rime again!t tr2th 6or anyone to 5ondemn him!e76 to !25h im%oten5e? a %hi7o!o%her who die! %o7iti5a77y wi77 a7!o meta%hy!i5a77y. One doe! not need to !%end m25h time in P7atoA! 5om%any to rea7i@e that hi! %o7iti5a7 tea5hing ha! a meta%hy!i5a7 ba!e. oriented toward the eterna7 rather than the tem%ora7. /t i! 2nmi!ta ab7y ,e e:en !eem! to i77 him!e76

ha:e 5ome to regard it (in the Laws$ a! a !a5red do5trine, and it! written 6orm a! a ind o6 S5ri%t2re. ,annah Arendt noted that P7atoA! wi!dom ha! a !2%ernat2ra7 B2a7ity.
7xxiii

3hen he !ay!Fa! he re%eated7y doe!Fthat the

B2e!tion o6 %o7iti5a7 %hi7o!o%hy i! how we o2ght to 7i:e, he e:ident7y mean! a !%irit2a7, a! we77 a! a !e527ar 7i6e. /6 he i! 5ertain abo2t anything in %o7iti5!, it i! that the %o7iti5a7 order ha! to do with the 4order in the !o27,9 whi5h the 5ontext ma e! 57ear i! 6ar di66erent 6rom Ari!tot7eA! more nat2ra7i!ti5 2nder!tanding o6 4!o279Fthat whi5h animate! a %7ant, anima7, and man. P7atoA! !o27(5enteredne!! he7%! to ex%7ain why he 5an ne:er get !erio2! abo2t the %o7iti5a7 thing! we genera77y gi:e !o m25h im%ortan5e to: %artie! and e7e5tion!, di%7oma5y, the %2b7i5 admini!tration, and 5on:entiona7 matter! o6 5on!tit2tion and go:ernment whi5h hi! yo2ng 6riend! in the Republic 5ared abo2t !o %a!!ionate7y, 6or !25h thing! do not tran!5end the tran!ient and e%hemera7. 3hen P7ato i! read a! a 5on:entiona7 %o7iti5a7 4theori!t9 (Jar7 Po%%er %ro:ide! a we77( nown exam%7e$, he be5ome! an ea!y

target 6or 5riti5i!m o6 45omm2ni!ti5,9 4anti(demo5rati5,9 and 42to%ian9 tenden5ie!. 3hen one rea7i@e! (a! hi! 6riend! e:ent2a77y do, and !o be5ome di!5i%7e!$ that P7ato i! engaged in %rie!t7y a5ti:ity, it be5ome! ob:io2! that hi! 6amo2! 4%hi7o!o%her( ing9 i! not a 4 ing9 at a77, m25h 7e!! a 4%hi7o!o%her9 in the 5on:entiona7 !en!e o6 tho!e term!. /t wa! a tri2m%h o6 So5rati5(P7atoni5 irony to name thi! 6ig2re a %hi7o!o%her( ing, rather than the %hi7o!o%her(%rie!t he i! in rea7ity. And 4%o7iti o!,9 2!2a77y tran!7ated a! 4!tate!man,9 wo27d better 5on:ey P7atoA! meaning were we to 2!e in!tead a word 7i e 4e7der.9 On7y then wo27d it ma e !en!e to !ay that P7atoA! 47i6e7ong 5on:i5tion9 wa! 4that the b2!ine!! o6 the %hi7o!o%her among men i! to be a !tate!man.9 5omm2nity, not it! 5reator. inter5e!!or who 2!e! 4im%iety.9
7xx: 7xxi:

P7atoA! %hi7o!o%her(%rie!t a!%ire! to be the 5on!er:er, the !tabi7i@er o6 a Bertrand de Jo2:ene7 2!ed the word 4rex9 to 6a527tie!9 to ex%o!e and 57ean!e 5on:ey thi! notion o6 a 4%rie!t and 5on!o7idator,9 a 4mediator9 and 4my!terio2! The %hi7o!o%herA! %o7iti5a7 ob7igation, then, i! to re%re!ent

di:ine :eritie! in %2b7i5 to the 7imit o6 hi! %oeti5 and rhetori5a7 ! i77!, nowing a77 the whi7e that hi! me!!age wi77 6a77 a7mo!t entire7y 2%on dea6 ear!. ,im!e76 being o%en to 4tran!5endent rea7ity,9 the 27timate !o2r5e o6 order, hi! mi!!ion i! to e!tab7i!h that order in the 7i:e! o6 men, !o 6ar a! it 7ie! within hi! %ower
7xx:i

and

de%ending

2%on

the

%re!en5e

o6

6ort2nate

5ir52m!tan5e!.

Maritain wrote abo2t !25h 4%oor men 5harged with the 6rightening mi!!ion o6 %romoting in the wor7d the !tandard! o6 tr2th and !an5tity witho2t being !aint!9 them!e7:e!? that i!, whi7e !ti77 7i:ing in thi! 4:a7e o6 tear!.9 .or P7ato he7d that 4be6ore men 5an E2!ti6y the way! o6 man to man, they wi77 ha:e to 5ea!e being 2nE2!t to 1od.9 ,en5e 4the %ro%er !t2dy o6 man ind i! 1od.9 The %rie!t7ine!! o6 the %hi7o!o%hi5a7 :o5ation 5on!i!t! in 2!ing e:ery ta7ent and energy to bring a! many a! %o!!ib7e to 2nder!tand and a55e%t thi! tr2thFwhi5h it wa! 4my d2ty to te77,9 P7ato 5on6e!!ed near the end o6 hi! 7i6e.
7xx:ii

Th2! to a! whether !25h a one ha! a %o7iti5a7 re!%on!ibi7ity i! the

!ame a! a! ing whether a %ro%het i! ob7iged to %ro%he!y, an e:ange7i!t to e:ange7i@e, an a%o!t7e to engage in the a%o!to7ate. The 6ina7 ta! in thi! !e5tion i! to 5on!ider what %o7iti5a7 a:en2e! the ,e m2!t gain %o7iti5a7
7xx:iii

4man o6 geni2!9 may 6ind o%en in the a5t2a7 5itie! o6 o2r ex%erien5e. The dia7og2e! o66er a 5on!i!tent, i6 im%re5i!e, an!wer: 45ontro79 or 4a2thority9 i6 he i! to 4ta e 5harge9 o6 the 5ity. :o72ntary a55e%tan5e>o6 hi! own %ro%o!a7!.9 a5hie:ed8 !ee
7xxix

B2t what

!ort o6 a2thority i! that8 Jo2:ene7 an!wer!: /t i! 4the 6a527ty o6 gaining> And how i! it to be /! it by gaining %2b7i5 o66i5e in a 7egi!7ati:e, admini!trati:e, or

E2di5ia7 5a%a5ity8 M2!t the %hi7o!o%her 5ro!! o:er into the %2b7i5 arena and to 4re6orm>the exi!ting order9 by bringing the 5iti@en! 2nder the S2re7y the!e wo27d be 4the be!t 7aw!>by nat2re,9 5a%ab7e o6
7xxx

4di!5i%7ine9 o6 4an a%%ro%riate and idea7 !y!tem o6 7aw!>with a :iew to wi!dom98 enab7ing the %eo%7e to 4attain rea!on.9 to 7aw !5hoo78 /n the Statesman P7ato wor ! o2t in great detai7 the 4 ing7y9 art o6 4wea:ing the web o6 the h2man %o7iti5a7 5omm2nity9 whi5h i! to gi:e the 4 ing9 the mean! to 45orre5t9 hi! !2bEe5t! (being we77 a5B2ainted with their 4di66erent 5hara5ter!9$ by 4b7ending the !weet(tem%ered with the har!h, the wea with the !trong9 in a 457o!e and 6irm>%o7iti5a7 text2re9 who!e !trand! are 4wo:en together into a 2ni6ied 5hara5ter.9 need to !t2dy wea:ing8 /6 my %re:io2! ana7y!i! i! 5orre5t, P7atoA! ingenio2! de:i5e 6or the tem%ora7 admini!tration o6 a 5ity 5annot be ta en 7itera77y a! the !o72tion we are !ee ing, !im%7y be5a2!e %hi7o!o%her! are 2n5on5erned with !25h matter!. ,i! 4admini!tration9 o6 the polis m2!t, then, be oriented by !omething weightier than the 5on:entiona7 intere!t! o6 r27er!. P7ato him!e76 te77! 2! that the 4intere!t9 he i! de:e7o%ing in !%ee5h ha! to do with 4e!timating the !o27!9 o6 the %eo%7eFin order to 4e66e5t a re6orm,9 !2re eno2gh, b2t o6 their who7e 4way o6 7i:ing.9 Thi! in572de! 6a!hioning their
7xxxii 7xxxi

+oe! the %hi7o!o%her need to go

+oe! the %hi7o!o%her

45hara5ter!9 by gi:ing them 4the %ro%er attit2de toward 1od.9

There i! 5ertain7y a 47aw9 to be admini!tered, b2t the %hi7o!o%her wa! not it! 47egi!7ator.9 4The %er6e5t 7aw o6 whi5h he ha! the :i!ion9 %ro:ide! the ne5e!!ary %attern to !ha%e 4the 5hara5ter! and in!tit2tion! o6 men, 7i e a great arti!t ta ing h2man nat2re a! he 6ind! it and mo27ding it in 7ight o6 hi! own high 5on5e%tion9 o6 what i! be!t 6or them.
7xxxiii

Later writer! wi77 5a77 thi!

eterna7 7aw, o6 whi5h the 7aw o6 h2man nat2re i! %art. The 4wea:ing9 that wi77 o552%y the %hi7o!o%herL! re!o2r5e! tran!5end! a notion o6 the 5ommon good a! !omething 45on5rete,9 4%ra5ti5ab7e,9 and 4im%er6e5t9 to be negotiated in a 5ontext o6 emergen5ie! and 7imitation!. S255e!!627 !tate!men o6 the
7xxxi:

5on:entiona7

!ort

5annot

be

4inte77e5t2a7!,9 b2t m2!t be mani%27ator!, 57e:er !trategi!t! and ta5ti5ian!. P7atoA! %rie!t7y %hi7o!o%her %2rge! and 57ean!e! the :ery %ro5e!!e! and in!tit2tion! !tate!men m2!t o%erate with (not on$. A! he 4mixe! hi! 5o7or!9 he trie! to 4re%rod25e the 5om%7exion o6 tr2e h2manity>2nti7 he ha! %rod25ed, !o 6ar a! may be, a ty%e o6 h2man 5hara5ter that hea:en 5an a%%ro:e.9
7xxx:

The re!27ting 45on!tit2tion9 i! not a !et o6 g2ide7ine! and

%ro5ed2re! b2t a r27e o6 7i6e. O2r B2e!tion ha! been broadened, b2t it !ti77 remain! to be an!wered. 3hat other %o!!ibi7itie! 6or gaining 45ontro79 and 4a2thority9 remain to be 5on!idered8 Traditiona77y, two mean! ha:e been 2!ed to bring abo2t an a%%roximation o6 order in h2man a66air!: %er!2a!ion and 5om%27!ion (abo2t whi5h P7ato o6ten wrote$. -om%27!ion, we now, i! a 5on!tant and ne5e!!ary e7ement in 5i:i5 a66air!, whether it i! a5t2a77y em%7oyed or on7y %oi!ed 6or a5tion. Thi! P7ato r27ed o2t in no 2n5ertain term! when he had the %hi7o!o%her !ay: 4-on!traint / wi77 not 2!e.9 The an!wer, then, ha! to be %er!2a!ion: / wi77 go abo2t 4%er!2ading yo2 to 5are 6or :irt2e>and wi!dom.9 The %eo%7e m2!t be bro2ght to 4do what i! right>:o72ntari7y.9
7xxx:i

And i6

they re!i!t8 43hen it i! im%o!!ib7e to ma e the 5on!tit2tion %er6e5t ex5e%t by !enten5ing men to exi7e and death,9 the %hi7o!o%her m2!t 4re6rain 6rom a5tion and %ray 6or the be!t 6or him!e76 and 6or the 5ity.9
7xxx:ii

Thi!, in a !en!e, i! the extreme to whi5h So5rate! wa! bro2ght by hi! a552!er!: 41od a!!igned to me>the d2ty to be a %hi7o!o%her, to te!t my!e76 and other!>? to try to %er!2ade both yo2ng and o7d>to 5are 6or the !o27 and ma e it a! good a! %o!!ib7e.9 And it i! 6ina77y he who re5ei:e! the !enten5e o6 death.
7xxx:iii

A7tho2gh P7atoA! So5rate! wa! gi6ted beyond any man he had

nown, e:ident7y the de7i5a5y and ta5t that might ha:e %rod25ed the de!ired re!27t wa! 7a5 ing, at 7ea!t in the 5ir52m!tan5e! then %re:ai7ing in Athen!. P7ato demon!trated in hi! own 7i6e that !ho27d thi! 47a!t re!ort9 5ome to %a!!, the %hi7o!o%her ha! !omehow 6a77en !hort in %ra5ti5ing the art o6 %er!2a!ion. The re!i!tan5e o6 one who ha! 4on7y be7ie6 witho2t now7edge9 ha! to be more 5are6277y anti5i%ated. /! the 4right way9 to %er!2ade to 4he7% the god by %ro:ing that the man i! not wi!e98 /!nAt the man 7i e7y to be 4aggrie:ed9 when 5on6ronted with !25h a dire5t 5ha77enge and withho7d the a2thority %er!2a!ion intend!8 B2t ear7ier So5rate! had a! ed 17a25on, 4/! there any mean! o6 !oothing re!entment and 5on:erting him gent7y witho2t te77ing him %7ain7y that he i! not in hi! right mind98
7xxxix

/n P7atoA! :iew, there

x5

5ertain7y wa!? the method o6 So5rate! 5o27d ne:er !255eed in ma ing ordinary 5iti@en! 4a5ti:e %arti5i%ant! in the re%re!entation o6 tr2th.9 B2t did he !255eed any better than hi! tea5her8 P7atoA! method wa! 4not to %2t it !o %7ain7y9? we 4:ei7ed o2r meaning and 5on!tant7y arg2ed that anyone who ta e! thi! 5o2r!e Ho6 :irt2eI wi77 %ro!%er.9
x5i

/! thi! not what

ex%ert tea5her! try to do8 That many !ti77 read the dia7og2e! o6 P7ato with enth2!ia!m and %ro6it a6ter "M## year! i!, / thin , no mean !255e!!N P7ato, it t2rn! o2t, wa! rea77y the tea5her o6 So5rate!, not the re:er!e. And !o / 5on572de that the %rie!t(%hi7o!o%her might ha:e a 5han5e to in672en5e %2b7i5 7i6e i6 he !teer! 57ear o6 the 5o2n5i7! o6 !tate (a! Ra%hae7 in!i!t! in tea5herN9 topia$ and 6o77ow! MoreA! own ad:i5e to Ri5hard Ri5h:
x5ii

4Be a

The art o6 57a!!room %er!2a!ion %ro:ide! the on7y %ro:en

mean! to 45on:ert9 %eo%7e to a 4right9 !tate o6 mind by not te77ing them too %7ain7y that they are 4o2t o6 their mind!9 to begin with. The %hi7o!o%her( %rie!t exer5i!e! hi! mi!!ion a! a tea5her who 4!tand! between the tr2th and

e:ery manA! mind,9 a%%7ie! hi! 4 now7edge o6 the nat2re! and habit! o6 menA! !o27!,9 and %re!5ribe! remedie! 6or their ignoran5e within the a5t2a7 %arameter! o6 their 7i:e!. Tho!e remedie! are !im%7y what 4the ex%erien5e! o6 the be!t o6 o2r e7der! ha:e agreed to be tr27y right.9
x5iii

P7ato wa! the great ma!ter o6 thi! !5ien5e and art o6 tea5hing, a! it i! dramati@ed in hi! ma!ter%ie5e, the Republic. ,i! method 5an and o6ten ha! a5hie:ed 45on:er!ion o6 the !o279 by 4t2rning it away 6rom thi! 5hanging wor7d9 and re!toring it to 4the way it o2ght to be>, in!tead o6 7oo ing in the wrong dire5tion.9 /6 5ent2rie! o6 ex%erien5e 5an !tand a! %roo6, P7ato wa! 5orre5t in hi! a!!2m%tion that 4the !o27 o6 e:ery man doe! %o!!e!! the %ower o6 7earning the tr2th and the organ to !ee it with.9 thi! %ro:i!ion: *o !o27 5an be entered by 6or5e. A 6ina7 B2e!tion: ,ow 5o27d %hi7o!o%her! tea5h e66e5ti:e7y i6 their 1i:en 4the inadeB2a5y o6 7ang2age,>no B2t, then, neither 5o27d the !t2dentA! mind
x5: x5i:

B2t a7way! with

dee%e!t int2ition! are rea77y in5omm2ni5ab7eF4e!!entia77y !%ee5h7e!!,> 2ntran!7atab7e into word!98 whi5h he ha! 5ontem%7ated.9 inte77igent man wi77 e:er be !o bo7d a! to %2t into 7ang2age tho!e thing! gra!% them i6 they were 2ttered: 3hoe:er 7a5 ! ex%erien5e with the eterna7 :eritie! 4wi77 ne:er 5ome to an 2nder!tanding o6 the mo!t 5om%7ete tr2th.9 Two 5hoi5e! wo27d !eem to be a:ai7ab7e: The %hi7o!o%her wi77 re!tri5t hi! a2dien5e to the :ery 6ew 4who ha:e>a nat2ra7 a66inity with E2!ti5e9? or he wi77 !%ea to a77 in %arab7e!. Both 5o2r!e! 5an ha:e a %o7iti5a7 im%a5t, the 6ir!t indire5t7y and more !7ow7y? the !e5ond dire5t7y and immediate7y, b2t in a di662!ed manner. Pre!2mab7y P7atoA! %hi7o!o%her 5an engage in both, a! he him!e76 did by %ra5ti5ing the 6ir!t a7ternati:e in the A5ademy, and the !e5ond in %2b7i5 !%ee5he!. B2t it i! a7!o e:ident that he %7a5ed hi! be!t ho%e in the 5are627 6ormation o6 a !e7e5t band o6 6o77ower!. /6 the %hi7o!o%her i! to ha:e a 62rther e66e5t 2%on the !e527ar order whi7e he 7i:e!, it wi77 be mo!t7y by indire5t 5omm2ni5ation o6 4the 2n5hanging %oint! o6 re6eren5e9 to whi5h the 5omm2nityA! 7eader! may try to adE2!t the 5ontingen5ie! with whi5h they dea7.
x5:i

At the end, the %hi7o!o%her(%rie!t wi77 be 5ontent to ha:e had 4a h2mb7e !hare in %er%et2ating wi!dom among men, in gathering 2% the inheritan5e o6 the age!, in 6orm27ating the r27e! o6 the mind 6or the %re!ent time,>in re:i:ing i6 ne5e!!ary !ome dying 67ame, in organi@ing the %ro%aganda o6 tr2th and goodne!!, in t2rning menA! wandering eye! toward 6ir!t 5a2!e! and their heart! toward !2%reme end!.9 C 3e ha:e !een that a 4man o6 tho2ght,9 in hi! %o7iti5a7 ro7e, i! 4a %rie!t o6 the mind,9 a %ro%heti5 6ig2re, a tea5her o6 thing! h2man in the %re!en5e o6 thing! di:ine. B2t the great maEority o6 h2man being! 4are not %hi7o!o%hi5a7,9 a! P7ato wry7y ob!er:ed, and !trong7y tend to be ego5entri5 rather than theo5entri5. Thi! mean! that the %hi7o!o%her(ed25ator m2!t be %re%ared 6or %er!e52tion, e:en to the extreme o6 martyrdom. ,i! mi!!ion i! ne5e!!ari7y than 7e!! be5a2!e he i! 4a !%irit2a7 being in a wor7d whi5h di!tr2!t! !%irit2a7ity.9 ,e i! one o6 tho!e 4heroe!9 whom the wor7d 45annot a!!imi7ate,9 who i! de!tined to 7i:e and die in an atmo!%here whi5h i! not 45ongenia7 to %hi7o!o%hy.9 The re!i!tan5e o6 462n5tioning 5iti@en!9 to tho!e who 5an he7% them the mo!t 5an on7y be 2nremitting.
x5:iii x5:ii

Thi! wa! not !2r%ri!ing to P7ato: The many 5annot 46o77ow a g2ide who wo27d 7ead them to9 the 1ood and to J2!ti5e be5a2!e 4the nob7e!t o6 %2r!2it! 5an hard7y be tho2ght m25h o6 by men who!e own way o6 7i6e r2n! 5o2nter to it.9 Sin5e they do not !hare the %hi7o!o%herA! 5ra:ing 6or %er6e5tion, he 5annot 4ea!i7y 5on:in5e HthemI that they !ho27d %2r!2e :irt2e or a:oid :i5e.9 ,en5e the %o%27ar 4%reE2di5e again!t %hi7o!o%hy9 that 7ed to the death o6 So5rate!. P7atoA! own 4%reE2di5e9 again!t the many !eem! we77 !2b!tantiated in hi!tori5a7 ex%erien5e. 3hen ex%o!ed to %hi7o!o%hy, mo!t %eo%7e wi77 !2%%o!e that they are 47i!tening to the ta7 o6 idiot!9? e!%e5ia77y i6 it 5on5ern! their own 6ate, !25h ta7 5an on7y ma e them 4!trange7y

di!5ontented with them!e7:e!.9 %7ea!e! them.9

x5ix

The many 7i!ten wi77ing7y on7y to 4what

Be5a2!e they ha:e 4no re!%e5t, in matter! o6 right and wrong, 6or the a2thority o6 Lthe man who now!,A 9 hi! e66ort! on beha76 o6 the 5ityA! tr2e intere!t! wi77 be inter%reted a! 4mora7i!m and !e76(righteo2!ne!!,9 and e:en 6eared a! 4a %7ot again!t the go:ernment.9 So5rate!, a7way! P7atoA! %rime exam%7e, wa! 5on!idered 4a re:o72tionary agitator9 o2t to 45hange>the Athenian!A way o6 7i6e.9 O6 5o2r!e the 5harge wa! tr2e? in hi! 7i6e and in hi! !%ee5h So5rate! wa! 5ha77enging 4the axiom! on whi5h Hthe 5iti@en!I ha:e been bro2ght 2%.9 Be6ore hi! in!i!tent B2e!tioning, the 4an5ient order H!toodI d2mb and %er%7exed,9 2nab7e to !ee that the right an!wer! to tho!e B2e!tion! wo27d 5a2!e it to 45r2mb7e and di!a%%ear.9 B2t what o6 P7atoA! own intention to 2!e indire5t wea%on! to di!%7a5e the o7d 4tr2th o6 !o5iety9 with the 4tr2th o6 the !o27,9 both in hi! and in e:ery 5ity8 ob!er:e and ex%7ain.$ Eri5 Coege7in de:oted him!e76 to the ana7y!i! o6 the age(o7d ten!ion between tho!e two tr2th!. 3oe to whoe:er wi!he! to be a 5on:entiona7 %atriot and %arty man !ho27d he di!5o:er 4theoreti5a7 tr2th9? e:er a6ter he wi77 6ind him!e76 2nab7e to beha:e 4a55ording to the dream 5on5e%tion9 a %eo%7e or a %artyFor an a5ademi5 de%artmentFmay ha:e o6 it!e76. /n it! eye!, he wi77 be a 4re%re!entati:e o6 2ntr2th, o6 6a7!ehood,9 an o%%onent to be di!5redited 7e!t he 4!ho5 the en:ironment in it! !tronge!t 5on:i5tion!.9 ,ow 5o27d a man who di66er! !o radi5a77y 46rom men in genera7,9 no matter how 57e:er and otherwi!e attra5ti:e, be a55e%ted by a 5omm2nity8 /n the word! o6 Arendt, 41oodne!!,>a! a 5on!i!tent way o6 7i6e, i! not on7y im%o!!ib7e within the 5on6ine! o6 the %2b7i5 rea7m, it i! e:en de!tr25ti:e o6 it, H6orI it negate! the !%a5e the wor7d o66er! to men9 in whi5h to 7i:e o2t their 7i:e! together.
5i 5

(,ow %a7try and

d277, by 5om%ari!on, i! that !a6er %o7iti5a7 !5ien5e whi5h !ee ! on7y to

At 7ea!t !in5e the 6ir!t 5ent2rie! o6 the -hri!tian era, thi! i! 4the B2e!tion that ha! a7way! 5on6ronted the martyr9 when he rea7i@e! that hi!

!o7emn d2ty to the de6e5ti:e 5omm2nity reB2ire! it! de!tr25tion and re%7a5ement. 4Either he !e52re!>the wor ! o6 the wor7d>and tran!gre!!e! a77 hi! %rin5i%7e!>? or he maintain! hi! %rin5i%7e! and 5a2!e! the r2in o6 the in!tit2tion!9 in %7a5e. .rom P7atoA! a55o2nt o6 the tria7 o6 So5rate!, it i! 57ear whi5h o6 tho!e a7ternati:e! i! the right one to 5hoo!e: 4Men o6 Athen!, / honor and 7o:e yo2? b2t / !ha77 obey 1od rather than yo2, and whi7e / ha:e 7i6e and !trength / !ha77 ne:er 5ea!e 6rom the %ra5ti5e and tea5hing o6 %hi7o!o%hy, exhorting anyone whom / meet.9 /n th2! in52rring 4the %reE2di5e and di!7i e o6 !o many %eo%7e,9 So5rate! i! not an i!o7ated in!tan5e: 4The !ame thing ha! 5on:i5ted many other good men, and / thin wi77 do !o again,9 6or 4no man in the wor7d wi77 5ome o66 !a6e who>trie! to hinder the many 2nE2!t and 2n7aw627 doing!9 he en5o2nter!Fe:en in the g2i!e o6 a tea5her.
5ii

.or their %art, the 4men o6 Athen!9Fand o6 e:ery 5ityFa7!o 6a5e a 5hoi5e: To 5on!ent to the 5hange! (i.e., to a55e%t the %hi7o!o%herA! a2thority and re!%ond a55ording7y$? or to remain %a!!i:e7y 4to7erant9? or to remo:e him. The 6ir!t i! exi!tentia77y im%o!!ib7e, !in5e e:ery 5omm2nity ne5e!!ari7y !ee ! to %re!er:e what it ta e! to be 4it! tr2th.9 Any other 5o2r!e m2!t range 6rom irre!%on!ib7e to trea!ono2!. The !e5ond a7ternati:e i! at 7ea!t re5 7e!! be5a2!e it on7y nod! at !2b:er!i:e tea5hing! that may readi7y ta e root in the rebe77io2! yo2ngFnext time, i6 not thi! time. 2nder the 5ir52m!tan5e!, thi! atta5 to A 4!en!ib7e9 The o7d 5omm2nity, then, 5an be 5o2nted on to b72nt, in the manner mo!t e66e5ti:e 2%on it! mora7 6o2ndation!. man P7ato %2t it B2ite !255in5t7y: The 5ity m2!t 4gi:e noti5e to their ad:i!er ee% hi! hand! o66 the 5on!tit2tion9 and 4order him to 5ater to their
5iii

wi!he! and de!ire!9 i6 he want! to 7i:e among them.

/t wo27d !eem, then, that the be!t o2r %hi7o!o%hi5a7 !tate!man(tea5her 5an ex%e5t i! the mane2:erab7e !it2ation %ro:ided by the midd7e a7ternati:e. Many 5ommentator! ha:e ob!er:ed how 46riend7y9 the Athenian demo5ra5y wa! to So5rate! and %hi7o!o%hy by a77owing it to go on 6or !o 7ong and to thereby e!tab7i!h the bea5hhead it needed to 4atta5 9 other 5itie!

thro2gho2t hi!tory.

(The modern demo5rati5, to7erant 2ni:er!ity i! not /t i! not exa5t, then, to a!!ert that 4the greate!t

a7way! !o ho!%itab7e.$

7e!!on o6 So5rate!A 7i6e>wa! hi! death.9 Rather, hi! greate!t 7e!!on! were tho!e that he 4ga:e9 !o 2n5eremonio2!7y and witho2t hindran5e day a6ter day in the mar et %7a5e and the bath!: 4The L57er A i! on7y !trong9 when he 4!how! man ind that he i! 57ear7y 5on!5io2!>o6 hi! e!!entia7 B2a7itie! and hi! tr2e 62n5tion.9
5i:

And yet, there i! a !en!e in whi5h both the 7i6e and the death o6 a %hi7o!o%her 5on!o7idate hi! %o7iti5a7 in672en5e: h2man.9 4,2man a66air! 5an on7y ado%t9 hi! tea5hing 42nder %ena7ty o6 be5oming di:ine? i.e., o6 %eri!hing a! Thi! i! the 4death9 whi5h enab7e! the %hi7o!o%her to 47i:e9 with him!e76 and with hi! 6e77ow 5iti@en!. /6 a polis 5annot o66er it!e76 in the !ame !a5ri6i5e a! the %hi7o!o%her(%rie!tA! 4re%re!entati:e !266ering9 6or the rea!on! we ha:e !een, he him!e76 5an be that re%re!entati:e 4:i5tim9 and a55e%t the g7orio2! honor o6 dying for the people.
5:

3hen we rea7i@e why the %hi7o!o%herA! 5a77ing 5arrie! a77 the way to martyrdom, it be5ome! a%%arent that nothing externa7 to the man 5an re!tri5t or dimini!h the extent to whi5h he i! ab7e to 6276i77 hi! %o7iti5a7 re!%on!ibi7ity. ,e !a:e! hi! %eo%7e a55ording to hi! own 5a%a5ity to 7o:e, whi5h i! what, 6ina77y, enab7e! him to !266er and die. !hanatos i! the 5on!2mmation o6 that "ros 6ir!t awa ened in the %hi7o!o%her by hi! %er5e%tion o6 #gathos and $ikaios. Thi! mean! that 4the wor o6 re5on5i7ing men to the tr2th in thi! 7i6e Hi!I on7y a 6ragment o6 a %ro5e!! whi5h extend! thro2gh eternity.9 43hen the %hi7o!o%her !%ea ! a! the re%re!entati:e o6 tr2th, he doe! it with the a2thority o6 death o:er the !hort!ightedne!! o6 7i6e.9
5:i

E:en more i! the %hi7o!o%herA! o%enne!! to martyrdom a 6276i77ment o6 hi! own nat2re. /n thi! %er!%e5ti:e, hi! %o7iti5a7 re!%on!ibi7ity i! in!tr2menta7 to hi! own %er6e5tion. A! / ha:e !2gge!ted, 2n7e!! he i! wi77ing to 5arry hi! %o7iti5a7 b2rden to the end, he 5annot !a:e hi! own !o27. Thi! he7%! to ex%7ain P7atoA! in!i!ten5e that a %hi7o!o%herA! %o7iti5a7 a5tion i!, a! 6or

So5rate!, 5ommanded by 1od. The ne5e!!ity 6or bios politikos, aro2!ed by the ex%erien5e o6 bios theoretikos, i! 5on!2mmated in the bios theotikos. 3hen he die!, the %hi7o!o%her(%rie!t enEoy! at 7a!t the 2nob!52red !ight o6 that rea7ity whi5h he grew more 7i e the 57o!er he a%%roa5hed it. 5ra:ing whi5h 7in ! antiB2ity with modernity.
5:ii

,i!

!a5ri6i5ia7 7i6e i! the %er6e5t way to tran!5end morta7ityFthat 62ndamenta7 -o27d thi! be the in5omm2ni5ab7e in!ight whi5h the 2nwi!e 5annot a5hie:e: the abi7ity o6 a h2man being to 4be7ie:e !o dee%7y, ha:e !o dee% a 5on:i5tion9 that hi! !o27 i! 4an ab!o72te, an in:in5ibi7ity, an eternity, a 6reedom,>o%%o!ed :i5torio2!7y, eterna77y tri2m%hant, to a77 the grande2r! o6 the earth.9
5:iii

............... At the o2t!et / re6erred to the 2n6ort2nate 5ondition o6 5ontem%orary 5i:i5 527t2re and the 6ai72re o6 it! %otentia7 5riti5! and ed25ator! to 5ome to it! aid in a %hi7o!o%hi5a7 manner. Thi! de6i5ien5y i! notorio2! in o2r 5o2ntry in !%ite o6 it! inte77e5t2a7 and !%irit2a7 wea7th. My aim ha! been to !how how P7atoA! !en!e o6 %o7iti5a7 re!%on!ibi7ity 5an he7% to i772minate the %rob7em and %oint 2! toward a !o72tion. A7ready 6orty year! ago, %rior to the 527t2ra7 re:o72tion that !hoo o2r :a72e !tr25t2re a! nothing had 6or a h2ndred year!, we were hearing that !o5iety i! 4in a !tate o6 inte77e5t2a7 and emotiona7 %ara7y!i!,9 that it i! in hot %2r!2it o6 !e76(de!tr25ti:e goa7!, that it 4ha! 7o!t it! gri% on the 6277 dimen!ion! o6 inte77igen5e.9 Eri5 Coege7in 7amented that 4the re5ognition o6 the !tr25t2re o6 rea7ity,>the di!5i%7ine o6 the inte77e5t, and the de:e7o%ment o6 theoreti5a7 527t2re>are !tigmati@ed in %2b7i59 whi7e at the !ame time 4irre!%on!ib7e o%ining on the ba!i! o6 !in5ere 5on:i5tion, %hi7o!o%hi5a7 i77itera5y, !%irit2a7 d277ne!!, and agno!ti5 !o%hi!ti5ation>o%en the road to %2b7i5 !255e!!.9
5ix

Perha%! o2r 527t2re wa! a7ready %oi!ed 6or a re:o72tion

that had to ha%%en !oon.

Dn5ontro77ed

te5hno7ogy,

2rbani@ation,

6ami7y

deterioration,

de7inB2en5y and 5rime, %o:erty and e:ery

ind o6 ab2!e 2!2a77y bear the

b7ame 6or the di!order! in modern 7i6e. B2t !2re7y it ta e! 7itt7e tho2ght to re5ogni@e that the!e and a ho!t o6 other i77!, !erio2! a! they may be in them!e7:e!, are on7y !ym%tomati5 o6 the 2nder7ying di!ea!e. / ha:e arg2ed that P7ato and hi! 6o77ower! %7a5e the tr2e b7ame on inte77e5t2a7 and mora7 medio5rity 5a2!ed by the ab!en5e o6 %hi7o!o%hi5a7 !o27! 6rom %o!ition! o6 7eader!hi%, e!%e5ia77y in ed25ation. Some o6 hi! re5ent 6o77ower! ha:e %2t it thi! way: 4Tho!e who today !ho27d %er6orm the d2tie! o6 a So5rate! Hthin I E2!ti5e i! a 6o77y?9 4the Jingdom o6 1od i! deri!i:e7y 5a77ed an imaginary %rin5i%a7ity?9 4Tho!e who now>do not a5t, and tho!e who a5t>do not now?9 4the inte77e5t2a7! who are %a!!ionate7y 6or the earth7y !a7:ation>o6 men and in!tit2tion! are tho!e who 7ea!t re!%e5t what may be 5a77ed the traditiona7 :a72e!.9 -ontem%orary inte77e5t2a7! are tea5hing 2! not to 7o:e the tr2th b2t to deny o2r di:inity: 4The rea7 e:i7>i! not !o m25h the Lgreat betraya7A o6 the L57er !A a! the di!a%%earan5e o6 the L57er !,A L57er A in the wor7d o6 today.9
5x

the im%o!!ibi7ity o6 7eading the 7i6e o6 the

/t may be !im%7i!ti5 to a!!ert that when re!%on!ib7e %hi7o!o%her! di!a%%ear, 5i:i7i@ation wane!For rather, i! di!%7a5ed by an 2n5i:i7i@ed 527t2re. Ear7y in the twentieth 5ent2ry +ono!o -ortG! dared to !ay that modern 527t2ra7 re:o72tion! 4ha:e an 2n5onB2erab7e and de!tr25ti:e 6or5e whi5h the re:o72tion! o6 an5ient time! did not %o!!e!!? >thi! 6or5e i! ne5e!!ari7y !atani5, !in5e it 5annot be di:ine.9 /n the !ame :ein a! *iet@!5heA! %ro%he5ie!, +ono!o wa! ob!er:ing that modern !o5ietie!, ha:ing ridden them!e7:e! o6 1od, ne5e!!ari7y 4t2rn to adoring them!e7:e! a! 5reator!.9
5xi

3hether %hi7o!o%her! who are 6a7!e to their high 5a77ing be named !o%hi!t!, %hari!ee!, or 4%etty %ara57ete!,9 they are at one in re62!ing to 46a5e the 6a5t o6 g2i7t9 6or 6ai7ing to he7% their 6e77ow 5iti@en!. A77 they 5an do i! %rote!t 4that they were not re!%on!ib7e 6or what had ha%%ened.9 /n!tead

o6 rai!ing the 7e:e7 o6 mora7 5on!5io2!ne!!, they demora7i@e the %eo%7e and di!5redit whoe:er trie! to !end o2t 4warning !igna7! o6 5on!5ien5e.9
5xii

%hi7o!o%her m2!t demand hard thing! o6 the 5omm2nity 6or it! own good? todayA! %!e2do inte77e5t2a7 !2bmit! to the demand! o6 the 5omm2nity 6or his own good. /t i! a 5rime again!t now7edge to !teri7i@e it by i!o7ation 6rom the o6 %ra5ti5a7ity i! a %ra5ti5a7 order. A! an in!tr2ment o6 h2man %er6e5tion, it m2!t be 2!ed in whate:er way that %er6e5tion may be ad:an5ed. /6 7a5 5riterion o6 6reedom (a! Jo!e6 Pie%er arg2ed$, then the %hi7o!o%her i! mo!t him!e76 when he i! 2n(6ree, when he i! a 4!7a:e9 o6 tho!e he 7o:e!, 5hained to the re!%on!ibi7ity %o7iti5a7 7i6e generate! 6or him. To the B2e!tion, 4-an a man be inte77e5t2a7 and %ra5ti5a789 P7atoA! an!wer i!: not on7y can he? he must be, 6or 4the e:i7! o6 man ind re!27t 6rom di:or5e between !%e527ation and a5tion,9 between the inte77e5t2a7 and the %ra5ti5a7, the vita contemplativa and the vita activa. That di:or5e ha! ob!52red the tr2th that 4nothing i! more 2!e627 than to 7oo 2%on the wor7d a! it rea77y i!, and at the !ame time to !ee e7!ewhere 6or the !o7a5e to it! tro2b7e!.9
5xiii

3o27d that the 5ontem%orary 4%reE2di5e9 again!t %hi7o!o%hy in %o7iti5a7 !5ien5e and %o7iti5a7 %ra5ti5e had the !ame 5a2!e a! it did in an5ient time!. B2t in o2r time it ha! been !e76(in67i5ted. /n their 6ai72re to a55e%t %o7iti5a7 re!%on!ibi7ity, 6ew thin er! ha:e been di!mi!!ed 6or tea5hing too o%en7y. *or i! the %reE2di5e the 6a27t o6 %ro7i6erating 4!o5ia7 engineer!9 who !52rry abo2t, grant! in hand, !ee ing %roEe5t! to o552%y their time and their too7!. The thin er! ha:e di!mi!!ed them!e7:e! 6rom the d2ty to o6 martyrdom. The 5omm2ni5ate the tr2th in %2b7i5 e:en at the ri!

4inte77e5t2a7 Hi!I :oi5e7e!!9 not be5a2!e he ha! no 7i!tener!? the 7i!tener! abo2nd, b2t the !%ee5h whi5h 5o27d he7% to !ati!6y their de!ire to 6ind the 7ight i! ina2dib7e. Many are ready to hear a %er!2a!i:e arg2ment that 4it i! not !2%er672o2! to !to% and thin 62n5tion o6>%hi7o!o%her!.9
5xi:

what i! meant by 7aw, 6or5e, :io7en5e,

5i:i7i@ation, a2tonomy, 7o:e, E2!ti5e, and inE2!ti5e. S25h i! the b2!ine!!, the

Cittorio de -a%rarii!, 4The -ri!i! o6 -ontem%orary Po7iti5a7 Phi7o!o%hy,9 Confluence, C, O (3inter &;M'$, ";;()#M. /n Pa27 Ca7KryA! word!, we ha:e di!5o:ered that the!e %rob7em! 5o27d not be 4di!!o7:ed by 6a5t!.9 -ited by ,annah Arendt, 4Dnder!tanding in Po7iti5!,9 Partisan Review, PP, O (J27y(A2g2!t &;M)$, )=O. The reader wi77 noti5e the 6reB2ent 5itation o6 o7der !o2r5e!. The re!ear5h 6or thi! arti57e wa! 5om%7eted %rior to &;<#, when the 6ir!t :er!ion wa! written. Li e good wine, tho!e !o2r5e! ha:e aged we77 and !eem more %ertinent today than they were at the time.
i ii

Arendt, !he %uman Condition (1arden -ity, *.0., &;M;$, &;=.

)

0:e! R. Simon, 4Ja5B2e! Maritain: The +e:e7o%ment o6 a -hri!tian Phi7o!o%her,9 *otre +ame, /nd., *o:. &), &;M;.
iii i:

Eri5 Coege7in, !he &ew Science of Politics: #n 'ntroduction (-hi5ago, &;M"$, " 6. 'bid(

John +o! Pa!!o!, !he Saturday Review, May "O,&;M", &&? 5itied by Peter Ciere5 , 4LB7oody(Minded Pro6e!!or!A: The Anti(So5ia7 Ro7e o6 Some /nte77e5t2a7!,9 Confluence, /, ) (Se%tember &;M"$, O&.
:i :ii

Coege7in, op( cit(, M&. Arendt, 4Dnder!tanding>,9 op(cit( )=) 6. Coege7in, op( cit(, ='.

:iii

ix

Peter Stan7i!, re:iew o6 Eri5 Coege7in, Plato and #ristotle, )odern #ge, S%ring &;M;, &;)? re:iew o6 Coege7in, !he *orld of the Polis , )odern #ge, S%ring &;M;, &;&. See A7bert Sa7omon, !he !yranny of Progress: Reflections on the +rigins of Sociology (*ew 0or , &;MM$, <O, "<.
x xi

Coege7in, op( cit(, "M, n. &. 3a7ter Li%%mann, "ssays in the Public Philosophy (Bo!ton, &;MM$, 5ha%. C///.

xii

.ran5i! 1. 3i7!on, 4P2b7i5 O%inion and the /nte77e5t2a7!,9 !he #merican Political Science Review, PLC///, " (J2ne &;MO$, )"", )"< 6.
xiii xi:

Coege7in, op( cit(, "'.

Martin B2ber, 4The Ca7idity and Limitation o6 the Po7iti5a7 Prin5i%7e,9 Cross Currents, C//, " (S%ring &;M'$, &&".
x: x:i

Stan7i!, re:iew o6 Plato and #ristotle, op( cit(, &;). -6. Arendt, !he %uman Condition, op( cit(, 5ha%. ".

x:ii

Erne!t Bar er, !he Political !hought of Plato and #ristotle (*ew 0or , &;M;$, &O'.
x:iii xix

3i7!on, op( cit(, )"<. Coege7in, op( cit(, &&;, & 6. Ri5hard L. *ett7e!hi%, Lectures on the Republic of Plato (London, &;)'$, &;; 6.

xx

xxi

1.M.A. 1r2be, Plato-s !hought (Bo!ton, &;M=$, ;M. -6. P7ato, Republic, C/ (M#&$, %. "&#? C (O'"$, %. &''? Phaedo <=. H/ ha:e 2!ed the -orn6ord :er!ion, !he Republic of Plato (*ew 0or , &;OM$.I
xxii xxiii

Republic, // ()'<$, %. <<? C (O'O(O=#$, %%. &=&(=;.

*ett7e!hi%, op( cit(, &=', &;). -6. Bar er, op( cit(, O;: 4M2!t not a man in 5ond25ting hi! own 7i6e> now the Po7e Star o6 hi! 7i6e, the g2!t! and eddie! o6 hi! %a!!ion!9 i6 he i! to 4attain>ex5e77en5e a! a man89 And 56. Coege7in, op( cit(, <'.
xxi: xx:

-har7e! PGg2y, 4Sa:oir et -roire,9 )en and Saints (London, &;O'$, =".

St. A2g2!tine, !he City of .od, ed. Cernon Bo2r e (1arden -ity, *.0., &;M;$, C///, i, :, %%. &OO, &M# 6. Eri5 Coege7in 2!ed the %hra!e, 4the tran!5endent di:inity,9 op( cit(, <;.
xx:i

Republic, C/ (O;#$, %. &;'? C/// (M&;$, %. ")): 43i!dom, it !eem!, i! 5ertain7y the :irt2e o6 !ome di:iner 6a527ty whi5h ne:er 7o!e! it! %ower.9 ,annah Arendt !%o e o6 4the %hi7o!o%herA! 7o:e 6or the eterna7,9 !he %uman Condition, op( cit(, "''.
xx:ii

*ett7e!hi%, op( cit(, &=; 6? Republic // ()'<$, %. <M? C/ (O=M(;#$, %%. &;#(;'? Symposium ("&=$? 1r2be, op( cit(, &#;.
xx:iii

xxix

Republic, C/ (O;#$, %. &;'? "pistle /'' ()OO$? #pology ("', )&$? Laws, / (<OO$. 1r2be, op( cit(, "M=.

xxx

)& Republic, / ()M", )M#, )M)$, %. )', )O, );? // ()<&$, %. O<? /// (O## 6, O#;$, %%. =; 6, ;;? /C (OO" 6$, %%. &O& 6.
xxxi

*ett7e!hi%, op( cit(, "#&? PGg2y, 4Bernard(La@are,9 op( cit(, &&;? Republic, C (O=#$, %. &=;.
xxxii

xxxiii

*ett7e!hi%, op( cit(, &=<. Republic, /// (O&#$, %. &#=? C/ (O=<, M#)$, %%. &;", "&O. *ett7e!hi%, op( cit(, "&#. -6. "pistle /'' ()M&$.

xxxi:

xxx:

A. E. Tay7or, Plato: !he )an and %is *ork (*ew 0or , &;M<$, "=). -6. 1r2be, op( cit(, "MM.
xxx:i xxx:ii

Republic, C (O;&$, %. &;=. -6. C (O'<$, %. &=). Bar er, op( cit(, &&#. Republic, C/ (O=', O;#$, %%. &;), &;'.

xxx:iii

xxxix

x7

Republic, C (M#&$, %. "&#. Republic C (M#", O;&$, %%. "&), &;=. "pistle /'' ()";$.

x7i

x7ii

Republic, C// (MO#$, %. "<"? !heaetetus (&'"('<$. -6. Bertrand de Jo2:ene7, Sovereignty: #n 'nquiry into the Political .ood (-hi5ago, &;M'$, M&? Coege7in, op( cit(, &M'.
x7iii
x7i:

Republic, / ()M"$, %. )=. 'bid(, C/ (O;;, O;<$, %%. "#=, "#O. Laws, C/ (''#$, %. ";" H/ am 2!ing the Jowett edition, Co7. /C o6 $ialoguesI.

x7:

x7:i

J2dith Sh 7ar, 4Berg!on and the Po7iti5! o6 /nt2ition,9 Review of Politics, PP, O (O5t. &;M=$, <M&, <MO(<M<.
x7:ii

Ja5B2e! Maritain, Pre6a5e, #ux +rigines d-une !rag0die: La Politique espagnole de 1234 5 1246, by A76red Mendi@Qba7 (Pari!, &;)'$, &", &<, "), )), O), MO? Simon, op( cit(
x7:iii x7ix

Republic, /// (O&O$, %. &#<.

'bid(, C/ (O=O$, %. &;#. .or exam%7e, ,annah Arendt in !he %uman Condition, op( cit(, "#. "pistle /'', ))).

7i

7ii

7iii

*ett7e!hi%, op( cit(, &=;. Bar er, op( cit(, &&#. Sa7omon, op( cit(, MO. Symposium, passim(? *ett7e!hi%, op( cit(, "#& 6. Bar er, op( cit(, &"M. Arendt, 4Dnder!tanding in Po7iti5!,9 op( cit(, )=& 6.

7i:

7:

7:i

7:ii

7:iii

A. +. Serti77ange!, O.P., !he 'ntellectual Life: 'ts Spirit, Conditions, )ethods (3e!tmin!ter, Md., &;M;$, &" 6, M;. -6. Arendt, !he %uman Condition, op( cit(, <': 4The man>who i! in 7o:e with goodne!! 5an ne:er a66ord to 7ead a !o7itary 7i6e, and yet hi! 7i:ing with other! and 6or other! m2!t remain e!!entia77y witho2t te!timony>. ,e i! not !o7itary, b2t 7one7y.9 And 56. Thoma! Mo7nar, 4.7ight o6 the /nte77e5t2a7,9 Commonweal, LP//, &; (A2g. &;, &;MM$, O=;: 4Tr2e 7eader!hi%> demand! 7one7ine!!.9
7ix 7x

PGg2y, 4Bernard(La@are,9 op( cit(, &)&. ,enri +anie7(Ro%!, !he Church in the $ark #ges (London, &;M;$, )O.

7xi

Emi7e +2r heim, Le Socialisme (Pari!, &;"=$, &)& (5ited by Sa7omon, op( cit(, O&.$.
7xii 7xiii

Laws / (<M#$, %. &=&? Republic C/ (M##$, %. "#;. Republic C// (M&<$, %. ")#. 1r2be, op( cit(, "M=.

7xi:

7x:

Mar52! A2re7i2!, 5ited by /. M. Bo5hen! i, "uropean Philosophy of %istory (Bern, &;O'$, tit7e %age? 5ited by Coege7in, op( cit(, "M.
7x:i 7x:ii

Crito (O; 6$. Republic, C// (M"# 6$, %. ")O. Coege7in, op( cit(, '#, <=, 'M, <' 6. -6. *ett7e!hi%, op( cit(, "#;. Bar er, op( cit(, &)<? Republic, C// (MO#, M&;$, %%. "<", ")).

7x:iii

7xix

7xx

1r2be, op( cit(, "'"? Edm2nd B2r e, 4Tho2ght! on the -a2!e o6 the Pre!ent +i!5ontent!,9 !he *orks of "dmund 7urke (London, &=#)(&="'$, //, )MM, 5ited by .ran5i! P. -ana:an, SJ, 4Edm2nd B2r eA! -on5e%tion o6 the Ro7e o6 Rea!on in
7xxi

Po7iti5!,9 8ournal of Politics, PP/, & (.ebr2ary, &;M;$, <". Arendt, !he %uman Condition, op( cit(, &)? 17enn 3. Morrow, 4P7atoA! -on5e%tion o6 Per!2a!ion,9 Philosophical Review, LP//, " (A%ri7 &;M)$, "OO (he 5a77! thi! 4the tragedy o6 P7ato.9$.
7xxii 7xxiii

Arendt, !he %uman Condition, op( cit(, <=. Tay7or, op( cit(, &=". Jo2:ene7, op( cit(, M&, O=. Coege7in, op( cit(, &M=.

7xxi:

7xx:

7xx:i

Maritain, op( cit(, )&? Stan7i!, re:iew o6 Plato and #ristotle, op( cit(, &;O? "pistle /'' ());$.
7xx:ii

"pistle /'' ()"<$? Republic, C/ (O;;$, %. "#'? Republic, C (O')$, %. &'=? "pistle /'' ()"<$.
7xx:iii 7xxix

Jo2:ene7, op( cit(, ";, )& 6.

"pistle /'' ())<$? *ett7e!hi%, op( cit(, &;=? Laws, /// (<==$, %. "&'? / (<OM$, %. &'M? /C ('&"$, %. ");.
7xxx

Statesman ()#M$? AndrG BrGmond, 4P7ato the State!man: Re67e5tion! on the Laws,9 )odern Schoolman, P/C, ) (Mar5h &;)'$, M)? Statesman ()&&$.
7xxxi

Statesman ()#;, ";<$? "pistle /'' ())#, )M&$? Bar er, op( cit(, &&#? BrGmond, op( cit(, MO.
7xxxii 7xxxiii

*ett7e!hi%, op( cit(, "&#, &;=. -ana:an, op( cit(, <)(<M. Republic, C/ (M##$, %. "#;. "pistle /'' ())&$? #pology ()#, )"$? Laws, // (<<)$, %. &;). "pistle /'' ())&$. #pology ("", "', ";, )"$. Republic, C (O'<$, %. &=O.

7xxxi:

7xxx:

7xxx:i

7xxx:ii

7xxx:iii

7xxxix

x5

Coege7in, op( cit(, 'M.

x5i

"pistle /'' ())"$. Robert Bo7t, # )an for #ll Seasons (*ew 0or , &;;#$, = 6., &<? topia, /.

x5ii

Ra7%h 3a7do Emer!on, 4P7ato? or, The Phi7o!o%her,9 Representative )en (Bo!ton, &;#)$, OO? Laws, C ('O'$, %. "'&? // (<M;$, %. &=;? / (<M#$, %. &=&.
x5iii x5i:

Republic, C// (M&=$, %. ")". Arendt, !he %uman Condition, op( cit(, "'<? "pistle /'' ()O&()OO$. -ana:an, op( cit(, '=. Serti77ange!, op( cit(, &&.

x5:

x5:i

x5:ii

J27ien Benda, !he 7etrayal of the 'ntellectuals (Bo!ton, &;MM$, ;=? Re%2b7i5, C/ (O;)$, %. "#&? Thoma! Mo7nar, 4The Po7iti5a7 Tho2ght o6 Bernano!,9 Review of Politics, PP, " (A%ri7 &;M=$, ")<, "O&, B2oting 6rom # Plea for Liberty (*ew 0or , &;OO$, %. "O'? Re%2b7i5, C/ (O;'$, %. "#M? 3i7!on, op( cit(, ));.
x5:iii

Republic, C/ (O=;, O;'$, %%. &;<, "#M? !heaetetus (&'< 6.$? 1r2be, op( cit(, "<#. -6. Republic, C/ (O;), O=;, M#&$, %%. "#&, &;<, "&#? *ett7e!hi%, op( cit(, "#O, "&#? Benda, op( cit(, )<: 4There exi!t! a 5ertain 5riterion by whi5h we may now whether the L57er A who ta e! %2b7i5 a5tion doe! !o in 5on6ormity with hi! tr2e 62n5tion!? and that i!, that he i! immediate7y re:i7ed by the L7aymen,A who!e intere!t! he thwart!>. 3e may !ay, there6ore, that the 57er who i! %rai!ed by the 7aymen i! a traitor to hi! o66i5e.9
x5ix

E. ,arri! ,arbi!on, 4The /nte77e5t2a7 a! So5ia7 Re6ormer: Ma5hia:e77i and Thoma! More,9 Rice 'nstitute Pamphlets, PL/C, ) (O5t. &;M'$, )O? "pistle /'' ()))$? Bar er, op( cit(, M)? Coege7in, op( cit(, &M'. Coege7in goe! on to !ay (%. &M=$: 4Both ty%e! o6 tr2th wi77 6rom now on exi!t together? the ten!ion between the two, in :ario2! degree! o6 5on!5io2!ne!!, wi77 be a %ermanent !tr25t2re o6 5i:i7i@ation.9 Berg!on, on the other hand, a55e%ted 4the 6a5t that i6 Lwe are in and o2tA o6 !o5iety, there need be no 5on!tant 5on67i5t between the hero and !o5iety.9 Laughter (*ew 0or , &;&&$, OO(O'? 5ited by Sh 7ar, op( cit(, <MM.
5

Coege7in, op( cit(, &'#, <) (and 56. <", <M 6.? 1r2be, op( cit(, "<#, and Benda, op( cit(, )#$? #pology ("= 6.$? Arendt, !he %uman Condition, op( cit(, <=. Berg!on wo27d !ay that 4the aim o6 5reati:e %o7iti5! wa! not to de!troy nat2ra7, habit2a7 !o5iety, b2t to ri!e abo:e it,9 Sh 7ar, op( cit(, <MM.
5i 5ii

Bar er, op( cit(, <;? Benda, op( cit(, &M"? #pology ("=, "', )#? 56. "# 6.$.

3i77moore Jenda77, 4The Peo%7e Cer!2! So5rate! Re:i!ited,9 )odern #ge, 3inter &;M=(M;, &&#? "pistle /'' ())&$. /n another, b2t !2re7y re7e:ant, order o6 di!5o2r!e, Je!2! te77! the S5ribe! and Phari!ee!: 4/ am !ending %ro%het! and wi!e men and men o6 7earning to %rea5h to yo2? !ome o6 them yo2 wi77 %2t to death
5iii

and 5r25i6y? !ome yo2 wi77 !5o2rge in yo2r !ynagog2e!, and %er!e52te 6rom 5ity to 5ity? !o that yo2 wi77 ma e yo2r!e7:e! an!werab7e 6or a77 the b7ood o6 the E2!t men that i! !hed on the earth9 ()atthew "O:)O()M$.
5i:

Bar er, op( cit(, M)? Benda, op( cit(, &M" 6. Benda, op( cit(, &M)? Coege7in, op( cit(, '&('O.

5:

5:i

Coege7in, op( cit(, <M 6.? *ett7e!hi%, op( cit(, "&#.

5:ii

Tay7or, op( cit(, &=" (5ommenting on Phaedo, <<$. -6. 1r2be, op( cit(, &#;. PGg2y, 4Bernard(La@are,9 op( cit(, &";.

5:iii

Coege7in, op( cit(, &'=? 4The Dnity o6 Tr2th,9 Commonweal, LP///, &M (Jan. &), &;M<$, )=".
5ix

5x

Benda, op( cit(, =O, ;' 6., &"=? Leo Stra2!!, *hat 's Political Philosophy9 and +ther Studies (17en5oe, /77., &;M;$, ;? Arendt, !he %uman Condition, op( cit(, &;;? 3i7!on, op( cit(, )"'.
5xi

J2an +ono!o -ortG!, #n "ssay on Catholicism, #uthority, and +rder (*ew 0or , &;"M$, "<M, 5ited by Sa7omon, op( cit(, =O.
5xii

Coege7in, op( cit(, &'M? Max Lerner, P), 5ited by +wight Ma5dona7d, )emoires of a Revolutionist: "ssays in Political Criticism (*ew 0or , &;M=$, &#&? Ciere5 , op( cit(, )<.
5xiii

Jo!e6 Pie%er, 4Jnow7edge and .reedom,9 Review of Politics, P/P, " (A%r. &;M'$, &O;? John A. Barone, re%7y to 4Pra5ti5a7 Men,9 by Bernard 1. M2r5h7and, Commonweal, LP///, &; (.eb. &#, &;M<$, O=<? *ett7e!hi%, op( cit(, "#)? Po%e Leo P///, Rerum &ovarum (4On the Right! and +2tie! o6 -a%ita7 and Labor9$, May &M, &=;&, no. &=.
5xi:

Simon, op( cit(