, mbtracted
earned
4, mosited
6, When datas wansmined ftom device A to device B, the header fom A's aver 5s
read by B's ler.
«physical
anspor
7e. sion
4. presentation
+, Which layer functions a Hisson between user support layers and network: ip
port layers?
4, negwork ayer
by physical layer
5: seanspot ayer
a. session layer
8 Whats the main funtion ofthe anspor Layer?
1 node-to-node livery
_A>. proses to-process message delivery
synchronization
1. updating and maintenance of routing ables
9, Session ayer checkpoints
‘allow just «portion ofa ile wo be resent
by detect and recover errs
contol the adion of headers
re involved in ding contol
10, Bryption and decryption se functions ofthe
anspor
bs session
yee
_sesntation|
‘application 6 CHAPTER? THE OSI MODELAND THE TCPAP PROTOCOL SUITE
11, Which ofthe following is an application layer service?
a netwoek vita erminal
by file ransfer, access, and management
mal sevice
4. allof the above
12, When aos on network A sends a messuge toa hast on network B, which address
oes the router lok a?
2 port
oP
«physical
4, none oF the above
13, To deliver & message tothe comect application program running on a host, the
adgess most be consled.
& por
oP
physical
4. none ofthe adore
14, Pro as si adresse,
a2
be
© 28
4. variable
15. IEMPv6 includes ___
IGMP
b ARP
. RARP
dame
Exercises
16, How are OSI and ISO relate to each ober?
17, Match the following © one ofthe seven OST layers:
a route determination
Bow conto
«. iterfae to ouside would
4. provides acces to the network forthe end user
«changes ASCII to EBCDIC
packet switching 18.
19.
n.
2.
2s.
SecTION28 PRACTICESET 38
Match the following o one ofthe seven OST ayers
a relable process-0-process message delivery
by. ewwork selection
defines frames
{proves user services such as ema and fle transfer
fe, wansmission of bit stam eros physeal meio
‘Match he following 0 one ofthe sven OST ayes
a. communicate directly with uses application program
>. error cometion and retansmission
mechanical electrical, and fanctonal interface
‘responsibilty for infermetion between adjacent nodes
reassembly of data pockets
“Maich the following to one ofthe seven OST Layers
format and cade conversion services
bs esablishes, manages, and terminates sessions
«ens reliable transmission of data
6, login slog out procecures
«provides independence fom diflerences in data representation
f. synchronization of users
‘Domain Name System or DNS (ee Chapter 18) isan application program nthe
"TePMP protocol suite, Do some research and nd te egivaleat of this protocol
{if any) in the OSL model. Compare and contrast the.
Tile Transfer Protocol or FTP (se Chapter 20) isan aplication program inthe
"TCPIP protocol suite. Do some research abd find the equivalent of this proteol
{ifany) nthe OST model. Corppare and contrast the 1.
"Tvl File Transfer Protocol or TFTP (ste Chapter 21) is an aplication progam
inthe TCPI protocol suite. Do some research and Gnd the equivalent ofthis ro
tocol (fan) inthe OST mode Compare and contrast the Wo.
"There are severah transport layer models proposed in the OS model. Do some
‘eesich and Sind all of them. Explain the diferences between them,
"There are sever network layer models proposed in the OST model, Do sme
‘evcarch and fin ll of them. Explain the differences between them. R3
Underlying Technologies
‘We can think of the Inert as series of backbone networks that are run by intra
tional, nations, and regional ISPs. The backbones aze joined together by connecting
deve such as routers or by switching Stations. The end users are eiber pate the
local ISP LAN or connected via poineto-point networks tothe LANs, Conceptally.
the Intmet is a set of switched WANS (backbones), LANE, poit-to-point WANS ad
connecting or Switching devices as shown in Figure 3.1
Figure 341 inerr made,
a
age
Se
Although the TCPYP protocol site nonmlly shown a8 ive-ayer stack, only
{efnes protocols forthe upper thee layers, TCPIP is only coneered about the ne
work, tanspert, and aplication layers. This means that TCPAP assumes the exsence
af tase WANS, LANS, and the connecting devices that jin them,
"We do the seme, We assume thatthe reader i already faite withthe undeying
technology of data communications, tlecommunications, LANs, WANS, and comet
ing devices (CHAPTER 3 UNDERLYING TECHNOLOGIES
However af briet review, we touch upon these underlying technologies in this
chapter, Note ha we cannot cover aty of these topics i detail this would require &
‘ok os two. For more in-depth coverage, se Forouzan, Introduction 1 Data Comm
ications and Networking, 2 ed McGraw-Hill, 201, and Forouzan, Local Area Net
trons, MeGrsw Hil, 2003
3.1 LOCAL AREA NETWORKS (LANS)
‘local area network (LAN) is data commosication sytem tat allows a numberof
independent devices to communicate directly with each ocer in a Timited geographic
fea such asa single department, a single building, ora carpus. A large organization
‘may need several connected LANS,
“The most popular LANs are Ethernet LANS, Token Ring LANS, wireless LANS,
and ATM LANs, We briefly review the fit thre technologies inthis section; we dis-
fuss ATM LAN after we have discussed ATM technology.
or fuer discussion of LAN, see Forouzan, Local Area Networks, McGraw
ua, 2008
Ethernet
"Ethernet sth mst widely ws local ara network protocol. The protocol was designed
in 1973 by Xeton with «data rate of 10 Mops anda bus topology Today it has a data
rate of 100 Mbps and 1000 Mbps (I gaat per second). Ethernet is formally defined
bythe IEEE 02.3 standard (se Appeodix F).
‘Traditional Eshernet (10 Mbps)
‘The original Etheme, usally refered to 8 traditional Beret, had 10-Mlps data
rate, We discuss this Bthemet version fist.
‘Access Method: CSMA/CD The TEEE 802.3 standart defines carrier sense malt
ple acess with colision detection (CSMA/CD) asthe acess metod for editions
{Biome Sstions ona traditional Ethernet ea be connected together using a physical
ts or star topology, bt the lpia topology is aways bus. By this, we mean thatthe
‘medium channe) sshazed between stations and only one sation atime can use it I
flo implies that ll satons rove a frame seat by a station (roudcasting). The rel
“estination keps the frame while the est drop i I this station, how can we be sare
that to stations are not using the medium afte same time? If they do, thei ames
‘wil code with cach other, CSMALCD is designed to solve the problem according to
‘he folowing principles:
1. Every sation hasan equal right othe medium (tulip acces)
2. very sation witha rame to send fist listens to (Senses the media. I ther is20|
dats onthe dius, the sation can start sending (Carer sens)
5, emay happen that to sation both sense the medium, fn it ie and start send
fing. this ease collision occur. The protocol forces the sation to continue t0|
fist othe line ater sending as begun Mt there sa collision, all stations sense SECTION 31 LOCALAREA NETWORKS(LAN) 49
‘he colision; each sending tation sends jam signal to estoy the data onthe line
land, afteeach wat a difeent random ie, uy agin. The random ies prevent
the snltaneoosre-sending of at
Figur 3.2 shows CSMA/CD.
Figare'32_ csMacco
cote sana
Con et
"Dee factors ar rete inthe CSMAICD standard: the minum frame length,
‘te data transmission cate and the ellison domain. The time the station needs tn wait
tobe sre thal there is no data on the lines the minimum frame Tenth divided by the
transmission rate (he time required to sead out the minimum frame lent). This time
fs proportional to the time needed for the ist bit to travel the maximum network is-
tance (collision domain. In other words, weave
‘Minium re leopih/Tanenision ate
"spopaions
Colson dat ropaion speed
Sn tational Etro, he minimum fame length is $20 bits, te transmission ate
{is 10 Mbps the propeition speed i almost the speedo ight, andthe colisin domain
{is alimost 2500 meters,
Layers Figure 33 shows the 10-Mops Ethernet layers. The dts lnk ayer bs two
ublayens: the logical ink contol (LLC) sublayer andthe media acces contol (MAC)
fablayer The LLC layer ie responsible for Bow and error contol atthe dt ik ayer
‘The MAC sublayr is responsible for the operation ofthe CSMAICD acees method.
‘The MAC sublayer lo frames data ceived frm the LLC layer and passes thefames
tothe pysieal layer for encoding. The physical layer transfers data nto electri si
als ad ends them to the nex tion vi he transmission medium. This botm ayer
tlso detects and reports collisions othe data ink aye.
Frame IEEE 802.3 specifies one frame type containing seven fields: preamble, SED,
DDA.SA. lengthype of PDU, 802.2 frame, andthe CRC. Fthemet doesnt provide any ‘0 CHAPTER3 UNDERLYING TECHNOLOGIES
Figure 33. Bere layers
‘mechanism for acknowledging received frames, making it what is known a an unl
shle medism, Acknowledgments mast be implemented atthe higher ayers. The format
of the CSMAICD MAC frame is shown in Figure 34,
Figure 34 tere frome
| SiO Seine nctitoa.y
| sro Pages | atc | 7 cS
| Teer Tie yer thes Des er
18 Preamble. The preamble ofthe 8023 Frame contains 7 byes (56 bits) of alterna
fing Os ands that lert the receiving system to the coming frame and enable it
synchronize its inpat timing: The peamble i craly ald a he pysia! layer
‘nds ot (formally) pat of the fame.
‘© Start frame delimiter (SED). The SFD fli (1 byte: 10101011) ofthe 8023 frame
signals the beginning ofthe frame. The SFD gives the station a last chance fer
syfehronization. The last two bis are 11 and ate a signal thatthe next eld i the
esinaton adress,
‘= Destination address (DA). The DA fed is 6 bytes and contains the physical
ess ofthe intermediate or destination station,
Source address (SA), The SA Seld is also 6 byte end contains the physies!
dress ofthe sending or intermediate sation,
' Lengthtype. The length ype field has one of two meanings. If the value ofthe
felis tess than 1518, its a length eld and defines the length ofthe data el that
follows. Ifthe vale of tis felis greater than 1536, it dines the upp aye pro
tocol tha uses the service ofthe Interact.
"Mata. The dats fete caries data encepsulted from the upper layer protocol, is
minimum of 46 and » maximums 1500 bytes. SPCTIONW 3.1, LOCALAREA NETWORKS(LANS) $1
1m CRC. The last ld inthe 802.3 frame contains the ero detetion infomation, in
this cas & CRC-32 (ee Appendix D),
Addressing Each station suchas a PC, workstation, or peintes on an Elernet net-
‘work has is own network interfce card (NIC). The NIC fis inside the station and
‘provides the sation with a 6-bytephyseal adress. The Ethernet addess is Gbytes
{48 bts) that is orally waten in hexadecimal notation wih a hyphen to separate
bytes shown below
roaraca
“The adateses in Ethmet ae seat byte by byte, let to righ; however, foreach byte the
least sigaficant is sent fist and the ost signiicant iti ent ast
"There are te types of addreses in Ethernet unicast, multicast, and broads. In
a unicast address, the last significant bit ofthe fist bye is 0: in the muilcast
‘adres, the least sgafcat bit is 1 broadeast addres 8s. A source ares is
flwvays nicest Te destination adress can be unicast (one single ecpient), muss
{a group of reipint), or broadas (all stations connected tothe LAN).
Implementations The IEEE standard defines several implementations for atonat
Internet. The ellowing foar ae common:
‘a TOBASES (hick Ethernet) uses a bos topology’ with a thick coaial cable asthe
transmission mediom.
1m 1OBASE2 (hin Ethernet or Choupernet) uses a bus topology wih a tin coaxial
cable asthe transmission medium.
sm LOBASE-T (ised pie Beet) ws a physical star topology (te logical epology
is all abs) wih ations conocted by wo pis of twistd- pi eable woe hab
= TOBASE-FL (fiver lnk Bitomet) uses a star topology (the logical topology is tl
‘bus with tations connected by a pair of fiberoptic cales othe hub
|A simple representation ofthese four implementations is shown in Figure 35. The
transceiver, which can be exteroal oe internal, is responsible fr encoding, ellison
‘detection, sod ransmtingloceving signals.
Fast Ethernet
"The eed fora higher data rate reuled in the Fast Eheret protocol (100 Mp). Ia
the MAC layer, Fast Ethernet uses the same principles as traditional Eahemet (CSMAV
(Cb) except tha the tunsmision rate has been increased from 10 Mbps 0 10 Mls.
For CSMAICD fo work, we have two choices: either increase the minimum fame
Tengthor decrease te eallsion domain (he speed of light cannot be changed). ees
‘ng te minim length ofthe fame involves eeltionl overhead, Ifthe data tobe seat
‘not long enough, we mst ad extra bytes, Which means more overhead and oss of
‘eiiiene. Fast Eternet bas chosen the other option; te collision domain bas been
fsereased bya factor of 10 (from 2500 meters to 250 meters). With a star topology.
2350 meter is acceptable in many ears. nthe physical layer, Past Ethernet wses ifr
ent signaling method and different madi to achieve a data rate of 100 Mbps CHAPTERS UNDERLYING TECHNOLOGIES
Figure 3.8. Eheret nplenenaons
Tamra
Tiseomaiane anc |
ae
| nn oe
|
| Ls
tomas wast
Fast Ethernet Implementation Fast Ethmet can be categorized ae cers two-ire
cr four wre implementation. The tvo-wire inplemetation scaled 100BASE-X, with
ihr wise pir ale (OOBASE-TX) o¢ Shep cble 1OOBASE-FX, The four
tite implementation is designed only fortis paie cable (IO0BASE-T4) I er
‘words, we have hee implementations: 100BASE-TX, 100BASE-FX, and 10OBASE-T4
(cee Figue 3.6,
(Gigabit Etnernet
"The peed for a data rte higher than 100 Mis result inthe Gigablt Edneret proto
‘col (1000 Mbp). To achieve this data rate the MAC layer has two options: keeping.
CCSMAICD or dropping it For the former, thet choices ar, once again, to decrease
the collision domain or increase the minimum frame length. Sine a callison domain
of 25 meses is unacoepable, the minimum length ofthe fame is increased in avery
clegant way, SECTION 1 LOCAL AREA NETWORKS LANs) 53
igure 26 Fast Ethene mplomentons
Twisted pir abl pened
=) ol
Tin A
Sema maser smasse
ol
cromase-te
Inthe second option, dropping CSMAVCD, every ston is conected by two spe
sate paths othe ental hl, his called l-dupen Ebert with no collision snd no
need for CSMAICD.
TA the physica! level, my changes have een mae allow the transmission of
data at sr.
‘Gigabit Ethernet Implementation Gigabi theme can be classified citer «t40-
‘vite o four implementation. The wo-Wite implementation is called 1000BASE-X,
With opal bers transiting sbort- ave laser signal (IOQ0BASE-SX), optical fers
Transmiting long-wave lise signal (1000BASE-LX), and shieted wise pir tarsmit-
ting electrical signal (JQQ0BASE-CX), The four wie version uses twisted-psr cables
[CODIBASE-T). note words, we have Soar implementations, tre of which ae shown
inFigue 37.
‘Token Ring.
“Token Ring is a protocol define n IEEE Project 8025. Te uses a token passing acess
‘method, Token passing ie iustrated in Figure 38, Whenever the network is unoespied,
1 simple 3-bye token circulates, Ths token is paste from station station unt i
Encounters a saion with data to send. The sation keps the token and sendy 2 data
frame, This daa frame proceeds around he ring, being regenerated by each sation
Fach intermediate station examines the desiation adress, nds thatthe frame is 54 CHAPTERS UNDERLYING TECHNOLOGIES
Figure 37 Giga Ethernet implementations
reso to another station, and relays it it neighbor. The intended epint recog.
‘izes its own ates, copes the message, check fr err, and changes 4 bits in he
last byte ofthe Frame to indicat adress ecognizod and frame copied. The fll packet
‘hen cones around the eng unt returns 1 the station that sent
Layers
‘Token Ring wes the same two layers as Ethernet. Theda link layers divided int two
sublaers: LLC and MAC. Te LLC plays the same role as in Ethernet The MAC sub- SECTION 21 LOCAL AREA NETWORKS LANs) 58
luyeris responsible forte token passing an eseation operations Is also esponsble
‘or frame ctston end frame delivery 1th physical layer
Frame
“Token Ring defies thee 1ypes of frames: data, token and abort.
Data Frame In Token Ring, the data frame isthe only one ofthe three types of
‘ames that can cary a protocol data unit (PDU) ad the only one addressed 0 pe-
‘fic destination eather dan being evailabe to the rng a lage. Figure 39 shows the
format ofthe data frame
igure39 Duo frame
So Seta ap AD eddie)
Ae hewn ol 1S Press
‘Reames oe pe
The Toe Toye Shyer — Ser Ope GaDoyS Fes Te Ti
“The following desries each ld in the fame:
‘= Start detimiter (SD), The first ld ofthe data frame, SD, i byt tong acd is
‘sed fo let de receiving station othe aval ofa frame as well to allow it to
synchronize its eval timing
‘= Access control (AC), The AC eld is 1 byt log ad includes four subflds The
frst 3 bits ae the priority eld. Te fou bits called the token bit and is wo
indicate thatthe frame is dla frame rater than a token or an abort frame. The
token bits fllowed by & monitor bit The ls 3 bits are a reservation field tha an
be sey stations wishing to reserve secs to the ring.
‘= Frame control (FC). The FC fd is 1 bste long and contains two fields. The iat
isa P-bit feld used to indicate the typeof information contained inthe PDU
(eter ts contol information r daa), The second uses the remaining 7 bis of|
the byte and coutins information wed by Taken Ring (eg. Row to use the infor
‘mation inthe AC felt).
‘= Destination address (DA). Tho G-yte DA fick contains the physical addres of
the frame's next destination.
1m Source addres (SA) The SA fields also 6 bytes long and contains the physical
address ofthe sending station.
‘= Data, The sath ic, data is lloued 4500 bytes and contains the PDU. A Token
Ring frame doesnot incde @ PDU length or type fe.
‘= CRC. The CRC field is 4 byes long and contains a CRC-32 error detection
sequence.
|= End delimiter (ED). The ED iss second ag eld of 1 byte and indicates the end
ofthe sender's data and conta information.
om [oel@ ls CHAPTER 3 UNDERLYING TeCHNOLOGIES
1 Frame status (FS). The las byte ofthe frame isthe FS fel. It canbe set by the
receiver to indicat ha the frame hasbeen ead, or bythe monitor to indicate tha
the frame bas azeady been around the rng. This eld isnot an acknowledgment,
butt oes tel the sender thatthe receiving station has coped the frame, which can
ow be discarded
‘Token Frame Because a token is really a placeholder and reservation fame, thas
only three feds: SD, AC, and ED. The SD indicates that «frame ie coming, The AC
indicates thatthe fame is a token and ineludes the priority and reservation Held. The
[ED indicates tho end ofthe frame.
Abort Frame An abor frame cares uo information a ll—jst starting and ending
‘delimiters. 1 canbe generated ether by the sender to sop is own transmission (for
whatever reason, or by the monitor to purge an od ansmission from the lne.
Addressing Like Ethernet, most Token Ring implementations use a Gbyt adress
‘The addressing mechanism isthe same as the Etbernet, except that Token Ring sends
‘the mos significant bit ofeach bye fin.
Implementation The sng ina Tokea Ring consists of a sree of shielded twisted
psi sections linking each station to its immediate neighbors. Configuring the network
as aring introduces a petal problem: One dissed or disconnected node could stop
{he ow of afi around the entize network. To elve this problem, each station is con.
nected to an automatic switch. This switch can bypass an inactive station, While ast
tion is disabled, the switch closes the ring withoat it. When the station comes on. a
signal sent by tbe NIC moves the switch and brings he sation into the ring. For prac
«al prposes, individ antomatcswtces are combined into a ub called & mals
tion access unit (MAU); ee Figure 3.10. One MAU can support up to eight satins.
[Looked at fom the outside, this sytem Jooks ike a sar with the MAU atthe middle
Buti fat rng. MAUs canbe combined to create a large ring.
Figure 3.10 Maw
Wireless LANs
Wireless communication is one of the fastest growing technologies. The demand for
‘mobile devices has led ta need for wireless wide and local area networks, Ia this SECTIOW3.1. LOCALAREA NETWORKS(LAN®) $7
section, we ist discuss the general concep of wireless ransmission techies before
we discuss wiles LAN technology
Spread Spectrum
Wireless devices can wansmit signals using reveal techniques including radi fre
quency spread spectrum and radio frequency narow band and infrared waves, We die-
cuss here only the spread spectrum technique because ofits applications in the Item.
"The spread specuum echique requies «bandwidth thi several mes the org
inal bandwidth. There ae two spread spectrum techniques: Frequency hopping and
Aire Sequence 35 shown i Figure 3.11
Figure S11 Spread spectra techiques
Acpiate
Capen canter
Sa
do sor on 011
a
a
fee ee
eee
Prequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) Tn this scheme, the sender vans-
sms atone caries requency fra short period of ine, dan hops to another eae fe
{quency forthe same amount of sme, hops agin Toe the same emount of time, snd 30
‘on. After hops, the eyele is repeated. Ifthe spectra (bandh) of che ogi
‘als, the spread spectrum (bandwidth) tht i allocated for tanssson 8 NB,
where Nis tbe number of hops in each eye. Por example, Figure 3.11 shows FHSS for
B-=10 Mbps and N’=5, to our example, ansmission reqires only 0.01 Giz or
10 Miz, butte system neds 0.05 GHz to spread the spectrum,
Spreading preveats an intuder from obnining conicental information, Te sender
and receiver apeeon the sequence ofthe allocated bans. Inthe figure, the fst it (oe
_roup of bis) seat in band 1 Qbutween 2.01 and 2.02 GHa), the second bit (or soup
Of bits is sent in band 2 (2.03 to 2.04 GH), and soon, A ineuder Who tone his
receiver to frequencies between 2.01 and 2.02 may receive the fst bit but reczives
nothing inthis band during the next 4 bit itera,
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) In tis scheme, each bit tobe sea by
the sade spaced by a sequence of bts called chip code, To avoid buen, how:
‘eth ime needed to Send ome orginal bts the same asthe ie needed to send one
‘hip coe. Tis mean hat the data rate for sending chip codes is (Vis tbe number of
bits in each chip coe) times the dt ate ofthe original bit seam. For example i the
Sender generates the original bitstream a 1 Mbps, and the chip code is 6 its lon, the
at sate for waning chip codes is 1 6= 6 Mbps (CHAPTERS UNDERLYING TECHNOLOGIES
1s obvious thatthe bandwidth required to send the chip codes i times greater
than the bandwideh for sending the origina bit steam. Ifthe ginal bitstream needs
B Hz, the chip codes need NB Ho, the same asin FHSS.
18M Frequency Band In 1985, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
‘modified the radio spectrum regultons fr unlicensed devices. The modistion autho-
‘izes wireless LANS to oper in Indust, Sciatic, and Medical (ISM) bands, The
tue ofthese bands does fot requir license from the POC ifthe equipment operate
‘under 1 W of power. Figure 3.12 shows the ISM bands.
Figure 12 15s bands
‘The 902 Mz band and the 5.725 GHz band are availabe only in the United
States; the 2.4 GHz band is available globally
Architecture
(ur dscusson of wireless LANs here isimited tothe IEEE 802.11 standard. The etan-
dard defines two kinds of services: the basic service set (BSS) andthe extended service
set (ESS).
‘Basie Service Set_The IEEE 802 defies the base service set (BSS) asthe build
ing block ofa wigeless LAN. A basic service se is made of stationary or mobile wire
less stations and an optional central base station, known as the access pont (AP).
Figare 3.13 shows two sts inthis standard.
igure 313s:
‘The BSS without an AP is x stnd-lone network and cannot send ata to other
[BSS%.Itisan ad hoe erehitectre SECTION3.1 LOCALAREA NETWORKS (LAN) 59
Extended Service Set_An extended service set (BSS) is made of 190 or more BSSs
‘with APS. In this case, the BSS are connected through a distribution stem, wtih is
sully a wired LAN, The dsuibtion system connects the APs in the BSSs. The IESE
802.11 doesnot restrict the disribtion system; ican be any IEEE LAN euch as an
Etheret or Token Ring. Note tha the ESS uses two types of stations: mobile and a
tionary. The mobile stations are nrmal tations inside a BSS, The ttionary stations
sa AP sous that ae par ofa wited LAN, Figure 3.14 shows an ESS.
Figure 3.14
‘When BSSs are connected together, we have an infrastructure nenwork In this
‘work, the stations within each of each cer ean communicate without the se of an
AP. However, two stations in two diferent BSSs usually communicate va two APS
‘The ideas similar to communication in celular network if we consider each BSS to
bea cell and each AP o be abase station, Noe that» mobile station can belong to mate
than one BSS athe seme tne,
‘Access Method Wireless LANs ate an acess msthd called carer sense mate
‘tccess with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA). The fist two priniples of CSMAICD
tlso apply to CSMAICA; cach station as qual sees othe medium (multiple acces)
and each station senses the medium before sending. However, collision detection i ct
applicable for several reasons, the dominant one being the hidden terminal probe.
“To understand the hide temminal problem, imine we have thes sions (1,2,
and 2) Station I sends a frame to station 2a the same time that station 3 send frame
{o station 2. I may happen that stations and 3 cannot hear each other (perhaps
‘because of some abstraction like a mountain or a wall) In this ease, collision may
‘eet, with tations Land 3 unable to detect i they think thei pckets have ried
safely
‘To prevent this stuation, collision must be avoided. Exch station defines how ln
St ceds the medium and tells ober stations to refrain from sending data duriag this
petod The procedure is as Fllows:
|. The sending station, after sensing that the medium i ie, seads a ypecil smut
frame called aquest to send (RTS). In this message, the sender defies the tol
time it neds the medi, 6 cuspren? UNDERLYING TECHNOLOGIES
2. The receiver acknowledges the request (broadcast to all stations) by sending a
smal packet called ler to send (CTS).
53. The sender sends the data fame.
4. Tho eceiver acknowledges the recip of dst,
igure 3.15 shows the proces,
igure 318 coMmarca
i
4
3
i
4
3.2, POINT-TO-POINT WANs
‘The second type of network we encounter in the Internet is the poe-to-poit wide area
rework. A point-to-point WAN connects two remote devices using a line available
rom a public nwork sch a a telephone nctwork. These public companies noemally
‘provide the sevice atthe physical ayer, the ser is responsible fo he prowocol athe
‘ata nk ayer,
Physical Layer
A the pysical layer, the point-to-point connection between two devices can be accom
plished using one ofthe services availabe today sach ay traditional modem technology
withthe reglar telephone line, DSL line cable modem, a line, SONET,
‘90 (86K) Modem
“Many end user of the Internet are connected from home or stall business to an ISP
‘hough a watonl modem. One carent development isthe V90 (86K) modem which SEcTION12 POIWETO-POINT WANs 61
uses the existing telephone line. The subscriber is conecte to the switching sation of
the telephone company and wee the connection from te switching sation to he ISP
‘Computer (sores). ‘The connections asymebi;dhe use an download dst at 56 kbps,
‘butpoading is ony at 33.6 Kbps.
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
“The digital subscriber lin (DSL) is «newer technology that uses the existing le
ommniation networks suchas th local lop telephone line (8 connection between
fuberber resident aod the telepose company) 1 accomplish high-speot delivery of
tata, vie, video, and molimedia,
‘DSI is family of technologies. Five of them will be disenssed here: ADSI
[RADSL, HDSL, VDSL, and SDSL.
[ADSL Telephone companies have insted high-speed digital wide area networs to
fandle communication between tei central oces. Te link between the user (0-
‘eau and the network however, iil an anslog line (atleast part of i). The cal
Tenge isto make these links digital digital subseriber Tne—without changing =
‘sting lel loops: The lol loop wes tvsted-pair cable wit a poental bandwith
of atleast | MHz
‘Asymmetric dightal subserber line (ADSL) is asymmetrical, which means it
provides higher bitrates inte downsteam direction (rom the teepoe central eee
fo the subsribers site) tha the ypsteam dzection irom the subscriber sitet the tle
‘hone ceil ofc) Tiss what subseibers usually Wan, They want 10 receive Bigh-
otume Ses icky from the Internet, but they usually have small les, sch a abort
mal message, o sen.
"ADSL divides the bandwidth ofa tisted-pair cable (1 MHz) into thre bani as
shown n Figure 3.16, The fist bend, normally between 0 spd 25 KHz is wed fore
Tar elephone service (kaowa as pin old telephone service or POTS). This service
tucs only 4 Ait ofthis band; the rst used asa goard band to separnte the voice
‘Sanne! fom the data chaanels, The second band, usually between 25 and 200A, is
ed for upsteam comunicain, The third band, usually 20 Kz to 1 MH, isused
for downstream communication, Some implementations oversp the downstream and
"upsteam band fo provide more handwith inthe downstream direction.
Figure 316 Bans forADSt [RADSL ‘The rate adaptive asymmetrical digital subscriber line (RADSL) is
technology based on ADSL I allows itferent data ats depending on the typeof com
‘munication: voice, data multimedia, and so on. Diflering rates may aso be assigned 10
subscribers based on their demand ofthe bandwidth. RADSL is beneficial to the cus
tomer because the cost is based on the data rate needed.
[HSL The high bit rate digital subscriber ine (HDSL) vas designed by Blione
{ow Telcordia) as an alternative othe TI Tne (1544 Mbps) whic has a1 km length
‘stction. HDSL can operate at lengths up 0 3.8 km
[SDSL The symmetric (oc singl-ine) digital subscriber lie (SDSE.) is he same as
[HSL bat uses one single twisted abe, available o most residential subscriber, 0
achive the same data rt as HDSL. A technique caled eco cancellation is employed 0
eat aful-dupex transmission,
\VDSL The very high bit rate dlgtalsubserber tie (VSL an stemasve spp
‘hots similar to ADSL. uses coaxial iter opi, ortvisted-pir cable for shor distances
(300 to 1800 meters A bitrate of 50 to $5 Mbp downstream and 1.5 102.5 Mbps
‘upsteam canbe scieved with VDSL.
(Cable Modem
Another technology used for emote connection is the cable modem. This technology
‘ses the cable TV services availabe in mort areas. The technology uses a S00 Mile
coaxial cable to deliver TV channels to residential areas. Because cach TV channel
‘needs only 6 MBz, more than 75 channels cn be simultaneously broadcast through the
cable. Some ofthese chanels canbe used o transmit data through the cable TV pro-
vider to the Ethernet
‘TLines
‘Tings are standard digital telephone carsoes designed originally to multiplex voice
channel (aller beng digitized). Today, however T lines canbe used to cary daa from
‘residence or an organization tothe Tniernet They can also be used to provide apy
al ink berween nodes in a switched wide tea network. T lines are commercially
‘nailable into daa res 1 and T-3 see Table 3.1.
Table 3A DS end Tine ser
‘Serie [Tine | Rae (ips) | ice Chamels
(bse 2
ps3 [rs [mre on
TA Line The data rete of a7 line is 154 Mbps, Twenty-four voice channels are
sampled, with each sample digitized to 8 bits, An extra biti added o provide syochro
‘ization. This makes the fame 193 bitin length. By sending 8000 frames pe second,
we get a data rate of 1.544 Mbps, When We us aI line to connect the Interne, we
an use the Whole or pat of the capacity ofthe line to send digital dala.
T3Line ATS line has data rate of 44.736 Mbps. is equivalent to 28 1 ines, spcriows2 POWTTO-POINTWANs 6
any subse may not es he entire capacity ofa T Un, To comma Ss
Many eloone companies have developed factional T ine serves, which
saa a satcrbes to share one tne by mlpexing thei ansmisions
SONET
she nigh bats of erp cable are sub for rays Nest
The high erg vido conferencing) and for carrying large mbar of Wr
Lea pce a the sme time. ANSI created a wet of standards Net
sae St Optical Neorork (SONET) 1 ante ws of hers bles 8
‘Gebines a high spend data caer.
wa ee defines a set of clctical sigals called synchronous anspor?
sia eS), He inverse ital topes sia calle opin cares
‘Age Ge opi signals ar tasted at 800 fees pes secon,
a rain dan rats foe STSS and OCs- Now tha he lowest even Hs
ere a ata ate of S140 Mips, which sees han that of 2 73 oe
(44.736 Mbps.
‘Table 32_SONET ae
‘eatin |
wer [oct] sis
St poos | ss
“sso | 009 166.560 _|
[srsiz foci | 622080
Se poeie | 9aa0
Sen poe | 16
Sem joc | 185
Sea oc | 208500
Verse | 00-96 | 4976640
srgisa [OC 192 | 9958280
Data Link Layer
‘Tene a reliable poinso-point conection, «wie needs plac he doe Tak
Tess nt snon pool fr pa 8 Fino Peat rota (PF
pre
ve leone line or cable compares provid a physical ik batt cone
ra pdm of dnt tere anced for special rss, The Poitse Font
Pratel (PPP) was designed o respond to this nee.
UP Layers PP as only pps and ink aes Nospecie pool isa!
OT Lager ape PP Tse sete inlemene tse walt
ae ery ofthe proms ecognizal by ANS. Atte das ink yet PPP (CHAPTER 3 UNDERLYING TECHNOLOGIES
tine the format of a frame and the prcocal ht ar used fr controling the fink and
‘ransporing wer dats The format of 2 FPP rane is shown in igure 3.17
igure 317 PPP fome
[emit] frome}
Ze mane [= [=]
ee ee
‘The descriptions ofthe folds ar as fllows
Fag field. The fag felt ideatifies tho boundaries of PPP fume, Nts vais
oui.
2 Address field. Because PPP is wed for a point-o-point connection, it uses the
broadcast adress used in most LANS, 11111111, t avoid data nk address in
the proses
5. Control lel. The contr! felis assigned the vale 11000000 to show tha asin
most LANS, the fame has no sequence nomber each fame i independent
4. Protocol field The protocol eld defines the type of data beng eri inthe data
fel user dts or cher ifrmation.
ata field. This field cases iter user dat or other information,
6. FCS, The fame check sequence Fld is simpy a byte or 4-byte CRC used for
ceordetesion
Link Control Protocol (LCP)
‘The Link Control Protocol (LCP) is responsible for establishment, msinteoanc, and
termination ofthe link. When the dan field ofa rane is carrying data related to tis
‘protcol,itmeans tat PPP is handing the Link it doesnot erry dts.
"Network Control Protocol (NCP)
‘The Network Control Protaeol (NCP) has been define to give Bexiilty to PPP. PPP
can cary data fom different network protocols, including IP After establishment of
‘he fink, PP can cary TP packets i is dats eld,
33. SWITCHED WANs
‘The backbone networks inthe Internet ae usually & switched WAN. A switched WAN
{sa wide area network that covers age area (a state ora country) an provides access
at several points (othe user. Inside the network, there is « mesh of point-to-point SECTION33 SWITCHED WANs &
rncrwonks that connects switches, The switches, multiple por connectors, alow the can
fection of several ints and outputs.
‘Switched WAN technology differs from LAN technology in many ways, Fit
inead ofa us or star topology, sites are use to create maltipe paths. LAN echm-
‘ogy is conser aconnestinless technology; there so connewion Between pacts st
by ser to a reece Switched WAN technology, an the other hand, sa Comectna-
‘vented technology Before a sender ca sed upoket, connection mist be established
tetwoon the sener andthe reeever. fer the conection i estaished itis assigned an
“mie, which is used during the tansmsson, The conection i formally eringed
‘nhen the transmission is over The conection iat is used instead ofthe source and
‘Gestion adresses in LAN technology
‘We discuss three common switched WANS in this section. The first, X25, is
simon obsolete The second, Frame Relay, will sil be in use for afew more years to
‘Some, Te thd, ATM, is the prevalent echoolog. Oar discussion forthe isto wil
tr short; we devote more time tothe hid
X25
X25, inoduced i the 1970, was the fst switched WAN to become popular btn in
Europe and United Stats. Aough sill used ia Europe, itis disappeaing from the
{United States. Iwas mostly used a «pubic network to connect individ comptes
‘LANs. I previes an endtoend servic.
‘Aithouz X25 was (and stil to some extent) used as he WAN to cary IP pack:
‘és from one pat ofthe world to snoter, thre was alway confit between DP and
Sis IP ia thir: (network) layer protocol, An TP packets supposed tobe cavo8 by
‘Tne at the second (data ik) Taye X25, which was designed before the Inter is
‘three ayer protocol: irks its own network layer IP packets had to be encapsulated in
th 225 network layer packet tobe cited from one side of the network fo anther.
"This analogous to a person who has car but sto load itn a tuck go fom: one
point to another
"Another problem with X.25 is that twas designed at atime when wansmission
media were not vey fcible (00 ee of opal fibers). For this eason, X.25 performs
flow and eror contol at both te data fink layer and the network layer. This wakes
‘munamisson very slow an ie n0t popular given the evr increasing demand for speed.
Fr the above reasons, X.25 will ost key son disappear from the ntemet,
‘Frame Relay
‘Frame Relay, a switched technology that provide low-level (physical and data link
layer) service was designed to replice X25. Pome Relay has some advantages over
x25)
1. High Data Rate, Although Frame Relay originally was designed to provide @
[est Mbps data ate (equivalent to 4 lie) today most implementatoes can
handle up 044.736 Mops (quivalea to «3 ine.
2, Buraly Data, Some services offered by wide area network provides assum that
the unr fas fixedate need. For example, 27 line i designed fora user who a
CHAPTER 3 UNDERLYING TECHNOLOGIES
‘wants to use the in at a consistent I 544 Mbps. This ype of service isnot suitable
for the many users today that need to Send bursty data (aonfinctrate data). For
example, a user may want to send data at 6 Mbps for 2 seconds, 0 Mops nothing)
for 7 seconds, and 344 Mbps fr 1 second for total of 15:44 Nb during a pevid
‘9f 10scconds. Although the average data rae is sill 144 Mbps, the Tet line
‘cannot full this type of demand ecase itis designe for Gx ato dla not
‘bursty data. Busty daa requzes what i aed bandwidth on demand. The viet
needs different bandwidth allocations at different times. Frame Relay accepts
bursty dota. A user is granted an average data rate that can be excveded when
needed,
5, Less Overhead Due to Improved Transmission Media, The quality of ransmis-
sion media has improved tremendously sine the last decade. They are more reli
able an less exor prone. Thre is no ed t have & WAN that spends time and
‘sources checking and doubl-checking potential enor. X25 provides exensine
nor checking and flow cont. Frame Relay doesnot provide error checking or
‘equi acknowledgment inthe data ink layer. Instead all eror checking i lef
the protocols a the network and transport layers that use the services of Frame
Relay.
Frame Relay Architectare
‘The devices that connect users to the network are DTES. The switches that rote the
frames through the network ae DCEs (Se Figure 3.18). Frame Rely sory used
15 a WAN to connect LANs or mainframe computers. In the first eas, a router oft
bridge can serve asthe DTE and connects, trough a lesed tne, the LAN tothe Fame
Relay switch, which s considered a DCE. In the second cate, the mnnfame isl ean
‘be used as a DTE withthe instalation of appropriate sotware-
Figure 318 Prone Relay nerork SECTION SWITCHED WANs 6
‘Virtual Circuits
Frame Relay like other switched LANs uses a virtual cicut and virtual circuit ident
erscalled DIC
Frame Relay Layers
Fram Relay has only physical and data ink layers, No specific protect is defined for
‘the physical layer in Frame Relay. Tntead, tis le othe ipplemente to use whatever
isatilable, Frame Relay supports any ofthe protogallFecognized by ANSL
‘ee at ink ee, rane Ree eng spl rol espe fr
etvesing dats from one DTE to anatee :
1 leeds
ATM \ A 2Guasth
Asychronns Taner Moe ATM) ish clay rol designed hy he AN
rum and adopted bythe ITU-T
Design Goals
‘Among the challenges faced by the designers of ATM, sx standout Fist and foremost
isthe noe fora transmission system to optimize the use of high-rate transmission
medi, npatcularopical be, Second ithe ned foes sytem that can interface with
trising systems, such asthe various packet network, snd to provide wide are inter
Connetivity between them without lowering thee effectiveness or requiring their
Feplacement. Thin isthe need for a design tha canbe impiemenied inexpensively so
thatcost would no be baie to adopton. If ATM iso become the backbone of ite
‘atonal communications a intended, It mast be available at low cost to every user
‘who wants Fourth, de new system must be ale to work with and suppor the exis
ing telecommuniestions hierarchies cal loops, local providers, lng stance eaten,
tnd so on). Fifth, the new system most be consection-orented to ensore aoearate and
predictable delivery. And las ut not lest, one objective isto move as many ofthe
Fantins to hardware as posible (for sped) and eliminate as many software functions
as posible (agin for speed).
(Catt Networks
[ATM isi cellnenvork.A cell is small data unit of fixed size that ste basic unit cf
dat exchange ina eel network. Inti typeof network, all data ae loaded into ient=
fal calls hat ean be transite with complete predictability and nifty. Cells xe
‘ruliplexed with other els ad routed throagh sell network. Because each ell isthe
Sane sie and all are small, any problems associated with multiplexing different-sized
packets are avoided
‘Rca ecwonk ses the el she Bae wt of dt exshage. Aces detned a wal.
feeb sed book of ifrmaton, 6% CHAPTERS UNDEaLUING MaCHNOLOGIES
Asynehronous TDM
[ATM uses asynchroaous ime-divsion maltiplesingtst i why iis called Asyn-
chronous Transfer Mode—to mulipex cells coming from diferent channel, I ukes
fixedsze slots the size ofa cll ATM multiplexes il sot with x el fom any inp
anne hat asa cell he slots empry if none ofthe channels sell send.
Figure 2.19 shows how els from three inputs are multiplexed. Atte fs ck of
‘he lock, channel 2 has o cell (empty input lt, so the miler Bll the slot with
‘call fiom the thd chanel. Whee ll he cells from all he chines are malpexed,
the ouput slots are empty,
igure 319 Art maipeing
mE
ATM Architecture
ATM isa calswitched network. The usr acess devices, cll the end points, are
‘comecied through a user-to-network interface (UND to the switches inside the net
work. The switches ae connected trough network-fo-network interfaces (NNIS).
Figure 3.20 shows an example of an ATM network
igure 320 Archiecne of an ATM nerork SECTION2 SWITCHED Wane
Viral Connection Connection between two end points i accomplished through
transmission paths (TP), vistual path (VPs), and viral circuits (VCs). transmise
sion path TP) isthe physical connection (wie, abl, satelite, and soon) between an
fe point and switch or between two switches, Think of to switches as two cites. A
‘tansnasion path these of all highways tat directly connects the tvo cits
“A transmission paths eivided ito several viral paths. virtual path (VP) po
vides a connection ora set of connections betweca two switches. Think of a vstaal
path es highway tht connect two eis. Each highway isa virtual path the st ofall
Highways isthe tansmission path
‘Cell networks ae based on virtual circuits (VCS). Al cells belonging 1a single
message fallow the same virtual circuit and remain in their original order until they
Teach heir destination, Think o vrualeiruit os the lanes ofa highway (vst path)
‘6 shown in Figure 321
gare 321. val coets
“The figure elso shows the relationship between 4 wansmission path (a physical
conection), virtual paths (4 combination of viral circuits that are bund together
‘because pars of thet pasar the sme), and virtual creuits tha logically connet 660
points together.
Ina virtual circuit network, to route data rom one end point to anther, the virtual
connections need to be identified, Fortis purpose, the designers of ATM crated
hirarchiel identifier with tvo levels: a virtual path identifier (VPI) aod virtual
‘dreuit identifier (VCD. The VPI dfines te specific VP andthe VCT defines particu
lar VC inside the VP. The VPI isthe same for ll vial connections that are banded
(logically) into one VP.
‘Ne hata vial ones is died by a pai of munber the VP he VC
(Calls ceili 53 bytes in length with 5 bytes allocated to header and $8 bytes cary
ing payload (user duta may be les than 48 bytes). Most of the header is ocupied by the
\VPLand VCI.Figue 3.23 shows the eel structure,
AM Layers
‘The ATM standard defines thee layers. "hey are, from top to bottom, the appcation
adaption layer, the ATM layer, and the physical layer a shown in Figure 3.2. ”
CHAPTER} UNDERLYING TECHNOLOGIES
Figure 322. An ari elt
Application Adaptation Layer (AL) The application adaptation layer (AAL)
allows existing networks (uch 38 packet networks) to connect to ATM feilities,
‘AAL protocols accep ransmissions from upper layer services (eg, packet dat) and
map them into fixed-sized ATM cells. These transmissions ean be of any type (voce,
sta, audio, video) and ean be of variable or Hxed ates. At the receives, ths procees
is reverset—segments are reassembled into their original formats and passe to the
receiving service
AALA,AAL is designed for constant-itrate (CBR) data coming fom aplica-
tons that generate and consume bit at constant ae In this typeof application,
‘eansmission delays must be minimal and transmission rmust simulate real ne
[Examples of constan-itsate applications include realtime voice (slephone
calls) and eal-ime video (television)
% AAL2. AL? is designed for varable-bit-rate (VBR) data coming fom applica
tions tat generate and consume bis at viable rts. ln this typeof application,
the bitrate vates from section to section of the transmission, but within esaby
lished parameters. Examples of variable-bitrate aplication include compressed
voice, data, and video.
[8 AALV4. ALIA is designed for connection vented packet protocol (sch as
X25) tha use viral circuits,
"© AALS. AALS is designed foe comnectionless packet protocols that use datagram
'pproech to routing (such as the IP protacal in TCPIP).
‘Tae poco! we he AALS wpe SECTION 3 SWITCHED WANs 11
[ATM Layer The ATM layer provides routing, trafic management, switching, and
multiplexing services. processes outgoing tri by accepting 48-byte segments fron
the AAL sublayers and wansfomaing them no 53-byte cells bythe addition of aS-bye
ade
Physical Layer The physical layer defines the transmission median, bit transmis
sion, encoding, and electrical o opcal transformation, I proves convergence with
Physical transport protocols, such ae SONET and T3, aswell as the mechanisms fot
transforming the Rw of cells ino a fow of bis,
‘We wil aces IP one ATM in Caper 26
ATM LANs
[ATM is mainly a wide area network (ATM WAN): however the technology can ke
‘opted to local area networks (ATM LAN) In this section we discus the lechnoogy
ss applied to LANS,
The high ata rate ofthe technology (155 and 622 Mlps) has atraced the ate:
tion of designers who are looking for increased dat ates in LANE,
ATM LAN Architecture
Today, we have three ways to incorporate ATM technology in & LAN architecture: cre-
sting a pure ATM LAN, making legacy ATM LAN, or nstureof both a5 shown in
Figure 324,
Pure ATM Architecture Ina pute ATM LAN, an ATM switch is sod to connect the
stations ia a LAN, in he same way sation are connected to an Ethernet th In ths
‘vay, stations can exchange data atone of two standard eacs of ATM technology (SS
sud 652 Mbps). However the sation wses vital path identier (VPI) and a vital
‘connection identifier (VCD instead ofa source and destination address. Tis approach
hus amor drawback. The system needs o be built from the grouad up existing LAN
cannot be upgrade ino pure ATM LANS.
Legacy LAN Architecture A second approach i o use ATM technology asa back-
bone to connect rational LANS.
In this way, stations on the same LAN can exchange dat tthe rate and format of
traditional LANS (Btherct, Token Ring, e)- Bat whea two stations a vo differest
LANs need to exchange dai, they can go trough a converting device that changes he
fame format, The advange here itt output fom several LANS can be multiplexed
together to creates igh dts rate tpt to the ATM sich. We wil see a hee are
Several issues that shouldbe resolved ft.
Mixed Architecture Probably the best solution isto mix the two previous arcites
tures, This means keeping the existing LANS and, atthe same time, allowing new
ns tobe directly connected to an ATM switch, This approach allows the gradu
signtion of legacy LANs into ATM LANs by adding moce and more drelly cow
‘oct stations othe switch. Again the Stations in one spciic LAN can exchange dea 2
(CHAPTER 3 UNDERLYING TECHNOLOGIES
Figure 324 ATM LAN aiecuee
lelALe
Sain See Sot, Se Sion Se
se ATA LAN Leger ATILAN
a
«Mitac ATM LAN
‘sing the format and data rat ofthat particular LAN. The stations dicey conn to
‘the ATM switch can use an ATM fame to exchange data, However, the problem is how
«sation in traditional LAN can communicate with aration dcctly connected othe
‘ATM switch or vce vers
LAN Emulation (LANE)
Atte surface level, the use of ATM technology in LANs seems very natural, However,
‘he similarity is only atthe surface lovl: many issues need tobe resolved, as mm
sized below
"= Conneetioniss vs. Conmection-riented. Traditional LANs, such as Eteret, are
‘sonpectioness protocols. On the other hand, ATM isa connection-riented proto
cal station that wishes to sen cell to another sation fst etablishes a connec
tion and afterall he cells ae seo, terminates the conection.
1 Physical Addresses vs. Virtual Connection Identifers Cloely related tothe fist
‘aie nthe difference in addressing. A connectioaless protocol, sich as Ethernet, SECTION 23 SWITCHED WANs 73
eines the rote ofa packet rough source and destination adreses, However, 3
connection-riested protocol, such as ATM, defies the route ofa cell rong vi
tual connection denis (VPIs and VCIs,
‘= Molicasting and Broadcasting Delivery. Traditional LANS, such as Eenet,
«can both moliast and broadcast packets staan ean Send packets Yo a group of
Stations orto all stations. There i wo easy way’ to multicast or broadcast cht
‘ATM network although point1o-mulipoint connections are availabe
(© Interoperability. n a mixed architecture, a station connected to 2 legacy LAN
ust beable to communicate wih station directly eannected to an ATM switch,
An sppoach calle Local Area Network Emulation (LANE) solves the above menoned
problems en allows stations ina mixed architctere to communicate with each other.
The appoac uses emulation, Stations can use a connections service tit emus
connecton-orieted sevice. Stations se the source and destination adeses fo ii-
tal connection and then use VPLand VCI adresing. The spproach allows states to
se unicast, malticast, and broadcast adresses. Finally, the approach converts fames
using a legacy formato ATM cells before being seat through the switch
(ClenServer Model
LLANE is desiged asa clieauserver model to handle the four previously discussed
problems. The protocol uses one typeof lint and three types of servers,
LAN Emulation Client (LEC) _ All uations hve LANE client sftvare insted on
top ofthe tree ATM protocols. The upper layer protocols are unaware ofthe existence
ofthe ATM techaclog. These protocols sed their requests fo LEC for a LAN service
Such as connections delivery sing MAC unicast, micas, or broadcast adresses.
‘The LEC, however, js interprets the request, and passes the result ont the Serves,
LAN Emulation Configuration Server (LIECS) The LANE configuration server is
ted for initial connection between the clint and LANE, This serve is lways waling
to receive the inal contact. Ihsan adres tat is known to every let in the sya,
[LAN Emulation Server (LES) LANE server softwares insalled onthe LS sever.
‘When a sation receives frame tobe sent wo apoer station using a physical adress,
LLEC sends a special frame to the LES server. The server creates ¢ virtual cuit
[between the source and the destination sation. The source sation can now use this
Vital circuit (and te coresponding identifies) to Sead the frame or fumes tthe
esiaton.
Broadcast/Unknown Server (BUS) Malicasting and broadcasting require the use
of smother server called the Broadcas/Unknown Server o BUS. If a station meas to
‘senda frame to «group of sation o o every sation, the au Sst goes tothe BUS
server this server hss permanent Vieual connections fo every sation. The server ee-
sts copies ofthe recived fame and sends a cop to 8 group of stations oft al stax
tions, simulating a multicasting or brotdcasting process The server can also delier
‘unicast fame by sending the fame to every station In this ease the destination adress
is uaknowa. This is sometimes more eficint than getting the conection ideifer
from the LES sere ”
CHAPTER 3 UNDERLYING TecHNoLoGtES
Figure 3.25 shows cients and serves in «mixed arcitecure ATM LAN,
Figure 325 A med echecure ATM LAN sting LANE
| 2
|
In the figure, thre types of servers ae connscted tothe ATM switch (they can
scualy be pat ofthe switch. Also we show two types of clients Stations A aad B,
LLANE stations designed to send and recive LANE communication, ate dscety cos,
‘ected tothe ATM switch, Stations C,D,E, ,G, and Hin traitinal legacy LANs ae
‘sonecte tothe witch via converte. These converters a LEC clas and ome
‘unica on behalf oftheir connected sation,
34 CONNECTING DEVICES
[this chapter, we discussed LANs and WANS as the underlying echaologles forthe
Internet andthe TCP protocol. However, the Inemet today isnot made of a single
LAN ora single WAN. The ltereti a combination of LANS ait WANK Thee nec SECTION 14 CONNECTING DEVICES *S
tea way to joi hese LANs and WANs togeter We call thes joining wols connecting
deviees
‘We discuss five kinds of devices in this section: repestes, hubs, ridges, routes
and switches. Repeaters and hubs operate inthe Sst layer of the TCPAP protocol sui.
{This is compaebl tothe physical layer ofthe OSI model Brides operate in the fst
two layers. Routers operat nthe ist three layers. We have tW0 (ype of switches the
fist ype isa sophisticated bridge and the second isa sophisticated router. Figure 3.25
‘hows the ayers in which each device operates.
Figure 326 Comecig devices
Repeaters
[A tepeatcr sa device tha operates only inte physical yee. Signals that cary ior
‘Raton within & petwork ean travel a ned distance before stenvation codangers che
Iinegalty of the data A repeater eceives a signal, and before it becomes too Weak or
Couupted, regenerates te orginal bit pasers Ic shen sends the refreshes signa.
repeater can extend the physical length of network as shown in Figure 327
igure 327 Repeter
"reper onset tegmes Fu LAN oat. 1%
(CHAPTER UNDERLYING TECHNOLOGIES
A repeater can overcome the length restition on a LOBASES Ethernet. tn this
Standard, the length ofthe cable is limited to 500 meters. To extend this lengt, we
Avie the cable ito segments and install repeaters between segments, Note tha the
whole network is sill considered one LAN, but the orton of the networks separated
by repeaters ae called segments. The repeater ats asa two-nterface node, bu operat
‘only in the physical layer. When it receives a packet rom any ofthe itstaces repens
rates nd forwards tothe other interface.
A repeater frwarls very poke bar no lng capably
Hubs
‘Although, i 8 general sense, the woed bub can refer to any connecting device, it does
have a specific meaning. hub is actually @ multiport repeater. It is normally used to
reateconnecions betwen stations in a physical star topoogy. We ve seen examples
of hubs in some Ethemet implementations (1OBASE-T, for example). However, bs
can alo be used to create multiple level of hierarchy as shown in Figure 3.28,
Figure3.28 Hubs
[Not that the whole network ssi ne single LAN, Note also thatthe news is
consiered a logical bus topology (i sation sends a packer, itis reocved by every
other station. The herucica we of habs removes the length imitation of 1OBASE-T
(100 meter)
Bridges
‘A bridge operates in both the physical andthe data link layers. As a physical layer
sevice, it egeneates the signal it oceves. Asa ata ink layer deve, the bridge tan
check the physical ues (Source and destination) contained inthe packet Noe tata
bridge, ke repeater, has no physical adress. It ats ony as a filter, not an ogi
sender oa inal destination,
Filtering
(One may ask what isthe diference, in fanctionaliy, between abridge anda repeater?
‘A bridge has tering capability. It can check the destination acess ofa packet and SECTION34 CONNECTINGDEVICES 77
decide ifthe packet shouldbe forwarded or droped. I the packet sto be forwarded,
he decison must specify the interface, A bridge has a table that map adresses to
intertees.
"Rois has able eee Gog dion
‘Let us give an example, In Figure 329, a LAN is divided into evo segments sepa
rated by a bridge Ifa packet destined for station T12B134S6161 (or 712B13856142)
‘rive a interface 1, the bridge consults its table to find the departing intersc.
‘Reconting to its table packets for 712813456141 leave through interface, Therefore,
‘thre no need foe forwarding the pickets dropped, Onthe ober hand, ia paket for
‘TIOB13436141 aves at inerface 2, the departing intesfce, agin, i interface 1 nd
ihe pockets forwarded nthe first ease, sepment 2 remins fee of afc i he send
aot both segments have tfc. fn our example, we show a two-nterface bridge: in
teal a bridge ean have several nterfices. Not that all he segments connected 0 a
‘re are tl prof one LAN.
Figure329 Bree
Bester
angers reams eaniuseit2 65138613
Coenen Seon?
—__
"ridge convents egients ofa LAN ogee
"Note also that bridge does not change the physical adresses contained inthe
packet. (CHAPTERS UNDERLYING TECHNOLOGIES
‘Transparent Bridges
“Today's bridges are transparent (or learning) bridges: they can be easily installed
between two segments of a LAN (plug and play). The bridge’ table i originally
‘ert, but as soon asa bridge receives and forwards a packet erates en ety i
‘table with the source ares andthe ariving interface. From then onthe bide knows
‘hat every packet to hit destination departs frm that laterface. The bre lo ecards
information about the destination using the infomation contained in the packet We do
something similar when we reply to ml or emi),
Routers
‘routers three-layer device; it operates in the physical, data ink, and network a
fs. As pysical layer device, it regenerates the signa receives. Asa data ik ayer
device, the router checks the physical addresses (source and destination cotaid in
the packet. Asa network layer device, a router checks the network layer adenies
(adeeses in the IP aye)
rowers ete layer (phy ca dain aed wetwoeh) device
A router can connect LANs together; router can connect WANS together and a
router can connect LANs and WANS togetber In other words, a route isan internet
working device it connects independent networks togeter to fom an intemetwork.
According to this definition, two networks (LANs or WANS) connected by # rovter
‘become an ntemetwork oa internet
———_________
‘reps or bridge connect segs of LAN
‘Arar const indcpententLANS of WANS nce tn ner work iter).
‘There are three major differences betwen a router and a repeater o «bridge.
1. Aroues has a physical and logical (IP) adres for each ofits interfaces,
2. A roster ats only on those packets in which the destination adress matches the
‘adress ofthe nterfce at which the packs ives, Tiss tue for unicast, mult
castor broadcast addresses.
3. router changes the physical address ofthe packet (bath source and destination)
wen i forwards the packet.
‘Let us give an example. In Figure 3.3, we show two LANS separated by route. Tae
Jeft LAN has two segments separated by «bridge. Te outer changes the source and
destination adresses ofthe pcket. When the packet travels inthe let LAN, it source
dress isthe aces ofthe ending station; it destination adress is tbe aden of the
router. When the sume packet travels inthe sooond LAN, its source address i the
adres ofthe outer and its destination adress ste adres ofthe final destination.
Routes route packets among multiple interconnected networks. Thy rte packets
{om one network to any of a numberof potential destination networks onan inert, SecTION 34 CONNECTING DEVICES 79
Figure 330 Rowing exonple
Rovers ct ke stations on a network But ualike most stations, which are members of
only one network, routers hav adders on, and inks to, two Or more networks
‘rte changes pe adnan nape
We will Jer more aboot routes and routing in fate chapters after we have dis-
cussed IP addressing
Switches
‘When we use the term swith, we shouldbe careful because a switch an meant di
{cet hogs, We musta the term byading te lavel at which he device operates
‘Wecan have atwoluyer switch ora three-layer switch. Let us rill dicuss each
‘TworLayer Switch
‘A two-layer switch is abridge with many isterfaces and a design tha allows bexor
(ase) performance. A bridge with afew inerfaces can connect few segment of &
TAN together A brig with naay interface may be able to allocate a unique interface
to-each station, with each station cn is opm independent segment. This means 0 cor
peting traffic (no collision as we sv in Ethernet) In his book, avoid confuses, We
tee te term bide fra two-layer switch.
‘Three Layer Switch
[A tree layer switch s router with an improved design to allow better peformance. A
thee layer swith can rosie, proces, and dispatch a packet much faster than atradi
tional router even though the fanctionality is the same. In this book, to ave cotision,
we use the term outer fora three layer sich CHAPTER} UNDERLYING TECHNOLOGIES
3.5 KEY TERMS
1O00BASE-CX
000BASE-LX
0008ASESx_
10008AS-7
1WOHASE-FX
1OORASE-T4
100BASE-TX
100BASE-X
BASE
OBASES
1OBASE FL.
10BASE-T
sor frame
pplication adaptation layer (AL)
asymmeuic digital subserbe ine
(ADSL)
synchronous time division
‘multiplexing
Asyncheanoos Transfer Mode (ATM)
ATM switch
‘bandwidth on demand
bose service et (HSS)
bridge
‘rondcasdunknown server (BUS)
broadcast address
camer sense multiple acess with
‘cillsioa detection (CSMA/CD)
cell
channel
callsion
‘connecting device
‘omectonlss protocol
‘conneton-aiented protocol
destination adres (DA)
ital sbserber in (DSL)
Aizet sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)
SS-tasion mobility
Ethernet
extended service set (ESS)
ast ihcret
fractional T tne
fame
frame check sequence (RCS)
Frame Relay
frequency hopping spread spectum
HSS)
fol. duplex Ethernet
Gigabit Ethernet,
high bit ate digital subseiber line
DSL)
infrared (OR)
LAN emulation (LANE)
LLAN emulation client (LEC)
LAN emulation configuration server
(ECS)
LAN emlation serves (LES)
legacy LAN
Link Control Protcol (LCP)
local area network (LAN)
local oop SECTION5 SUMMARY 1
mixed architecture LAN Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)
rmuleast adress Synchronous Optical Network
(SONET)
rmultsteion access uni (MAU)
Network Control Protocol (NCP)
network iaterfoe eaed (NIC)
synchvonous anspor module (STM)
‘yehromoos transport signal (STSi
networkto-network interfaces NNT) Bes
optical canier (OC) ine
packet Tine
Physical ade woken
Poinct-Point Proacol PPP) ee
reanbie (oken passing
pure ATM LAN ‘Token Ring
ni requeney wave teanscever
rt adepive ayrometical digital onias adress
subscribe line (RADSL) eser-o-network interface (UNI)
repeater very high bitte digital subscriber tine
router «vst
source adress (SA) inal cru deaier (VED)
syne specu ‘viral connection identifier (VCD
‘veel path identi (VED)
wide area network (WAN)
wireless transmission
x25
‘sat frame deiner (SED)
site
itch Ethernet
symmenie dgial subsrber ine
(SDSL)
3.6 SUMMARY
‘Ethernet isthe most widaly uso loca are network pro¢oca
‘8 Teadtonal Ethernet uses CSMAVCD with a data ate of 10 Mbps and clision
domain of 2500 mer,
1 The data ink layer of Ethernet consists ofthe LLC sublayer and the MAC su
layer
f= The MAC sublayer is responsible for the operation of the CSMAICD access
method. 2
(CHAPTERS UNDERLYING TECHNOLOGIES
ach sation onan Pthemet network has a unique 48-bit addres imprinted on its
network interface cad (IC).
‘The common implementations of 10-Mbps Ethernet are 1OBASES, 10BASE2,
OBASE-T, and 10BASE-FL.
‘Fst Btheret uses CSMAJCD with a data rate of 100 Mbps and collision domain
0f 280 meters
The commen Fast Ethemet implementations are 100BASE-TX, 100BASE-FX,
snd 100BASE-T
Gigabit Ethernet has a data rte of 1000 Mops. Common implementations are
0GOBASE-SX, JOQDBASE-LX, and 1000BASE-T,
‘A point-to-point connection othe Internets posible using regular telephone lines
nd wadtonal modems, DSL ies, cable mesdems, ines, or SONET networks
‘The Poinsto-Point Protocol (PPP) was designed for users who need 8 eine
pine‘ point connection othe ntret.
PP operates athe physical and data ink layers ofthe OSI mode
‘Tae Link Consol Protec (LCP) is sesposibe for extablishing maintaining con-
figuring, ond terminating links,
X25 sa switchad WAN tats being replaced by ober technologies,
Frame Relay eliminates the extensive eror checking nocesary in X25 protocol
Frame Relay operates in the physical and daa link layer ofthe OST model
‘Asyehroaons Transfer Mode (ATM) is the cll elay protocol designe Lo support
the transmission of dat, voice and video trough high dita rate rnsmission media
suchas fiber-optic cable
‘The ATM ata packet is called a cell and is composed of 53 byes (5 bytes of
header and 48 bes of pyle,
‘Accll network is based on permanent vrwal ret routing,
‘The ATM stacard defines thee layers the aplication adaptation layer (AAL),the
‘ATM layer, andthe physical layer
“There are four diferent AALS, each specifi fora datatype. TCPAP wses AALS,
which converts data coming fom a conneconless packet switching network
ATM technology canbe adopted fr use in 8 LAN (ATM LAN).
na pure ATM LAN, an ATM switch connect stations. In 2 legacy ATM LAN,
the backbone that connects traditional LANs uses ATM technology. A mixed
asctitecure ATM LAN combine features ofa pure ATM LAN and a legacy ATM
TAN
Local Ares Network Emulation (LANE) is a ciendserver model that allows the
‘se of ATM technology in LANS.
LLANE software includes LAN emulation client (LEC), LAN emulation coafigura-
‘don server (LECS), LAN emulation server (LES), and broadcasvunknown server
(BUS) modules
‘Connecting devices can connect segments ofa network togeter they ci alo
‘conaect networks togetier to create a Internet
‘Thee are five types of connecting devices repeaters, bubs, bridges, routes, and
sehen, Secriow37 pracriceset 53
12 Repeaters regenerate a signal tthe physical layer
A hub isa moltipr cepeater.
‘Bridges have access to station areses and can forward or ile packet ea net
‘work They operate a the physical and data ink ayes,
‘= Rouer determin te path a packet should ake, They operate at the physic, data
Tink, and nerk layers.
"= A two-layer switch ia sophisticated bridge: a voe-layer switch isa sopisicaed
3.7, PRACTICE SET
‘Multiple-Choice Questions
1 1OBASE2 wes cable while HOBASES uses
2 thick coaxial thin cowl
twisted, thick coaxial
thin coil, thick couxil
4. Hher-opi, thin cons
2. ___ specifies a star topology festring «central hob and unshielded twisted:
ae wire a the medium,
4. TOBASES
b 10BAsE
©. 1OBASE-T
none ofthe ove
3. Frame Reley operates inthe
1. phystel layer
data link ayer
© pysical and dat ink ayers
4. physic, daa link, and network layers
4, Which ATM Iyer species how user dats should be packaged into cells?
physica
b AIM
©. application adeptation
<4. ata adaptation
5. Which ATM layer has a 53-byte call as an nd product?
2 physical
b ATM
© application adaptation
4. cel transformation 84 CHAPTERS. UNDERLYING TECHNOLOGIES
6. Which application adaption layer ype can process a data steam having a non-
constant bitte?
2 ALL
bh AL
© AALS
4. AALS
7. Which AAL type is designed to suppor data steam that has constant bit ate?
ALL
AL?
©. AALIM
@ AALS
8. Which ofthe following is nota connecting device?
a bridge
taneceiver
4. repeater
9. Repeaters function in the_ layer
physical
data link
© network
aang
10. Bridges function i the
2 physical
data ik
network
4 amdd
1 Abed bas aooees tothe address ofa station onthe sume network,
physical
network
«. service acess point
4 allof the above
12, Routers function inthe layers.
physical and data ink
> physical, ata tnk, and network
ata ink and necvork
4. network and anspor
layer, 18
SECTION27 PRACTICESET 38
Ina___ATMLAN all stations ate connected tothe ATM swite,
a pure
bs leacy
mised architecture
4. any ofthe above
‘A______ATM LAN could bave Btheret LANs and Token Ring LAN comecied
{oa ATM switch
pure
be legacy
mined architecture
a bande
Tian ATM LAN, a stiton oa an Btherst LAN needs
‘with Token Ring LAN.
a repeaters
by Inbs
to exchange dita
convenes
software i installed on the cient machin.
eee
» LECS.
LES
4. BUS
‘The sever is used forthe iil eonaetion between the client and LANE.
2 LEC
Lees
©. BUS
48 none ofthe above
nan ESS the __staion is mobi.
a ar
bs server
©, BSS.
4. all ofthe above
nan SS the. stations are part of «wired LAN.
3 AP
b ener
© BSS
1. all of be above 8% CHAPTERS UNDERLYING TECHNOLOGIES
20,
21
2.
2,
SONET is standard for networks.
a. twisted pair cable
coaxial eale
«. Biheret
4. fiber-optic cable
SSONET is an acronym fr Nework
‘4. Synchronous Opscal,
by, Standard Optical
Symmetrical Open
4. Standard Open
PrPisa
«physical
dita ink
physical and data link
seven
‘Whats the purpose of LCP?
4 establishment of Kink
maintenance of ain
«termination of ink
alo the above
ayer roca,
Exercises
2,
2.
26.
2.
2.
3h
What colision?
‘Suppose thor is heavy tealfic on both & CSMAVCD LAN and a Token Ring LAN.
‘A sation on which system is more likely to wait longer to sea a fame? Why?
‘Why do you think that an Ethemet fame shoal havea minimum data sie?
Imagine the length of a JOBASES cable is 2500 meters. It speed of propagation
ine thick coaral eable is 200,000,000 meteetecond, bo fn does it take for a
‘ito ave! from the beginning 1 the end ofthe network? Ignore any propagation
ela inthe equipment
‘Using he dat in Exercise 27, ind the maximum time takes to sense x collision.
‘The worst ease occurs when date are seat from one end of the cable an the oli>
sion happoas athe other end. Remember that the sgral needs to make a round-
tp.
‘Te dats rte of 1OBASRS is 10 Mbps. How long dest take to crete the smallest
frame? Show your eleaaton.
Using the data in Exereises 28 and 29, ind the minimum size ofan Ethera frame
{or cillision detection to work propery.
An Bihernet MAC sablayer receives 42 bytes of data fom the LLC sublet, How
‘many byes of padding must be added to the data? SECTION7 PRACHICESET 81
32. An Bihernet MAC sublayer receives 1510 bytes of data from the LLC layerCan
the data be eneaplate in one frame’? I not, how many frames ned 1 be vat?
Whats the sige of he daa in each rae?”
Programming Exercises
33. Complete the following struct declaration forthe Etherot paket,
‘sevctihemet
t
lussigned ong iat CRC
hs
34. Complete he following struet declaration for the Token Ring packet
struct Token Ring
c
jpeedion it CRE
35, Complete the following struet declaration for an FDDI packet,
emict FDI
{
‘signa tong int ERE
H ‘Atte neswotk (or IP) aye, we aed to uniquely identify each device on he Inerseto
low global communication between all devices, Tis is analogous to the teleptone
fystem, where cach telephone subserber has a.unigue telephone mmber we consider
the coir code and the aea code as ar of the identifying scheme
Tn this chapter, we dieu lasefl addressing, one ofthe addressing meshanisms of
the caent version (Pv8) ofthe TCPAP protocol suite Tn Chater 5, we nroduce cass-
tess adtessing, mother addressing mechanism in te eure protocol. f Chapter 31
tne sigcuss the adresing mechanism ofthe next-generation TCPMP protocol site
6,
4.1 INTRODUCTION
“The identi used inthe IP layer ofthe TCPAP protocol site wo identity each device
onsectd othe laterne scaled the ntret adres or TP adress. An IP desi 8
‘Somat binary adress that wniguely and wniverslly defines the connection of a hos! ora
router tothe Tnteret,
‘an adr 32-5 as.
1P adetesses are unique. They ae unique inthe sense that each adress defines
‘one, and only one, connestion fo the Inerel, Two devices on the Internet an aever
‘have the ame adress. However, fa devie has two connections tothe Inert, via
two networks thas two IP adresses,
“Te aoe we nie
“The TP adresses are universal in the Sense tat the addressing system mast be
scceped by any host ha want tobe conpected othe Interne. 9% CHAPTER4 IP ADDRESSES: CLASSFUL ADDRESSING
_ Address Space
'A protocol ike IP that defines addresses has an address space. An addes space is the
toual numberof adresses used by the protocol fa protocol uses bits Wo define an
es hares eis asec an ae let ales Oa 1)
sand bits can have
[Pv anes 32 bie adieases, which means thatthe addres space is 2” or
4,294,967 296 (more than fou billion. This means ba, theoredcally, if thee were 0
restrictions, more thin 4 billion devices could be connected tothe laternet. We will See
sory that the actual number is moc les
“Te adress pce of Pt ie P or 4298 967296,
Notation
‘There ae tree common aoation to show an IP adres: inary notation, doted decimal
otton, and hexadecimal otto,
Binary Notation
In binary notation, the IP adres is displayed as 32 bis. To make the adress more
readable, one or more spaces is usually inserted between each cce (8 bits). Bach octet
is often refered 1 as a byte So tis common wo hear an TP addees refered to as 2 32-
Iitadess, a 4-octet adress, oa 4-byte adress. The followin isan example of an IP
dessin binary notation:
oxrio01 seoro1ar oosidibi “iio
Dotted-Decimal Notation
‘To ake the IP address more compact and easier to read, Internet adresses are usally
writen in decimal form with a decimal point (dt) separating the bytes. Figure 4.1
‘hows an IP address i doted- decimal notation. Note that because each byte (ote) is
only Sits, cach number in the doted-decimal soution is between 0 and 28S.
Figure 4.1 Dose cima nosaion
RAZ
‘The by dovinal: and eden asber yes ae viewed in Append B, seeniow 41 IviRoDUCTION 9.
AA ABT SRY LI
Example 1
‘ups oning 1 arses om iy ation dtd deci nota.
teapot oooibit eonoont 1104111
eos toooor1 amis 4th
Sinton stools sootor axor1m
SLatttoo, tooon1 #101 anos
Sotaon
retelne cach group o bis with ts equlen decimal nner (ee Appendix B) an sd
os oc eatin
21293111239
1983127258
fe Biz9439.11
4 249.155281.15
Example?
Chee fotiorng TP aks rom dot eine mon iy noms.
22 MLS68878 .
bass
© MLRS6I2
9 878453678
Soltion
a cach esis arth Bir eut Go Apgend BY
© (THT oro onsti04 oFp0120
{iota ecto. omens orooe10
{1111001 001000 0121900 0001100
{{ovoato 0011301 ooiee0 o10s110
Example3
te eno ny, athe lowing Padres:
fe T1RSeg45.78
bay) 8a0 garter
4 11noo1023.1467
Solution
ny Thee ee go letig oe in ted ei ncton O48)
1b Wemay nt hae ort fur nambern an Paes
dot declan, ech ube ies fan oc qu 9285; 301 one
‘ange
4 rare of tnry station and ted decimation sot allowed. (CHAPTER 4. IP ADDRESSES: CLASSFUL ADDRESSING
Hexadecimal Notation
‘We sometimes see an TP address in hexadecial notation. Each hexadecimal digit is
esuivalent to four bits. This means that 232i adress has 8 hexadecimal digits. This
notation is often ued in network programming.
Example
‘Change the following Paarees rom inary notion fo exalt,
{ tone0907 eooI04 acooLOH} 11011
11000001 1ogooii cooi}onf 11124311
Solution ’
‘We replace cach group 4 bits with is hexadecimal equivalent (ee Appendix B) Now that xs
decimal notation normally hs no added paces or det however, OX (r Ox) sad th
beponing othe sbscop (6a he nd tosh tht the sunt in hexadecimal
4.2. CLASSFUL ADDRESSING
IP addesses, when started afew decades ago, used the concept of classes. This erchi-
tecture is called classful addressing. Inthe mid-1990s, anew architecture, called
assess addressing, was introduced that wil eventually supersede the origina archi
‘tecture. However, most of the Interne is stil using else adessing and the mig
‘om slow. fn this chapter, we introdce the concep of clasfal addressing inthe next
chapter, we discus clssess addressing. The concept of “clasful”is needed to under
stand the concept of classless”
Tn clasfladressing, te IP adres space is dvd into five clases A B.C, D,
snd E. Each class occupies some part ofthe whole addres pace. Figure 42 shows the
lass occupation ofthe adress space (proximation)
Figure 42. Occupation of te ates space
‘We can see fom the gure hat las A covers half of the adres space serous
design flaw. Class B covers 1/4 ofthe whole adress spice, another desin law. Class
‘Covers 1 of the addres space, and classes D and each cover 1/16 ofthe adress
space. Table 4.1 shows te number of adesees in each class. SECTION 42 CLASSFULADDRESSING 93
‘Tnble AA Adresses perclass
Gia | Raber fades | ec
A | Baars | S08
B | Paton | ae |
| s=ssearoo | ase
D_| #=6435656 | 625%
BE _| aiameaasass | 625m
Incas adessng Beers pce iid i ve cases AB. Dad
Recognizing Classes
We can find the class of an adress when the addcess is given in binary notation or
doted-Socimal notation,
Finding the Class in Binary Notation
Ifthe adress is given in biary notation, the first few bis can immediately tll usthe
class of the address a shown in Figure 43,
Figure 3 Finding he lan i bina ottion
ciye_ Stony Tye Fah ae
thse oma ILI Ld
ows GI CCS
om? fi od)
owes Ed
(One can follow th procedure shown in Figure 4.4 to systematically check the is
and find the class. The procedure canbe easly pongrammod in any langage 3M CHAPTERS. IP ADDRESSES: CLASSFUL ADDRESSING
Example 5
ie we an poe that we have 7483608 adresses in class A?
Solution
reat A, ely 1 tt defies he las, The sexnning 31 it are avaible Fer the des. With
21 bis wean hve Yo 2.17 483688 ares,
Example 6
Ft cas fh
lass a. eegoan opr cms01 S001
Clas Sint tern emis! 1111
= Bc 2O10ONIT 11011011 0901011 o1L011A1
class snmteots toontots trns011 oooorstt
Solution
Sev the rosie in Figure 44
The fist bit i) Tis is class Aas.
1 Thetis ise third iis This las C adres
Th ait isthe cod itis This cas B ads.
(6 Thefiat biter I hiss acs Eades.
Finding the Cass in Dotted-Decimal Notation
“When the adres is given in doted-dcimal notation, thea we ned to Took only a the
frst (umber) to determine the clas ofthe ade. Each class has a specific range
of numbers. Figure 4.5 shows te ides.
igure 45 Finding the coe decimel norton
ovine Suontiye Tietye_ Rare
[ ows Coe) SI
ows (te oT] ESS EE CSE
cme (oroas] (SES EEL EEA
coo [ateae! Eas ESE SEA
om: Games] ES
“This means tha ifthe fs byte Gin decimal) is berween Od 127, the cassis A IE
the fist bytes between 128 and 191, the clas is B. And soon.
Example?
Fine cas of cach dos
agiassT clave
paps n4ss22 Aas €
MBE cla 5 SECTION 42 CIASSFULADDRESSING — 95
arasisin clas =
2 BAIIESE lee 8
Solution
{The fistte s 227(ataen 26 and 28th clas is,
1b, heist i 195 (tween 192 and 228 the lass is.
The fistbye is 4 (between O and 127}; cassis.
Thott ja i 252 (baween 240 and 255) the ease.
¢. The it byte is 34 (ere 128 and 191) he clas iB
Example §
Tn Example 4 we showed tat clas A hae 2147,489,548) ares, How an we poe his
tao fact sing Sted cial potion?
Sotton
“To ess in cass A rg from 00.010 121955255255, We sd shh he ier
cnc were hae wo su 2,475, Tis god eee bcs shaw
wt dt tng fates betwen to aes esos a we se eg wih
base 236 mmbers oe, Ech yin nota ar smelt Te weigh lo ee
ope olighke da
236? 2567, 2561, 2568
owt tad te ing va ach mi we mil ach by wiht
sabes: (£94256 +4 W258 + Dr 28 GBD ISH = 21478667
Fimadde: = 0
{ewe subtest fom he las add tt esl (remember we ays ad to ge the
rang we Bt 2147485688 02
Netid and Hostid
In clasfladessng, an Paes in classes A,B, and Cis vided int net and hos
ti. These pars are of varying engi, depending oa the clas ofthe aes. Figure 4.6
Shows the ntl and hostid byes, Note tha classes D and # are no divided nko nti
‘nd std for reasons that we wil discus ater,
Figure 4.6. ei and hod
vB Bet yes tea
cues Rad RED
a aE 9% CHAPTERS IP ADDRESSES: CLASSFUL ADDRESSING
Inclass A, 1 bye defines the noid and 3 bytes define the oti In elas B, 2 bytes
define he net and 2 bytes define the hos. In class C, 3 byes define the netid and
ye defines the host,
‘Classes and Blocks
‘One problem with lassulsdresing stat each clas is divided into fixed nomber
‘of blocks with each block baving fixed size. Lat us look at each lass.
ass A
Class Ais divided into 128 blocks with each block having a different esd. The fst
‘lok covers address from 0.0.0.0 to 0.255.255.255(netid ©). The second biek cov
fers addresses from 1.000 1.255 255.285 (etd 1), The las block covers adresses
from 127,000 to 127-255.255 255 (net 127) Not that foreach block of addresses
the frst byte (et) is the same, bat theater 3 bytes (hostid)can take any vale inthe
sven rings.
"The fist and the Ist locks inthis class ae reseed for special purposes as we
vill cass shod. In adition, one Block (netid 10) is wsed for private adresse. The
‘emaining 125 blocks can be assigned to organizations. This means that the total mum
ber of organizations that can ave lass A addresses Is only 125. However, each Block
in this class contain 16.777.216 addresses, which means the organization should be @
really large one seal these adrescs Figure 4.7 shows the blocks in class A.
igure 47 Bik inclnar
‘Figure 4.7 alo shows how an organization that is granted a block with nes 73
ses it adareses. The fre adres inthe block used to identify the ganization to SPCTION42 CLASSFULADDRESSING 97
the est ofthe Intemet. This address ie called the network address; it defines the set
‘work ofthe organization, nt individual sts. The organization is not allowed to use
The lat des: its reserved for a special purpose as we will ee shor.
(Cass A addresses were designed for lage organizations with large numberof
ost or couters attached to their network. However, the numbe of adresses i ech
‘lock. 16777216, i probably larger than the needs of amos all organizations. Many
adresses ae wasted in his lass,
oe
lion of clas A arses are wasted.
Chas B
‘Cass Bis divided into 16,384 blocks wit each block having a diferent neti, Sipe
‘Hooks are reserved for private adresses, leaving 16.368 blocks for ssigament to orga
Ihatios, The fst block covers adresses fom £28.000.0 to 128.0.255.255 (ett
1280), The last block covery addresses from 191.286.0010 191.288.255.255 (tid
191285), Nowe tht foreach block of addeses the fst 2 bytes (eid are the same,
tothe cer 2 bytes host) can take any vale in the given range
"There ae 16368 blocks that canbe signed. This means that the total numberof
“orgatzations tha can have 1 class B adress is 16368, However, since each block in
this lass contains 65.936 addresses, the organization should be large enough 1 ws all
ltthese adresses, Figure 4.8 shows the blocks in cas .
igure 4.8 Blocks cloorB
|
Figure 48 also shows how an organization that is granted » block with neti 180.8
‘ues its adatesses The fist adress he network adres; the ast adress reserved
fora special purpose as we will se shor (CHAPTER4_1P ADDRESSES: CLASSFUL ADDRESSING
(Class B addresses were designed for mid-size organizations tht may have tas of
thousands of hosts or routers atached to their networks. However, the aumber of
tudreses in each block, 65,536, is larger than the needs of most midi organiza.
‘ions. Many adresses are also wasted inthis lass,
Many clas Bernese waned
chs c
(Class Cis divided into 2.097.152 blocks with each block having a different ned. Two
Inunded fifty-six blocks are used for private addresses, leaving 2,006,896 blocks for
‘assignment to organizations. The fst block covers addresses from 192.0.00 to
192.00.255 (noid. 192.0.) The last block covers addresses fom 223.255.2580, to
223.285.255.255 (netid 223.285 255). Note that for enc block of addesses the rst
3 bytes (nei) are the same, but the remaining bye (Host) can take any value athe
siven range.
‘Ther are 2,096,902 blocks tat canbe assigned. This means thatthe tos number
of organizations that can havea class C adress 2.096902, However, cach block in
this class contains 256 addresses, which means the organization should be all
{enough once less than 256 areses. Figure 4.9 shows the blocks in class
Figure 49° Bic cassC
eg pan)
5 Nave
Figure 4.9 aso shows how an organization that is granted a block with net
200.118 uses the adreses, The fit adress isthe network adres the let aes is
‘escrved fora special purpose a we wl see shortly, Secriow 42 CLASSFULADDRESSING
cass addresses were designed fo small organizations with small numberof
ost ce atached to their networks, The umber of wares in each lock i50
Tinted tat mast organizations do not want a bok in this lass
“Fo ne of branes das sales te ee of ost ors
assD
“Toure just one Bock of css D adress, is designed fer mlicating a6 we 9
ret ite gosto, Each adress in this last i used to define one group of Dono»
er When a group is asiged anaes in hi clas, evry ost that sa mie
aoe troup wine 2 micas adress inant its normal (nies) ares
cas
“Thee ic just one block of cass adresses, 1! was designed for ase os reseed
Tree Spe ls ares in ns class, 25.255 255.259 is wed fora special adress
fs we wl se shortly
Tas bares ue eve or pec poses at ofthe blk waste
Network Addresses
enna adress play avery important ole lsu essing. A network aes
has sverl propertis:
he neswork alesis the ist adress in she block
1 The network address defines the network to the rest ofthe Inter, ate cha?
7 el cam tha outers oute a paket based onthe network adres,
4, Gon the network adress, we can id the class of the aes, the lock nthe
range ofthe adresses inthe Bio.
STC sireing he nor nr (te ft es te oc eo BS
sa un he eg floes cn ona einen om he
exw wars.
sample 9
ncn ne weir ies 17/000, the cs, sk, athe ang ofthe ess
Solution
Selution seca he rt be ewe and 127, The Bok bas ne of 7 THe
‘insane frm 17.0009 17285255255 (CHAPTER 4 IP ADDRESSES: CLASSFUIL ADDRESSING
Example 10
Given the sework ass 192.21.00, find te clas, he ck, andthe age he asses
Solution
‘The cas is B became ist byt i hetween 128 a 191, The block has a ei of 13221.
address range from 13221.00 1322125525,
Example 1
(Given he etn aes 2204.76. fd the clas, he lok, de ane of he ase.
Solution
The class is C bec the fist byes berwenn JD and 23, The lock as ned 2038.76
The aes range from 229369 220 3475255
‘Sufficient Information
‘The reader may have noticed that in clasful adresing, the network adress gives suf
{cient information about the network. Given the network address, we ean find the nom-
‘ber of addresses inthe block. The reason stat the number of adresses in eae block
is predetermined, Al locks in class have the same range. all blocks i las B have
the same range, and all lock in class C have the sare range.
Mask
Inthe previous section, we said tat if the network acess is given, we can ind the
block andthe range of adresses inthe Block, What about the reverse? Ian des is
sien, can we find the network address (tbe bepnning address in the Bock}? This is
Important because to route packet to the correct network, a outer need to extract a
network sds fom the desinaon des (aos adres) inte packet header.
‘One way we can ind he network addres ito fre find the class ofthe adress end
‘he neti. We then se the hos 0 220 to ind the network address. For example the
sates 13.45.78. piven, we a immedi sy thal the adress belongs to class B
‘The noid is 134,45 (2 bytes) andthe network ade is 13.45.00,
‘The above method is feasible if we have not subnet the network; that i, if we
have not divided the network ito subnerworks. A general procedure that can he ied
involves a mask o find the nework address fom a given adress,
Concept
‘A mask is «32-bit binary number that gives the ist address in the block the network
sures) when bitwise ANDed wih an adress in the Block. Figure 10 shows the con-
cxptof masking
AND Operation
Masking Uses the bitwise AND operation defined in computer science, The opertion
's applied bit by bit tothe adress and the mask, For oor purpose itis enough fo know pe ms cman
Figare 4.10 meting concept
‘thar the AND operiton does the following
1 Ifthe bitin the mask is 1, the comesponing bit nthe aes is retained inthe
‘utp to change)
2, Ifthe it inthe masks 0, 0 bitin the outpat the rest
In thee word, the bitin the address coresponng to the Is inthe mask are preserved
{Gemnin Or Iya they were) and he its corespening tothe Os inthe mask change to.
Figure 4.11 shows the two cass,
er er |
—__}
Figure 411 AND operation
Tn the AND operon for clas addressing, thee are tee mask, one for ech clas
‘Table shows the mask foreach clase. For lass A, the masks eight sand ewenty our
(Ou Forclass the mask is snten Is and ssten Os. Fr cas the maki vent oar
Ts and cght Os The Ts preserve themed the Os se the hos oO. Remember thatthe
ewer dessin any cas the ed with tbe std all OS. Table 4:2 shows the dint
‘mask fo each cas.
‘Table 42 Defoe masts
(tare “Mask in binary "Mask in dotted-decimal
[AE p9000000 co000000 00000000 25500.0 |
3 [inn roxio aire “| 8838500
© [rmititimiriin wenn | 3283550 | ma
(CHAPTER 4 IP ADDRESSES: CLASSEUIL ADDRESSING
'Note thatthe numberof Is in each class matches the numberof bits in the neta
andthe number of Os matches the numer of bts inthe hostid In ter words whens
‘mask is ANDed with an address, the neti retained and te ostid i se to
‘The network ese the begining aes ofeach lok canbe oud by apiing
eile mito any ofthe adress inthe Blok Gelding ise, Mies he eae,
boca set the a oar.
Applying the Masks
Avolyng the mask to an uneubneted network is simple. Two rule can help find the
‘setwork adress without applying the AND opertio teach bi,
1 tte mask byte i 255, retin the comesponding byte the adess
2. Ifthe mascbyte is 0, set the corresponding byte inthe network adress 10,
‘Example 12
inc the nies 23.56.79 nd te dean clas A mask ind the bepanng aes (erect:
ses. \ °
Solution
‘The etal mak is 25.000, which means that ony the sty preseried and he ober
byes ae sett 0. The sewer less 23000.
Example 13,
(Gine he adres 1326.17.88 an the deuce B find he egianing aes never,
sates.
Solution
‘The def ms is 255.255.00, which mean tha the fist 2 byes ce preserved and he ther
bytes ae sett Os The network adres 152600.
Example 14
Git he ae 201.18056.5 andthe cas C deft ma, il he beginning aes nt
wok sds).
Solution
‘he defo ads 25 255.2550, wich mean tht he ist 3 bytes are preserved an the ln
tyres seti0 0. The newer adress 201180360"
‘Note ht we mus not apply he dea mk fon das wos adic bngng aoe
|
‘Address Depletion
Due fo the classfuladdesing scheme an due w the fst growth ofthe Internet, the
{ailable addresses are almost depleted, Despite this, the numberof devs othe
Intemet is much es than the 2 ade space. We have un ot of addieors haces ze
pl
PE
SECTION43 OTHERISSUSS 103
‘many organizations have boon assigned more adresses than they ned (las A ard B
blocs), and nobody wants a class Cblock. la Chapter 5, we discuss some remedies to
this problem.
4.3 OTHER ISSUES
In this section, we discuss some other issues that are related to addressing ingereal
sand lassladressing in particular
“Multibomed Devices
‘An Internet adress defines the node's connection is nexwork. follows, therfore,
that any device connected 0 more than one netwrk must have more than One Inmet
‘adres. In fact, a device has a different adress fr each nctwork connected tA
‘computer that is connected wo diferent networks is called multthomed compater and
wll hve more than one adres, each possibly Belonging to a different class. A router
Imust be connected to more than one network, otherwise i cannot soul. Therefore, @
Toute definitely has more thun one Padres, one for each neface. In Figure 412 we
have one mulhomed computer and ope router. The compute is connected to two ne-
‘works and its two IP addresses reflect this, Likewise, the router is connected to fee
networks and therefore has tree IP addresses.
igure 412 _Mutihomeddevies
way tip We) RE
a 6
He! bs tae
vb te
Location, Not Names
‘An Inemet address defines the network locaton of device, not its identity. In ther
‘words, because an Internet adres is made of to pas (acid and host), ican only
{eine the connection ofa device oa specific network. One ofthe ramifications ofthis
is tha dhe moversent oft computer fam one network to another means that 8 1P
‘adres must be changed. 104 CHAPTER 4 IP ADDRESSES: CLASSFUL ADDRESSING
Special Addresses
Some pans of he adress space te wed for special adress Ge Tae 43).
Table spect adoeser .
|
Teed pi Seale [aoe [Now
| par let ies | Se [ALE | Devt |
Tins aca afes [Al Alls | Desi
“This hoxton tls nctwork | AllOs | AllOs
Speen tia | AO | Spi
‘Loopback address i [Any -
Network Address
‘We have steady covered the topic of network adresses. The ist adress ina block in
{asses A,B, and) defines the network adress. Figure 413 shows thee examples of
netwodk adress one for each cas
Figure 413. Nenortoddes:
a =
Sate SATE
same mane
| waite See
casa Cae ome
Ln
itso Liat
Direct Broadcast Address
Iinclasses A,B, and C, if the hos pall I, the adress is called direct broadeast
fiddress. Is sed by aur to Send packet oa hosts in a specie network. All
boss wl accept a pact having tis ype of destination adres: Note hat this aes
{fn be used only asa destination adéces in an IP packet. Note also that his special
fadeess uo redces the mumber of avalablehosids foreach nti classes A, B, and C.
nFigure 414, rouer sends a datagrm using destination Padres witha host of
alls All devices on this network reeive and process te datagram. SECTION‘: OTHERISSUES 105
Figure 414 Eeanple of et broadcast adits
Ce
te a
usar ‘aiagnus
musa BL see
| Mscocaleneen aca tot
"caves an poe he se
‘Sibsaet wont es
77 Limited Broadeast Address
a tases A,B, and C, an adress with al 1s fr the nti and bosti (32 bis) defines «
Trsntont addres in the cuent network. A bot that wants 1 send 2 MESSE © YET)
vepeeiion can use this adress asa destination address in an IP packet, However, ¢
enna Hose packet having this type of address to confine the broadcasting wo the
ane work Note that hs adres belongs to clas E In Figure 4.1, a host seas &
‘Gaagram wing a destination IP aes consisting of ll 1s All device on his networ:
receive and process this datagram.
Figure 4.15. Example oftinied rodent oes
7 Descanoe aoe |
Seussasoass
amass
ined ini aaron rey ahs (CHAPTER 4 1P ADDRESSES: CLASSEUL ADDRESSING
‘This Host on This Network
fan IP address is compose of all zeros, it means this hast on this network, This is
used by aost at bootstrap time when it doesnot know its Padres, The hast sss at
[P packet toa ootsrap server using tis address asthe source adress and limited
brodeast adress atthe destination address to find its own address. Note that this
address canbe used only as a Source adress. Note also that his address i always =
lass A adress regards ofthe network. Itredues the number of networks in clase A
by one (ee Figure 4.16),
igure 416 amples of "is" host on “tis” nerork ade
Badan Ob0ba eres
assis we dein set ed
‘igo shot ere |
———
Speciic Host on This Network
An IP adress with neta of all zeros means specific host on this network. Iti used
bby a host sead a message to another host on he same network. Because the packets
blocked bythe router itis a way of conning the packet tothe local network, Not that
itcan be used only fora destination adess. Not als it ie actoally a clase A adess
‘eguless of the network (se Figure 4.17,
Figure 4.17 Eranpl of pectic hoxton “is” network
ano eat secnion 43. OTHERISSUES XT
“Loopback Address
“Thei eves with heist bye equal 10127 sd forte laphack des Wi
eee oe he software on a machine, When his ade se «POs
aes nahin: i spy eas f the protcol softwar, 1 can De ed
meet tp cneare For example, an application sch “png” can Senda paces
se ns nthe destination aes se ibe TP softwar is ep of
2 oot ocening a pckc. As apoter example, the loopback aes ay
i put procs a unsng aplication progam) 1 send &MESABE 5%
selon son chin Now it scan be wed only ws adnan oS
a cated hat hin acully a ls aes Tred the amb of
networks in clas Aby 1 (ee Figure 4.18),
‘igure 418 Example oflopbck adress
Heures Soe
|
=e |
=
Je Private Addresses
Apunber of blocks in ach les re asigned for pat us, They sf mo evens
ere eabloks are epced in Table 44, Tes adresis ae se tes
{ation or in connection with neta sai techniques. We discuss poate
ewok i Chapter 30
4 ‘puble Ades for viva nwo
ee, = ede Biods
on rao cm
~ B_ | 172.1600 172.31 i |
2 ain eT] oe | 108 CHAPTER 4 IP ADDRESSES: CLASSFUL ADDRESSING
Unicast, Multicast, and Broadcast Addresses
Communication on the Internet can be achieved using unicast, muicast, or broadcast
dares,
ep PID Velen adareses
ty ISS oie ormnication is onetvone. When pak sent om an nvidulsuce to
wee sm indivi desis,» unicast communication ake plc. Al systems one eet
10\4 haveatlest oe unique anca adds. Unica abies lon to cass A, or
Malicast Addresses
. Multicast communication i oneo-many. Wica 8 pcke is seat fom an individual
source to rou of destinations, «moles cormuictio aes plac. A mites.
1 sypeyaspe adress is las D adress. The ene adses defies groxpidA system on the
257?” Intact can have one of mar class D mat aes (in addin fot aneast
Nn 4 ess or adresses) I system (sully # how) fas seven mucast addresses, it
"Pipe tens that itblongs to seven dirt rots. Note hat clas D aes ante sed
LA Tg alyssa desiation des aot ase sour ede
oe Malang onthe tert can beat the cal lvl othe loa ve. Ath ee
level bss ona LAN can form group ane Signed aml adres. Ath hbal
level oss diferent networks can fom x group ad be asigned a mult des
Matic delve willbe iscssed in depth in Caper
Assigned Multicast Addresses The Inmet authorities have designated yore mu
as addresses o specific groups. We mention two here,
18 Category. Some malias addresses ar assigned for some special se. These mult-
cast adesses start with 228,00 pei. Table 5 shows Some of these adeses.
TabledS Conger attrss
‘Adis Gro
aang | Resed
228001 | AUSYSTENS ons SUBNET
224002 | AITROUTERS on is SUBNET
Zatoos | DVNRP ROUTERS py 35>)
“tos | OSPFIGrALROUTERS |
224006 | GSPRGP Designated ROUTERS |
Faoenay [Stowe id
“24008 [SF Hons
|
ainsi Rae |
BA eR Ras |
tat | MA | SECTION 44 A SAMPLE INTERNET WITH CLASSFULADDRESSES 109
1 Conferencing, Some mulicst addresses are for conferencing and slsconfeeae-
sng, Toe multicast addesrs stat withthe 2240.1 prefs. Tale 4.6 shows sn
these addresses,
‘Tele
Ades for conferencing
[Haxoa7 | auprowews |
740 110 | ETE LLOWAUDIO
PAOLA | METRLAUDIO
Daw | ETE T-VIDEO
2240.18 | ETE LOWAUDIO
ane | TETF2-AUDIO
[vous [1ETF2-vIDEO
40.116 | MUSIC SERVICE
AOL I7 | SEANETTELENETRY
240.118 | SEANEFIMAGE
Broadcast Addresses
‘rosdast communcstion is one t-al, The Internet allows broadcasting ony athe
loca evel. We have aleady discussed two broadcast adresses used at the local lve
‘he ited broadcast adres (all 1s) andthe det broadcast adavess (aed spec,
hoa: al
No broadcasting is allowed at the global level. This means that a sytem (hast or
route) cannot send a message tall hosts and routes in the Ive. You ean imagine
‘te trafic thet would result without thie restriction
4.4 A SAMPLE INTERNET WITH
CLASSFUL ADDRESSES
Figure 4.19 shows apart ofan internet with five networks.
|. A Token Ring LAN with ntork adress 2203.60 (class).
2, An Ethemet LAN with network address 134,180. (ass B)-
5, An Ethemet LAN with nerwork address 1240.00 (ls A).
4A point-to-point WAN (broken line). This network (21 line, for example) just
‘conects tw routers; there are no hosts. Ta his ea, o save addresses, no ethan,
dss is usigne to this type of WAN.
5. A switched WAN (sich as Frame Relay or ATM) that canbe connected to many
routers, We have shown thee. One router conaecs the WAN to the Token Ring
hetwork. One connects the WAN to one ofthe Btheretneworks, and one rue
‘connects the WAN to the eso the Internet 110 CHAPTERS. P ADDRESSES: CLASSFUL ADDRESSING
igure 419. Sompieinrner,
a inosat
45 KEY TERMS
addres pace tint process
AND operation eft ask
inary notation ire broadcast address
block of adaresce ood decimal notation
broadoast dares far adress
class A adress hexadecimal notation
class B adress boetid
class C address imemet
class D address Tiveret aires
class Baddess aca
last desing eadaress clas
classless adressing Tiina broadeast adress Secnowss sumuay m1
loopback adress eswor adress
roask cet
masking speci ston this network
multicast ads thishoston this network
rmulthomed device unicast address
tid
4.6 SUMMARY
|= Atte network layer global ienteation sysicm that uniquely identifies every
host ane ruteris necessary for delivery of a packet from network to network
‘The Intemet aes (or IP edess is 32 bts (fr TPvS) that uniguly and iver
sally defines ahost oe route onthe Internet.
1 The potion of the IP adess hat idnsis the network ical he neti
|The portion of the IP sires that denies the host or rater on the network ie
called the host
15 ApIP address defies a device's connection toa network
‘There are five clases of IP adresses, Clases A, B, and C ier the minder of|
Ist allowed per neswork. Clas D is for multicasting and class is for exper
1B The class of network is easly determined by examination ofthe ist byte
= A multhomed device is connected to multiple networks and hasan TP aes for
‘cach network to which tis connected.
sm For clases A, B, and C, a cnet broadcast alitess (hostid ell 1s is wed by a
route to Send a packs tall hosts on a speci twee
1A limited broadcast addres (alts) i sed by a host wo send a packet wal hosts
‘nite rework
8A source IP adress fal Os is wed by a host at bootstrap i it does ot know its TP
adress
‘8A destination IP adress witha ned of al sis used by a host to send paket to
another host onthe same ncwork
1m A loopback address withthe fist byte equa 127 is used by a host to west its
fntemal sofa
‘5 Unicast communication is one source sending a packet to one destination,
‘= Malicas communication is one source sending «packet to mutpe destinsons.
‘= Hosts withthe same mulicast address can either be onthe same network or on di
Tecan networks.
1m Muitica adresses ae often wed for infomation eveval and conferencing puposes,
‘a Brosdcest communication i one souroe sending 8 packet oll hosts on is network, 112 GHAPTER4 1P ADDRESSES: CLASSFUL ADDRESSING
4.7 PRACTICE SET
Multiple-Choice Questions
1, ety he ass fhe folowing I des: 4567
(2G dus —
ches B
«diss
@ cise
2. Keni he clas of te owing Pads: 2291.2,
ery aod
» ase eee
ie
@awsv
3, nit the clas ofthe fotlowing IP aie: 191.123,
a. hse
sins 8
© els ¢
sD
4. este otoing Paes: 169.500,
2 fom Parse
2 diet ondeast ass
«ited rnas adress
Qrervork naires
5. Ment the folowing Padres: 19 5.1
2. hon Pads
@ sir atest ass
fined roast dress
4 meorkarss
6, leit te fotoning Padres: 1695255255
2. ton Paes
@ scr boast dies
inte ones ess
4 sotvrk aes
7. Wah oe follwing ste of he ads 241.237
4. Theneidis 241
Theclasis
Theo is 123.
4 Temes 1110, SECTION 47 PRACTICE Ser U3
8 Acdevice as wo IP adresses. This device could be
@ computer
arouer
© agaeway
4 any ofthe above
9. A device hs two TP adressen. One adds i 92.123.46.219. The oer adress
‘onl be
17546220
AD w2123460 °F
© 192.12347.219
ay of te above
10. Which he folowing sie of te adress 192.60, 102
The sid is 192
The biti i010.
G he netork ess is 92.000.
4 The bois 0010,
11, Which fhe folowing ia Sore IP adress?
e Ditishos onttisnewedk yas wes
lite roads aes
«loopback adress
6: specifi hos on thi network
12, Using the direct osdcst ress, 3__sends psi o_o the
network .
2 hon lotr hss
@ rower: atch oss
© hot a speci est
4 boat iste
13. Using he limited broadast address,
network
& host all ther hosts
rower all othe hosts
© st a specific host
A host, ise
14, The loopback adress use to sed packet from the
a host all ther hosts
route; al ther sts
hosts specific host,
host ett
ents SN
sends a packet 0 on the 1A CHAPTERS. IP ADDRESSES: CLASSFUL ADDRESSING
a2 7B. muicast
15, What destination adress canbe use to send a packet from a ost with IP adress
188.1. tal hosts om the network
2. 188.000
b ono0
, 255.255.255.255
4 bande
16, A.host can get its IP aes fom its sever by osing
‘acess and asthe desinton addres.
a. 127.127.1727; 0000
'b 285255.255.55, 00.00
©. 127.000; 255.255.285.255
4. 00100,285.255.255.285
17 Atos ith an TP ads of 142.50. tedster soft. What she
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