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Signals and Systems With MATLAB Computing and Simulink Modeling - Steven T. Karris PDF
Signals and Systems With MATLAB Computing and Simulink Modeling - Steven T. Karris PDF
Third Edition
Steven T. Karris
Includes step-by-step X[ m ] =
N 1
x [n ] e
mn j2 ---N
n=0
This text includes the following chapters and appendices: Elementary Signals The Laplace Transformation The Inverse Laplace Transformation Circuit Analysis with Laplace Transforms State Variables and State Equations The Impulse Response and Convolution Fourier Series The Fourier Transform Discrete Time Systems and the Z Transform The DFT and The FFT Algorithm Analog and Digital Filters Introduction to MATLAB Introduction to Simulink Numbers Review of Matrices and Determinants
Review of Complex
Each chapter contains numerous practical applications supplemented with detailed instructions for using MATLAB and Simulink to obtain accurate and quick solutions.
Steven T. Karris is the president and founder of Orchard Publications, has undergraduate and graduate degrees in electrical engineering, and is a registered professional engineer in California and Florida. He has more than 35 years of professional engineering experience and more than 30 years of teaching experience as an adjunct professor, most recently at UC Berkeley, California.
$74.95 U.S.A.
Signals and Systems with MATLAB Computing and Simulink Modeling, Third Edition Copyright 2007 Orchard Publications. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Direct all inquiries to Orchard Publications, info@orchardpublications.com Product and corporate names are trademarks or registered trademarks of the Microsoft Corporation and The MathWorks Inc. They are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe.
Preface
This text contains a comprehensive discussion on continuous and discrete time signals and systems with many MATLAB and several Simulink examples. It is written for junior and senior electrical and computer engineering students, and for selfstudy by working professionals. The prerequisites are a basic course in differential and integral calculus, and basic electric circuit theory. This book can be used in a twoquarter, or one semester course. This author has taught the subject material for many years and was able to cover all material in 16 weeks, with 2 lecture hours per week. To get the most out of this text, it is highly recommended that Appendix A is thoroughly reviewed. This appendix serves as an introduction to MATLAB, and is intended for those who are not familiar with it. The Student Edition of MATLAB is an inexpensive, and yet a very powerful software package; it can be found in many college bookstores, or can be obtained directly from The MathWorks Inc., 3 Apple Hill Drive, Natick, MA 017602098 Phone: 508 6477000, Fax: 508 6477001 http://www.mathworks.com email: info@mathworks.com The elementary signals are reviewed in Chapter 1, and several examples are given. The purpose of this chapter is to enable the reader to express any waveform in terms of the unit step function, and subsequently the derivation of the Laplace transform of it. Chapters 2 through 4 are devoted to Laplace transformation and circuit analysis using this transform. Chapter 5 is an introduction to statespace and contains many illustrative examples. Chapter 6 discusses the impulse response. Chapters 7 and 8 are devoted to Fourier series and transform respectively. Chapter 9 introduces discretetime signals and the Z transform. Considerable time was spent on Chapter 10 to present the Discrete Fourier transform and FFT with the simplest possible explanations. Chapter 11 contains a thorough discussion to analog and digital filters analysis and design procedures. As mentioned above, Appendix A is an introduction to MATLAB. Appendix B is an introduction to Simulink, Appendix C contains a review of complex numbers, and Appendix D is an introduction to matrix theory. New to the Second Edition This is an extensive revision of the first edition. The most notable change is the inclusion of the solutions to all exercises at the end of each chapter. It is in response to many readers who expressed a desire to obtain the solutions in order to check their solutions to those of the author and thereby enhancing their knowledge. Another reason is that this text is written also for self
study by practicing engineers who need a review before taking more advanced courses such as digital image processing. Another major change is the addition of a rather comprehensive summary at the end of each chapter. Hopefully, this will be a valuable aid to instructors for preparation of view foils for presenting the material to their class. New to the Third Edition The most notable change is the inclusion of Simulink modeling examples. The pages where they appear can be found in the Table of Contents section of this text. Another change is the improvement of the plots generated by the latest revisions of the MATLAB Student Version, Release 14. Orchard Publications www.orchardpublications.com info@orchardpublications.com
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Signals Described in Math Form .............................................................................11 The Unit Step Function ..........................................................................................12 The Unit Ramp Function ......................................................................................110 The Delta Function ............................................................................................... 111 1.4.1 The Sampling Property of the Delta Function ............................................112 1.4.2 The Sifting Property of the Delta Function ................................................113 Higher Order Delta Functions...............................................................................114 Summary ................................................................................................................122 Exercises.................................................................................................................123 Solutions to EndofChapter Exercises ................................................................124
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2.1 Definition of the Laplace Transformation...............................................................21 2.2 Properties and Theorems of the Laplace Transform ...............................................22 2.2.1 Linearity Property ........................................................................................23 2.2.2 Time Shifting Property .................................................................................23 2.2.3 Frequency Shifting Property ........................................................................24 2.2.4 Scaling Property ...........................................................................................24 2.2.5 Differentiation in Time Domain Property ...................................................24 2.2.6 Differentiation in Complex Frequency Domain Property ...........................26 2.2.7 Integration in Time Domain Property .........................................................26 2.2.8 Integration in Complex Frequency Domain Property .................................28 2.2.9 Time Periodicity Property ............................................................................28 2.2.10 Initial Value Theorem..................................................................................29 2.2.11 Final Value Theorem .................................................................................210 2.2.12 Convolution in Time Domain Property.....................................................211 2.2.13 Convolution in Complex Frequency Domain Property.............................212 2.3 The Laplace Transform of Common Functions of Time.......................................214 2.3.1 The Laplace Transform of the Unit Step Function u 0 ( t ) ..........................214 2.3.2 The Laplace Transform of the Ramp Function u 1 ( t ) ................................214 2.3.3 The Laplace Transform of t n u0 ( t ) ..............................................................215 Signals and Systems with MATLAB Computing and Simulink Modeling, Third Edition Copyright Orchard Publications
2.4
2.3.4 The Laplace Transform of the Delta Function ( t ) ................................. 218 2.3.5 The Laplace Transform of the Delayed Delta Function ( t a ) .............. 218 2.3.6 The Laplace Transform of e at u 0 ( t ) .......................................................... 219 at 2.3.7 The Laplace Transform of t n e u 0 ( t ) ....................................................... 219 2.3.8 The Laplace Transform of sin t u 0 t ......................................................... 220 2.3.9 The Laplace Transform of cos t u0 t ......................................................... 220 2.3.10 The Laplace Transform of e at sin t u 0 ( t ) ................................................. 221 2.3.11 The Laplace Transform of e at cos t u 0 ( t ) ................................................. 222 The Laplace Transform of Common Waveforms .................................................. 223 2.4.1 The Laplace Transform of a Pulse............................................................... 223 2.4.2 The Laplace Transform of a Linear Segment .............................................. 223 2.4.3 The Laplace Transform of a Triangular Waveform .................................... 224 2.4.4 The Laplace Transform of a Rectangular Periodic Waveform.................... 225 2.4.5 The Laplace Transform of a HalfRectified Sine Waveform ..................... 226 Using MATLAB for Finding the Laplace Transforms of Time Functions ............ 227 Summary ................................................................................................................ 228 Exercises................................................................................................................. 231 The Laplace Transform of a Sawtooth Periodic Waveform ............................... 232 The Laplace Transform of a FullRectified Sine Waveform.............................. 232 Solutions to EndofChapter Exercises................................................................. 233 31
3.1 The Inverse Laplace Transform Integral ..................................................................31 3.2 Partial Fraction Expansion........................................................................................31 3.2.1 Distinct Poles..................................................................................................32 3.2.2 Complex Poles ................................................................................................35 3.2.3 Multiple (Repeated) Poles..............................................................................38 3.3 Case where F(s) is Improper Rational Function.....................................................313 3.4 Alternate Method of Partial Fraction Expansion...................................................315 3.5 Summary .................................................................................................................319 3.6 Exercises..................................................................................................................321 3.7 Solutions to EndofChapter Exercises .................................................................322 MATLAB Computing Pages 33, 34, 35, 36, 38, 310, 312, 313, 314, 322
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4.1 Circuit Transformation from Time to Complex Frequency.................................... 41 4.1.1 Resistive Network Transformation ............................................................... 41 4.1.2 Inductive Network Transformation .............................................................. 41 4.1.3 Capacitive Network Transformation ............................................................ 41
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Complex Impedance Z(s).........................................................................................48 Complex Admittance Y(s) .....................................................................................411 Transfer Functions .................................................................................................413 Using the Simulink Transfer Fcn Block.................................................................417 Summary.................................................................................................................420 Exercises .................................................................................................................421 Solutions to EndofChapter Exercises.................................................................424
MATLAB Computing Pages 46, 48, 412, 416, 417, 418, 426, 427, 428, 429, 434 Simulink Modeling Page 417
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Expressing Differential Equations in State Equation Form................................... 51 Solution of Single State Equations ........................................................................ 56 The State Transition Matrix ................................................................................. 59 Computation of the State Transition Matrix ...................................................... 511 5.4.1 Distinct Eigenvalues ................................................................................. 511 5.4.2 Multiple (Repeated) Eigenvalues ............................................................. 515 5.5 Eigenvectors......................................................................................................... 518 5.6 Circuit Analysis with State Variables.................................................................. 522 5.7 Relationship between State Equations and Laplace Transform.......................... 530 5.8 Summary .............................................................................................................. 538 5.9 Exercises .............................................................................................................. 541 5.10 Solutions to EndofChapter Exercises .............................................................. 543 MATLAB Computing Pages 514, 515, 518, 526, 536, 548, 551 Simulink Modeling Pages 527, 537, 545
The Impulse Response and Convolution 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7
61
The Impulse Response in Time Domain ................................................................ 61 Even and Odd Functions of Time .......................................................................... 64 Convolution ............................................................................................................ 67 Graphical Evaluation of the Convolution Integral................................................. 68 Circuit Analysis with the Convolution Integral ................................................... 618 Summary ............................................................................................................... 621 Exercises................................................................................................................ 623
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6.8 Solutions to EndofChapter Exercises................................................................ 625 MATLAB Applications Pages 612, 615, 630
Fourier Series
71
7.1 Wave Analysis......................................................................................................... 71 7.2 Evaluation of the Coefficients................................................................................. 72 7.3 Symmetry in Trigonometric Fourier Series ............................................................. 76 7.3.1 Symmetry in Square Waveform..................................................................... 78 7.3.2 Symmetry in Square Waveform with Ordinate Axis Shifted ........................ 78 7.3.3 Symmetry in Sawtooth Waveform................................................................. 79 7.3.4 Symmetry in Triangular Waveform ............................................................... 79 7.3.5 Symmetry in Fundamental, Second, and Third Harmonics........................ 710 7.4 Trigonometric Form of Fourier Series for Common Waveforms.......................... 710 7.4.1 Trigonometric Fourier Series for Square Waveform ................................... 711 7.4.2 Trigonometric Fourier Series for Sawtooth Waveform............................... 714 7.4.3 Trigonometric Fourier Series for Triangular Waveform ............................. 716 7.4.4 Trigonometric Fourier Series for HalfWave Rectifier Waveform............. 717 7.4.5 Trigonometric Fourier Series for FullWave Rectifier Waveform.............. 720 7.5 Gibbs Phenomenon ............................................................................................... 724 7.6 Alternate Forms of the Trigonometric Fourier Series .......................................... 724 7.7 Circuit Analysis with Trigonometric Fourier Series............................................. 728 7.8 The Exponential Form of the Fourier Series........................................................ 731 7.9 Symmetry in Exponential Fourier Series .............................................................. 733 7.9.1 Even Functions ........................................................................................... 733 7.9.2 Odd Functions ............................................................................................ 734 7.9.3 Half-Wave Symmetry ................................................................................. 734 7.9.4 No Symmetry .............................................................................................. 734 7.9.5 Relation of C n to C n ................................................................................ 734 7.10 Line Spectra.......................................................................................................... 736 7.11 Computation of RMS Values from Fourier Series................................................ 741 7.12 Computation of Average Power from Fourier Series ........................................... 744 7.13 Evaluation of Fourier Coefficients Using Excel ................................................ 746 7.14 Evaluation of Fourier Coefficients Using MATLAB ........................................ 747 7.15 Summary ............................................................................................................... 750 7.16 Exercises ............................................................................................................... 753 7.17 Solutions to EndofChapter Exercises ............................................................... 755 MATLAB Computing Pages 738, 747
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81
8.4
Definition and Special Forms ................................................................................ 81 Special Forms of the Fourier Transform ................................................................ 82 8.2.1 Real Time Functions.................................................................................. 83 8.2.2 Imaginary Time Functions ......................................................................... 86 Properties and Theorems of the Fourier Transform .............................................. 89 8.3.1 Linearity...................................................................................................... 89 8.3.2 Symmetry.................................................................................................... 89 8.3.3 Time Scaling............................................................................................. 810 8.3.4 Time Shifting............................................................................................ 811 8.3.5 Frequency Shifting ................................................................................... 811 8.3.6 Time Differentiation ................................................................................ 812 8.3.7 Frequency Differentiation ........................................................................ 813 8.3.8 Time Integration ...................................................................................... 813 8.3.9 Conjugate Time and Frequency Functions.............................................. 813 8.3.10 Time Convolution .................................................................................... 814 8.3.11 Frequency Convolution............................................................................ 815 8.3.12 Area Under f ( t ) ........................................................................................ 815 8.3.13 Area Under F ( ) ...................................................................................... 815 8.3.14 Parsevals Theorem................................................................................... 816 Fourier Transform Pairs of Common Functions.................................................. 818 8.4.1 The Delta Function Pair .......................................................................... 818 8.4.2 The Constant Function Pair .................................................................... 818 8.4.3 The Cosine Function Pair ........................................................................ 819 8.4.4 The Sine Function Pair............................................................................. 820 8.4.5 The Signum Function Pair........................................................................ 820 8.4.6 The Unit Step Function Pair .................................................................... 822 8.4.7 The e
j 0 t
u0 ( t )
8.4.8 The ( cos 0 t ) ( u 0 t ) Function Pair ............................................................... 824 8.4.9 The ( sin 0 t ) ( u 0 t ) Function Pair ............................................................... 825 8.5 8.6 Derivation of the Fourier Transform from the Laplace Transform .................... 825 Fourier Transforms of Common Waveforms ...................................................... 827 8.6.1 The Transform of f ( t ) = A [ u 0 ( t + T ) u 0 ( t T ) ] ....................................... 827 8.6.2 The Transform of f ( t ) = A [ u 0 ( t ) u 0 ( t 2T ) ] ........................................... 828 8.6.3 The Transform of f ( t ) = A [ u 0 ( t + T ) + u 0 ( t ) u 0 ( t T ) u0 ( t 2T ) ] ........... 829 Signals and Systems with MATLAB Computing and Simulink Modeling, Third Edition Copyright Orchard Publications
8.6.4 The Transform of f ( t ) = A cos 0 t [ u0 ( t + T ) u 0 ( t T ) ] .............................. 830 8.6.5 The Transform of a Periodic Time Function with Period T..................... 831 8.6.6 The Transform of the Periodic Time Function f ( t ) = A 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.10 8.11
n =
( t nT ) .... 832
Using MATLAB for Finding the Fourier Transform of Time Functions............ 833 The System Function and Applications to Circuit Analysis............................... 834 Summary .............................................................................................................. 842 Exercises............................................................................................................... 847 Solutions to EndofChapter Exercises .............................................................. 849
MATLAB Computing Pages 833, 834, 850, 854, 855, 856, 859, 860
91
Definition and Special Forms of the Z Transform ............................................... 91 Properties and Theorems of the Z Transform...................................................... 93 9.2.1 Linearity ..................................................................................................... 93 9.2.2 Shift of f [ n ] u 0 [ n ] in the DiscreteTime Domain ..................................... 93 9.2.3 Right Shift in the DiscreteTime Domain ................................................ 94 9.2.4 Left Shift in the DiscreteTime Domain................................................... 95 9.2.5 Multiplication by a in the DiscreteTime Domain................................. 96 9.2.6 Multiplication by e in the DiscreteTime Domain ........................... 96 9.2.7 Multiplication by n and n2 in the DiscreteTime Domain ..................... 96 9.2.8 Summation in the DiscreteTime Domain ............................................... 97 9.2.9 Convolution in the DiscreteTime Domain ............................................. 98 9.2.10 Convolution in the DiscreteFrequency Domain ..................................... 99 9.2.11 Initial Value Theorem ............................................................................... 99 9.2.12 Final Value Theorem............................................................................... 910 The Z Transform of Common DiscreteTime Functions.................................. 911 9.3.1 The Transform of the Geometric Sequence .............................................911 9.3.2 The Transform of the DiscreteTime Unit Step Function ......................914 9.3.3 The Transform of the DiscreteTime Exponential Sequence .................916 9.3.4 The Transform of the DiscreteTime Cosine and Sine Functions ..........916 9.3.5 The Transform of the DiscreteTime Unit Ramp Function....................918 Computation of the Z Transform with Contour Integration .............................920 Transformation Between s and zDomains .......................................................922 The Inverse Z Transform ...................................................................................925
naT
9.3
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9.6.1 Partial Fraction Expansion ..................................................................... 925 9.6.2 The Inversion Integral............................................................................ 932 9.6.3 Long Division of Polynomials ................................................................ 936 The Transfer Function of DiscreteTime Systems ............................................ 938 State Equations for DiscreteTime Systems ...................................................... 945 Summary............................................................................................................. 948 Exercises ............................................................................................................. 953 Solutions to EndofChapter Exercises............................................................. 955
MATLAB Computing Pages 935, 937, 938, 941, 942, 959, 961 Simulink Modeling Page 944 Excel Plots Pages 935, 944
10
101
10.1 The Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) ............................................................101 10.2 Even and Odd Properties of the DFT ................................................................109 10.3 Common Properties and Theorems of the DFT ..............................................1010 10.3.1 Linearity ...............................................................................................1010 10.3.2 Time Shift ............................................................................................1011 10.3.3 Frequency Shift....................................................................................1012 10.3.4 Time Convolution ...............................................................................1012 10.3.5 Frequency Convolution .......................................................................1013 10.4 The Sampling Theorem ...................................................................................1013 10.5 Number of Operations Required to Compute the DFT ..................................1016 10.6 The Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) ..................................................................1017 10.7 Summary...........................................................................................................1028 10.8 Exercises ...........................................................................................................1031 10.9 Solutions to EndofChapter Exercises...........................................................1033 MATLAB Computing Pages 105, 107, 1034 Excel Analysis ToolPak Pages 106, 108
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Analog and Digital Filters 11.1 Filter Types and Classifications......................................................................... 111 11.2 Basic Analog Filters........................................................................................... 112
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11.3
11.2.1 RC LowPass Filter ............................................................................... 112 11.2.2 RC HighPass Filter .............................................................................. 114 11.2.3 RLC BandPass Filter.............................................................................117 11.2.4 RLC BandElimination Filter ................................................................118 LowPass Analog Filter Prototypes ..................................................................1110 11.3.1 Butterworth Analog LowPass Filter Design .......................................1114 11.3.2 Chebyshev Type I Analog LowPass Filter Design..............................1125 11.3.3 Chebyshev Type II Analog LowPass Filter Design ............................1138 11.3.4 Elliptic Analog LowPass Filter Design ...............................................1139 HighPass, BandPass, and BandElimination Filter Design..........................1141 Digital Filters ....................................................................................................1151 Digital Filter Design with Simulink..................................................................1170 11.6.1 The Direct Form I Realization of a Digital Filter.................................1170 11.6.2 The Direct Form II Realization of a Digital Filter................................1171 11.6.3 The Series Form Realization of a Digital Filter ....................................1173 11.6.4 The Parallel Form Realization of a Digital Filter .................................1175 11.6.5 The Digital Filter Design Block............................................................1178 Summary ...........................................................................................................1187 Exercises ...........................................................................................................1191 Solutions to EndofChapter Exercises ...........................................................1197
MATLAB Computing Pages 113, 114, 116, 117, 119, 1115, 1119, 1123, 1124, 1131, 1135, 1136, 1137, 1138, 1140, 1141, 1142, 1143, 1145, 1146, 1148, 1150, 1155, 1156, 1157, 1160, 1162, 1164, 1167, 1168, and 1197 through 11106 Simulink Modeling Pages 1171, 1174, 1177, 1178, 1180, 1182, 1183, 1184
Introduction to MATLAB A.1 A.2 A.3 A.4 A.5 A.6 A.7 A.8 A.9 A.10 A.11
A1
MATLAB and Simulink ........................................................................... A1 Command Window ......................................................................................... A1 Roots of Polynomials ....................................................................................... A3 Polynomial Construction from Known Roots ................................................. A4 Evaluation of a Polynomial at Specified Values .............................................. A6 Rational Polynomials ....................................................................................... A8 Using MATLAB to Make Plots..................................................................... A10 Subplots ......................................................................................................... A18 Multiplication, Division, and Exponentiation .............................................. A18 Script and Function Files .............................................................................. A26 Display Formats ............................................................................................. A31
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MATLAB Computing Pages A3 through A8, A10, A13, A14, A16, A17, A21, A22, A24, A27
Introduction to Simulink
B1
B.1 Simulink and its Relation to MATLAB............................................................. B1 B.2 Simulink Demos ............................................................................................... B20 MATLAB Computing Page B4 Simulink Modeling Pages B7, B12, B14, B18
C1
Definition of a Complex Number....................................................................... C1 Addition and Subtraction of Complex Numbers ............................................... C2 Multiplication of Complex Numbers.................................................................. C3 Division of Complex Numbers ........................................................................... C4 Exponential and Polar Forms of Complex Numbers.......................................... C4
Matrices and Determinants D.1 D.2 D.3 D.4 D.5 D.6 D.7 D.8 D.9 D.10 D.11 D.12
D1
Matrix Definition.............................................................................................D1 Matrix Operations ...........................................................................................D2 Special Forms of Matrices................................................................................D6 Determinants .................................................................................................D10 Minors and Cofactors ....................................................................................D12 Cramers Rule ................................................................................................D17 Gaussian Elimination Method.......................................................................D19 The Adjoint of a Matrix ................................................................................D21 Singular and NonSingular Matrices ............................................................D21 The Inverse of a Matrix .................................................................................D22 Solution of Simultaneous Equations with Matrices ......................................D24 Exercises.........................................................................................................D31
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MATLAB Computing Pages D3, D4, D5, D7, D8, D9, D10, D12, D19, D23, D27, D29 Simulink Modeling Page D3 Excel Spreadsheet Page D28 References Index R1 IN1
Signals and Systems with MATLAB Computing and Simulink Modeling, Third Edition Copyright Orchard Publications
Chapter 1
Elementary Signals
his chapter begins with a discussion of elementary signals that may be applied to electric networks. The unit step, unit ramp, and delta functions are then introduced. The sampling and sifting properties of the delta function are defined and derived. Several examples for expressing a variety of waveforms in terms of these elementary signals are provided. Throughout this text, a left justified horizontal bar will denote the beginning of an example, and a right justified horizontal bar will denote the end of the example. These bars will not be shown whenever an example begins at the top of a page or at the bottom of a page. Also, when one example follows immediately after a previous example, the right justified bar will be omitted.
+
vS
We wish to describe v out in a math form for the time interval < t < + . To do this, it is convenient to divide the time interval into two parts, < t < 0 , and 0 < t < . For the time interval < t < 0 , the switch is open and therefore, the output voltage v out is zero. In other words, v out = 0 for < t < 0 (1.1) For the time interval 0 < t < , the switch is closed. Then, the input voltage v S appears at the output, i.e., (1.2) v out = v S for 0 < t < Combining (1.1) and (1.2) into a single relationship, we obtain
0 < t < 0 v out = vS 0 < t <
(1.3)
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The waveform of Figure 1.2 is an example of a discontinuous function. A function is said to be discontinuous if it exhibits points of discontinuity, that is, the function jumps from one value to another without taking on any intermediate values.
(1.4)
In the waveform of Figure 1.3, the unit step function u 0 ( t ) changes abruptly from 0 to 1 at
t = 0 . But if it changes at t = t 0 instead, it is denoted as u 0 ( t t 0 ) . In this case, its waveform and
* In some books, the unit step function is denoted as u ( t ) , that is, without the subscript 0. In this text, however, we will reserve the u ( t ) designation for any input when we will discuss state variables in Chapter 5.
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Signals and Systems with MATLAB Computing and Simulink Modeling, Third Edition Copyright Orchard Publications
(1.5)
If the unit step function changes abruptly from 0 to 1 at t = t 0 , it is denoted as u 0 ( t + t 0 ) . In this case, its waveform and definition are as shown in Figure 1.5 and relation (1.6) respectively.
1 t0 0 u0 ( t + t0 ) t
(1.6)
Example 1.1 Consider the network of Figure 1.6, where the switch is closed at time t = T .
R
+
vS
Express the output voltage v out as a function of the unit step function, and sketch the appropriate waveform. Solution: For this example, the output voltage v out = 0 for t < T , and v out = v S for t > T . Therefore,
v out = v S u 0 ( t T )
(1.7)
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Other forms of the unit step function are shown in Figure 1.8. t
(a) A u0 ( t ) Au 0 ( t ) Au 0 ( t + T ) 0 A (b) A u0 ( t T ) A
0 A
0 (c)
A u0 ( t + T )
A 0 0 (h) A (e)
Au 0 ( t T )
(d)
(f)
0 A u0 ( t ) A
(g)
0 A (i)
A u0 ( t + T )
A u0 ( t T )
Unit step functions can be used to represent other timevarying functions such as the rectangular pulse shown in Figure 1.9.
1 0 1 (a) u0 ( t )
0 (b)
1 0 (c)
t
u0 ( t 1 )
Figure 1.9. A rectangular pulse expressed as the sum of two unit step functions
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