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Fy = v
2
A sin u
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-7
Harmonic Analysis
Input Excitation Frequencies
Harmonic Analysis Excitation Frequencies
Starting Frequency
First frequency in the users defined excitation frequency range. The defined harmonic displacements and forces will
have the form: A*cosine(wt+p), where A is the amplitude of the force or displacement, p is the phase angle, and e is the
frequency of the loading. Real and imaginary solutions will be developed for each frequency in the defined range (from
which any phased solution can be calculated). For an entered frequency range to be valid there must be at least a starting
frequency. All frequencies are entered in Hertz.
Ending Frequency
Last frequency in the users defined excitation frequency range. If omitted then it defaults to the Starting frequency.
Increment
Frequency increment. If omitted then defaults to 1.0 Hz.
The frequencies for harmonic excitation are taken from each frequency range defined by the user. Individual frequencies
for excitation are computed using a DO LOOP type of logic as follows:
X = STARTING FREQUENCY
5 CONTINUE
5-8 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
COMPUTE SOLUTION FOR FREQUENCY X
X = X + INCREMENT
IF( X .LT. ENDING FREQUENCY+0.001) GO TO 5
Using this logic the user can determine exactly which frequencies in a specified frequency range will be analyzed. The
sign of the frequency increment may be modified by CAESAR II to properly step from the users starting frequency to his
ending frequency.
Either the starting frequency, the ending frequency, or the frequency increment may be given as a fraction or a whole
part with fraction.
Any number of user comment lines may be included. There can be any number of line entries in the Excitation frequency
data.
EXAMPLES:
Find harmonic solutions for the following group of equipment speeds:
100 rpm (Warm up speed)
400, 800, 1200, 1600, 2000, 2400, 2800, 3200 rpm. Speeds passed through very slowly while coming up to
operating speed.
3600 rpm. Operating speed.
Rotations per minute convert to cycles per second by dividing by 60. Frequency excitation would be input.
WARM UP SPEED (DIVIDE RPM BY 60 TO GET HERTZ) 100/60
BRINGING TURBINE ON-LINE (DIVIDE RPM BY 60 TO GET HERTZ) 400/60 3200/60 400/60
OPERATING SPEED (DIVIDE RPM BY 60 TO GET HERTZ) 3600/60
A low frequency field vibration exists in the piping system at about 3 Hertz. Define a 3 Hertz excitation:
APPROXIMATE FIELD OBSERVED EXCITATION FREQUENCY (HZ) 3
The response of the piping system when the dynamic load was applied at 3 Hertz was almost zero. This was true
regardless of the magnitude of the dynamic load (i.e. the maximum conceivable varying pressure load was applied, and
there were still no appreciable dynamic displacements when the excitation frequency was 3 Hertz). Apply the dynamic
load over a range of frequencies around 3 Hertz and see if any dynamic response can be observed.
GROUP OF FREQUENCIES AROUND THE FIELD GUESSED AT
3 HERTZ EXCITATION. THE EXCITATION FREQUENCIES
DEFINED BY THE INPUT BELOW ARE:
(2.5, 2.6, 2.7, ..., 3.3, 3.4, 3.5) HZ.
2.5 3.5 0.1
Load Cycles
Number of cycles expected for this loading. If entered, this signals to CAESAR II that the harmonic load case should be
treated as a fatigue stress case with the allowable stress based on the number of anticipated cycles.
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-9
Harmonic Forces and Displacements
Harmonic Forces
Either the Harmonic Forces or the Displacements must be entered in addition to the Excitation Frequency Data. Click the
Harmonic Forces button to bring up a window like that shown below. Click the + button on the toolbar to add a
harmonic force.
Force
Amplitude of the harmonic force. The form of the harmonic forcing function is: F(t) = A*cosine( et-|), where F(t) is
the force as a function of time. A is the maximum amplitude of the dynamic force. e is the frequency of the
excitation (in radians per second), and p is the phase angle (in radians). Enter the force in the units shown. These units
are taken from the current set which resides on the file UNITS.FIL.
Direction
Enter the line of action of the force as either X, Y, Z, or as direction cosines or direction vectors. The format for direction
cosines is (cx,cy, cz), i.e. (0.707,0.0,0.707). The format for direction vectors is (vx, vy, vz), i.e.. (1,0,1).
5-10 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
Phase
Enter the phase angle in degrees. The harmonic loading can start with its maximum load at time equal to zero, or the
harmonic load can start with its maximum at any time between zero and t=2*pi/w seconds. The phase angle is the
method used to specify this time shift in the dynamic load waveform. The phase angle can be calculated from the time
shift using the equation: p(degrees) = 180tw/pi, where t is given in seconds and w is given in radians per second. Most
frequently the phase angle is entered as either zero or 90. The phase specification is most useful when defining eccentric
loads on rotating equipment. Some of the examples that follow discuss common applications of the phase angle input.
The phase angle is a required input. If the phase angle is zero, then 0.0 must be entered !
Start Node
The node where the force is to act. This entry is required. If entered without a Stop Node and Increment, then this node
must exist in the piping system. If entered with a Stop Node and Increment, then the range of nodes identified by the loop
must include at least one node in the piping system.
Stop Node
Used as a part of a range of nodes force loading command. This entry is optional.
Increment
Used as a part of a range of nodes force loading command. This entry is optional.
EXAMPLES
It is assumed that a pressure pulse traveling in the line between nodes 95 and 100 causes the line to shake at about 2
hertz. The magnitude of the pressure loading (See the examples for calculating forces from pressures) is estimated to be
about 460 lb. The pressure wave travels from 95 to 100. The harmonic force to model this load is shown as follows. Note
that the magnitude is divided by 2 because the total variation in the dynamic load is a function of the cosine, which varies
from -1 to 1. To find the true response magnitudes from a positive only harmonic load pulse, a static solution with 460/2
lb. acting in the plus X direction would have to be superimposed on the static 460/2 lb. solution to provide the constant
shifting of the load axis (i.e. as defined in the following example, there will exist a negative load at node 95 due to the
negative sign on the cosine). The pressure pulse will always be positive and so a negative load will never exist. The
superposition of the 460/2 static solution makes sure that the dynamic load (and probably the resulting displacements) are
always positive.
460 LB PRESSURE LOAD AT 2 HERTZ 460/2 X 0.0 95
A pump is shaking in the X-Y plane. The pump axis is along the global Z axis. The magnitude of the dynamic load is
computed to be 750 lb. from the manufacturers provided masses and eccentricities. Apply this rotating equipment
loading on the inline pump at node 350. The X and Y loads are 90 degrees out of phase with one another. When the X
load is at its maximum the Y load is zero, and when the Y load is at its maximum the X load is zero.
ESTIMATED ECCENTRIC LOAD ON INLINE PUMP DOH-V33203001
750 X 0.0 350
750 Y 90.0 350
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-11
Harmonic Displacements
Displacement
Amplitude of the harmonic displacement. The form of the harmonic displacement function is: D(t)=(A)*cosine(et-|),
where D(t) is the displacement as a function of time, A is the maximum amplitude of the dynamic displacement. e
is the frequency of the excitation (in radians per second), and | is the phase angle (in radians). Enter the displacements
in the units shown.
Direction
Enter the line of action of the displacement as either X, Y, Z, or as direction cosines or direction vectors. The format for
direction cosines is (cx,cy,cz), i.e (0.707,0.0,0.707). The format for direction vectors is (vx, vy, vz), i.e. (1,0,1).
Phase
Enter the phase angle in degrees. The harmonic displacements can start with its maximum displacement at time equal to
zero, or the harmonic displacements can start with its maximum displacements at any time between zero and t + 2 t/e
seconds. The phase angle is the method used to specify this time shift in the dynamic load waveform. The phase angle
can be calculated from the time shift using the equation: | (degrees) = 180te /t, where t is given in seconds and e is
given in radians per second. Most frequently the phase angle is entered as either zero or 90. The phase specification is
most useful when defining eccentric displacements on rotating equipment.
5-12 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
Some of the examples that follow discuss common applications of the phase angle input. The phase angle is a required
input. If the phase angle is zero, then 0.0 must be entered!
Start Node
Node where the dynamic displacement is defined. If the node is a supported node, then the dynamic displacement will be
assumed to act at the support point. If the node is not supported, then the dynamic displacement will be assumed to
describe the exact motion of the pipe at that point. This differentiation only becomes important when the node is
supported by a flexible restraint. For example, node 55 is supported in the Y direction by a restraint having a stiffness of
5000 lb./in. A harmonic displacement is also specified at node 55, in the Y direction. In this case, the harmonic
displacement does not describe the displacement that is attached to 55!
Harmonic Displacements at Compressor Flange
0.008 Y 0.0 330
0.003 Z 0.0 330
If the Start Node is entered without a Stop Node and Increment, then this node must exist in the piping system. If the
Start Node is entered with a Stop Node and Increment, then this range of nodes must include at least one node in the
piping system.
Stop Node
Used as a part of a range of nodes force displacement loading. This entry is optional.
Increment
Used as a part of a range of nodes force displacement loading. This entry is optional.
EXAMPLES
A large ethylene compressor shakes the node exiting the compressor flange in the Y direction a field measured 8
mils, and in the Z direction an amount equal to 3 mils. Define these dynamic displacements. The displacements are
assumed to be simultaneous, with no phase shift. This is because the load causing the displacements is believed to be
the compressor plunger moving in the X, or axial direction. (The displacements are skewed because the piping
configuration entering the compressor is itself skewed.)
Applying estimated eccentric forces to the pump described in the harmonic force example did not produce the
displacements witnessed in the field. Field personnel have measured the dynamic displacements in the vertical (Y)
and transverse (Z) directions at the pump piping connections. The centerline of the pump, at the intersection of the
horizontal suction and vertical discharge is node 15. The magnitude of the Z displacement was measured to be 12
mil. The magnitude of the Y displacement was measured to be 3 mils. It is assumed that the vibration is due to the
rotation of the pump shaft, and so the Z and Y loads will be taken to be 90 degrees out of phase.
HARMONIC DISPLACEMENTS MODELING PUMP VIBRATION ON THE INLINE PUMP DOH-V33203001.
MODELLING THE PUMPS
DYNAMIC LOAD WITH FORCES DID NOT RESULT IN THE
DISPLACEMENTS WITNESSED BY FIELD PERSONNEL. NOW TRY
IMPOSING THE DISPLACEMENTS AND SEE WHAT THE RESULTING
FORCES ARE. ALSO CHECK TO SEE IF THE ATTACHED PIPING
MOVES AROUND AS EXPECTED.
Z MAGNITUDE OF THE LOAD - ZERO PHASE SHIFT
0.012 Z 0.0 15
Y MAGNITUDE OF THE LOAD - 90 DEG. PHASE SHIFT
0.003 Y 90.0 15
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-13
Response Spectra / Time History Load Profiles
Spectrum Definitions
Name
Can be any 24-character identifier. This name is associated with a particular spectrum or load profile. The complete
definition of a shock includes its name, range type, ordinate type, range interpolation method, ordinate interpolation
method, and the shock data point table. Everything but the shock data point table can be entered here. There are 14
predefined spectra for which no extra definitions are required and they are:
El Centro
For the El Centro California N-S component taken from Biggs, Introduction to Structural Dynamics, and applies for
systems with 5-10 percent critical damping.
REG. GUIDE 1.60
1.60H.5 and 1.60V.5
1.60H2 and 1.60V2
1.60H5 and 1.60V5
1.60H7 and 1.60V7
1.60H1.0 and 1.60V10
5-14 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
Each of these spectra defines respectively the horizontal and vertical components for 0.5, 2, 5, 7, and 10 percent critically
damped systems. Associated with each of these spectra is a value for the Maximum ground acceleration at the site, the
ZPA. (Zero Period Acceleration) This value defaults to 0.5 g and can be changed on the control parameter spreadsheet.
Uniform Building Code
UBCSOIL1
UBCSOIL2
UBCSOIL3
These spectra represent the normalized (horizontal) response spectra for three soil types provided in Figure 23-3 of the
Uniform Building Code, (1991 Edition).
Note The spectrum name (or load profile) can be preceded by a (#) sign. The (#) sign instructs CAESAR II to read the
spectrum table from a file having the same name as the spectrum with no extension.
Entering the spectrum table in an ASCII file allows several jobs to access the same spectrum table data without the user
having to retype it for each job. If data is to be read directly from within the Dynamic Output then click the Data Points
button and enter the appropriate Range and Ordinate values.
Range Type
This entry defines the table range, or horizontal axis, and can be either Period, Frequency, or "Time". If the range
type is Period then the spectrum table data must be entered in seconds. If the range type is Frequency then the spectrum
table data must be entered in Hertz, (cycles per second). Time may be used for Time History load profiles only, and must
be entered in milliseconds (ms).
Ordinate Type
This entry defines the spectrum table ordinate, or vertical axis, and can be either Acceleration, Velocity, Displacement
or Force (multiplier). Any part of the word for the ordinate type can be spelled out, but only the first letter is required.
Note that acceleration units are length per second squared. Users may enter the spectrum table ordinate in gs by
selecting acceleration as the ordinate type and then using a shock scale factor of 386, for length units of inches. For Time
History load profiles, the only valid ordinate type is Force (multiplier).
Range Interpolation
Interpolation between range values may be done logarithmically or linearly (valid input is LOG or LIN). See the
examples shown for additional discussion.
Ordinate Interpolation
Interpolation between ordinate values may be done logarithmically or linearly (valid input is LOG or LIN). See the
examples shown for additional discussion.
One job may have any number of different spectrum types and definitions.
Special FORCE spectrum data files are created by the DLF Spectrum generator. See the documentation covering this
item later in this chapter.
When a new job is started up the 14 predefined spectra is already included in the spectrum definition list. Any
combination of these predefined spectra may be used as is, deleted or used with any other user defined spectra.
ASCII files that contain spectrum table data can contain comment lines starting with an asterisk just like regular terminal
entered data lines. The user is encouraged to include the basic spectrum data definitions in the comments for each ASCII
spectrum file. See the example that follows.
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-15
Example
The job requires that the El Centro shock be applied in the X and Z directions using a factor of 1.0, and in the Y direction
using a factor of 0.667.
There is no spectrum definition required for this shock. El Centro is a predefined spectrum. All of its shock data resides
in the CAESAR II shock database.
The job requires the use of the Nuclear Regulatory Guide 1.60 shock loads. At a maximum acceleration value of 0.25
gs, analysis is to be performed using 1.0 times the horizontal and vertical components of the shock as specified in Reg.
Guide 1.60.
There is no spectrum definition required for either of these two shock loads. The Reg. Guide 1.60 shock spectra are
predefined. The user must only specify the maximum acceleration (ZPA) of 0.25 gs on the control parameter
spreadsheet, and must use the reg. guide spectra which correspond to the anticipated system damping. Lower damping
values mean more conservative results.
The job requires a shock spectrum that is given by the client and developed for the site. A plot of the spectrum appears as
follows. The horizontal axis is period and the vertical axis is acceleration. From the variation of the numbers along each
axis it can be seen that a logarithmic interpolation for each axis should be used. Because the shock name is NOT
preceded by a (#) sign the user will have to enter the points for this spectrum during this interactive input session.
BENCHNO4 PERIOD ACCELERATION LOG LOG
All jobs on a particular project require the use of the spectrum table shown as follows. Since we only want to type the
spectrums data points in one time, the points will be entered into a file named BENCH1. The ASCII file BENCH1 can
be created using any standard editor or the CAESAR II text editor. The listing of the ASCII file for BENCH1 is shown
following the plot of the spectrum.
The spectrum definition input for pointing to this file is:
#BENCH1 PERIOD ACCEL LOG LOG
Listing of ASCII file BENCH1:
SPECTRUM FOR NUCLEAR BENCHMARK NO.1. THIS SPECTRUM IS
TO BE USED FOR ALL LINES ON PROJECT 1-130023-A03.
FILENAME = BENCH1
RANGE TYPE = PERIOD (SECONDS)
ORDINATE TYPE = ACCELERATION (IN./SEC./SEC.)
INTERPOLATION FOR BOTH AXES = LOGARITHMIC.
FILE PREPARED BY M.NASH JANUARY 15, 1987
PERIOD(SEC) ACCELERATION(IN/SEC/SEC)
0.1698
E-02
0.1450E
+03
0.2800E
-01
0.3800E
+03
0.5800E
-01
0.7750E
+03
0.7100E
-01
0.7750E
+03
0.9100E-
01
0.4400E
+03
5-16 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
0.1140E
+00
0.1188E
+04
0.1410E
+00
0.1188E
+04
0.1720E
+00
0.7000E+03
0.2000E
+00
0.8710E
+03
0.2500E
+00
0.8710E
+03
0.3230E+
00
0.4000E
+03
Response Spectrum / Time History Profile Data Point Input
Data points for user-defined spectra may be entered through the menu option Tools /Spectrum Data Points.
Range
Spectrum table range value. There should be at least one range-ordinate pair for each spectrum.
Ordinate
Spectrum table ordinate value. There should be at least one range ordinate pair for each spectrum.
Values may be entered in exponential format (i.e. 0.3003E+03, or 0.3423E-03, or 0.3003E3,...), or can have explicit
multiplication or division (i.e. 4032.3/386, or 1.0323*12). Sufficient data points should be entered to fully describe the
spectrum or load profile.
There can be any number of line entries in the spectrum data. Data may also be read from a file using the Read From
File button.
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-17
Force Response Spectrum Definitions
The CAESAR II DLF Spectrum Generator takes the time waveform of some excitation and converts it into a frequency
domain dynamic load factor (DLF) curve. The frequency domain dynamic load factor curve is written to a hard disk file
and can be read directly by CAESAR II as a FORCE response spectrum curve. Input for the Pulse Table Generator is
shown as follows.
DLF/Spectrum Table Generator
Force Spectrum Name
The force spectrum generator creates an ASCII file containing the force spectrum that corresponds to the input time
history waveform.
Maximum Table Frequency
Enter the maximum frequency that should exist in the CAESAR II generated spectrum table. This value seldom needs to
be greater than 100 Hz. If piping frequencies greater than 100 Hz are found in the system and included in the spectrum
analysis, then the spectrum value at 100 Hz would be used. The user can decide which frequencies are important, and
therefore how high the frequency must go, by looking at the solution participation factors and the animated mode shapes.
Typically only the lower frequencies contribute to the system displacements, forces and stresses.
Number of Points in the Table
This is the number of points CAESAR II will generate for the spectrum table. Usually 15 to 20 points are sufficient. These
points are distributed in a cubic relationship starting from zero hertz.
5-18 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
Create Table
When the Create Table button is clicked, a dialog box will appear with the input table as displayed below. Enter the
Time / Force data and click the OK button to create the DLF curve on the hard drive.
Input Table Dialog
Time
Enter the points that describe the time waveform to be modeled. Units for this table are milliseconds. (1000 milliseconds
equal one second.)
Force
Enter the forces that correspond to the points on the force/time curve. Units are as shown. Note that the absolute
magnitude of the force is not important, only the form of the time history loading is important. The actual maximum
value of the dynamic load is taken from the force pattern defined in: SPECTRUM/TIME HISTORY FORCE SETS.
There can be any number of line entries in the Excitation frequency data.
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-19
Building Spectrum / Time History Load Cases
Time History Load Cases
Spectrum /Time History Profile
Enter the name of the shock that was defined during the Time History Definitions phase of the input. This may be any
type of spectra, user defined, predefined, or read from a file. (DO NOT PRECEDE THE SPECTRUM NAME WITH A #
HERE, EVEN IF THE SPECTRUM TABLE WAS READ FROM AN ASCII DATA FILE!) Any number of shocks can
be listed here. Individual contributions can be of any shock type or definition.
Factor
Constant by which to multiply the shock table. Usually 1.0, or if the spectrum table data points were read in units of gs,
to convert to in/sec/sec then this factor would be 386. There are several examples that follow which illustrate various
applications of this value.
5-20 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
Direction
Defines the direction of application of the shock. To define an earthquake type of loading, CAESAR II must know what
the earthquake shock looks like, which comes from the shock spectrum table. CAESAR II must also know in which
direction this shock acts. Typically a shock load case will be comprised of three shock components. One acts in the X
direction, one in the Z, and one in the Y. The combination of each of these three shocks defines the earthquakes
dynamic loading of the piping system.
Skewed directions may be entered by giving a direction cosine or direction vector. Skewed shock contributions are
entered when the piping or structural system appears particularly sensitive to a shock along a skewed line. This most
often occurs when a majority of the piping system lies along a 45 degree line in the horizontal plane. An example shock
input for this type of system is shown among the examples on the following pages.
Any number of shock components can act in the same direction. i.e. there can be two X direction components. This
usually occurs with independent support shock contributions where one X direction component would apply to one
support group and another X direction component would apply to a different support group. (However, there can be two
shock components in the same direction without having independent support contributions defined. This would just
involve defining two shock contributions in the same direction without start, stop, or increment node entries.)
In the simplest form of force spectrum loading there is only a single shock component in the load case, i.e. there is only a
single line of input on the load case screen. When there are multiple lines of input on the load case screen, as when the
user is analyzing a traveling pressure wave that impacts different elbow-elbow pairs, there can be many components to
the shock load case. The combination of responses from each of these shock loading components can be established in
one of two ways. If the Direction field is the same for each load component, then the Directional Combination method
will be used to combine the responses from each load component. If the Direction field is different for each load
component, then the spatial combination method will be used to combine the responses from each load component. The
difference between Spatial and Directional combination methods is that Directional combinations are always made
before Modal combinations, while Spatial combinations can be made before or after Modal combinations, (it is user
controlled). The default is to perform the Modal combinations before Spatial combinations. Either Spatial or Directional
combinations can be made using the ABS or SRSS method. Some of the following force spectrum examples illustrate
these differences.
Note: Since Time History combinations are all algebraic (in-phase), this entry is used as nothing more than a label
during this type of analysis.
Force Set #
If the Spectrum/Load Profile Name describes a Force-type spectrum (rather than displacement, velocity, or acceleration),
then the fourth entry in the load case screen is the force set number. This force set number corresponds to the loads
entered in the Force Sets option. Examples shown on the following pages illustrate this application. Note that if a force
set # is entered, the last three fields must be left blank!
Start Node
Start node, stop node, and increment are only used to define the component of an independent support shock (ISM). This
is a shock component that applies only to a group of support points. For example, different shock spectrum may have
been generated for rack level piping and for ground level piping. In this case the rack supports would be subject to one
shock excitation (influenced by the racks response to the earthquake), and the ground level supports would be subject to
a different shock excitation (not influenced by the rack). In this case, one node range would be used to define the rack
support shock contributions and another would be used to define the ground support shock contributions. The range of
nodes defined by the start node, stop node, and increment must include at least one support point.
Stop Node
Part of the range of nodes. If omitted, defaults to the start node. See the examples that follow for clarification.
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-21
Increment
Part of the range of nodes. If omitted, defaults to 1. See the examples that follow for clarification.
Anchor Movement (Earthquake Only)
This entry is only used for independent support movements. It is used to specify the absolute displacement of the
restraints included in this shock case. This displacement is used to calculate the pseudostatic load components
representing the relative displacement of the individual restraint sets. If omitted, the default is taken from the lowest
frequency entry of the response spectrum: specified displacement, velocity/frequency, or acceleration/frequency
2
(where
frequency is angular frequency).
Directives
A number of directives can be set for each individual load case using the Directives button. These parameters are
optional extensions to the global options set for all load cases on the Control Parameter spreadsheet. Typically users
will not need to specify any of these options.
Directional Combination Method. Similar directional components will be combined using either the ABS or the SRSS
summation method. If there are two shock components in the X direction, the components from each shocks effect on
the system will be summed absolutely. Directional combinations are performed before all other combinations. (There are
three types of combinations: DIRECTIONAL, SPATIAL AND MODAL). The default DIRECTIONAL combination
method is ABS.
Modal Combination Method.
Modal (Group) Modal components will be combined using the Reg. Guide 1.92 GROUPING method. CAESAR II uses
the Revision 1, February 1976 issue of the Regulatory Guide 1.92. See the discussion of the SPATIAL(ABS) directive
for a description of the relationship that exits between modal and spatial response combinations.
Modal (10%) Modal components will be combined using the Reg. Guide 1.92 10% method.
Modal (DSRSS) Modal components will be combined using the Reg. Guide 1.92 Double Square Root of the Sum of the
Squares method. Damping is assumed to be equal for all modes and is taken from the control parameter spreadsheet.
Modal (ABS) Modal components (response quantities) will be combined absolutely. (i.e. the absolute value of each
response quantity will be summed.)
5-22 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
Modal (SRSS) Modal components will be combined using the square root of the sum of the squares method of
combination.
Spatial Combination Method (ABS or SRSS). Spatial components will be combined using the ABS summation
method. There are typically three spatial components in a single earthquake type shock load case. The three usual
excitation directions are the X, Y, and Z global axes. (Although there can be any number of spatial components along
any global or skewed axes.)
Spatial or Modal Combination First. Modal before Spatial summations are Independent. An Independent shock is
one where the X, Y, Z components are random and temporally independent of one another. (i.e. time histories for each
directional component of the shock are not equal.) Spatial before Modal summations are Simultaneous. A simultaneous
shock is one where the X, Y, and Z components are random, but temporarily the same (i.e. time histories for each
directional component of the shock are equal).
Pseudostatic Combination Method (ABS or SRSS). Pseudostatic components for each ISM are added into the response
quantities either absolutely or using the SRSS method of combination. Pseudostatic combinations are performed after all
spatial and modal combinations. The user can deactivate the inclusion of pseudostatic component from the control
parameter spreadsheet.
Missing Mass Combination Method (ABS or SRSS). Missing mass components for each shock load are added into the
response quantities either absolutely or using the SRSS method of combination. The user can deactivate the inclusion of
missing mass components from the control parameter spreadsheet. Missing mass components are added in following
modal summation.
Stress Type (EXP). Stress type for the load case is set using the stress type drop list. If FATigue is selected, the expected
number of load cycles must be entered. The user can change the default stress type dynamic loads to any of the allowed
stress types in CAESAR II. Available stress types are EXP, SUS, OCC, OPE, and FAT. The OCC or occasional stress type
is the default.
The entry of node groups causes a pseudostatic component of the shock to be created. This pseudostatic contribution
can be added or omitted from the final shock loading effects. Additional parameters can be entered on the control
parameter spreadsheet.
The order of input of the shock contributions is not important, and has no bearing on the results.
There is no limit to the number of shock load cases the user can define. The dynamic output processor lets the user
decide which of the Spectrum/Time History Load Cases he wants to process.
Any number of user comment lines may be included. There can be any number of line entries in the spectrum data.
EXAMPLES
Define a shock load case that excites the piping system with a vibration of one times the El Centro earthquake in the X
direction, one times the El Centro earthquake in the Z, and 0.667 times the El Centro earthquake in the Y direction.
ELCENTRO 1 X
ELCENTRO 1 Z
ELCENTRO 0.667 Y
Define a shock load case that excites the piping system with the horizontal and vertical components of the Reg. Guide
1.60 shock spectra for a 2 percent critically damped system. The maximum ground acceleration should be 0.22 gs.
The maximum ground acceleration is set on the control parameter spreadsheet and has no effect on the shock load case
definitions.
1.60H2 1 X
1.60H2 1 Z
1.60V2 1 Y
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-23
Define a shock load case that is comprised of the users' shocks BENCH1 and BENCH2. BENCH1 should act in the X
and Z directions, and shock BENCH2 should act in the Y direction. The scale factor for all shocks is 1.0.
BENCH1 1 X
BENCH2 1 Y
BENCH1 1 Z
One of the shock load cases for this particular job should excite the piping system along a line that is 45 degrees off of
the global axes in the horizontal plane. It is suspected that this direction of excitation will yield the worst possible results.
Apply the user defined shock BENCH1 in the horizontal direction and BENCH2 in the vertical direction.
BENCH1 1 (1,0,1)
BENCH1 1 (-1,0,1)
BENCH2 1 Y
Define a shock load case that excites the piping system with a vibration of two times the El Centro earthquake in the X,
Y, and Z directions. There should be two shock load cases in this job. The first should use an independent summation
and the second a simultaneous.
The load cases would be defined as shown. (There are several ways to accomplish the same objective here using
parameters on the control parameter spreadsheet, etc. Only the method using the explicit definition of the load case
combination method will be presented.) Remember that independent summation means MODAL then SPATIAL, and
simultaneous means SPATIAL then MODAL.
LOAD CASE 1 SHOCK CONTRIBUTIONS - CAESAR IIs title
MODAL(GROUP), SPATIAL(SRSS), MODAL COMBINATIONS FIRST
ELCENTRO 2 X
ELCENTRO 2 Y
ELCENTRO 2 Z
LOAD CASE 2 SHOCK CONTRIBUTIONS - CAESAR IIs title
SPATIAL(SRSS), MODAL(GROUP), SPATIAL COMBINATIONS FIRST
ELCENTRO 2 X
ELCENTRO 2 Y
ELCENTRO 2 Z
Define a shock case that has the user defined spectrum 1DIR acting in the Z direction only. Set the stress type for the
case to be operating and use modal summations before spatial summations. Note that there is no mention of modal or
spatial summations in the load data shown as follows (only the stress type). This is because modal summation first is
the CAESAR II default and would have to be changed on the control parameter spreadsheet for it not to still apply.
1DIR 1 Z
STRESSTYPE(OPE)
5-24 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
The support nodes 5, 25, 35, 45, and 56 are pipe shoes sitting on concrete foundations. The support nodes 140, 145, 157,
160, and 180 are second level rack supports, i.e. pipe shoes sitting on structural steel beams in the second level of the
rack. The ground level shock spectrum name is GROUND04, and the second level rack spectrum name is
RACKLEVEL2-04. Set up the shock load case to define these independent support excitations. Note that an option
exists on the control parameter spreadsheet to neglect the pseudostatic component of the Independent Support Excitation.
Assume that this option is activated. The default is to include the pseudostatic component in an absolute (ABS)
summation method.
GROUND LEVEL EXCITATION
GROUND04 1.0 X 5,56,1
GROUND04 1.0 Y 5,56,1
GROUND04 1.0 Z 5,56,1
RACK LEVEL 2 EXCITATION
RACKLEVEL2-04 1.0 X 140,180,1
RACKLEVEL2-04 1.0 Y 140,180,1
RACKLEVEL2-04 1.0 Z 140,180,1
Set up a shock load case, and define all combinations options explicitly. Use the same shock components as defined in
the above example, except assume that the pseudostatic component is to be added using the SRSS combination method.
Also change the modal summation method is SRSS. (This is the recommended method.) Note that when the modal
summation method is SRSS it doesn't matter whether modal or spatial combinations are performed first. The order is
only a factor when closely spaced modes are considered as in the grouping, ten percent, and DSRSS methods.
MODAL(SRSS),PSEUDOSTATIC(SRSS),SPATIAL(SRSS)
GROUND LEVEL EXCITATION
GROUND04 1.0 X 5,56,1
GROUND04 1.0 Y 5,56,1
GROUND04 1.0 Z 5,56,1
RACK LEVEL 2 EXCITATION
RACKLEVEL2-04 1.0 X 140,180,1
RACKLEVEL2-04 1.0 Y 140,180,1
RACKLEVEL2-04 1.0 Y 140,180,1
The last elbow in the relief valve piping is at node 295. The spectrum name: BLAST contains the DLF response
spectrum for this relief valves firing. SPECTRUM/TIME HISTORY FORCE SET #1 contains the load information and
its point of application. Show the load case input that would provide the most conservative combination of modal results.
(Because there is only a single loading there is no consideration given to spatial or directional combinations.)
Shock Name, Factor, Direction, and Force Set #
ABSOLUTE MODAL SUMMATION, ONLY A SINGLE LOADING
COMPONENT AND SO NO CONSIDERATION GIVEN TO SPATIAL OR
DIRECTIONAL COMBINATIONS.
BLAST, 1, X, 1
MODAL (ABS)
Use the same example above and combine the modes using the grouping method. This will produce the most realistic
solution.
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-25
BLAST, 1, X, 1
MODAL (GROUP)
There are two elbow-elbow pairs that are of significance in this job. Waterhammer loads act on the elbow at 40 in the X
direction and on the elbow at 135 in the Y-direction. In the SPECTRUM/TIME HISTORY FORCE SET input, force set
#1 is defined as the load at 40 and force set #2 is defined as the load at 135. Add the response quantities from each load
component first, using an ABS summation, and then the resulting modal response quantities second, using the grouping
summation method. Two identical methods for achieving the same results are shown.
Shock Name, Factor, Direction, and Force set #
BECAUSE THE DIRECTION INPUT IS THE SAME, I.E. X, FOR BOTH,
LOAD CONTRIBUTIONS, THE DIRECTIONAL COMBINATION METHOD
WILL GOVERN HOW THE HAMMER 40 AND HAMMER135 RESPONSES
ARE COMBINED.
HAMMER40, 1, X, 1
HAMMER135, 1, X, 2
DIRECTIONAL (ABS), MODAL(GROUP)
<or>
BECAUSE THE DIRECTION INPUT IS DIFFERENT, I.E. X AND Y,
THE SPATIAL COMBINATION METHOD WILL GOVERN HOW THE
HAMMER40 AND HAMMER135 RESPONSES ARE COMBINED. NOTE THAT
ON THE DIRECTIVE LINE THE SPATIAL DIRECTIVE COMES BEFORE
THE MODAL DIRECTIVE.
HAMMER40, 1, X, 1
HAMMER135, 1, Y, 2
SPATIAL(ABS), MODAL(GROUP)
5-26 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
Combining Static and Dynamic Results
Static/Dynamic Combinations
Load Case
Defines the static or dynamic load case that is to be a part of this combination case. The load case label must always start
with an S or a D for Static and Dynamic, and must be immediately followed by a load case number. Valid entries are: S1,
STATIC1, S3, STATIC3, D1, DYNAMICS1, S#1, D#1, ...etc... The user can use any length up to 24 characters to define
the load case label so long as the name starts in an S or a D, and ends in a valid load case number. For static load case
definitions, the static case must exist and have already been run (also, the S cant refer to a spring hanger design case).
For dynamic load case definitions, the dynamic load case number refers to the shock load case. Several examples are
given as follows.
Factor
This entry is required and multiplies the response quantities from the respective static or dynamic run.
<Directive Data>
The Stress Type drop list or the Directive button may be used to set optional extensions to global options set for all load
cases on the Control Parameter spreadsheet. Typically the user will not need to specify any of these options.
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-27
Some of the examples included on the following pages illustrate cases where these directives provide extra desired
flexibility.
STRESSTYPE (EXP)
STRESSTYPE (SUS)
STRESSTYPE (OPE)
STRESSTYPE (OCC)
STRESSTYPE (FAT)
The user can change the default stress type for the combination case to any of the four shown here. The default stress
type is OCC - occasional.
COMBINATION (SRSS)
COMBINATION (ABS)
Defines how the load cases listed are to be combined. The ABS method takes the absolute value of all displacement,
force, and stress data for each load case and adds them together. The SRSS method sums the square of all displacement,
force, and stress data for each load case and then takes the square root of the result.
Any number of separate static and dynamic cases can exist in the Combination Load Case list provided each
reference to a static or dynamic case is on a separate line.
The order of input of the load case definitions is not important, and has no bearing on the results.
Any number of user comment lines may be included.
Static cases alone can be combined without dynamic cases.
Dynamic cases alone can be combined without static cases.
EXAMPLES:
The static cases run in the job were:
1 = W+P1+D1+T1+F1 (OPE)
2 = W+P1+F1 (SUS)
3 = L1 - L2 (EXP)
The dynamic cases run in the job were:
1 = Operating Basis Earthquake
2 = 1/2 the Operating Basis Earthquake
The user must combine the Operating Basis Earthquake Stresses with the Sustained Static Stresses. The specification for
this combination case is:
STATIC2 1.0
DYNAMIC1 1.0
<or>
S2 1
D1 1
The static cases run in the job were:
1 = W + P1 + F1 (For hanger design)
5-28 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
2 = W + P1 + D1 + T1 + F1 (For hanger design)
3 = W + P1 + D1 + T1 + F1 (OPE)
4 = W + P1 + F1 (SUS)
5 = L3 - L4 (EXP)
There was one dynamic load case. The user is required to turn an occasional case that is the sum of the sustained and the
dynamic stresses using the SRSS Combination method and the ABS Combination method. Additionally, the user must
combine the expansion static case and the dynamic case using the SRSS Combination method. This is a total of three
combination load cases. Note that since the job had hanger design the first two static load cases cannot be used in a
combination case. The input for each case is shown as follows:
COMBINATION CASE 1:
* SRSS COMBINATION OF SUSTAINED AND DYNAMIC CASES
STRESSTYPE(OCC), COMBINATION(SRSS)
STATIC4 1
DYNAMIC1 1
COMBINATION CASE 2:
* ABS COMBINATION OF SUSTAINED AND DYNAMIC CASES
STRESSTYPE(OCC), COMBINATION(ABS)
STATIC4 1
DYNAMIC1 1
COMBINATION CASE 3:
* SRSS COMBINATION OF EXPANSION AND DYNAMIC CASES
STRESSTYPE(OCC), COMBINATION(SRSS)
STATIC5 1
DYNAMIC1 1
The static cases run in the job were:
1 = W+T1+P+D1+F1 (OPE)
2 = W+P+F1
3 = U1 (OCC) ... Static seismic simulation
4 = L1-L2
5 = ST2+ST3
The user is instructed to perform an SRSS Combination of the static seismic case and both the sustained and operating
static cases. The combination case lists for these two cases would appear:
COMBINATION CASE 1:
COMBINATION(SRSS), STRESSTYPE(OCC)
STATIC2 1
STATIC3 1
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-29
COMBINATION CASES 2:
COMBINATION(SRSS), STRESSTYPE(OCC)
STATIC1 1
STATIC3 1
The following static load cases were run:
1 = W+P1+F1 (Hanger design restrained weight case)
2 = W+T1+F1+P1+D1 (Hanger design load case #1)
3 = W+T2+F1+P1+D1 (Hanger design load case #2)
4 = WNC+P1+F1 (Hanger design actual cold loads)
5 = W+T1+F1+P1+D1 (OPE)
6 = W+P1+F1 (SUS)
7 = L5-L6 (EXP)
Spectrum/Time History Load Cases 1 through 6 were defined by the client. The static sustained stresses are to be
combined with 1/2 the shock case 1 results, 1/2 the shock case 2 results, and 1.333 times the shock case 3 results. The
combination method is to be SRSS. A second combination case is to combine 1/2 the shock case 4 results, 1/2 the shock
case 5 results, and 1.333 times the shock case 6 results. These two combination load cases would be defined as shown as
follows:
COMBINATION CASE 1:
COMBINATION(SRSS)
STATIC6 1
DYNAMIC1 1/2
DYNAMIC2 1/2
DYNAMIC3 1.333
<or>
COMB(SRSS)
S6 1
D1 0.5
D2 0.5
D3 1.333
COMBINATION CASE 2:
COMBINATION (SRSS)
STATIC6 1
DYNAMIC4 0.5
DYNAMIC5 0.5
DYNAMIC6 1.333
5-30 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
Spectrum Time History
Force
Maximum value of the dynamic load applied at this point. Units are as shown. Note that the total applied force will be
the product of this value, the selected force value from the spectrum or load profile, and the factor entered for the load
case.
Direction
Direction of the dynamic load. Can be entered as X, Y, or Z or direction cosines or direction vectors. Direction cosines
are entered in the form (cx,cy,cz), i.e. (0.707, 0, 0.707). Direction vectors are entered in the form: (vx, vy, vz), i.e. (1,0,
and 1).
Node
Node number where the force acts.
Force Set #
Number to uniquely identify this particular force load pattern. See the examples that follow for clarification. This value
defaults to 1.
The general procedure for applying a force spectrum load is as follows:
1 Determine the pulse time history that acts at a single node or over a group of nodes. Only the pulse waveform must
be the same for all nodes in group, the maximum pulse amplitude may vary. For example, a particular shock load due to
ocean current loading acts over the nodes 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 on a production piping system, and the magnitude of
the dynamic loading is 50 lb. at 5, 100 lb. at 10, 200 lb. at 15, and so on up to 500 lb. at 30. Also the dynamic load as a
function of time at each point is equal to half of a sine wave with a period of one second. Even though the magnitude of
the dynamic load varies over the nodes from 5 to 30, the pulse waveform does not (The pulse waveform is the half sine
wave, and its shape is the same for each node). Thus the group of nodes from 5 to 30 can be included in the same force
set #, each node having a different dynamic force magnitude.
2 Using the CAESAR II DLF Spectrum Generator build a DLF vs. frequency file for the time-pulse waveform.
3 Using the Spectrum Definitions option, define the DLF vs. frequency file just created as a Force spectrum data file
with linear interpolation along the frequency axis and linear interpolation along the ordinate axis. (The DLF Spectrum
Generator builds a standard shock table file. Until the type of shock data in the file is described to CAESAR II, the file
cant be used.) Remember to precede the shock name with a # sign when defining it in the Spectrum Definitions so that
CAESAR II knows to read the shock table from the data file.
4 Determine the maximum force magnitude that acts on each node subject to the pulse load.
5 Using the Force Set Editor specify the maximum amplitude of the dynamic load, its direction, and the nodes it acts
on.
6 Build the Spectrum/Time History Load Cases by entering the Force spectrum name (this is the name that is preceded
by the # sign, defined in the Spectrum Definitions editor), the table multiplication factor (usually 1.0), a direction (this
is only a label used for output processing and should be characteristic of the shock, the actual force spectrum loads can
act in multiple directions), and the Force Set #. (The Force Set # refers to the force pattern defined in the Force Spectrum
Editor in step 5 above.) It is step 6 that defines the link between the force spectrum and the force loading pattern.
7 Setup any other parameters needed to run the spectrum analysis for this job. Perform error checking, and once there
are no fatal errors, run the job.
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-31
For a Time History analysis, the load profile used in step 2 would be entered directly in step 3, with the rest of the
process remaining the same.
Any number of user comment lines may be included. There can be any number of line entries in the Force spectrum data.
If there are multiple force spectrum components in a single dynamic load case, the user should be particularly careful
with the combination method selected. In this case, the same rules that cover earthquake shocks and components apply to
force spectrum shocks and components.
EXAMPLES:
The nodes 5, 10, and 15 define a cantilever pipe leg that is part of an offshore production platform. The dynamic load as
a function of time is equal to a half sine wave. The waveform is the same for all three nodes, but the maximum dynamic
load on node 5 is 5030 lb., on node 10 is 10,370 lb., and on node 15 is 30,537 lb. Three force sets are to be built for this
problem. One is with the dynamic loads acting in the X direction. One is with the dynamic loads acting in the Z direction,
and the third is with the dynamic loads acting simultaneously in the X an Z directions. The force spectrum input data for
this job is as follows:
* X DIRECTION HALF SINE WAVE/CURRENT LOADING
5030 X 5 1
10370 X 10 1
30537 X 15 1
* Z DIRECTION HALF SINE WAVE/CURRENT LOADING
5030 Z 5 2
10370 Z 10 2
30537 Z 15 2
* X AND Z DIRECTION WAVE/CURRENT LOADING
5030 X 5 3
5030 Z 5 3
10370 X 10 3
10370 Z 10 3
30537 X 15 3
30537 Z 15 3
A relief valve at node 565 is being investigated for several different reactor decompression conditions. The maximum
load for the first condition is 320 kips in the X direction. This is a ramped time waveform. The valve opens and closes in
5 milliseconds. The duration for the first decompression condition is 50 milliseconds. The maximum load for the second
decompression condition is 150 kips in the X direction. This also is a ramped time waveform. The valve opens and closes
in 5 milliseconds and the duration for the second decompression condition is 4 seconds. The third decompression
condition maximum load is 50 kips, and has the same time waveform as the second condition. (It is this decompression
state that is expected to be the most frequent.)
5-32 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
There must be two shock tables defined, one for the 50 ms duration waveform, and one for the 4 second duration
waveform. Three different maximum force patterns are defined:
* REACTOR DECOMP CONDITION 1
320000 X 565 1
* REACTOR DECOMP CONDITION 2
150000 X 565 2
* REACTOR DECOMP CONDITION 3 (MOST FREQUENT)
50000 X 565 3
A startup shock wave passes through a single elbow system. Nodes in the piping model are 5, 10, and 15. The system is
shown as follows:
As the wave starts off between 5 and 10 there is an initial dynamic axial load on the anchor at 5. When the shock wave
hits the elbow at 10, the axial load in the 5-10 element balances the initial imbalance at node 5, and there becomes an
axial imbalance in the 10-15 element. This shock load will be modeled as two completely separate impacts on the piping
system The first is the dynamic anchor load at 5. (If 5 is a flexible anchor then this load may cause dynamic
displacements of the piping system and 5 will just be subject to the dynamic time history pulse due to the shock.)
Assume the anchor at 5 is a flexible vessel nozzle. The second shock load is the unbalanced dynamic pressure load in the
10-15 element that exists until the shock reaches the node 15. Friction in the line resisting movement of the shock wave
is considerable. In the time the wave leaves the anchor at 5 until it encounters the bend at 10 there is a 50% drop in the
pulse strength as shown in the following plot.
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-33
This pressure drop was computed using a transient fluid simulator. Between node 10 and node 15 the pulse strength
drops even further as shown as follows.
The Force Spectrum input for this loading is as shown as follows:
* X DIRECTION LOAD ON FLEXIBLE ANCHOR AT 5
-5600 X 5 1
* Z DIRECTION LOAD ON ELBOW AT 10
2800 Z 10 2
5-34 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
Lumped Masses
Lumped Masses
Mass
Enter the concentrated mass in the units shown, a positive concentrated mass is added to the mass at the node. A negative
concentrated mass is subtracted from the mass at the node and a zero entry deletes all mass for the node.
Direction
Can be X, Y, Z, or ALL. ALL can be abbreviated A. If X, Y, or Z is entered, then the mass is only added or subtracted
for that direction.
Start Node
Node where the mass is to act. This entry is required. If entered without a stop node and increment, then this node must
exist in the piping system. If entered with a stop node and increment then the range of nodes identified by the loop must
include at least one node in the piping system. See the examples that follow.
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-35
Stop Node
Used as part of a range of nodes lumped mass command. See the examples that follow. This entry is optional.
Increment
Used as part of a range of nodes lumped mass command. See the examples that follow. This entry is optional.
There can be any number of line entries in the lumped mass data.
The zero mass capability with the range of nodes entry is particularly useful when the user has a part of the system for
which he is not interested in the modes. That part of the system would have been modeled for its stiffness effect only.
One example is structural steel models. It is not uncommon for a user to delete all of the mass for nodes in the structural
steel model. (Steel models are often only entered to include their stiffness effects and so the omission of their dynamic
effects is often not significant.)
EXAMPLES:
450 ALL 40
Note: The node range loop starts from node 12, which is not defined and goes through node 25 in steps of 1. Some
nodes dont exist in this range but this is not an error as long as at least one node in the range defined by 12 through 25
by 1, exists in the system.
0.0 ALL 12 25 1
375 A 25 50 5
0.0 X 1 600 1
0.0 Y 1 600 1
5-36 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
Snubbers
Snubbers
Stiffness
Enter the stiffness for the snubber in the units shown. If the snubber is rigid enter a value of 1.0E12. The stiffness of the
snubber must be given and must be positive.
Direction
Enter the line of action of the snubber as either X, Y, Z, or as direction cosines or direction vectors. The format for
direction cosines is (cx,cy,cz), and for direction vectors is (vx, vy, vz). See the example that follows for the entry of some
typical skewed snubbers.
Node
Enter the node where the snubber acts. This is a required entry. If the snubber acts between the piping system and a fixed
point in space, then leave the CNode field blank. Connecting Nodes work for snubbers just like they do for restraints.
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-37
CNode
If the snubber acts between one point on the piping system and another point on the piping system, then enter the node
that the snubber connects to.
EXAMPLES:
1 Add rigid snubber at node 150 in the Z direction.
1E12 Z 150
2 Add rigid snubbers at nodes 160, 165, and 170 in the Z direction.
1E12 Z 160
1E12 Z 165
1E12 Z 170
3 Add a rigid snubber between the structural steel node 1005 and the piping node 405 in the Z direction.
1E12 Z 405 1005
4 Add a 5,000 lb./in. snubber in the X and Y directions at the piping node 500. The X snubber should connect to the
structural steel node 1050 and the Y snubber should connect to the overhead line at node 743.
HORIZONTAL SNUBBER BETWEEN STEAM LINE AND STEEL 5000 X 500 1050.
VERTICAL SNUBBER BETWEEN STEAM LINE AND OVER HEAD COOLING WATER LINE
5000 Y 500 743
5-38 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
Dynamic Control Parameters
Control Parameters
The type of analysis chosen by the user in the Dynamic Input Processor determines the active Control Parameters.
CAESAR II will only display this list of active Control Parameters. In addition, the calculation details can be fine-tuned
using many of the other Control Parameters, maximizing accuracy of results for most dynamic problems. The impact and
use of these parameters, as well as their technical bases, are described in this section.
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-39
The list of the control parameters, along with the Analysis Types for which they are active, displays in the following
table.
Notes:
X-required
1 If system has nonlinear restraints or hanger design
2 If any restraints have friction
3 Either "Max. No. of Eigenvalues" or "Frequency Cutoff" required
4 If modal combination method is GROUP or 10%
5 If modal combination method is DSRSS
6 If USNRC Regulatory Guide 1.60 or Uniform Building Code seismic spectra are used
7 If independent support movement (USM) loads are present
8 If pseudo-static components are inducted
9 If missing mass components are included
10 If multiple spectrum loads are applied in the same direction
Analysis Type (Harmonic/Spectrum/Modes/Time-History)
The first parameter is used to select from the available dynamic analysis types, which are Harmonic (direct solution),
Response Spectrum (any combination of seismic, anchor movement, and force loadings), Modal Extraction, Range, and
Time History (linear modal). These analysis types are described on the next page.
5-40 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
Harmonic Analysis
Generally, the response of a system to a dynamically applied load is expressed through the dynamic equation of motion:
Where:
M = system mass matrix
= acceleration vector, as a function of time
C = system damping matrix
= velocity vector, as a function of time
K = system stiffness matrix
x(t) = displacement vector, as a function of time
F(t) = applied load vector, as a function of time
Unfortunately, this differential equation cannot be solved explicitly, except in a few specific cases. Harmonic analysis
looks at one of these casesthe set of dynamic problems where the forces or displacements (i.e., pulsation or vibration)
acting on the piping system take sinusoidal forms. Under harmonic loading, when damping is zero, the dynamic equation
of the system can be reduced to
M (t) + K x(t) = F0 cos (e t + Q)
Where:
F0 = harmonic load vector
e = angular forcing frequency of harmonic load (radian/sec)
t = time
Q = phase angle (radians)
This differential equation can be solved directly, yielding the nodal displacements at any time (and from there the system
reactions, forces and moments, and stresses).
The equation has a solution of the form
x (t) = A cos (e t + Q)
Where:
A = vector of maximum harmonic displacements of system
Since acceleration is the second derivative of displacement with respect to time,
(t) = -A e
2
cos e t
Inserting these equations for displacement and acceleration back into the basic harmonic equation of motion yields,
-M A e
2
cos (e t + Q) + K A cos (e t + Q) = Fo cos (e t + Q)
Dividing both sides of this equation by cos (e t + Q),
-M A e
2
+ K A = Fo
Reordering this equation,
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-41
(K - M e
2
) A = Fo
This is exactly the same form of the equation as is solved for all linear (static) piping problems. The appealing thing
about this is that the solution time for each excitation frequency takes only as long as a single static solution, and, when
there is no phase relationship to the loading, the results give the maximum dynamic responses directly. Due to the speed
of the analysis, and because the solutions are so directly applicable, it is advisable to make as much use of this capability
as possible. Two considerations must be kept in mind:
When damping is not zero, the harmonic equation can only be solved if the damping matrix can be defined as the
sum of multiples of the mass and stiffness matrix (Rayleigh damping), i.e.:
[C] = a [M] + b [K]
On a modal basis, the relationship between the ratio of critical damping Cc and the constants a and b is given as
2 2
Cc
o |e | |
= +
|
e
\ .
Where:
e = Undamped natural frequency of mode (rad/sec)
For practical problems, o is extremely small, and so may be ignored. Therefore the definition of | reduces to
| = 2 Cc/e
CAESAR II uses this implementation of damping for its harmonic analysis; however there are still two problems. First, for
multi-degree-of-freedom systems, there is not really a single b, but there must be only a single b in order to get a solution
of the harmonic equation. The second problem is that the modal frequencies are not known prior to generation of the
damping matrix. Therefore the w used in the calculation of b is the forcing frequency of the load, instead of the natural
frequency of a mode. When the forcing frequency of the load is in the vicinity of a modal frequency, this gives a good
estimation of the true damping.
If multiple harmonic loads occur simultaneously, and they are not in phase, system response is the sum of the
responses due to the individual loads:
x(t) = S Ai cos (e t + Qi)
Where:
Ai = displacement vector of system under load i
Qi = phase angle of load i
In this case, an absolute maximum solution cannot be found. Rather, solutions for each load, and the sum of these, must
be found at various times in the load cycle. These combinations should then be reviewed in order to determine which one
causes the worst load case. Alternatively, CAESAR II can select the frequency/phase pairs which maximize the system
displacement.
Note: Damped harmonics will always cause a phased response.
The biggest use by far of the harmonic solver is in analyzing low frequency field vibrations resulting from either fluid
pulsation or out-of-round rotating equipment displacements. The approach typically taken towards solving this type of
problem is described briefly below:
1 A potential dynamic problem is first identified in the fieldeither in terms of large cyclic vibrations or high stresses
(fatigue failure) being present in an existing piping system, raising questions of whether this represents a dangerous
situation. As many symptoms of the problem (quantifiable displacements, overstress points, etc.) are identified as
possible, for future use in refining the dynamic model.
5-42 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
2 A model of the piping system is built using CAESAR II. This should be done as accurately as possible, since system,
as well as load, characteristics affect the magnitude of the developed response. Particular attention should be paid
when modeling the area where the vibration occurs. This might include accurately representing valve operators,
flange pairs, orifice plates and other in-line equipment. It may also be a good idea to add additional nodes in the area
of the vibration.
3 The engineer next postulates the cause of the load, and from that, an estimate of the frequency, magnitude, point, and
direction of the load. This is somewhat difficult because the dynamic loads can come from many sources. Dynamic
loads may be due to internal pressure pulses, external vibration, flow shedding at intersections, two phase flow, etc.,
but in almost all cases, there is some frequency content of the excitation that corresponds to (and therefore excites) a
system mechanical natural frequency. If the load is caused by equipment, then the forcing frequency is probably
some multiple of the operating frequency; if the load is due to acoustic flow problems, then the forcing frequency can
be estimated through the use of Strouhals equations (from fluid dynamics). Using the best assumptions available,
the user should estimate the magnitudes and points of application of the dynamic load.
4 The loading is then modeled using harmonic forces or displacements (normally depending upon whether the cause is
assumed to be pulsation or vibration) and several harmonic analyses are done, sweeping the frequencies through a
range centered about the target frequency (in order to account for uncertainty). The results of each of the analyses are
examined for signs of large displacements, indicating harmonic resonance. If the resonance is present, the results of
the analysis are compared to the known symptoms from the field. If they are not similar (or if there is no resonance),
this indicates that the dynamic model is not a good one, so it must be improved, either in terms of a more accurate
system (static) model, a better estimate of the load, or a finer sweep through the frequency range. Once the model
has been refined, this step is repeated until the mathematical model behaves just like the actual piping system in the
field.
5 At this time, there is a good model of the piping system and a good model of the loads (or, more accurately, a good
model of the relationship of the load characteristics to the system characteristics). The results of this run are
evaluated in order to determine whether they indicate a problem. Since harmonic stresses are cyclic, they should be
evaluated against the endurance limit of the piping material; displacements should be reviewed against interference
limits or esthetic guidelines.
6 If the situation is deemed to be a problem, its cause must be identified, where the cause is normally the excitation of
a single mode of vibration. For example, the Dynamic Load Factor for a single damped mode of vibration, with a
harmonic load applied is
2
2 2
1 (2 )
[1 ( ) ] (2 )
c f m
f m c f m
C
DLF
C
+ e e
=
e e + e e
Where:
DLF = dynamic loading factor
Cc = ratio of system damping to critical damping,
where critical damping =
e f = forcing frequency of applied harmonic load
e n = natural frequency of mode of vibration
A modal extraction of the system is done; one (or more) of these modes should have a natural frequency close to the
forcing frequency of the applied load. The guilty mode can be further identified as that one having a shape very similar to
the shape of the total system vibration, since this mode shape has certainly been dynamically magnified far beyond the
other modes (and thus predominates in the final vibrated shape).
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-43
7 Once the guilty mode has been identified, it must be eliminated. This is done most easily by adding a restraint at
a high point (and in the direction thereof) of the mode shape. If this cannot be done, the mode may also be altered by
changing the mass distribution of the system. If no modification of the system is possible, it may be possible to alter
the forcing frequency of the load. If the dynamic load was postulated to be due to internal acoustics, it is
recommended that the pipe not be rerouted at this point, as rerouting the pipe will change the internal flow conditions
(which may resolve or amplify the problem, but in either case will void CAESAR IIs good model of the system).
After modifying the system, the harmonic problem (using the single forcing frequency determined as a good
model) is then re-run, and the stresses, displacements, etc. are re-evaluated.
8 If the dynamic problem has been adequately solved, the system is now re-analyzed statically to determine the effects
of any modifications on the static loading cases. (Remember, adding restraint normally increases expansion stresses,
while adding mass increases sustained stresses.)
The user may process output from a harmonic analysis in two ways:
Use of the output processor to review displacement, restraint, force, or stress data either graphically or in report
form.
Animation of the displacement pattern for each of the frequency load cases.
Note: The results of harmonic dynamic loads cannot be combined using the Static/Dynamic Combination option.
Spectrum Analysis
A spectrum analysis represents an attempt to estimate the maximum response developed in a system during a transient
load. The results are a statistical summation of the maximum displacements, forces, reactions, stresses, etc; the individual
responses do not represent an actual physical loading case in that the maxima may all occur at different times. Spectrum
analyses are especially useful when the loading profile is random, or otherwise not known exactly, such as with seismic
loads. CAESAR II provides the ability to perform two types of spectrum analyses (which may be combined): for seismic
and force loadings. Seismic loadings may be evaluated either uniformly over the entire system, or applied through
individual support groups (with corresponding anchor movements). Force spectra analyses may be used to analyze
impulse loadings, such as those due to relief valve, fluid hammer, or slug flow. These two types are described in the
following paragraphs.
Seismic Spectrum Analysis. Seismic loads cannot be solved through time history analyses, since earthquakes cause
random motion, which may be different for each earthquake, even those occurring at the same site. To simplify the
analytical definition of the earthquake, it is necessary to get the expected random waveform of acceleration (or velocity
or displacement) vs. time into some simple frequency-content plot. The most predominantly used frequency-content plot
is the response spectrum. A response spectrum for an earthquake load can be developed by placing a series of single
degree-of-freedom oscillators on a mechanical shake table and feeding a typical (typical for a specific site) earthquake
time history through it, measuring the maximum response (displacement, velocity, or acceleration) of each oscillator.
5-44 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
The expectation is that even though all earthquakes are different, similar ones should produce the same maximum
responses, even though the time at which they occur will differ with each individual occurrence. (Responses will be
based on the maximum ground displacement and acceleration, the dynamic load factors determined by the ratios of the
predominant harmonic frequencies of the earthquake to the natural frequencies of the oscillators, and system damping.)
Response spectra for a number of damping values can be generated by plotting the maximum response for each
oscillator. A plot of a set of typical response spectra is shown in the following figure.
Seismic response spectra resemble harmonic Dynamic Load Factor curves, since seismic loads evidence strong harmonic
tendencies. As damping value increases, the system response approaches the ground motion. Seismic spectra usually also
show strong evidence of flexible, resonant, and rigid areas. Spectra may have multiple peaks due to filtering by the
building and/or piping system; however multiple peaks are usually enveloped in order to account for uncertainties in the
analysis. Seismic response spectra peaks are typically spread to account for inaccuracies as well.
The idea behind the generation of the response spectra is that a systems modes of vibration will respond to the load in
the exact same manner as will a single degree-of-freedom oscillator. System response may be plotted in terms of
displacement, velocity, or acceleration, since these terms of the spectra are all related by the frequency:
d = v / e = a / e
2
Where:
d = displacement from response spectrum at frequency
v = velocity from response spectrum at frequency
e = angular frequency at which response spectrum parameters are taken
a = acceleration from response spectrum at frequency
Response Spectrum analysis proceeds according to the following steps:
1 Modes of vibration are extracted from the system using an Eigensolver algorithm. Each mode has a characteristic
frequency and mode shape.
2 The maximum response of each mode under the applied load is determined from the spectrum value corresponding
to the modes natural frequency.
3 The total system response is determined by summing the individual modal responses, using methods that reflect the
time independence of the responses and the portion of system mass allocated to each mode.
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-45
There are four major sources of earthquake spectra available to the CAESAR II user:
Predefined El Centro (available in the CAESAR II databasespectrum name = ELCENTRO): This data is taken from
J. Biggs Introduction to Structural Dynamics and is based on the north-south component of the May 18, 1940 El
Centro California earthquake. The recorded maximum acceleration was 0.33 g. The spectrum provided here is
intended to apply to elastic systems having 5 to 10 percent critical damping.
Predefined Nuclear Regulatory Guide 1.60 (Available in the CAESAR II database): The predefined spectrum names
are:
1.60H.5 1.60V.5 -- Horizontal/vertical,0.5% damping
1.60H2 1.60V2 -- Horizontal/vertical,2.0% damping
1.60H5 1.60V5 -- Horizontal/vertical,5.0% damping
1.60H7 1.60V7 -- Horizontal/vertical,7.0% damping
1.60H10 1.60V10 -- Horizontal/vertical,10.0% damping
These spectra are constructed according to the instructions given in Regulatory Guide 1.60 for seismic design of nuclear
plants. They must also be scaled up or down by the maximum ground acceleration (ZPAzero period acceleration),
which can be specified in the CAESAR II control parameter spreadsheet.
Predefined Uniform Building Code (Available in the CAESAR II database). The predefined spectrum names are:
UBCSOIL1 Spectrum for rock and stiff soils
UBCSOIL2 Spectrum for deep cohesionless or stiff clay soils
UBCSOIL3 Spectrum for soft to medium clays and sands
These spectra represent the normalized response spectra shapes (for three soil types) provided in Figure 23-3 of the
Uniform Building Code (1991 Edition). When used, they must be scaled by the ZPA, which is the product of Z and I
(Where Z is the seismic zone coefficient and I is the earthquake importance factor, from UBC Tables 23-I and 23-L,
respectively). The ZPA can be specific using the CAESAR II control parameter spreadsheet.
User defined spectra: User defined spectra may be entered with period or frequency as the range, and displacement,
velocity, or acceleration as the ordinate. These spectra may be read in from a text file or entered directly into a
spectrum table during dynamic input processing.
Independent Support Motion Applications. Earthquake ground motions are caused by the passing of acoustic shock
waves through the earths soil. These waves are usually hundreds of feet long. If supports having foundations in the soil
are grouped together within a several hundred foot radius of each other they will typically see exactly the same excitation
from the earthquake. If all of the supports for a particular piping system are attached directly to ground type supports,
each support will be excited by an essentially identical time waveform. This type of excitation is known as uniform
support excitation. Often pipe is supported from rack, building, or vessel structures as well as from ground type supports.
These intermediate structures serve to, in some cases, filter and in some cases accentuate the effect of the earthquake. In
this situation, the supports attached to the intermediate structure are not exposed to the same excitation as those that are
attached directly to ground foundations. To accurately model these systems different shocks must be applied to different
parts of the piping system. This type of excitation is known as independent support motion (ISM) excitation. While the
different support groups are exposed to different shocks, there are also relative movements between support groups that
dont exist for uniform support excitation. The movement of one support group relative to another is termed pseudostatic
displacement, or seismic anchor movements. For uniform support excitation there are spatial and modal response
components available for combination. For independent support excitation there are spatial and modal response
components available for each different support group, plus pseudostatic components of the earthquake that must be
added into the dynamic response as well.
The major difference when running ISM type earthquake loads comes while building the shock load cases. Whereas in
the uniform excitation case the shock acts implicitly over all of the supports in the system, in the ISM case different
shocks act on different groups of supports. The shock load case input form appears:
5-46 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
SHOCK NAME FACTOR DIR START NODE STOP NODE INCR ANCHOR
MVMT
Name, Factor, and Direction are all that is entered for uniform support excitations. For ISM type shocks, the group of
nodes over which the shock acts must be specified as well, using the Start Node, Stop Node, and Increment entries. The
Anchor Movement entry is used to explicitly define the seismic displacement of the restraint set. This displacement is
used to calculate the pseudostatic load components. If omitted, the program defaults to the displacement derived from the
response spectrum entry corresponding to the lowest frequency.
Force Spectrum Analysis. A similar method can be followed for non-random loads, such as an impulse load for which
the force vs. time profile is known. A look at the equation for the earthquake problem explains why the force spectrum
solution is very similar to the earthquake solution:
The term on the right hand side is nothing more than a dynamic force acting on the piping system, i.e. F = Ma, so the
analogous equation to be solved for the force spectrum problem is:
( ) ( ) ( ) Mx t Kx t F t + =
Where:
F = the dynamic load (water hammer or relief valve)
Instead of the displacement, velocity, or acceleration spectrum used for the seismic problem, a Dynamic Load Factor
spectrum is used for a force spectrum problem. A DLF spectrum gives the ratio of the maximum dynamic displacement
divided by the maximum static displacement. Whereas the earthquake response spectrum analysis method started with
the time history of an earthquake excitation, the force spectrum analysis method is done in exactly the same wayexcept
that the analysis starts with the force vs. time profile. Just as for the earthquake, this time history loading can be applied
to a shake table of single degree-of-freedom bodies, with a response spectrum (in this case, DLF vs. natural frequency)
being generated by dividing the maximum oscillator displacements by the static displacements expected under the same
load. An alternate means of generating a response spectrum for an impulse load is to numerically integrate the dynamic
equation of motion for oscillators of various frequencies under the applied load. This can be done using the Pulse
Table/DLF Spectrum Generator available from the CAESAR II Main Dynamics Menu.
The user may process output from a spectrum analysis in two ways:
Use of the output processor to review the natural frequencies, mode shapes, participation factors, included
mass/force, displacements, and restraint loads, forces, or stresses in report form. Dynamic results also show the
largest modal contributor, along with the mode and shock load responsible for that contribution.
Animation of the individual mode shapes extracted for the spectrum analysis.
Modal Extraction. A modal extraction performs only an Eigensolution (an eigensolution is also performed as the initial
step of the spectrum or modal time history analyses). The Eigensolution algorithm uses an iterative method to solve for
natural frequencies and mode shapes of a piping or structural system. Each mode of the piping system is associated with
a shape and a frequency, which together define the systems tendency to vibrate; the mode shape defining the shape the
system would like to take when it vibrates, and the natural frequency defining the desired speed of the vibration. The
eigensolver returns a set of these for each mode, with the dimensionless mode shape called an eigenvector, and the
frequency returned as the square of the angular frequency ( e
2
), known as the eigenvalue. Given the eigenvalue, the
modal frequency can be expressed in angular frequency (radians per second), cyclic frequency (Hz), or period (seconds
per cycle):
eigenvalue = e
2
(radians squared per second squared)
angular frequency = e (radians per second)
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-47
cyclic frequency = e / 2t (Hz, or cycles per second)
period = 2t / e (seconds per cycle)
The absolute magnitude of a mode shape displacement computed by an eigensolver is unknown, with only the shape
being given (i.e. only the ratios of the displacements at various degrees of freedom are known for each mode, with these
ratios being constant for each mode). One eigenpair can potentially be calculated for each degree of freedom in the
model that contains some nonzero mass (node point) and some non-rigid stiffness (i.e., is not fully restrained). CAESAR II
omits rotational degrees of freedom from dynamic models in order to simplify the calculationthis is usually acceptable
since rotational modes of vibration usually have very high frequencies, and correspondingly very low mode participation
factors.
The user may process output from a modal analysis in two ways:
Use of the output processor to review the natural frequencies and mode shapes in report form.
Animation of the individual mode shapes.
Time History
Time history analysis is a more accurate, more computationally intensive analytical method than is response spectrum
analysis, and is best suited to impulse loadings or other transient loadings where the profile is known. This method of
analysis involves the actual solution of the dynamic equation of motion throughout the duration of the applied load and
subsequent system vibration, providing a true simulation of the system response at all times.
As noted previously, the dynamic equation of motion for a system is
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) Mx t Cx t Kx t F t + + =
This differential equation cannot be solved explicitly, but may be integrated using numeric techniques by slicing the
duration of the load into many small time steps. Based on an assumption of the behavior of the system between time
slices (i.e., that the change in acceleration between time slices is linear), the system accelerations, velocities,
displacements, and correspondingly, the reactions, internal forces, and stresses can be calculated at successive time steps.
Since the total response of a system is equivalent to the sum of the responses of its individual modes of vibration, the
above equation can be simplified (assuming the damping matrix C is orthogonal), using the transformation x = FX, to be
expressed in modal coordinates:
1
( ) ( ) f ( ) g ( ) x t C x t x t F t ' + + =
Where:
x(t)
= acceleration vector (in modal coordinates), as a function of time
C = diagonal damping matrix, where entry Ci = ei ci
ei = angular frequency of mode i
ci = ratio of damping to critical damping for mode i
(t) = velocity vector (in modal coordinates), as a function of time
x(t) = displacement vector (in modal coordinates), as a function of time
O = diagonal stiffness matrix, where entry O i = ei
2
5-48 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
This transformation represents N (where N is the number of modes of vibration extracted) uncoupled second order
differential equations, which can then be integrated and summed (using the in-phase, algebraic summation method) to
give the total system response. The CAESAR II program uses the Wilson u method (an extension of the Newmark method)
to integrate the equations of motion, which provides an unconditionally stable algorithm, regardless of time step size
chosen.
Only one dynamic load may be defined for a time history analysis (this dynamic load case may be used in as many
static/dynamic combination load case as necessary). However, the single load case may consist of multiple force profiles
applied to the system simultaneously, or sequentially. Each force vs. time profile is entered as a spectrum with an
ordinate of FORCE (in current units) and a range of TIME (in milliseconds). The profiles are defined by entering the time
and force coordinates of the corner points defining the profile. (Note that a time can only be entered once, and that times
with zero force outside of the defined profile need not be entered explicitly.)
For example, the profiles shown in the following figure are entered as:
TIME (MS) FORCE TIME (MS) FORCE
0.0 0.0 20.0 1000.0
10.0 300.0 60.0 1000.0
20.0 1000.0 30.0 0.0
The load profiles must then be linked with force sets (indicating magnitude, direction, and location of the applied load) in
the shock case. The magnitude of the applied load is determined by the product of the profile force, the force set
magnitude, and the scale in the shock case.
Currently only forces, not moments or restraint displacements, may be entered in the time history load profile. However,
moments can be modeled using force couples, and restraint displacements can be simulated by entering forces equal to
the desired displacement times the restraint stiffness in the direction of the displacement).
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-49
The user may process output from a Time History analysis in three ways:
1 Use of the output processor to review the natural frequencies, mode shapes, participation factors, included
mass/force, displacements, and restraint loads, forces, or stresses in report form. CAESAR IIs implementation of time
history analysis provides two types of resultsone results case containing the maximum individual components (axial
stress, X-displacement, MZ reaction, etc.) of the system response, along with the time at which it occurred, and several
(the actual number is determined by user request) results cases representing the actual system response at specific times.
Dynamic results also show the largest modal contributor, along with the mode and transient load responsible for that
contribution.
2 Animation of the shock displacement for the transient load cases. During animation, the displacements, forces,
moments, stresses, and other data associated with individual elements may be displayed at every time step and for
the dynamic load alone, or for any of the static/dynamic combinations.
3 Animation of the individual mode shapes included in the time history response.
Static Load Case for Nonlinear Restraint Status
(Active for: Harmonic, Spectrum, Modal, Range, and Time History)
Currently all of CAESAR IIs dynamic analyses act only on linear systems, so any non-linearities must be linearized prior
to analysis. This means that one-directional restraints will not lift off and reseat, gaps will not open and close, and
friction will not act as a constant effort force. Therefore, for dynamic analyses, all non-linear effects must be modeled as
linearfor example, a one-directional restraint must be modeled as either seated (active) or lifted off (inactive), and a
gap must be either open (inactive) or closed (active). This process is automated when the static load case is selected
hereCAESAR II automatically activates the non-linear restraints in the system to correspond to their status in the
selected load case (the user may think of this as being the loading conditionfor example Operatingof the system at
the time at which the dynamic load occurs). It must be noted that this automated linearization does not always provide an
appropriate dynamic model, and it may be necessary to select other static load cases or even to manually alter the
restraint condition in order to simulate the correct dynamic response.
A static load case must precede the dynamics job whenever one or more of the following situations occur:
There are spring hangers to be designed in the job. The static runs must be made in order to determine the spring rate
to be used in the dynamic model.
There are non-linear restraints, such as one-directional restraints, large-rotation rods, bi-linear restraints, gaps, etc. in
the system. The static analysis must be made in order to determine the active status of each of the restraints for
linearization of the dynamic model.
There are frictional restraints in the job, i.e. any restraints with a nonzero h (mu) value.
The most common arrangement of static loads during typical CAESAR II analyses displays below:
Example 1analyses containing no hanger design:
1 = W+P1+D1+T1+F1 (OPE)
2 = W+P1+F1 (SUS)
3 = L1-L2 (EXP)
In this case, if the operating condition is most likely to exist throughout the duration of the dynamic transient, the correct
entry for this parameter is 1. If the installed condition is more likely to exist during the transient, the entry for this
parameter should be 2. It is extremely unlikely that the expansion case (3) would be correct here, since it does not
represent the system status at any given time, but rather represents the difference between the first two cases.
Example 2analyses containing hanger design:
5-50 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
1 = W+P1+F1 (For hanger design)
2 = W+P1+D1+T1+F1 (For hanger design)
3 = W+P1+D1+T1+F1 (OPE)
4 = W+P1+F1 (SUS)
5 = L3-L4 (EXP)
In this case, the correct static load cases to use are those in which the selected spring hangers have been included; if the
operating condition is the correct load case, the entry for this parameter should be 3. For the installed condition, an entry
of 4 is correct.
Stiffness Factor for Friction (0.0 - Not Used)
(Active for: Harmonic, Spectrum, Modal, Range, and Time History)
As noted above, all of CAESAR IIs dynamic analyses are currently linear, so non-linear effects must be linearized.
Modeling of friction in dynamic models presents a special case, since friction actually impacts the dynamic response in
two waysstatic friction (prior to breakaway) affects the stiffness of the system, by providing additional restraint, while
kinetic friction (subsequent to breakaway) actually affects the damping component of dynamic response; due to
mathematical constraints, damping is ignored for all analyses except time history and harmonics (for which it is only
considered on a system-wide basis).
CAESAR II allows friction to be taken into account through the use of this Friction Stiffness Factor. CAESAR II
approximates the restraining effect of friction on the pipe by including stiffnesses transverse to the direction of the
restraint at which friction was specified. The stiffness of these frictional restraints is computed as:
Kfriction = (F) (S) (Fact)
Where:
Kfriction = stiffness of frictional restraint inserted by CAESAR II
F = the force at the restraint taken from the static solution
S = mu, friction coefficient at restraint, as defined in the static model
Fact = Friction Factor from the control spreadsheet
This factor should be adjusted as necessary in order to make the dynamic model simulate the systems actual dynamic
response (note that use of this factor does not correspond to any actual dynamic parameter, but is actually a tweak
factor to modify system stiffness). Entering a friction factor greater than zero causes these friction stiffnesses to be
inserted into the dynamics job. Increasing this factor correspondingly increases the effect of the friction. Entering a
friction factor equal to zero ignores any frictional effect in the dynamics job.
Max. No. of Eigenvalues Calculated (0-Not used)
(Active for: Spectrum, Modal, and Time History)
The first stage of the Spectrum, Modal, and Time History analyses, is the use of the Eigensolver algorithm to extract the
piping systems natural frequencies and mode shapes. For the Spectrum and Time History analyses, the response under
loading is calculated for each of the modes, with the system response being the sum of the individual modal responses.
Obviously, the more modes that are extracted, the more the sum of those modal responses resembles the actual system
response. The problem is that this algorithm uses an iterative method for finding successive modes, so extraction of a
large number of modes usually requires much more time than does a static solution of the same piping system. The object
is to extract sufficient modes to get a suitable solution, without straining computational resources.
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-51
CAESAR II permits the user to specifyeither through a mode number cutoff or a frequency cutoffthe number of
modal responses to be included in the system results. This parameter is used, in combination with the Frequency Cutoff
described below, to limit the maximum number of modes of vibration to be extracted during the dynamic analysis. If this
parameter is entered as 0, the number of modes extracted is limited only by the frequency cutoff (and potentially, the
number of degrees-of-freedom in the system model).
If the analyst is more interested in providing an accurate representation of the system displacements, it may only be
necessary to request the extraction of a few modes, allowing a rapid calculation time. However, if an accurate estimate of
the forces, stresses, etc. in the system is the objective, calculation time grows as it becomes necessary to extract far more
modes. This is particularly true in the case when solving a fluid hammer problem in the presence of axial restraints; often
modes with natural frequencies of up to 300 Hz can be large contributors to the solution.
The usual procedure for determining how many modes are sufficient is to extract a certain number of modes and review
the results; then to repeat the analysis while extracting 5 to 10 additional modes, and comparing the new results to the
old. If there is a significant change between the results, a new analysis is made, again extracting 5 to 10 more modes
above those that were extracted for the second analysis. This iterative process continues until the results taper off,
becoming asymptotic.
This procedure has two drawbacks, the first one obviousthe time involved in making the multiple analyses, as well as
the time involved in extracting the potentially large number of modes. The second drawback, occurring with Spectrum
analysis, is less obviousa degree of conservatism is introduced when combining the contributions of the higher order
modes. Possible spectral mode summation methods include SRSS, ABSOLUTE, and GROUPall methods that
combine modal results as same-sign (positive) values. In reality, theory states that the rigid modes actually act in phase
with each other, and should therefore be combined algebraically, thus permitting the response of some rigid modes to
cancel the effect of other rigid modes (this is actually what occurs in a time history analysis). Because of this
conservatism, it is actually possible to get results which exceed twice the applied load, despite the fact that the Dynamic
Load Factor (DLF) of an impulse load cannot be greater than 2.0.
An alternative method of ensuring that sufficient modes are considered in the dynamic model is through the use of the
Included Mass Data Report. This report (available from the Dynamic Output Screen) is compiled for all spectrum and
time history shock cases, whether missing mass (see description in the section Include Missing Mass Components) is to
be included or not. It displays the percent of system mass along each of the three global axes, as well as the percent of
total force, which has been captured by the extracted modes.
The percent of system mass active along each of the three global axes (X-, Y-, and Z-) is calculated by summing the
modal mass (corresponding to the appropriate directional degree-of-freedom) attributed to the extracted modes and
dividing that sum by the sum of the system mass acting in the same direction:
% Active Massx
[ ]
[ ]
100( )
e
M i
M i
=
Summed over i = 1 to n, by 6
(X-direction degrees of freedom)
%Active MassY
[ ]
[ ]
100( )
e
M i
M i
=
Summed over 1 = 2 to n, by 6
(Y-direction degrees of freedom)
%Active Massz
[ ]
[ ]
100( )
e
M i
M i
=
Summed over 1 = 3 to n, by 6 (Z-direction degrees of freedom)
5-52 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
Where:
Me = vector (by degree-of-freedom) of sum (over all extracted modes) of effective modal masses
M = vector corresponding to main diagonal of system mass matrix
The maximum possible percent of active mass which is theoretically possible is of course 100%, with 90-95% usually
indicating that a sufficient number of modes have been extracted to provide a good dynamic model. The percent of
active force is calculated by the following factors:
separately summing the components of the effective force acting along each of the three directional degrees-of-
freedom
combining them algebraically
doing the same for the applied load
taking the ratio of the effective load divided by the applied load
For example:
Fe
x
= EFe
[i]
Fx = EF[i]
Summed over i = 1 to n, by 6
(X - Direction degrees of freedom)
Fe
y
= EFe
[i]
Fy = EF[i]
Summed over i = 2 to n, by 6
(Y - Direction degrees of freedom)
Fe
z
= EFe
[i]
Fz = EF[i]
Summed over i = 3 to n, by 6
(Z - Direction degrees of freedom)
% Active Force
2 2 2
2 2 2
[ ]
100*
[ ]
e e e
F x F y F z
Fx Fy Fz
+ +
=
+ +
Where:
FeX,FeY,FeZ = effective force (allocated to extracted modes) acting along the global X-, Y-, and Z-axes,
respectively
Fr = vector of effective forces (allocated to extracted modes)
FX,FY,FZ = total system forces acting along the global X-, Y-, and Z-axes, respectively
F = vector of total system forces
The maximum possible percent which is theoretically possible for this value is also 100%; however, in practice it may be
higher, indicating an uneven distribution of the load and mass in the system model. There is nothing inherently wrong
with an analysis where the included force exceeds 100%if the missing mass correction is included, the modal loadings
will be adjusted to conform to the applied loading automatically.
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-53
Often the percent of included force can be brought back under 100% by extracting a few more modes. At other times, the
situation can be remedied by improving the dynamic model through a finer element mesh, or, more importantly,
equalizing the mass point spacing in the vicinity of the load.
Frequency Cutoff (HZ)
(Active for: Spectrum, Modal, and Time History)
As noted above, CAESAR II permits the user to specify either a number of modes or a frequency cutoff for extracting
modes to be considered in the dynamic analysis. Modal extraction ceases when the Eigensolver extracts either the
number of modes requested, or extracts a mode with a frequency above that of the Frequency Cutoff, whichever comes
first.
One recommendation for selection of a frequency cutoff point is that the user extract modes up to, but not far beyond, a
recognized rigid frequency, and then include the missing mass correction (discussed in the section Include Missing
Mass Components). Choosing a cutoff frequency to the left of the response spectrums resonant peak will provide a
non-conservative result, since resonant responses may be missed. During spectrum analysis, using a cutoff frequency to
the right of the peak, but still in the resonant range, will yield either over- or under-conservative results, depending upon
the method used to extract the ZPA from the response spectrum. (In the case of time history analysis, selecting a cutoff
frequency to the right of the peak, but still in the resonant range, will probably yield non-conservative results, since the
missing mass force is applied with a dynamic load factor of 1.0). Extracting a large number of rigid modes for
calculation of the dynamic response may be conservative in the case of Spectrum analysis, since all spectral modal
combination methods (SRSS, GROUP, ABS, etc.) give conservative results versus the algebraic combination method
(always used during time history analysis), which gives a more realistic representation of the net response of the rigid
modes. Based upon the response spectrum shown in the following figure, an appropriate cutoff point for the modal
extraction would be about 33 Hz.
1 Non-conservative cutoff (Misses amplification of any modes in resonant range)
2 Conservative cutoff (Multiplies missing mass contribution by excessive DLF1.6)
3 Optimal cutoff (Includes all modes in resonant range, uses low DLF1.05for missing mass contribution,
minimizes combination of rigid modes)
4 Conservative Cutoff (Too many rigid modes combined using non-conservative summation methods)
5-54 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
When the analysis type is SPECTRUM, MODES, or TIMEHIST, either this parameter or the previous one must be
entered.
Closely Spaced Mode Criteria/Time History Time Step (ms)
(Active for: Spectrum/GROUP and Time History)
This parameter does double duty, depending upon the analysis type. For a Spectrum analysis type with GROUP modal
Combination Method (as defined by USNRC Regulatory Guide 1.92), this parameter specifies the frequency spacing
defining each modal groupi.e., the percent (of the base frequency) between the lowest and highest frequency of the
group. Regulatory Guide 1.92 specifies the group spacing criteria as 10% (entered here as 0.1), so it is unlikely that the
user would ever wish to change the Closely Spaced Mode Criteria from the CAESAR II default value of 0.1. The GROUP
modal combination method is described in detail in the section Modal Combination Method found later in this chapter.
For a Time History analysis type, this parameter is used to enter the length of the time slice, in milliseconds, to be used
by the program during its step-by-step integration of the equations of motion for each of the extracted modes (CAESAR II
uses the unconditionally stable Wilson q integration method, so any size time step will provide a solution, with a smaller
step providing greater accuracyand more strain on computational resources). The time step should be sufficiently small
that it can accurately map the force vs. time load profile (i.e., the time step should be smaller than typical force ramp
times). Additionally, the time step must be small enough that the contribution of the higher order modes is not filtered
from the response. For this reason, it is recommended that the time step should be selected such that Time Step (in
seconds) times Maximum Modal Frequency (in Hz) be less than 0.1. For example, if the modal frequency cutoff is set to
50 Hz, the time step should be set to a maximum of 2 milliseconds:
0.002 sec x 50 Hz = 0.1
Load Duration (Time History or DSRSS Method) (Sec.)
(Active for: Spectrum/DSRSS and Time History)
This parameter is used to specify the duration of the applied dynamic load. For a Time History analysis, this parameter is
used to specify the total length of time (in seconds) over which the dynamic response is to be simulated. The load
duration, divided by the time step size (see the previous section) gives the total number of integration steps making up
the solution (currently CAESAR II limits the number of time steps to 5000, or as permitted by available memory and
system size). It is recommended that, if possible, the duration be at least equal to the maximum duration of the applied
load, plus the period (in seconds) of the first extracted mode. This allows simulation of the system response throughout
the imposition of the external load, plus one full cycle of the resulting free vibration. After this point, the response will
die out, according to the damping value used. For example, if the applied load is expected to last 150 milliseconds, and
the lowest extracted frequency is 3Hz, the load duration should be set to a minimum of 0.150 plus 1/3, or 0.483 seconds.
For a Spectrum analysis using the Double Sum (DSRSS) modal Combination Method (as defined by USNRC Regulatory
Guide 1.92), this parameter is used to specify the duration of the earthquake, in seconds. This duration is used to compute
the modal correlation coefficients based on empirical data. The DSRSS modal combination method is described in detail
in the section Modal Combination Method later in this chapter.
Damping (Time History or DSRSS) (Ratio of Critical)
(Active for: Spectrum/DSRSS, Harmonics, and Time History)
This parameter is used to specify the system damping value, as a ratio of critical damping. Typical values for piping
systems, as recommended in USNRC Regulatory Guide 1.61 and ASME Code Case N-411, range from 0.01 to 0.05,
based upon pipe size, earthquake severity, and the systems natural frequencies.
Generally, damping cannot be considered in the mathematical solutions required for spectrum or harmonic analysis. It is
therefore ignored (or solved as specialized cases) in most analyses, and must be instead considered through adjustment of
the applied loads (generation of the response spectrum) and/or system stiffness.
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-55
For a Time History analysis, damping is used explicitly, since this method uses a numeric solution to integrate the
dynamic equations of motion.
For a Spectrum analysis using the Double Sum (DSRSS) modal Combination Method (as defined by USNRC Regulatory
Guide 1.92), the damping value is used in the computation of the modal correlation coefficients. (Note that CAESAR II
does not permit the specification of damping values for individual modes.) The DSRSS modal combination method is
described in detail in the section Modal Combination Method later in this chapter.
For a Harmonic analysis, this ratio is converted to Rayleigh Damping, where the damping matrix can be expressed as
multiples of the mass and stiffness matrices:
[C] = a [M] + b [K]
On a modal basis, the relationship between the ratio of critical damping Cc and the constants a and b is given as:
Where:
e = undamped natural frequency of mode (radians/sec)
For many practical problems, a is extremely small, and so may be ignored, reducing the relationships to:
o = 0 | = 2 Cc / e
CAESAR II uses this implementation of damping for its harmonic analysis, with the exception that a single b is calculated
for the multi-degree-of-freedom system, and the w used is that of the load forcing frequency. When the forcing frequency
is in the vicinity of a modal frequency, this gives an accurate estimate of the true damping value.
5-56 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
ZPA (Reg. Guide 1.60/UBC- G's)/# Time History Output Cases
(Active for: Spectrum/1.60/UBC and Time History)
This parameter does double duty, depending upon the analysis type. When used with certain pre-defined normalized
response spectra, it is used as the acceleration factor (in g's) by which the spectrum is scaled. For example, when a
spectrum analysis uses one of the pre-defined spectra names beginning with "1.60" (i.e., 1.60H.5 or 1.60V7), CAESAR II
constructs an earthquake spectrum according to the instructions given in USAEC (now USNRC) Regulatory Guide 1.60.
That guide requires that the shape of the response spectrum be chosen from the curves shown in the following figures,
based upon the system damping value (for example, the .5 or 7 in the spectrum names 1.60H.5 or 1.60V7). If the analysis
uses one of the pre-defined spectra names beginning with "UBC" (i.e., UBCSOIL1), CAESAR II uses the normalized
seismic response spectra for the corresponding soil type from Table 23-3 from the Uniform Building Code (1991
Edition). Both the Reg Guide 1.60 and the UBC curves are normalized to represent a ground acceleration (ZPA) of lg;
the true value is actually site dependent. Therefore, entering ZPA value here appropriately scales any Regulatory Guide
1.60 or the Uniform Building Code response spectra.
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-57
When performing Time History analysis, this parameter is used to specify the number of distinct times at which the
results of the load cases (the dynamic load as well as all static/dynamic combinations) should be generated. In addition,
CAESAR II generates one set of results (for each load case) containing the maximum of each output value (displacement,
force, stress, etc.) along with the time at which it occurred. The times for which results are generated are determined by
dividing as evenly as possible the load duration by the number of output timesfor example, if the load duration is 1
second, and 5 output cases are requested, results will be available at 200, 400, 600, 800, and 1000 milliseconds (in
addition to the maximum case). The total number of results cases generated for an analysis is the product of the number
of load cases (one dynamic case plus the number of static/dynamic combination cases) times the number of results cases
per load (one maxima case plus the requested number of output cases). Currently the total number of results cases is
limited to 99:
(1 + # Static/Dynamic Combinations) x (1 + # Output Cases) s 99
At least one output case (in addition to the automatically generated maxima case) must be requested; more than one is
not really necessary, since the worst case results are reflected in the Maxima case and individual results at every time
step are available through the ELEMENT command when animating the Time History results.
5-58 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
Re-use Last Eigensolution
(Active for: Spectrum and Time History)
When repeating a dynamic analysis, this parameter may be set to Yes, causing CAESAR II to skip the eigensolution
(reusing the results of the earlier analysis), and only perform the computations for displacements, reactions, forces, and
stresses. Activating this option is only valid after an initial eigensolution has been performed and is still available.
Additionally, the mass and stiffness parameters of the model must be unchanged or the previous eigensolution is invalid.
Spatial or Modal Combination First
load. In this case, spatial combinations should be made first.
An Independent shock is one where the X, Y, and Z time histories produce related frequency spectra but have completely
unrelated time histories. It is the Independent type of earthquake that is far more common, and thus in most cases the
modal components should be combined first.
For example, IEEE 344-1975 (IEEE Recommended Practices for Seismic Qualification of Class 1E Equipment for
Nuclear Power Generating Stations) states:
Earthquakes produce random ground motions which are characterized by simultaneous but statistically
INDEPENDENT horizontal and vertical components.
This is usually less of an issue for force spectrum combinations, since normally there are no separate spatial components
to combinei.e., there are not X-, Y-, and Z-shocks acting simultaneously. However, in the event that there is more than
one potential force load (such as when there is a bank of relief valves that can fire individually or in combination), the
spatial combination method may be used to indicate the independence of the loadings. For example, if two relief valves
may or may not fire simultaneously (i.e., they are independent), the two shocks should be defined as being in different
directions (for example, X- and Y-), and the combination method selected should be Modal before Spatial. If under
certain circumstances, the two valves will definitely open simultaneously (i.e., the loadings are dependent), the
combination method should be Spatial before Modal. (Otherwise, the direction defined for a force spectrum loading
has no particular meaning.)
Nuclear Regulatory Guide 1.92 (published in February, 1976) describes the requirements for combining spatial
components when performing seismic response spectra analysis for nuclear power plants.
Note: Since all Time History combinations are done algebraically (in-phase) this parameter has no effect on Time
History results.
Spatial Combination Method (SRSS/ABS)
(Active for: Spectrum)
This parameter is used to define the method for combining the spatial contributions of the shocks in a single spectrum
load case. This option is only used for spectrum runs with more than a single excitation direction. Since directional forces
are usually combined vectorially, this points to a Square Root of the Sum of the Squares (SRSS) combination method as
being most appropriate. An Absolute method is provided for additional conservatism.
Note: Since all Time History combinations are done algebraically (in-phase) this parameter has no effect on Time
History results.
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-59
Modal Combination Method (GROUP/10%/DSRSS/ABS/SRSS)
(Active for: Spectrum)
During a spectrum analysis, responses are calculated for each of the individual modes; these individual responses are
then combined to get the total system response. Considering that the response spectrum yields the maximum response at
any time during the course of the applied load, and considering that each of the modes of vibration will probably have
different frequencies, it is probable that the peak responses of all modes will not occur simultaneously. Therefore an
appropriate means of summing the modal responses must be considered.
Nuclear Regulatory Guide 1.92 (published in February, 1976) defines the requirements for combining modal responses
when performing seismic response spectra analysis for nuclear power plants. The four options presented there are also
available, along with one other, for modal combinations under non-nuclear seismic and force spectrum analyses.
There are five available modal combination methods:
Grouping Method
Ten Percent Method
Double Sum Method
Absolute
Square Root of the Sum of the Squares
Grouping Method
This method is defined in USNRC Regulatory Guide 1.92. The Grouping Method attempts to eliminate the drawbacks of
the Absolute and SRSS methods (see below) by assuming that modes are completely correlated with any modes with
similar (closely spaced) frequencies, and are completely uncorrelated with those modes with widely different
frequencies. Therefore, the total system response is calculated as
1/ 2
2
1
1
(where 1 )
N
j P j
q m i lq mq l i
k
R Rk R R m
= = =
=
(
= + + + =
(
Where:
R = total system response of the element
N = number of significant modes considered in the modal response combination
Rk = the peak value of the response of the element due to the kth mode
P = number of groups of closely-spaced modes (where modes are considered to be closely-spaced if
their frequencies are within 10% of that of the base mode in the group), excluding individual
separated modes. No mode can be in more than one group.
i = number of first mode in group q
j = number of last mode in group q
Rlq = response of mode l in group q
Rmq = response of mode m in group q
Effectively, this method dictates that the responses of any modes which have frequencies within 10% of each other first
be added together absolutely, with the results of each of these groups then combined with the remaining individual modal
results using the SRSS method.
5-60 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
Note: The 10% figure controlling the definition of a group may be changed by using the Closely Spaced Mode
Criteria/Time History Time Step (ms) parameter. For more information see the corresponding section earlier in this
chapter.
Ten Percent Method
This method is defined in the USNRC Regulatory Guide 1.92. The Ten Percent Method is similar to the Grouping
method in that it assumes that modes are completely correlated with any modes with similar (closely spaced) frequencies,
and are completely uncorrelated with those modes with widely different frequencies. The differences between this one
and the preceding method is that the Grouping Method assumes that modes are only correlated with those that fall within
the group -i.e., are within a 10% band, while this method assumes that modes are correlated with those that fall within
10% of the subject mode- effectively creating a 20% band - 105 up and approximately 10% down. The total system
response is calculated as
1/ 2
2
1
2 (Where i j)
N
i j
k
R Rk R R
=
(
= + =
(
Where:
Ri, Rj = the peak value of the response of the element due to the ith and jth mode, respectively, where
mode i and j are any frequencies within 10% of the each other,
Where:
(fi, fj) / fi = frequencies of modes i and j, respectively
Note: The 10% figure controlling the definition of closely spaced frequencies may be changed by using the Closely
Spaced Mode Criteria/Time History Time Step (ms) parameter. (See description in corresponding section earlier in
this chapter).
Double Sum Method (DSRSS)
This method is also defined in USNRC Regulatory Guide 1.92. This combination method is the most technically correct
for earthquake loads, in that an attempt is made to estimate the actual intermodal correlation coefficient based upon
empirical data. The total system response is calculated as
Where:
Rs = the peak value of the response of the element due to mode s
eks = intermodal correlation coefficient
= [ 1 + {( ek' - es') /(k' ek + s' es)}
2
]
-1
ek' = ek [ 1 - k
2
]
1/2
es' = es [ 1 - s
2
]
1/2
k' = k + 2 / ( td ek )
s' = s + 2 / ( td es )
ek = frequency of mode k, rad/sec
es = frequency of mode s, rad/sec
k = ratio of damping to critical damping of mode k, dimensionless
s = ratio of damping to critical damping of mode s, dimensionless
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-61
td = duration of earthquake, sec
Note: The load duration (td) and the damping ratio () may be specified by using the Load Duration (Time History or
DSRSS method) (sec.) and Damping (Time History or DSRSS) (ratio of critical) parameters described in the
corresponding sections found earlier in this chapter.
Absolute Method
This method states that the total system response is equal to the sum of the absolute values of the individual modal
responses. (This is effectively the same as using the DSRSS method with all correlation coefficients equal to 1.0, or the
Grouping method, with all modes being closely spaced.) The total system response is calculated as:
1
N
i
i
R R
=
=
This method gives the most conservative result, since it assumes that the all maximum modal responses occur at exactly
the same time during the course of the applied load. This is usually overly-conservative, since modes with different
natural frequencies will probably experience their maximum DLF at different times during the load profile.
Square Root of the Sum of the Squares (SRSS)
This method states that the total system response is equal to the square root of the sum of the squares of the individual
modal responses. (This is effectively the same as using the DSRSS method with all correlation coefficients equal to 0.0,
or the Grouping method, with none of the modes being closely spaced.) The total system response is calculated as:
1/ 2
2
1
N
i
i
R R
=
(
=
(
This method is based upon the statistical assumption that all modal responses are completely independent, with the
maxima following a relatively uniform distribution throughout the duration of the applied load. This is usually non-
conservative, especially if there are any modes with very close frequencies, since those modes will probably experience
their maximum DLF at approximately the same time during the load profile.
Note: Since all Time History combinations are done algebraically (in-phase) this parameter has no effect on Time
History results.
Include Pseudostatic (Anchor Movement) Components (Y/N)
(Active for: Spectrum/ISM)
This option is only used when Independent Support Motion (anchor movement) components are part of a shock load
case. The excitation of a group of supports produces both a dynamic response and a static response. The static response is
due to the movement of one group of supports or anchors relative to another group of supports/anchors. These static
components of the dynamic shock loads are called pseudostatic components. USNRC recommendations, as of August
1985, suggest that the following procedure be followed for pseudostatic components:
1 For each support group, the maximum absolute response should be calculated for each input direction.
2 Same direction responses should then be combined using the absolute sum method.
3 Combination of the directional responses should be done using the SRSS method.
4 The total response should be formed by combining the dynamic and pseudostatic responses, using the SRSS method.
Therefore pseudostatic components should be included whenever Independent Support spectral loadings are used.
5-62 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
Include Missing Mass Components (Y/N)
(Active for: Spectrum and Time History)
During spectrum (either seismic or force spectrum) or time history analyses, the response of a system under a dynamic
load is determined by superposition of modal results. One of the advantages of this type of modal analysis is that usually
only a limited number of modes are excited and need to be included in the analysis. The drawback to this method is that
although displacements may be obtained with good accuracy using only a few of the lowest frequency modes, the force,
reaction, and stress results may require extraction of far more modes (possibly far into the rigid range) before acceptable
accuracy is attained.
CAESAR II provides a feature, called the Missing Mass Correction, which helps solve these problems. This feature
offers the ability to include a correction which represents the contribution of the higher order modes not explicitly
extracted for the modal/dynamic response, thus providing greater accuracy without additional calculation time. When
this option is activated (by entering Yes for this parameter), the program automatically calculates the net (in-phase)
contribution of all non-extracted modes and combines it with the modal contributionsavoiding the long calculation
time associated with the extraction of the high order modes and the possible excessive conservatives of the summation
methods. This feature is described in Chapter 6 of this manual.
Pseudostatic (Anchor Movement) Comb. Method (SRSS/ABS)
(Active for: Spectrum)
This directive specifies the method by which the pseudostatic responses (see description in the earlier section Include
Pseudostatic (Anchor Movement) Components (see "Include Pseudostatic (Anchor Movement) Components (Y/N)" on
page 5-61)) are to be combined with the dynamic (inertial) responses; therefore it is applicable only when there is at least
one Independent Support Motion excitation component in a shock load case. Pseudostatic combinations are done after all
directional, spatial, and modal combinations. Absolute combination gives conservative results, but, as noted in the
section Include Pseudostatic (Anchor Movement) Components, the USNRC recommends using the SRSS method for
pseudostatic combinations.
Missing Mass Combination Method (SRSS/ABS)
(Active for: Spectrum)
This directive defines the method used to combine the missing mass/force correction components (see description in an
earlier section, Include Missing Mass Components (see "Include Missing Mass Components (Y/N)" on page 5-62)) with
the modal (dynamic) results. Research suggests that the modal and rigid portions of the response are statistically
independent, so the SRSS combination method (CAESAR IIs default) is usually most accurate. The Absolute combination
method provides a more conservative result, based upon the assumption that the modal maxima occur simultaneously
with the maximum ground acceleration. Missing mass components are combined following the modal combination.
Note: Even though missing mass components may be included during Time History analyses, all Time History
combinations are done algebraically (in-phase), so this parameter has no effect on Time History results.
Directional Combination Method (SRSS/ABS)
(Active for: Spectrum)
This directive specifies the method used for combining shock components acting in the same direction. This directive is
used most typically with Independent Support Motion load cases, where it defines the way in which responses from
different support groups caused by excitation in the same direction are combined. Additionally, if there are multiple
uniform shock spectra acting in the same direction (although this is unusual), this directive would govern their
combination. In general, directional combinations should be made using the absolute method.
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-63
(As noted in the earlier section, Include Pseudostatic (Anchor Movement) Components (see "Include Pseudostatic
(Anchor Movement) Components (Y/N)" on page 5-61), this is the USNRC recommendation for directional combination
of pseudostatic responses.) However, in the case of force spectrum loads, if several loads (for example, several relief
valve loads) are all defined with the same shock direction, using an SRSS combination method would be a way of
modeling these as independent loads, while using the Absolute method would model them as dependent loads.
Note: Since all Time History combinations are done algebraically (in-phase) this parameter has no effect on Time
History results.
Sturm Sequence Check on Computed Eigenvalues (Y/N)
(Active for: Spectrum, Modal, and Time History)
In almost all cases, the eigensolver will detect modal frequencies from the lowest frequency to the highest. Sometimes,
when there is some strong directional dependency in the system, the modes may converge in the wrong order. This could
cause a problem if the eigensolver reaches the cutoff number of modes (i.e., 20), but has not yet found the 20 modes with
the lowest frequency (it may have found modes 1 through 18, 20, and 21, and would have found number 19 next).
CAESAR II checks for this anomaly using the Sturm Sequence calculation. This procedure determines the number of
modes that should have been found between the highest and lowest frequencies found, and compares that against the
actual number of modes extracted. If those numbers are different, the user is given a warning. For example, if 22 natural
frequencies are extracted for a particular system, and if the highest natural frequency is 33.5 Hz, the Sturm Sequence
check makes sure that there are exactly 22 natural frequencies in the model between zero and 33.5+p Hz, where p is a
numerical tolerance found from:
10
Log [(Highest Eigenvalue)-(Number of Significant Figures+1.5)]
10
p=
2j
The Sturm Sequence check would fail in the case where there are two identical frequencies at the last frequency
extracted. The significance of this failure can only be estimated by the user. For example, consider a system with the
following natural frequencies:
0.6637 1.2355 1.5988 4.5667 4.5667
If the user asks for only the first four natural frequencies, a Sturm Sequence failure would occur because there are five
frequencies, rather than four, which exist in the range between 0.0 and 4.5667 + p (where p calculates to 0.0041). To
correct this problem, the user can do either of the following:
Increase the frequency cutoff by the number of frequencies not found. (This number is reported by the Sturm
Sequence Check.)
Increase the cutoff frequency by some small amount, if the frequency cutoff terminated the eigensolution. This will
usually allow the lost modes to fall into the solution frequency range.
Fix the subspace size at 10 and rerun the job. Increasing the number of approximation vectors improves the possibility
that at least one of them will contain some component of the missing modes, allowing the vector to properly converge.
The default here is Yes, and should be left alone unless the user has some specific reason for deactivating the check.
5-64 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
Advanced Parameters
Estimated Number of Significant Figures in Eigenvalues
(Active for: Spectrum, Modal, and Time History)
This is the approximate number of significant figures in the computed eigenvalues (e
2
, where e is the angular frequency
in rad/sec). For example, using the default value of 6, if a computed eigenvalue was 44032.32383, then the first digit to
the right of the decimal is probably the last accurately computed figure.
The eigenvectors, or mode shapes, are computed to half as many significant figures as are the eigenvalues. If the
eigenvalues have 6 significant figures of accuracy, then the eigenvectors have 3.
This number should typically never be decreased. Increases to 8 or 10 are not unusual but result in slower solutions with
typically little change in response results.
Jacobi Sweep Tolerance
(Active for: Spectrum, Modal, and Time History)
Eigen analyses are done using an NxN subspace for calculating the natural frequencies and mode shapes for a reduced
problem. The first step is to perform a Jacobi denationalization of the subspace.
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-65
Iterations are performed until the off-diagonal terms of the matrix are approximately zero. The off-diagonal terms are
considered to be close enough to zero when their ratio to the on-diagonal term in the row is smaller the Jacobi Sweep
Tolerance.
The default is 1.0E-12. Users wishing to change this value should be aware of the computers precision (the IEEE-488
double precision word on the IBM PC has approximately 14 significant figures) and the approximate size of the on-
diagonal coefficients in the stiffness matrix for the problem to be solved (which may be estimated from simple beam
expressions).
Decomposition Singularity Tolerance
(Active for: Spectrum, Modal, and Time History)
During the eigensolvers decomposition of what may be a shifted stiffness matrix, a singularity check is performed to
make sure that the shift is not too close to an eigenvalue that is to be calculated. If a singular condition is detected, a new
shift, not quite as aggressive as the last one, is computed and a new decomposition is attempted. If the new composition
fails, a fatal error is reported from the eigensolver. In certain cases, increasing the singularity tolerance is warranted and
eliminates this fatal error. Values should not be entered greater than 1.0 E13. Singularity problems may also exist when
very light, small diameter piping is attached to very heavy, large diameter, or when very, very short lengths of pipe are
adjacent to very, very long lengths of pipe.
Subspace Size (0-Not Used)
(Active for: Spectrum, Modal, and Time History)
During an eigensolution, the NDOFxNDOF problem constructed by the user is reduced to an NxN problem during each
subspace iteration, where N is the subspace size. If a zero is entered in this field, CAESAR II selects what is expected to be
an optimal subspace size (so this value usually need not be changed); if a non-zero value is entered here, it will override
CAESAR IIs calculation and will be used as the subspace size.
CAESAR IIs default is to use the square root of the bandwidth (with a minimum of 4) as the subspace size, resulting in
sizes of 4 to 8 for typical piping configurations. Increasing the subspace size slows the eigensolution, but increases the
numerical stability. Values in the range between 12 and 15 should probably be used when unusual geometries or dynamic
properties are encountered, or when a job is large (has 100 elements or more, and/or requires that 25 or more frequencies
be extracted).
No. to Converge Before Shift Allowed (0 - Not Used)
(Active for: Spectrum, Modal, and Time History)
A zero in this field lets CAESAR II select what it thinks will be the most optimal shifting strategy for the eigen problem to
be solved. One way to speed the eigensolution is to improve the convergence characteristics. The convergence rate for
the lowest eigenpair in the subspace is inversely proportional to e1 / e2, where e1 is the lowest eigenvalue in the current
subspace and e2 is the next lowest eigenvalue in the current subspace. A slow convergence rate is represented by an
eigenvalue ratio of approximately one, and a fast convergence rate is represented by an eigenvalue ratio of zero. The shift
is employed to get the convergence rate as close to zero as possible. The cost of each shift is one decomposition of the
system set of equations. The typical shift value is equal to the last computed eigenvalue plus 90 percent of the difference
between this value and the lowest estimated eigenvalue still nonconverged in the subspace. As e1 is shifted closer to
zero, the ratio e1/e2 will become increasingly smaller thus increasing the convergence rate.
In certain instances where eigenvalues are very closely spaced, shifting can result in eigenvalues being lost (the Sturm
Sequence Check will detect this condition). A large value entered for this parameter will effectively disable shifting, so
no eigenvalues will be missed; however, the solution will take longer to run. When the system to be analyzed is very
large, shifting the set of equations can be very time consumingin these cases, the user is advised to set this parameter
to somewhere between 4 and 8.
5-66 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
No. of Iterations Per Shift (0 - Pgm computed)
(Active for: Spectrum, Modal, and Time History)
A zero in this field lets CAESAR II compute what it thinks is an optimal number of subspace iterations per shift. This
parameter, along with the next one (% of iterations per shift before orthogonalization) can work together to control
solution shifting. These two parameters are used to limit the number of Gram-Schmidt orthogonalizations that are
performed. Trying to limit this number is very dangerous for small subspace problems, but less dangerous when the
subspace size is large (around 10-20 percent of the total number of eigenpairs required).
The Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization is by default performed once during each subspace iteration. This
orthogonalization makes sure that the eigenvector subspace does not converge to an already found eigenpair. When a
large number of eigenpairs are to be computed this repeated computation can appreciably slow down the extraction of the
highest eigenpairs. Proper setting of these parameters can cause the eigensolution to perform the orthogonalization every
second, third, fourth, etc. iteration, thus speeding the solution. Unfortunately, once orthogonalized, the subspace may still
converge to earlier eigenpairs during subsequent non-orthogonalized subspace iteration passes. Users setting these
parameters are urged to use caution. The Force Orthogonalization After Convergence (see "Force Orthogonalization After
Convergence (Y/N)" on page 5-66) parameter (see corresponding section later in this chapter) should probably also be set
if the frequency of orthogonalization is slowed.
Percent of Iterations Per Shift Before Orthogonalization
(Active for: Spectrum, Modal, and Time History)
CAESAR II computes a number of iterations per shift that are to be performed, which the user can alter if desired. A
maximum of N eigenpairs can conceivably converge per subspace pass, where N is the subspace size (although this is
highly unlikely). By default a Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization is performed for each subspace pass. This directive
allows the user to alter this default. For example, if there are 12 iterations per shift, and the percentage of iterations per
shift is 50 percent (an entry of 0.50), the Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization would be performed every 6 iterations. Users
employing this option should also set the Force Orthogonalization After Convergence (see "Force Orthogonalization
After Convergence (Y/N)" on page 5-66) directive to Yes. The Percent of Iterations per Shift Before
Orthogonalization parameter is most often used in conjunction with the No. of Iterations per Shift (see "No. of Iterations
Per Shift (0 - Pgm computed)" on page 5-66) parameter because then the user knows exactly how many iterations will
go by without an orthogonalization.
Force Orthogonalization After Convergence (Y/N)
(Active for: Spectrum, Modal, and Time History)
This parameter is only needed for eigensolutions for which the Percent of Iterations per Shift Before
Orthogonalization (on page 5-66) (the previous section) has been set to a non-zero value. When set to Yes in this
case, whenever a subspace pass that sees at least one eigenpair convergence completes, a Gram-Schmidt
orthogonalization is performed whether the specified percentage of iterations has been completed or not.
Use Out-Of-Core Eigensolver (Y/N)
(Active for: Spectrum, Modal, and Time History)
This parameter is used primarily as a benchmarking and debugging aid. When entered as Yes, the out-of-core
eigensolver is automatically invoked regardless of the problem size. Using this solver can take considerably more time
than the in-core solver, but should in all cases produce exactly the same results. Note that if the problem is too big to fit
into the in-core solver (the capacity of which is based upon the amount of available extended memory), the out-of-core
solver will be invoked automaticallythis parameter does not need to be changed to have this automatic switch occur
when necessary.
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-67
Frequency Array Spaces
(Active for: Spectrum, Modal, and Time History)
This is the maximum number of eigenpairs that can be extracted for the problem. The default value of 100 is arbitrary. If
the user needs to extract more than 100 eigenpairs, then some number greater than the number to be extracted must be
entered.
5-68 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
Pulsation Loads
Unexpectedly, and sometimes after support changes or process modifications, an operating line will begin experiencing
large amplitude, low frequency vibration. The first step in the solution is the construction of the dynamic model.
Particular attention should be paid when modeling the piping system in the area of the field vibration. This might include
accurately representing valve operators, in-line flange pairs, orifice plates and measuring equipment. It is also a good
idea to add extra nodes in the area where vibration is experienced. The extra nodes would be put at bend near nodes
and at span midpoints.
The next step is the eigenvalue/eigenvector extraction. If the system is large, then degrees of freedom far removed from
the area of local vibration should be eliminated and (6-10) natural frequencies should be extracted. Natural frequencies
and mode shapes define the systems tendency to vibrate. The mode shapes extracted should show how the system in
the area of the local vibration problem is tending to displace. In most cases acoustic resonances are coupled with
mechanical resonances to produce the large amplitude vibrations experienced in the field.
Very typically one of the first mode shapes will show exactly the shape displayed by the pipe vibrating in the field. If the
mode shapes extracted do not show movement in the area of the local vibration, then not enough degrees of freedom
were removed from other areas. If the lowest mode shape in the area of the local vibration problem is above (15) Hz.
then there is a good possibility that either the vibration is mechanically induced or the fluid pulsation peak pressures are
very high. Either of these cases may represent critical situations which should be evaluated by an expert.
When the mode shape is identified which corresponds to the observed field vibration, the pulsation load model can be
developed. Pulsation loads will exist at closed ends, at bends, and at changes in diameter. Harmonically varying forces
are put at these points in an attempt to get the mathematical model to vibrate like the real piping system.
The driving frequency for the applied harmonic load should be equal to the frequency that pressure pulses are introduced
into the line. The magnitude of the harmonic load can be estimated within a range of tolerances. The actual design value
is selected from this range such that resulting displacements of the model are close to those observed in the field.
Output from the harmonic analysis can be processed in the static output processor and maximum restraint loads due to
the dynamic forces calculated. It is critical when redesigning supports for dynamic loads that static thermal criteria are
not violated by any new support configuration designed.
Important: Static thermal criteria and dynamic displacement criteria must be satisfied simultaneously.
The ultimate objective of the harmonic analysis will be to find the elbow pair whose unbalanced load results in the
observed field vibration.
Unbalanced loads exist between adjacent elbows because the pressure peak in the traveling wave hits each elbow at a
slightly different time. If the pressure at elbow a is denoted by Pa(t) and the pressure at elbow b is denoted by Pb(t),
then the unbalanced force which acts along the pipe connecting the two elbows is:
F = A * Pa(t) - A * Pb(t) EQ. (1)
Where A is the inside area of the pipe. The expression for Pa(t) can be found assuming the pressure peak hits the elbow
a at time t = 0:
Pa(t) = Pavg + 0.5 (dP) cos et EQ. (2)
Where:
(Pavg) - average pressure in the line,
(dP) - alternating component of the pressure, (Pmax-Pmin)
(e) - driving frequency.
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-69
If the straight pipe between the elbows a and b is (L) inches long, then the pressure peak that has just passed elbow
a will get to elbow b (ts) seconds later, where
(ts) = (L) / c,
(c) being the speed of sound in the fluid. (Remember, pressure pulses travel at the speed of sound, not the speed of the
fluid ! ! !) The expression for the pressure at b can now be written:
Pb(t) = Pavg + 0.5(dP) cos (et + Q) EQ.(3)
Q is the phase shift between the pressure peaks at a and b,
Q = e * (ts). (Where Q is in radians, and e is in radians/second)
Combining equations 1, 2, and 3 the unbalanced pressure force can be written:
F(t) = 0.5(dP)A * [ cos et - cos (et-Q) ]
This function has a maximum:
Fmax = 0.5(dP)A sin Q/cos (Q/2)
and a period of 1/w, and will be approximated with:
f(t) = 0.5(dP)A (sin Q/cos (Q/2)) cos et
The formulation of the harmonic loads can be summarized as follows:
1 Decide which elbow-elbow pair is most likely to have an unbalanced force which could cause the displacements
observed in the field.
2 Find upper and lower estimates for the following variables:
dP Alternating pressure in the line (Pmax - Pmin)
e Driving frequency.
c Speed of sound in the fluid.
L Length between the two elbows.
A Area of the pipe.
3 Find the time it takes the pressure wave to get from one elbow to the other.
ts = L / (c-)
(c-) is the lower estimate for the speed of sound in the fluid.
4 Find the largest estimated magnitude of the unbalanced pressure force:
Fmax = (0.5) (dP+)A * sin [(e+) (ts)] / cos [(et) (ts)/2]
(dP+) is the upper estimate for the alternating pressure.
(e+) is the upper estimate for the driving frequency.
5 Run a single harmonic analysis with a force of F = Fmax [cos (et)] acting along the axis of the pipe between the two
elbows. If the pattern of the displacement approximately that seen in the field, and if the magnitude of the calculated
displacement is greater than or equal to the magnitude of the displacement in the field, then the harmonic load to be
used for the design of the new restraints has been found.
5-70 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
Relief Valve Thrust Load Analysis
There can be two types of destructive dynamic forces associated with relief devices:
Thrust at the valve/atmosphere interface
Acoustic shock due to the sudden change in fluid momentum and the associated traveling pressure wave(s).
The analyst must evaluate the effective contribution of both types of loads. Dynamic forces associated with relieving
devices can cause considerable mechanical damage to equipment and supports. The discussion below concerns only the
thrust at the valve/atmosphere interface. The acoustic traveling pressure wave can be dealt with similar to the water
hammer problem, addressed elsewhere.
The first step in performing a relief load analysis is to compute the magnitudes of the relieving thrust forces. For open-
type vent systems CAESAR II has a RELIEF LOAD SYNTHESIZER that will make these computations automatically for
the user. There are two procedures incorporated into the synthesizer, one is for gases greater than 15 psig, and the other is
for liquids. Both are discussed as follows.
Relief Load Synthesis for Gases Greater Than 15 psig
CAESAR II assumes that a successful vent stack/relief system design maintains the following gas properties:
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-71
The input for the gas relief load synthesis is shown as follows:
Line Temperature
Enter the stagnation condition temperature of the gas to be relieved (Usually just the gas temperature upstream of the
relief valve).
Line Pressure
Enter the stagnation pressure of the gas to be relieved (Usually just the gas pressure upstream of the relief valve). Note
that stagnation properties can vary considerably from line properties if the gas flow velocity in the line is high.
ID of Relief Valve Orifice
Enter the flow passage inside diameter for the smallest diameter in the relief valve throat. (This information is usually
provided by the relief valve manufacturer).
ID of Relief Valve Piping
Enter the inside diameter of the piping attached directly to the exhaust of the relief valve.
ID of Vent Stack Piping
If CAESAR II is to size the vent stack then leave this ID blank. If the vent stack piping is the same size as the relief valve
piping, i.e. it is one-in-the-same, then this field may be left blank. Otherwise enter the inside diameter of the vent stack
piping.
Length of the Vent Stack
Enter the length of the vent stack. This is a required entry. Add double the lengths of fittings and elbows (or compute the
appropriate equivalent lengths for non-pipe fittings and add the lengths).
5-72 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
Some typical values for these constants are given below:
Ratio of Gas-Specific Heats (k) Gas Constant (R) (ft. lbf./lbm./deg. R
Superheated Steam 1.300 Nitrogen 55.16
Saturated Steam 1.100 Carbon Dioxide 35.11
Nitrogen 1.399 Acetylene 59.35
Carbon Dioxide 1.288 Ammonia 90.73
Acetylene 1.232 n-Butane 26.59
Ammonia 1.304 Ethane 51.39
n-Butane 1.093 Ethylene 55.09
Ethane 1.187 Methane 96.33
Ethylene 1.240 Propane 35.05
Methane 1.226
Propane 1.127
Does the Vent Pipe Have an Umbrella Fitting (Y/N)
Enter a Y or a N. See the following figures to determine if the connection of the vent stack to the vent piping is via an
umbrella fitting.
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-73
Should CAESAR II Size the Vent Stack (Y/N)
Enter a Y if CAESAR II should size the vent stack. The sizing algorithm searches through a table of available inside pipe
diameters starting at the smallest diameter until a vent stack ID is found that satisfies the thermodynamic criteria shown
in the figure above. The computed ID is automatically inserted into the input. Example input and output from the relief
load synthesizer is shown and discussed as follows:
Relief Load Synthesis Input (Gas)
Relief Load Synthesis Output (Gas)
5-74 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
Computed Mass Flowrate (Vent Gas)
This is CAESAR IIs computed gas mass flow rate based on choked conditions at the relief orifice. If greater mass flow
rates are expected, then the error in either the approach used by CAESAR II or in the expected mass flow rate should be
investigated.
Thrust at Valve Pipe/Vent Pipe Interface
If there is an umbrella fitting between the vent stack and the relief valve piping then this is the thrust load that acts back
on the relief valve piping. (See the following figure.) If the vent stack is hard piped to the relief valve piping then this
intermediate thrust will be balanced by tensile loads in the pipe and can be ignored.
Thrust load acts directly on valve opening. Only the valve pipe/vent stack interface
thrust acts in this configuration.
Thrust at the Vent Pipe Exit
When there is an elbow in the vent stack piping, this is the thrust load that acts on the elbow just before the pipe opening
into the atmosphere. (See the following figure for clarification.)
Transient Pressure Rise on Valve Opening
This is the estimated magnitude of the negative pressure wave that will be superimposed on the line pressure when the
relief valve fist opens. This negative pressure wave will move back through the relief system piping similar to the
pressure wave in the downstream piping of a water hammer type system. The magnitude of this wave is estimated as (Po-
Pa)*Ap, where Po is the stagnation pressure at the source, Pa is atmospheric pressure, and Ap is the area of the header
piping.
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-75
Transient Pressure Rise on Valve Closing
The estimated magnitude of the positive pressure wave that will be superimposed on the line pressure when the relief
device slams shut. This positive pressure wave will move back through the relief system piping similar to the pressure
wave in the supply side piping of a waterhammer type system. The magnitude of this wave is estimated from: r*c*dv
where r is the fluid density, c is the speed of sound in the fluid and dv is the change in the velocity of the fluid.
Thermodynamic Entropy Limit /Subsonic Vent Exit Limit
These values should always be greater than 1. If either of these computed limits fall below 1.0 then the thermodynamic
assumptions made regarding the gas properties are incorrect and the computed thrust values should be disregarded.
Valve Orifice Gas Conditions /Vent Pipe Exit Gas Conditions/Subsonic Velocity Gas Conditions
These are the thermodynamic properties of the gas at three critical points in the relief system. These three points are
shown in the figure on the opposite page. The entire formulation for the thrust gas properties is based on an ideal gas
equation of state. If the pressures and temperatures displayed above for the gas being vented are outside of the range
where the ideal gas laws apply then some alternate source should be sought for the computation of the systems thrust
loads.
In addition, all three of these points should be sufficiently clear of the gas saturation line. When the exit gas conditions
become saturated, the magnitude of the thrust load can be reduced significantly. In this case the manufacturer should be
consulted. In several instances at COADE, saturated exhaust thrust loads were 50 to 75% less than the CAESAR II
computed values.
Relief Load Synthesis for Liquids
CAESAR II assumes that the liquid vent system has one of the two following configurations:
5-76 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
The input for the liquid relief load synthesis is shown as follows:
Relief Valve or Rupture Disk
Enter RV if the relieving device is a relief valve and RD if the relieving device is a rupture disk. If the user has his
own relief exit coefficient it can be entered here in place of the letters RV or RD. An entry of zero represents No
appreciable head loss due to the relief opening configuration. The exit coefficient for a relief valve is 0.25 and for a
rupture disk is 0.5.
Supply Overpressure
Enter the stagnation, or zero velocity pressure in the fluid upstream of the relief valve.
ID Relief Orifice or Rupture Disk Opening
Enter the manufacturers inside diameter of the contracted opening in the particular relieving device. (For special purpose
calculations this ID may be equal to the ID of the Relief exit piping.)
ID Relief Exit Piping
Enter the inside diameter of the piping connected to the downstream side of the relief valve.
ID Manifold Piping
If the relief exit piping runs into a manifold then enter the inside diameter of the manifold. Leave this field blank or zero
if there isn't a manifold.
ID Supply Header
Enter the inside diameter of the supply header.
Fluid Density
Enter the specific gravity of the fluid being relieved.
Chapter 5 Controlling the Dynamic Solution 5-77
Length of Relief Exit Piping
Enter the equivalent length of the relief exit piping. Add twice the piping length for fittings and elbows, or the calculated
fitting equivalent length.
Length of Manifold Piping
Enter the equivalent length of the manifold piping, if any. If there isn't a manifold system then leave this field blank or
zero. Add twice the piping length for fitting and elbows. If the manifold is not filled by the relieving fluid then leave the
manifold length zero.
Fluid Bulk Modulus
Enter the bulk modulus of the fluid. If omitted a valve of 250,000 psi will be used as the default. Some typical values for
use are given as follows. These are the values for an isothermal compression as taken from Marks Standard Handbook
for Engineers, p. 3-35, 8th edition.
Supply Header Pipe Wall Thickness
Enter the wall thickness of the supply header.
Note: When running the relief load synthesis for liquids, the error message: NUMERICAL ERROR OR NO FLOW
CONDITION DETECTED, means a physically impossible configuration was described.
Flashing of volatile relief liquids is not considered. If the relieving liquid flashes in the exhaust piping as its pressure
drops to atmospheric then some other means should be used to compute the resulting gas properties and thrust loads.
Output From the Liquid Relief Load Synthesizer
Computed Mass Flow Rate
The computed exhaust mass flow rate in U.S. Gallons per minute. CAESAR II makes the necessary pressure drop
calculations between the stagnation pressure upstream of the relief device and atmospheric conditions at the exit of the
manifold.
Thrust at the End of the Exit Piping
The computed thrust load at the last cross section in the exit piping. If there is no manifold then this is the external thrust
load that acts on the piping system. If there is a manifold then this thrust is opposed by tension in the pipe wall at the
junction of the exit piping and manifold. See the figures that follow for clarification.
Thrust at the End of the Manifold Piping
The computed thrust load at the last cross section in the manifold piping. If there is no manifold system then this thrust
will be equal to the thrust at the end of the exit piping. See the figures that follow for clarification.
Transient Pressure Rise on Valve Opening
This is the estimated magnitude of the negative pressure wave that will be superimposed on the line pressure when the
relief valve fist opens. This negative pressure wave will move back through the relief system piping similar to the
pressure wave in the downstream piping of a water hammer type system. The magnitude of this wave is estimated as (Po-
Pa)*Ap, where Po is the stagnation pressure at the source, Pa is atmospheric pressure, and Ap is the area of the header
piping.
5-78 Controlling the Dynamic Solution
Transient Pressure Rise on Valve Closing
The estimated magnitude of the positive pressure wave that will be superimposed on the line pressure when the relief
device slams shut. This positive pressure wave will move back through the relief system piping similar to the pressure
wave in the supply side piping of a waterhammer type system. The magnitude of this wave is estimated from: r*c*dv
where r is the fluid density, c is the speed of sound in the fluid and dv is the change in the velocity of the fluid.
Orifice Flow Conditions/Exit Pipe End Flow Conditions/Manifold Pipe End Flow Conditions
These are the computed fluid properties at the three critical cross-sections in the relief piping. If pressures or velocities
here do not seem reasonable then some characteristic of the relief model is probably in error.
Note: If the L dimensions are significant in any of the previous figures (several feet) then unbalanced thrust loads
will act between the elbow-elbow pairs that are very similar to a water hammer load. Water hammer pulses travel at the
speed of sound in the fluid, while the fluid/atmosphere interface pulses travel at the velocity of the flowing fluid. For
this reason, these unbalanced loads can cause significant piping displacements in much shorter pipe runs. The magnitude
of these loads is equivalent to the computed thrust and the duration may be found from the computed fluid velocity and
distance between each elbow-elbow pair.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions
This chapter includes a more detailed discussion of implementations, methods, and assumptions.
In This Chapter
Rigid Element Application ...................................................................... 6-2
In-line Flange Evaluation ........................................................................ 6-4
Cold Spring.............................................................................................. 6-6
Expansion Joints ...................................................................................... 6-8
Hanger Sizing Algorithm......................................................................... 6-10
Class 1 Branch Flexibilities ..................................................................... 6-13
Modeling Friction Effects........................................................................ 6-16
Nonlinear Code Compliance.................................................................... 6-17
Sustained Stresses and Nonlinear Restraints ........................................... 6-18
Static Seismic Loads................................................................................ 6-21
Wind Loads.............................................................................................. 6-24
Hydrodynamic (Wave and Current) Loading .......................................... 6-26
Evaluating Vessel Stresses....................................................................... 6-37
Inclusion of Missing Mass Correction..................................................... 6-41
Fatigue Analysis Using CAESAR II........................................................ 6-45
Pipe Stress Analysis of FRP Piping......................................................... 6-61
Code Compliance Considerations............................................................ 6-83
Local Coordinates.................................................................................... 6-122
C H A P T E R 6
6-2 Technical Discussions
Rigid Element Application
CAESAR II forms rigid elements by multiplying the wall thickness of the element by 10. The inside diameter, and the weight
of the element, remain unchanged.
The rigid element in CAESAR II is rigid relative to the pipe around it. If a 6-in. line ties into a 72-in. heat exchanger, then
the rigid elements modeling the heat exchanger should have a diameter closer to 72 than 6.
The user that is sensitive to the rigidness of the rigid element can increase or decrease the diameter or wall thickness of
the rigid to simulate any order of magnitude stiffness.
Rigid Material Weight
The weight of the rigid element is entered by the user. If no value is input then the weight of the rigid is taken to be zero.
The entered weight is the weight of the rigid excluding insulation or fluid. If the weight of the rigid element is entered as
zero or blank, then no additional weight due either to insulation or fluid will be added.
Rigid Fluid Weight
CAESAR II automatically adds fluid loads for rigid elements if a non-zero fluid density is entered on the pipe spreadsheet.
The fluid weight in a rigid element is assumed to be equal to the fluid weight in an equivalent straight pipe of similar length
and inside diameter.
Rigid Insulation Weight
CAESAR II also automatically adds insulation loads if the line containing the rigid element is insulated. The insulation
weight for the rigid is assumed to be equal to 1.75 times the insulation for an equivalent length of straight pipe of equal
outside diameter.
The cumulative rigid element weight calculation is as follows:
Weight = 0.0 Wu = 0.0
Weight = Wu + Wf + 1.75Wi Wu > 0.0
Where:
Wu = User entered rigid weight
Wf = Calculated fluid weight for equivalent straight pipe
Wi = Calculated insulation weight for equivalent straight pipe
The user-entered weight for the rigid element is not reflected in the Thermal Expansion/Pipe Weight Report optionally
printed during error checking.
Stresses are not calculated on Rigid elements since they are often used to simulate components that have variable cross-
sections along the length of the element, i.e. a valve, and is normally not of concern for this type of analysis anyway. Forces
and Moments are not normally printed on nodes between two rigid elements, but can be by selecting the appropriate check
box found in Kaux-Special Execution Parameters from the Piping Input Spreadsheet.
Zero-weight rigids ("dummy" rigids) are often used to model components whose weight is not important to the analysis, but
where thermal growth may be a consideration. Dummy rigids are often used to model restraints. Tie rods in an expansion
joint, rod hangers, and trunnions are examples of restraints modeled as dummy rigids. Dummy rigids may also be used to
provide connectivity between the center line of an element and it's outside edge. The most common example of this is the
addition of a dummy rigid that runs from the node at the center line of the vessel to the edge where a nozzle is to be
connected.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-3
Sometimes equipment is modeled through a series of rigid elements. This is particularly true when multiple nozzles are
attached and the equipment is restrained such that the interactions between the various nozzles must be taken into account
due to the thermal growth of the attached piping system. The use of dummy rigids is explained in the CAESAR II
Applications Guide in various sections as appropriate to a particular modeling technique.
6-4 Technical Discussions
In-line Flange Evaluation
CAESAR II offers two methods for evaluating flanges under load:
Kellogg Equivalent Pressure Method
The Kellogg Equivalent Pressure Method converts piping axial forces and bending moments into a Equivalent Pressure
on the flange, which is then added to the Design Pressure, the total of which is then compared to the allowable pressure
rating for the flange at the appropriate temperature. The exact calculations are:
Peq = 16M/(pi)G
3
+ 4F/ (pi)G
2
+ PD
Where:
Peq = equivalent pressure (for checking against flange rating)
M = bending moment on flange
G = diameter of effective gasket reaction
F = axial force on flange (where forces are always taken as an absolute value)
PD = design pressure
Note: CAESAR IIs implementation increases the allowable pressure rating by the Occasional Stress factor where one exists
for the load case type/code combination.
ASME NC-3658.3 Calculation for B16.5 Flanged Joints with High Strength Bolting Method
Note that use of this method should be restricted to joints using flanges, bolting, and gaskets as specified in ANSI B16.5
which use bolting materials having an S value at 100F (38C) not less than 20,000 psi (138 MPa). The analysis method for
Service Level A has been implemented in CAESAR II. As stated in NC-3658.3(a)(2):
Mfs @ 3125(Sy/36,000)CAb
or
Mfd @ 6250(Sy/36,000)CAb
Where:
Mfs = bending or torsional moment (whichever is greater) acting on the flange, and due to weight,
thermal expansion, sustained anchor movements, relief valve steady state thrust, and other sustained
mechanical loads (CAESAR II considers any moments developed during a non-Occasional Load Case to
be Mfs)
Mfd = bending or torsional moment (whichever is greater) acting on the flange, as defined for Mfs and but
also including any dynamic loadings (CAESAR II considers any moments developed during an Occasional
Load Case to be Mfd, effectively doubling flange capacity for Occasional loadings)
Sy = yield strength of flange material at design temperature (CAESAR II allows evaluation to be done at
up to 10 different temperatures); Sy/36,000 (where Sy, given in psi, shall not be taken as greater than
36,000 psi)
C = bolt circle diameter
Ab = total cross sectional area of bolts
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-5
PD = design pressure
CAESAR IIs implementation calculates an Equivalent Stress S in the flange, which is then compared to Sy (or 2*Sy for
Occasional Load Cases), in the following manner:
S = 36,000* Mfs / (CAb * 3125) @ Min(Sy, 36000) (non-Occ)
S = 36,000 * Mfd / (CAb * 3125) @ 2.0 * Min(Sy, 36000) (Occ)
Note that for systems of units not expressing stresses in PSI, the 36,000 values in the above equations are converted to the
appropriate set of units.
Note: Flange Evaluation has only been implemented for Static Analysis, but not yet for Dynamic (including Harmonic)
Analysis.
6-6 Technical Discussions
Cold Spring
Cold spring is the process of offsetting (or pre-loading) the piping system with displacement loads (usually accomplished by
cutting short or long the pipe runs between two anchors) for the purpose of reducing the absolute expansion load on the
system. Cold spring is used to do the following:
hasten the thermal shakedown of the system in fewer operating cycles
reduce the magnitude of loads on equipment and restraints, since often, only a single application of a large load is
sufficient to damage these elements
Several things should be considered when using cold spring:
Cold reactions on equipment nozzles due to cold spring should not exceed nozzle allowables.
The expansion stress range should not include the effect of the cold spring.
The cold spring should be much greater than fabrication tolerances.
Note: No credit can be taken for cold spring in the stress calculations, since the expansion stress provisions of the piping
codes require the evaluation of the stress range, which is unaffected by cold spring (except perhaps in the presence of non-
linear boundary conditions, as discussed below). The cold spring merely adjusts the stress mean, but not the range.
Many engineers avoid cold spring due to the difficulty of maintaining accurate records throughout the operating life of the
unit. Future analysts attempting to make field repairs or modifications may not necessarily know about (and therefore
include in the analysis) the cold spring specification.
Due to the difficulty of properly installing a cold sprung system, most piping codes recommend that only 2/3 of the
specified cold spring be used for the equipment load calculations.
The cold spring amount is calculated as:
Ci = 1/2Li o dT
Where:
Ci = length of cold spring in direction i (where i is X, Y, or Z), (inches)
Li = total length of pipe subject to expansion in direction i, (inches)
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-7
o = mean thermal expansion coefficient of material between ambient and operating temperature,
(in/in/F)
dT = change in temperature, (F)
Note that the 1/2 in the equation for the cold spring amount is used such that the mean stress is zero. In some cases it is
desirable to have the operating load on the equipment as close to zero as possible. In this latter case the 1/2 should be
omitted. The maximum stress magnitude will not change from a system without cold spring, but will now exist in the cold
case rather than the hot.
To model a cold spring in CAESAR II specify the elements as being made of cut short or cut long materials. Cut short
describes a cold sprung section of pipe fabricated short by the amount of the cold spring, requiring an initial tensile load to
close the final joint. Cut long describes a cold sprung section of pipe fabricated long by the amount of cold spring, requiring
an initial compressive load to close the final joint. The software models cut shorts and cut longs by applying end forces to
the elements sufficient to reduce their length to zero (from the defined length) or increase their length to the defined length
(from zero) respectively. (It should be remembered to make the lengths of these cold spring elements only 2/3 of their actual
lengths to implement the code recommendations.) This is effectively what occurs during application of cold spring. The end
forces applied to the elements are then included in the basic loading case F (for force), whereby they can be included in
various load combinations.
Special material numbers 18 and 19 are used to signal CAESAR II that the element currently in the spreadsheet actually
represents a length of pipe that is to be cut short or long during fabrication.
Material # 18 - Cut Short
Material # 19 - Cut Long
The user should be sure to reset the material property on the element following the cold spring element.
The following load cases are recommended when analyzing a cold spring system:
Load Case 1 (OPE) W+T1+P1+CS includes all of the design cold spring
Load Case 2 (OPE) W+P1+CS includes all of the design cold spring but not the temperature.
Load Case 3 (SUS) W+P1 standard sustained case for Code Stress check
RUN # 1
Load Case4 (EXP) L1-L2 expansion case for code stress check.
Cold spring is allowed to reduce the magnitude of equipment loads because, often, only a single application of a large load
is sufficient to cause damage to rotating machinery.
Cold spring does not change the range of stresses that the piping system is subject to, and so, no allowance is given for
stress reduction. (The maximum value of the stress is lowered, but the range is unchanged.)
Both the sustained loads and the operating loads should be within the manufacturers allowables for the particular piece of
equipment. If the designer isn't careful, the installation of the cold spring in the ambient state can overload a piece of
rotating equipment as the unit starts up.
6-8 Technical Discussions
Expansion Joints
To define an expansion joint, activate the Expansion Joint check box (see "Expansion Joints" on page 3-19) on the Pipe
Element Spreadsheet.
Expansion joint elements may have a zero or non-zero length. The expansion joint will have a zero length if the Delta fields
in the spreadsheet are left blank or zero. The expansion joint will have a non-zero length if at least one of the elements
spreadsheet Delta fields is non-blank and non-zero. When an expansion joint has a finite length CAESAR II evenly
distributes the expansion joint stiffnesses over the entire length of the element. This will usually result in a more accurate
stiffness model in what is typically a very sensitive area of the piping system.
Four stiffnesses define the expansion joint
Axial Stiffness
Transverse Stiffness
Bending Stiffness
Torsional Stiffness
These stiffnesses are defined as shown in the following figure:
The transverse and the bending stiffnesses are directly related when a finite length joint is defined. In this case the bending
stiffness should be left blank and the transverse stiffness entered. CAESAR II will compute the proper bending stiffness from
the relationship between the bending and transverse stiffnesses. Bending stiffnesses from manufacturers' catalogs should
generally only be entered for zero length expansion joints modeling hinges or gimbals. Before a manufacturers bending
stiffness is used for a finite length bellows it should be multiplied by 4.0 (note that in this case the transverse stiffness would
be left blank).
Torsional stiffnesses are often not given by expansion joint manufacturers. In this case the user is recommended to insert a
large torsional stiffness value and ensure that the resulting load on the bellows is not excessive. When the piping system is
tight, and the diameter large, the magnitude of this large torsional stiffness can significantly affect the magnitude of the
torsion carried by the bellows, i.e. stiffnesses of 100,000 in.lb./deg. and 1E12 in.lb./deg. can produce considerably different
torsional load results.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-9
The tendency would be to go with the larger stiffness, i.e. being conservative, except that the torsional stiffness value is
probably closer to the 100,000 in.lb./deg. In the instance where the largeness of the torsional stiffness value is important,
the manufacturer should be pressed for his best-guess at the stiffness, or the following equation should be used to get an
estimate, which the user can then conservatively increase to get reasonable torsional loads on the bellows and surrounding
equipment.
The equation for estimating bellows torsional stiffness is
3
( ) ( )( )
(1 )
Re t E
L
t
+ v
Where
t = 3.14159
Re = Expansion joint effective radius
t = Bellows thickness
E = Elastic Modulus
v = Poissons Ratio
L = Flexible bellows length
When the expansion joint has a zero length, none of the expansion joint stiffnesses are related. The user must be sure that a
value is entered into all four of the Stiffness fields.
CAESAR II will calculate pressure thrust on the expansion joint if the bellows effective id is given in the expansion joint
auxiliary screen. The mathematical model for pressure thrust applies a force equal to the pressure times the effective area of
the bellows at either end of the expansion joint. The force will tend to open the bellows if the pressure is positive, and close
the bellows if the pressure is negative. Users should note that this model does not exactly distribute the pressure loads
correctly in the vicinity of the expansion joint. In most cases the misapplied load does not affect the solution. There are two
components of the pressure thrust to be applied in practice, rather than the one component applied in the model. The first
component is equal to the pressure times the inside area of the pipe and acts at the first change in direction of the pipe on
either side of the expansion joint. This load will tend to put the pipe wall between the change in direction and the expansion
joint in tension. The second component is equal to the pressure times the difference between the bellows effective area and
inside pipe area. This load acts at the end of the expansion joint and tends to open the bellows up, putting the pipe between
the expansion joint and the change in direction in compression. In the mathematical model the full component of the
pressure thrust force is placed on the ends of the bellows instead of having a portion shifted out on either side of the
expansion joint. A large number of expansion joint examples can be found in Chapter 5 of the Applications Guide.
6-10 Technical Discussions
Hanger Sizing Algorithm
The basic function of the hanger design algorithm is to calculate the hot load and travel for user-specified hanger locations.
Once the hot load and travel are known, spring tables are entered and the theoretical cold load is calculated for each spring
in the table.
Spring Design Requirements
The smallest single spring that satisfies all design requirements is selected as the designed spring.
The spring design requirements are:
1 Both the hot and the cold loads must be within the spring allowed working range.
2 If the user specified an allowed load variation then the absolute value of the product of the travel and the spring rate
divided by the hot load must be less than the specified variation.
3 If the user specified some minimum available clearance then the spring selected must fit in this space.
If a single spring cannot be found that satisfies the design requirements, CAESAR II will try to find two identical springs that
do satisfy the requirements.
If satisfactory springs cannot be found, CAESAR II recommends a constant effort support for the location.
There are several variations of this approach that arise due to the different design options available in CAESAR II, but for the
most part the general algorithm remains unchanged.
Restrained Weight Case
In any job, if a hanger is to be designed, the first analysis case that must be run is the restrained weight case. This case
usually includes weight, pressure and concentrated loads. Hanger hot loads are calculated in the restrained weight case.
For the restrained weight run, rigid Y restraints are placed at each hanger location, and any anchors to be freed are
properly released. Loads on the Y restraints at hangers, calculated from the restrained weight case, are the hanger hot
design loads.
Operating Case
Immediately after the restrained weight case, an operating analysis is performed. The Y restraints are removed from the
hanger locations and the hot loads just calculated are inserted. Any anchors that were freed for the restrained weight
analysis are fixed.
The operating case vertical displacement at each hanger location defines that hangers travel. If there were single
directional restraints or gaps in the system that changed status in the operating case then the possibility exists that loads on
hangers will be redistributed. When a nonlinear status change is detected CAESAR II reruns the restrained weight case with
the restraints left as they were at the end of the operating case. New restraint loads are calculated and another operating case
is run to get the updated travel.
The operating case must always be the second load case in the set of defined analysis cases.
The user has the ability to define the restrained weight or operating load cases for hanger design any way he sees fit. For
simplicity, CAESAR II recommends the load cases it thinks should be run whenever it detects the first attempt to analyze a
particular system. The user can accept or reject CAESAR IIs recommendations. The user that sets up his own hanger design
load cases should be sure he understands exactly what is done in the restrained weight and operating passes of the hanger
design algorithm.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-11
Installed Load Case
If the user requested the calculation of the actual hanger installed loads, the third analysis level combination case must
define the weight configuration that will exist in the field when the spring is installed. Typically this case includes weight
without fluid contents and concentrated loads.
The theoretical cold, or installed, load is the load on the spring when the pipe has exactly zero displacement. The actual
installed load may differ from the theoretical installed load by (K)(d), where (K) is the spring stiffness and (d) is the
displacement of the pipe in the installed condition. In essence, the actual installed load is calculated by taking the piping
system and freezing all displacements at zero. With the pipe in this condition, the hangers are installed and the theoretical
cold load is applied. The pipe is then defrosted and allowed to adjust its weight position due to the hanger, restraint, and
anchor stiffnesses and the installed hanger loads. Once the system settles out, the total load on each of the hangers is read
and recorded as the actual hanger installed load.
Setting Up the Spring Load Cases
The load cases that must exist for hanger design, as described above, are
Restrained Weight
Operating
Installed Weight ...if the user requested actual hanger installed loads.
After the hanger algorithm has run the load cases it needs to size the hangers. The newly selected springs are inserted into
the piping system and included in the analysis of all remaining load cases.
The spring rate becomes part of the global stiffness matrix, and is therefore added into all subsequent load cases. Hanger
installed loads are concentrated forces and are only included in subsequent load cases that contain the first concentrated
force set, (i.e., +H).
Users may specify any number of their own load cases after the required spring load cases are set up.
Spring hanger design does not affect CAESAR IIs ability to check code compliance. In fact, in CAESAR IIs recommended
load cases, the normal code compliance cases always follow the set of load cases required for hanger design.
Multiple operating case spring hanger design implies that hanger loads and travels from more than one operating case are
included in the spring hanger selection algorithm.
Each spring in a multiple operating case hanger design has a multiple load case design option. This design option tells
CAESAR II how the multiple loads and travels for a single hanger are to be combined to get a single design load and travel.
The set-up of the analysis cases is slightly different for multiple operating case hanger design, and as might be expected, the
difference is that now there is more than one operating case. The actual number of operating cases is specified by the user
on the Hanger Design Control dialog and can be up to 9.
Load cases that must be set up for a multiple load case hanger design that considers two hanger design operating cases are:
Restrained Weight (this doesn't change)
Operating case #1
Operating case #9
Installed Weight ...if the user requested that actual installed loads are to be calculated.
6-12 Technical Discussions
Constant Effort Support
The specification of the support load for a constant effort hanger completely defines the hanger location. If the user enters
this value it will be included in all hanger design runs and all analysis cases following the hanger cases that include
concentrated loads in their formulation. This value is the load on each support at this location.
Including the Spring Hanger Stiffness in the Design Algorithm
The operating cases for hanger travel are normally analyzed with no stiffness included at the hanger locations (hence these
cases are traditionally referred to as "free thermal" cases). However, when the piping system is very flexible, or the selected
springs are very stiff, the actual resulting spring loads in the hot condition can vary significantly from the theoretically
calculated results. In that case, CAESAR II offers the option to include (via an iterative process) the stiffness of the selected
springs in the operating cases for hanger travel. This can be activated by setting the Hanger Stiffness Load Case option to
"As Designed" for that operating case. (Activating the Configure/Setup option "Include Travel cases to default to "As
Designed".) The user is warned that selection of this option may lead to convergence problems. If this option is used, it is
very important that the hanger load in the cold case (In the physical system) be adjusted to match the reported hanger Cold
Load.
Spring Hanger Hot Loads for as designed springs are always included in all Operating Hanger Travel cases. Cold loads can
be included in subsequent load cases through the use of the H load component. (Note that applying thermal and
displacement effects to the system should make the Cold Load move to the Hot Load in the operating case.)
Other Notes on Hanger Sizing
Users should note that whenever a hanger location is found to hold the pipe down, a beep and a warning message are
flashed to the user. These locations in output are flagged as zero load constant effort supports. These supports are usually
found to be at poor hanger design locations.
Hanger design load cases, unless specifically designed with a "KEEP" status by the user, show up in the output report as
being NOT ACTIVE. Results from these analyses are reflected in the spring hanger table only.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-13
Class 1 Branch Flexibilities
This analytical option was added to CAESAR II for the following reasons:
Automatic local flexibilities at intersections help the user bound the true solution. Because the computer time to do an
analysis is getting less expensive, more frequently an analyst is running several solutions of the same model using
slightly different input techniques to determine the effect of the modeling difference on the results. (This gives the
analyst a degree of confidence in the numbers he is getting.) For example, structural steel supporting structures may be
modeled to see the effect of their stiffnesses, nozzle flexibilities may be added at vessel connections to see how these
features redistribute load throughout the model, friction is added to watch its effect on displacements and equipment
loads, and with CAESAR II users may include Class 1 intersection flexibilities. The characteristic that makes this option
convenient to use is that the user can turn the Class 1 flexibilities on and off via a single parameter in the setup file.
There is no other modification to the input required.
In WRC 329, there are a number of suggestions made to improve the stress calculations at intersections. These
suggestions are fairly substantial, and are given in order of importance. The most important item, as felt by Rodabaugh
in improving the stress calculations at intersections is given, in part, as follows:
In piping system analyses, it may be assumed that the flexibility is represented by a rigid joint at the branch-to-run
centerlines juncture. However, the Code user should be aware that this assumption can be inaccurate and should consider
the use of a more appropriate flexibility representation.
User of the Class 1 branch flexibility feature may be summarized as follows: The user adds the option:
CLASS_1_BRANCH_FLEX to the setup file. This option is a flag, and merely has to appear in the setup file to activate
the option.
Where reduced branch geometry requirements are satisfied, CAESAR II constructs a rigid offset from the centerline of
the header pipe to its surface, and then adds the local flexibility of the header pipe, between the end of the offset, at the
header, and the start of the branch. Stresses computed for the branch, are for the point at its connection with the header.
Where reduced branch geometry requirements are not satisfied, CAESAR II constructs a rigid offset from the centerline
of the header pipe to its surface. The branch piping starts at the end of this rigid offset. There is NO local flexibility due
to the header added. (It is deemed to be insignificant.) Stresses computed for the branch, are for the point at its
connection with the header.
The reduced branch geometry requirements checked by CAESAR II are
d/D s 0.5 and D/T s 100.0
Where:
d = Diameter of branch
D = Diameter of header
T = Wall thickness of header
When the Class 1 branch flexibilities are used, intersection models in the analysis will become stiffer when the reduced
geometry requirements do not apply, and will become more flexible when the reduced geometry requirements do apply.
Stiffer intersections typically carry more load, and thus have higher stresses (lowering the stress in other parts of the system
that have been unloaded). More flexible intersections typically carry less load, and thus have lower stresses, (causing
higher stresses in other parts of the system that have picked up the extra load).
The branch flexibility rules used in CAESAR II are taken from ASME III, Subsection NB, (Class 1), 1992 Edition, Issued
December 31, 1992, from Code Sections NB-3686.4 and NB-3686.5.
When the reduced branch rules apply, the following equations are used for the local stiffnesses:
6-14 Technical Discussions
TRANSLATIONAL:
AXIAL = RIGID
CIRCUMFERENTIAL = RIGID
LONGITUDINAL = RIGID
ROTATIONAL:
AXIAL = RIGID
CIRCUMFERENTIAL = (kx)d/EI
LONGITUDINAL = (kz)d/EI
Where:
RIGID = 1.0E12 lb./in. or 1.0E12 in.lb./deg.
d = Branch diameter
E = Youngs Modulus
I = Cross Section Moment of Inertia
D = Header diameter
T = Header thickness
Tb = Branch fitting thickness
kx = 0.1(D/T)
1.5
[(T/t)(d/D)]
0.5
(Tb/T)
kz = 0.2(D/T)[(T/t)(d/D)]
0.5
(Tb/T)
Users are referred to WRC 329 Section 4.9 Flexibility Factors. A brief quote from this section follows:
The significance of k depends upon the specifics of the piping system. Qualitatively, if k is small compared to the
length of the piping system, including the effect of elbows and their k-factors, then the inclusion of k for branch
connections will have only minor effects on the calculated moments. Conversely, if k is large compared to the piping
system length, then the inclusion of k for branch connections will have major effects. The largest effect will be to greatly
reduce the magnitude of the calculated moments acting on the branch connection. To illustrate the potential significance of
ks for branch connections, we use the equation [above] to calculate k for a branch connection with D=30 in.,
d=12.75 in. T=t=0.375 in.:
k = 0.1(80)
1.5
(0.425)
0.5
* (1.0) = 46.6
This compares to the more typical rigid-joint interpretation that k=1, rather than k=46.6 !
Further discussion in section 4.9 illustrates additional problems that can arise by overestimating the stiffness at branch
connections. Problems arise by believing mistakenly that the stress at the intersection is too high. Further reference should
be made to this section in WRC 329.
The branch automatic flexibility generation can be used where the user has only defined the branch element in the model,
i.e. has left the header piping out of the analysis. In this case there will be no offset equal to one-half of the header
diameter applied to the branch end. A partial intersection is one where either the header pipe is not modeled, is modeled
with a single element, or is part of a geometric intersection where the header pipes are not colinear. In the case where there
is no header pipe going to the intersection there will be no modification to the model for the class 1 branch flexibilities.
When at least a single header pipe is recognized, the local flexibility directions are defined by the branch alone and in
accordance with the CAESAR II defaults for circumferential and longitudinal directions for the branch and header.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-15
Users are recommended to build full intersection models at all times (not only when employing the class 1 branch
flexibility.) In most cases building full intersection models will eliminate problems caused by the assumptions necessary
when a partial intersection is described.
In the equations in NB-3686.5 for tn, the thickness of the branch pipe is used in all cases.
When branches are skewed with respect to the header pipe, and where the two header pipes are colinear, the local Class 1
flexibilities are still taken to be the longitudinal and circumferential directions that are tangent to the header surface at its
intersection with the branch.
Class 1 branch flexibilities can be formed at both ends of a single pipe element.
Note: The offsets necessary to form the class 1 intersections are automatically generated by CAESAR II. There is no extra
input required by the user to have CAESAR II build these intersections.
(If there are already user-defined offsets at an intersection end, the computed offset to get from the header centerline to its
surface along the centerline of the branch will be added to the already entered user offset.) Automatic offsets will be
generated providing that the distance from the header centerline to the header surface along the branch centerline is less than
or equal to 98% of the total pipe straight length.
When a bend curved element is part of an intersection model, the offset and flexibility calculations will not be performed.
6-16 Technical Discussions
Modeling Friction Effects
There are two approaches to solving the friction problem; insert a force at the node which must be over come for motion to
occur, or insert a stiffness which applies an increasing force up to the value of Mu * Normal force. CAESAR II uses the
restraint stiffness method. (An excellent paper on this subject is Inclusion of a Support Friction Into a Computerized
Solution of a Self-Compensating Pipeline by J. Sobieszczanski, published in the Transactions of the ASME, Journal of
Engineering for Industry, August 1972. A summary of the major points of this paper can be found below.)
Ideally, if there is motion at the node in question, the friction force is equal to (Mu * Normal force). However, since we
have a non-rigid stiffness at that location to resist the initial motion, the node can experience displacements. The force at the
node will be the product of the displacement and the stiffness. If this resultant force is less than the maximum friction
force (Mu * Normal force), the node is assumed to be not sliding, even though we see displacements in the output
report.
The maximum value of the force at the node is the friction force, Mu * Normal force. Once this value is reached, the
reaction at the node stops increasing. This constant force value is then applied to the global load vector during the next
iteration to determine the nodal displacements. Basically here is what happens in a friction problem.
1 The default friction stiffness is 1,000,000 lb./in. This value should be decreased to improve convergence.
2 Until the horizontal force at the node equals Mu * Normal force, the restraint load is the displacement times the friction
stiffness.
3 Once the maximum value of the friction force is reached, the friction force will stop increasing, since a constant effort
force is inserted.
By increasing the friction stiffness in the setup file, the displacements at the node will decrease to some degree. This may
cause a re-distribution of the loads throughout the system. However, this could have adverse affects on the solution
convergence.
If problems arise during the solution of a job with friction at supports, reducing the friction stiffness will usually improve
convergence. Several runs should be made with varying values of the friction stiffness to insure the system behavior is
consistent.
Summary of J. Sobieszczanskis ASME Paper
For dry friction, the friction force magnitude is a step function of displacement. This discontinuity determines the
problem as intrinsically nonlinear and eliminates the possibility of using the superposition principle.
The friction loading on the pipe can be represented by an ordinary differential equation of the fourth order with a
variable coefficient that is a nonlinear function of both dependent and independent variables. No solution in closed form
is known for an equation of this type. Solution has to be sought by means of numerical integration to be carried out
specifically for a particular pipeline configuration.
Dry friction can be idealized by a fictitious elastic foundation, discretized to a set of elastic (spring) supports.
A well-known property of an elastic system with dry friction constraints is that it may attain several static equilibrium
positions within limits determined by the friction forces.
THE WHOLE PROBLEM THEN HAS CLEARLY NOT A DETERMINISTIC, BUT A STOCHASTIC
CHARACTER.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-17
Nonlinear Code Compliance
Nonlinear piping code compliance can be directly satisfied by
1 Performing an operating and sustained analysis of the system including in each case the effect of nonlinear restraints.
2 Subtracting the sustained case displacements from the operating case displacements to find the displacement range.
3 Calculating the expansion stresses from the displacement range solved for in #2 above.
Approximate approaches usually involve some combination of the above. The approximate combination used depends
typically on the inherent limitations of the base program. In several commonly used programs, the approach taken is
1 Formulate and solve for operating case displacements including an iteration to deal with the effect of nonlinear
restraints in the system.
2 Run the thermal-only analysis of the system to calculate expansion stresses with restraints in the same condition as they
were at the end of #1.
3 Run the weight+pressure only analysis of the system to calculate sustained stresses, again with restraints in the same
condition as they were at the end of #1.
This alternate approach is identical to the first method only when the sustained analysis final stiffness matrix is the same as
the operating analysis final stiffness matrix. The resulting error in the displacement range can be found from
{[Fo] - [Fs]}fs.
Where:
[Fo] - is the operating analysis final flexibility matrix (i.e. the inverse of the stiffness matrix).
[Fs] - is the sustained analysis final flexibility matrix.
fs - is the sustained analysis load vector.
CAESAR II uses the exact method described above for calculating the expansion stress range. In addition CAESAR II scans the
users input and recommends loading cases and combinations for performing the operating, sustained and expansion stress
calculations. This recommendation can prove very useful when performing spring hanger analysis of a multiple operating
case system.
6-18 Technical Discussions
Sustained Stresses and Nonlinear Restraints
The proper computation of sustained stresses has been an issue since the late 1970s, when computerized pipe stress analysis
programs first attempted to address the problem of non-linear restraints. The existing piping codes offered little guidance on
the subject, since their criteria were developed during the era when all analyses were considered to behave in a strictly linear
fashion. The problem arises because the codes require that a piping system be analyzed separately for sustained loadings
the engineer must determine which stresses are caused by which loadings. Sustained loads are force loadings which are
assumed not to change, while expansion loadings are displacement loadings which vary with the system operating
conditions. Determination of the sustained loads is the simple part most everybody agrees that those forces consist of
weight, pressure, and spring preloads these forces remain relatively constant as the piping system goes through its
thermal growth. However, confusion occurs when the status of nonlinear restraints change (pipes lift off of supports, gaps
close, etc.) as the pipe goes from its hot to cold state in this case, which boundary conditions should be used when
evaluating the applied forces? Or in other words, what portion of the stress in the operating case is caused by weight loads,
and what portion is caused by expansion effects? (Note that there is no corresponding confusion on the question of
calculating expansion stresses, since the codes are explicit in their instructions that the expansion stress range is the
difference between the operating and cold stress distributions, both of which are known.)
The obvious answer to this question, to the developers of some pipe stress programs, was that the sustained stress
calculation should be done using the operating, or hot boundary condition. This compounded the problem, in that the laws
of superposition no longer held in other words, the results of sustained (W+P) and thermal (T) cases, when added
together, did not equal the results of the operating (W+P+T) case! One pioneering program, DYNAFLEX, attempted to
resolve this by introducing the concept of the thermal component of weight an oxymoron, in our opinion. Other
programs, notably those which came from the mainframe/linear analysis world, had to approximate the behavior of these
non-linear restraints. Their approach to the problem is to run an operating case, obtain the restraint status, and modify the
model according to these results. All subsequent load cases analyzed use this restraint configuration. The fact that the laws
of static superposition didn't hold was hopefully not noticed by the user. CAESAR II, on the other hand, represents new
technology, developed expressly for operation on the PC, and therefore incorporates directly the effects of non-linear
restraints. This is done by considering each load case independently the restraint configuration is determined for each
load case by the program as it runs, based upon the actual loads which are considered to be present.
Some users have asserted that there are actually two sustained load cases. In fact, there has been a B31.3 code interpretation
that indicates that the sustained stress may also be checked with the operating restraint configuration. Calculating the
sustained stresses using the operating restraint status raises several other issues; what modulus of elasticity should be used,
and which sustained stresses should be used for occasional cases.
It is COADEs assertion that there is only one sustained case (otherwise it is not sustained) there can be, however,
multiple sustained stress distributions. The two most apparent are those associated with the cold (installed) and hot
(operating) configurations, however, there are also numerous in-between, as the piping system load steps from cold to hot.
Whether the true sustained load case occurs during the installed or operating case is a matter of the frame of reference. If
an engineer first sees a system in its cold condition, and watches it expand to its operating condition, it appears that the first
case (since weight and pressure primary loads are present) is the sustained case, and the changes he viewed are
thermal effects (due to heat up) secondary loads due to displacements. If a second engineer first sees the same system in
the operating case and watches it cool down to the cold case, he may believe that the first case he saw (the operating case) is
the sustained case, and changes experienced from hot to cold are the thermal expansion effects (the thermal stress ranges are
the same in both cases). Consider the further implications of cryogenic systems where changes from installed to
operating are the same as those experienced by hot systems when going from operating to installed. Once elastic shakedown
has occurred, the question becomes clouded even further, due to the presence of thermally induced pre-stresses in the pipe
during both the cold and hot conditions. We feel either the operating or installed case (or some other one in-between) could
justifiably be selected for analysis as the sustained case, as long as the program is consistent.
We have selected the installed case (less the effect of cold spring) as our reference sustained case, since thermal effects can
be completely omitted from the solution (as intended by the code), and this best represents the support configuration when
the sustained loads are initially applied. If the pipe lifts off of a support when going from installed to operating, we view
this as a thermal effect consistent with the piping codes view of thermal effects as the variation of stress distribution
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-19
as the piping system goes from cold to hot (this view is explicitly corroborated by one code the French petrochemical
code, which states that weight stress distributions due to thermal growth of the pipe should be considered as expansion
stresses). For example, we feel that a change in a rigid support load from 2,000 lbs to zero should be treated no differently
than would be a variable spring load changing from 6,000 lbs to 4,000 lbs (or another rigid support load going 2,000 lbs to 1
lb). In the former case, if the pipe became overstressed, it would yield, and sag back to the support, relieving the stress.
This process is identical to the way that all other expansion stresses are relieved in a piping system.
We are confident that our interpretation is correct. However, we understand that our users may not always agree with us
that is why CAESAR II provides the greatest ability to custom tailor the analysis to ones individual specifications. If desired,
a hot sustained case can be analyzed by adding two load cases to those normally recommended by CAESAR II. This would
be done by assuming that the pipe expands first, and then the sustained loads are applied (this is of course an idealized
concept, but the stresses can only be segregated by segregating the applied loads, so the sustained loads can only be applied
either before, or after, the expansion loads). Following are the default load cases, as well as those required for a hot
sustained.
Default New
W+P1+T1(OPE) W+P1+T1(OPE)
W+P1(SUS) W+P1(SUS)
L1-L2(EXP) T1 (EXP)
L1-L2(EXP)
L1-L3(SUS)
In the new load case list, the second case still represents the cold sustained, while the fourth case represents the expansion
case (note that L1-L2, or W+P1+T1-W-P1, equals T1, with non-linear effects taken into account). The third case represents
the thermal growth of the weightless, non-pressurized pipe, against the non-linear restraints. The fifth case (L1-L3, or
W+P1+T1-T1, equals W+P1) represents the application of weight and pressure to that expanded case, or the hot sustained
case. Note that when the piping system is analyzed as above, the actual effects of the non-linear restraints are considered
(they are not arbitrarily removed from the model), and the laws of superposition still hold.
An alternative school of thought believes that a "hot sustained" is only valid if (1) the sustained, primary loads are applied,
(2) all springs are showing their Hot Load settings, and (3) any supports that lift off (or otherwise become non-active) have
been removed from the model. An analysis such as this is achievable by setting the "Keep/Discard" status of the Restrained
Weight case (the first hanger design load case) to "Keep", thus permitting the results of that case to be viewable as for any
other load case. The Restrained Weight case automatically removes restraints that become non-active during the designated
operating case, and apply the Hot Load at each of the hanger locations.
Notes on Occasional Load Cases
Several piping codes require that the stresses from occasional loads (such as wind or earthquake) be added to the sustained
stresses (due to weight, pressure, and other constant loads) before comparing them to their allowables. This combination is
easily created in CAESAR II:
CASE #
1. W+P+F1 (SUS): Sustained stresses
2. WIND (OCC): Wind load set
3. U1 (OCC): Uniform (g) load set for earthquake
4. L1+L2 (OCC): Code stresses for wind *
5. L1+L3 (OCC): Code stresses for earthquake*
* Scalar Summation Method required
6-20 Technical Discussions
If nonlinear effects are modeled in the system these combinations may not be so straight forward. Friction, one-direction
restraints and double-acting restraints with gaps are the nonlinear items which present this complication. Wind loading on a
long vertical run of pipe with a guide will serve as an example. Assume there is a one inch gap between the pipe and guide.
Under normal operation, the pipe moves 3/4 inch towards the stop leaving a gap of 1-3/4 inch on either side of the pipe and
a 1/4 inch gap on the other side. If wind loads are analyzed alone, the pipe is allowed to move 1 inch from its center point in
the guide to the guide stop. Since occasional loads are usually analyzed with the system in operation, the pipe may be
limited to a 1/4 inch motion as the gap is closed in one direction, and 1-3/4 inch if the gap is closed in the opposite direction.
With nonlinear effects modeled in the system, the occasional deflections (and stresses) are influenced by the operating
position of the piping.
The following list of CAESAR II load cases takes this point into consideration. Note that the load cases shown below are only
for wind acting in one direction, i.e., +X. Depending on the system, the most critical loads could occur in any direction, i.e.,
+/-X, +/-Z or skewed in an XZ direction.
The intention of the following load case construction is to find the occasional loads effect on the piping system in the
operating condition. The stress due to the moment change from the operating to the operating plus wind case is added to the
stress from the sustained case.
The isolated wind effect on the piping system in the operating condition in is computed in Case 5. Case 6 adds the stresses
from Case 5 to the sustained stresses from Case 2.
CASE #
1. W+T+P (OPE): Operation analysis
2. W+P (SUS): Sustained stresses
3. W+T+P+WIND (OPE): Operating analysis with wind
4. L1-L2 (EXP): Expansion stresses (Algebraic summation)
5. L3-L1 (OCC): Winds net deflection (Algebraic summation)
6. L2+L5 (OCC): Code stresses for wind (Scalar summation)
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-21
Static Seismic Loads
Static earthquake loads are applied in a manner very similar to static wind loads. The static loading magnitude is considered
to be in direct proportion to the elements weight. Earthquake load magnitudes are given in terms of the gravitational
acceleration constant, i.e. g's. If an earthquake is modeled as having a 0.5-g load in the X direction, then half of the systems
weight is turned into a uniform load and applied in the X direction.
Earthquake static load cases are set up exactly as they are for wind occasional loads, i.e. the same load case, nonlinearity,
and directional sensitivity logic. In some cases the client specifies the magnitude of the earthquake loading in g's and the
direction(s). In others, the analysis is left to the sole discretion of the analyst. It is not unusual to see only X or X-Y
components of an earthquake. It is not uncommon to see Y only components, or X, Y, and Z simultaneous components.
Dynamic earthquakes are discussed later in this chapter, in the dynamic analysis and output chapters, and in the screen
reference chapter.
The ASCE #7 method for determining earthquake coefficients is described below. Once calculated, the g-factors should be
entered as uniform loads on the piping spreadsheet.
Note: The Uniform Load in G's (on page 3-110) check box must also be enabled in the spreadsheet special execution
parameters.
The total lateral force at the base of a structure is to be computed from:
V = ZIKCSW
Where:
V - total lateral force or shear at the base
Znumerical coefficient from table 22
Knumerical coefficient from table 23
Cnumerical coefficient from Sect. 9.4
Ssoil factor from table 25
Wtotal dead load
The g-factor can be found by dividing Eq. 6 through by W.
gs = V/W = ZIKCS
The product CS does not need to exceed the value 0.14. Use this value as a conservative maximum.
6-22 Technical Discussions
The following table provides the seismic zone coefficient (Z)
Seismic Zone
Coefficient, Z
4 1
3 3/4
2 3/8
1 3/16
0 1/8
From the following table, the importance factor can be found: (However use a value for I = 1.0. The categories in this table
are identical for those used in the wind load calculation.)
Category Number
I 1
II 1025
III 1.5
IV N/A
The following table shows K varying from 0.67 to 2.0. Use K=2.0 for Structures other than buildings.
So the equation for the g load:
g = ZIKCS
reduces to:
g = Z (1.0) (2.0) (0.14)
and for the various value of Z:
Seismic Zone Product "g" Load
4 (1)(1)(2)(0.14) 0.28
3 (3/4)(1)(2)(0.14) 0.21
2 (3/8)(1)(2)(0.14) 0.105
1 (3/16)(1)(2)(0.14) 0.0525
0 (1/8)(1)(2)(0.14) 0.035
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-23
Seismic Zones from A58.1 - 1982 fig. 13, p.50
ASCE #7 - 1990 is the 1990 revision to ANSI A58.1 1982. There are no revisions to this code which affect CAESAR II.
ASCE #7 - 1993 has completely changed the approach for "static" seismic analysis. These changes are not addressed by
this discussion.
6-24 Technical Discussions
Wind Loads
Wind loads are generated by multiplying the pipe exposed area, including insulation, and considering angle to the wind, by
the equivalent wind pressure and the pipe shape factor. There are typically three different ways to get at the equivalent wind
pressure:
ASCE #7 (1995)
Pressure vs. elevation table entry
Velocity vs. elevation table entry
The total wind force on the element is calculated from
F = PeqSA
Where:
F = the total wind force on the element
Peq = the equivalent wind pressure (dynamic pressure)
S = the pipe element wind shape factor
A = the pipe element exposed area as shown in the figure as follows:
Peq is calculated for each end of the element and the average taken. The average applies uniformly over the whole length of
the element. Note, the wind force is applied in the three global directions as a function of the element direction cosines.
If the user enters a velocity vs. elevation table then the velocity is converted to a dynamic pressure using the following
equation:
P = 1/2 V
2
where V is the wind velocity and is the air density.
The WIND SHAPE FACTOR is entered on the pipe spreadsheet and, for cylindrical elements, the value from Table 12 is
between 0.5 and 0.7. A value of 0.65 is typical. The wind shape factor as entered is distributive. This means that the
shape factor applies for all following elements until zeroed or changed.
Important: The user does not have to enter the shape factor on each pipe spreadsheet. Zero (or turn "Off") the wind
shape factor if the piping system runs inside of building or similarly protective structure.
Wind load data is entered on the Wind Loads (on page 3-61) tab of the Static Load Case Builder. Up to four different wind
loads can be entered per analysis. These typically might be set up to model wind loads in the +X, -Y, and -Z directions.
The ASCE #7 ( 1995) Method for computing equivalent pressure requires several computerized table look ups and
interpolation. The user enters the following parameters:
1 Basic wind speed (mph) - The minimum allowed basic wind speed is 85 mph. This does not include averages for
abnormally high wind loading events such as hurricanes or tornadoes.
ASCE #7 refers to fig. 6-1 for basic wind speeds in the continental United States. The following description is a crude
representation of Figure 1:
California 85 mph (124.6 ft/sec)
Other West Coast Areas 85 mph (124.6 ft/sec)
Great Plains 90 mph (132.0 ft/sec)
Non-Coastal Eastern United States 90 mph (132.0 ft/sec)
Gulf Coast 130 mph (190.6 ft/sec)
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-25
Florida Carolinas 130 mph (190.6 ft/sec)
Miami 145 mph (212.6 ft/sec)
New England Coastal Areas 120 mph (176.0 ft/sec)
2 Wind Exposure Options
Large oily center
Urban, suburban, and wooded areas
Open terrain
Flat coastal areas
3 Structural Classification Options
Everything except the following options (used most often)
Primary occupancy more than 100 people
Essential facilities, i.e. hospitals
Failure represents low hazard
4 Topographic Factor Parameters (sec. 6.5.5)
Height of hill or escarpment
Crest distance
Height above ground level
Distance from crest to site
Hill type
The following procedure from the appendix is used to calculate the effective wind pressure:
1 Get the Importance Factor from Table 6-2 (p.17)
2 Get (Alpha), Zg, from Table C 6-2.
3 Calculate Kz from Eq. C2 (p.152)
4 Calculate Kzt from Eq. 6-2 (p.34)
5 Calculate qz from Eq. 6-1 (p.17)
6 Calculate Gz from sec 6.6
7 Calculate the effective wind pressure from
PRESSURE = Gz * qz * Shape Factor
Note: Winds of 20 to 40 mph can cause vortex shedding and excitation in the 30 Hz and higher range that can cause
fatigue failure in smaller line sizes particularly susceptible to fatigue type failures. To analyze vortex shedding, use
harmonic analysis methods.
Elevation
The accurate elevation of each individual piping element may, or may not be important depending on the total height,
diameter and rigidity of the piping system and attachments. By default, CAESAR II starts the first node on the first element
at an elevation of 0.0. If this is not close enough to the true elevation then the user should set the true coordinates of the
piping system through the command EDIT - GLOBAL. This presents a dialog requesting coordinates for the first node of
any disconnected section. The coordinates for up to 100 node points can be specified and saved as part of the input data
from the model.
6-26 Technical Discussions
Hydrodynamic (Wave and Current) Loading
Ocean waves are generated by wind and propagate out of the generating area. The generation of ocean waves is dependent
on the wind speed, the duration of the wind, the water depth, and the distance over which the wind blows is referred to as
the fetch length. There a variety of two dimensional wave theories proposed by various researchers, but the three most
widely used are the Airy (linear) wave theory, Stokes 5
th
Order wave theory, and Dean's Stream Function wave theory. The
later two theories are non-linear wave theories and provide a better description of the near surface effects of the wave.
(The term two dimensional refers to the uni-directional wave. One dimension is the direction the wave travels, and the other
dimension is vertical through the water column. Two dimensional waves are not found in the marine environment, but are
somewhat easy to define and determine properties for, in a deterministic sense. In actuality, waves undergo spreading, in the
third dimension. This can be easily understood by visualizing a stone dropped in a pond. As the wave spread, the diameter
of the circle increases. In addition to wave spreading, a real sea state includes waves of various periods, heights, and
lengths. In order to address these actual conditions, a deterministic approach cannot be used. Instead, a sea spectrum is
utilized, which may also include a spreading function. As there are various wave theories, there are various sea spectra
definitions. The definition and implementation of sea spectra are usually employed in dynamic analysis. Sea Spectra and
dynamic analysis will not be discussed in this article.)
The linear or Airy wave theory assumes the free surface is symmetric about the mean water level. Furthermore, the water
particle motion is a closed circular orbit, the diameter of which decays with depth. (The term circular should be taken
loosely here, the orbit varies from circular to elliptical based on whether the wave is in shallow or deep water.) Additionally,
for shallow water waves, the wave height to depth ratio (H/D) is limited to 0.78 to avoid breaking. (None of the wave
theories address breaking waves!) The figure below shows a typical wave and associated hydrodynamic parameters.
SWL - The still water level.
L - The wave length, the horizontal distance between successive crests or troughs.
H - The wave height, the vertical distance between the crest and trough.
D - The water depth, the vertical distance from the bottom to the still water level.
q - The surface elevation measured from the still water level.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-27
Ocean Wave Particulars
The Airy Wave theory provides a good first approximation to the water particle behavior. The nonlinear theories provide a
better description of particle motion, over a wider range depths and wave heights. Stokes 5
th
Wave theory is based on a
power series. This wave theory does not apply the symmetric free surface restriction. Additionally, the particle paths are no
longer closed orbits, which mean there is a gradual drift of the fluid particles, i.e. a mass transport.
Stokes 5
tH
Order Wave Theory however, does not adequately address steeper waves over a complete range of depths. Deans
Stream Function wave theory attempts to address this deficiency. This wave theory employs an iterative numerical
technique to solve the stream function equation. The stream function describes not only the geometry of a two dimensional
flow, but also the components of the velocity vector at any point, and the flow rate between any two streamlines.
The most suitable wave theory is dependent on the wave height, the wave period, and the water depth. Based on these
parameters, the applicable wave theory can be determined from the figure below (from API-RP2A, American Petroleum
Institute - Recommended Practice 2A).
6-28 Technical Discussions
Applicable Wave Theory Determination
The limiting wave steepness for most deep water waves is usually determined by the Miche Limit:
H / L = 0.142 tanh( kd )
Where:
H is the wave height
L is the wave length
k is the wave number (2t)/L
d is the water depth
Pseudo-Static Hydrodynamic Loading
CAESAR II allows individual pipe elements to experience loading due to hydrodynamic effects. These fluid effects can
impose a substantial load on the piping elements in a manner similar to, but more complex than wind loading.
The various wave theories incorporated into CAESAR II as well as the various types of current profiles are discussed below.
The wave theories and the current profile are used to compute the water particle velocities and accelerations at the node
points. Once these parameters are available, the force on the element can be computed using Morrisons equation:
F = 1/2 * * Cd * D * U * |U| + t/4 * * Cm * D
2
* A
Where
- is the fluid density
Cd- is the drag coefficient
D - is the pipe diameter
U - is the particle velocity
Cm - is the inertial coefficient
A - is the particle acceleration
The particle velocities and accelerations are vector quantities which include the effects of any applied waves or currents. In
addition to the force imposed by Morrisons equation, piping elements are also subjected to a lift force and a buoyancy
force. The lift force is defined as the force acting normal to the plane formed by the velocity vector and the elements axis.
The lift force is defined as:
Fl = 1/2 * * Cl * D * U
2
Where
- is the fluid density
Cl - is the lift coefficient
D - is the pipe diameter
U - is the particle velocity
The buoyancy force acts upward, and is equal to the weight of the fluid volume displaced by the element.
Once the force on a particular element is available, it is placed in the system load vector just as any other load is. A standard
solution is performed on the system of equations which describe the piping system. (The piping system can be described by
the standard finite element equation:
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-29
[K] {x} = {f}
Where
[K] - is the global stiffness matrix for the entire system
{x} - is the displacement / rotation vector to solve for
{f} - is global load vector
The element loads generated by the hydrodynamic effects are placed in their proper locations in {f}, similar to weight,
pressure, and temperature. Once [K] and {f} are finalized, a standard finite element solution is performed on this system of
equations. The resulting displacement vector {x} is then used to compute element forces, and these forces are then used to
compute the element stresses.)
Except for the buoyancy force, all other hydrodynamic forces acting on the element are a function of the particle velocities
and accelerations.
AIRY Wave Theory Implementation
Airy Wave theory is also known as Linear Wave theory, due to the assumption that the wave profile is symmetric about
the mean water level. Standard Airy Wave theory allows for the computation of the water particle velocities and
accelerations between the mean surface elevation and the bottom. The Modified Airy Wave theory allows for the
consideration of the actual free surface elevation in the computation of the particle data. CAESAR II includes both the
standard and modified forms of the Airy wave theory.
To apply the Airy Wave theory, several descriptive parameters about the wave must be given. These values are then used to
solve for the wave length, which is a characteristic parameter of each unique wave. CAESAR II uses Newton-Raphston
iteration to determine the wave length by solving the dispersion relation, shown below:
L = (gT
2
/ 2t) * tanh(2tD / L)
Where
g - is the acceleration of gravity
T - is the wave period
D - is the mean water depth
L - is the wave length to be solved for
Once the wave length (L) is known, the other wave particulars of interest may be easily determined. The parameters
determined and used by CAESAR II are: the horizontal and vertical particle velocities ( UX and UY ), the horizontal and
vertical particle acceleration ( AX and AY ), and the surface elevation above (or below) the mean water level ( ETA ). The
equations for these parameters can be found in any standard text (such as those listed at the end of this section) which
discusses ocean wave theories, and therefore will not be repeated here.
STOKES Wave Theory Implementation
The Stokes Wave is a 5th order gravity wave, and hence non-linear in nature. The solution technique employed by CAESAR
II is described in a paper published by Skjelbreia and Hendrickson of the National Engineering Science Company of
Pasadena California in 1960. The standard formulation as well as a modified formulation (to the free surface) is available in
the CAESAR II Stokes 5th Order Wave Theory.
The solution follows a procedure very similar to that used in the Airy wave, characteristic parameters of the wave are
determined by using Newton-Raphston iteration, followed by the determination of the water particle values of interest.
6-30 Technical Discussions
The Newton-Raphston iteration procedure solves two non-linear equations for the constants beta and lambda. Once these
values are available, the other twenty constants can be computed. After all of the constants are known, CAESAR II can
compute: the horizontal and vertical particle velocities ( UX and UY ), the horizontal and vertical particle acceleration ( AX
and AY ), and the surface elevation above the mean water level (ETA).
Stream Function Wave Theory Implementation
In addition to the forces imposed by ocean waves, piping elements may also be subjected to forces imposed by ocean
currents. There are three different ocean current models in CAESAR II; linear, piece-wise, and a power law profile.
The linear current profile assumes that the current velocity through the water column varies linearly from the specified
surface velocity (at the surface) to zero (at the bottom). The piece-wise linear profile employs linear interpolation between
specific depth/velocity points specified by the user. The power law profile decays the surface velocity to the 1/7 power.
While waves produce unsteady flow, where the particle velocities and accelerations at a point constantly change, current
produces a steady, non-varying flow.
Ocean Currents
In addition to forces imposed by ocean waves, piping elements may also be subjected to forces imposed by ocean currents.
There are three different ocean current models in CAESAR II; linear piece-wise linear profile, and a power law profile. The
linear current profile assumes that the current velocity though the water column varies linearly from the specified surface
velocity (at the surface to zero (at the bottom). The piece-wise linear profile employs linear interpolation between specific
"depth /velocity" points specified by the user. The power law profile decays the surface velocity to the 1/7 power.
While waves produce unsteady flow, where the particle velocities and accelerations at a point constantly change, current
produces a steady, non-varying flow.
Technical Notes on CAESAR II Hydrodynamic Loading
The input parameters necessary to define the fluid loading are described in detail in the next section. The basic parameters
describe the wave height and period, and the current velocity. The most difficult to obtain, and also the most important
parameters, are the drag, inertia, and lift coefficients, Cd, Cm, and Cl. Based on the recommendations of API RP2A and DNV
(Det Norske Veritas), values for Cd range from 0.6 to 1.2, values for Cm range from 1.5 to 2.0. Values for Cl show a wide
range of scatter, but the approximate mean value is 0.7.
The inertia coefficient Cm is equal to one plus the added mass coefficient Ca. This added mass value accounts for the mass of
the fluid assumed to be entrained with the piping element.
In actuality, these coefficients are a function of the fluid particle velocity, which varies over the water column. In general
practice, two dimensionless parameters are computed which are used to obtain the Cd, Cm, and Cl values from published
charts. The first dimensionless parameter is the Keulegan-Carpenter Number, K. K is defined as:
K = Um * T / D
Where:
Um - is the maximum fluid particle velocity
T - is the wave period
D - is the characteristic diameter of the element.
The second dimensionless parameter is the Reynolds number, Re. Re is defined as
Re = Um * D / v
Where:
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-31
Um - is the maximum fluid particle velocity
D - is the characteristic diameter of the element.
v - is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid (1.26e-5 ft
2
/sec for sea water).
Once K and Re are available, charts are used to obtain Cd, Cm, and Cl. (See Mechanics of Wave Forces on Offshore
Structures by T. Sarpkaya, Figures 3.21, 3.22, and 3.25 for example charts, which are shown in the figures below.)
6-32 Technical Discussions
In order to determine these coefficients, the fluid particle velocity (at the location of interest) must be determined. The
appropriate wave theory is solved, and these particle velocities are readily obtained.
Of the wave theories discussed, the modified Airy and Stokes 5
th
theories include a modification of the depth-decay
function. The standard theories use a depth-decay function equal to cosh(kz) / sinh(kd),
Where:
k - is the wave number, 2t /L
L - is the wave length
d - is the water depth
z - is the elevation in the water column where the data is to be determined
The modified theories include an additional term in the numerator of this depth-decay function. The modified depth-decay
function is equal to cosh(od) / sinh(kd),
Where:
o - is equal to z / (d + q)
The term od represents the effective height of the point at which the particle velocity and acceleration are to be computed.
The use of this term keeps the effective height below the still water level. This means that the velocity and acceleration
computed are convergent for actual heights above the still water level.
As previously stated, the drag, inertia, and lift coefficients are a function of the fluid velocity and the diameter of the
element in question. Note that the fluid particle velocities vary with both depth and position in the wave train (as determined
by the applied wave theory). Therefore, these coefficients are in fact not constants. However, from a practical engineering
point of view, varying these coefficients as a function of location in the Fluid field is usually not implemented. This
practice can be justified when one considers the inaccuracies involved in specifying the instantaneous wave height and
period. According to Sarpkaya, these values are insufficient to accurately predict wave forces, a consideration of the
previous fluid particle history is necessary. In light of these uncertainties, constant values for Cd, Cm, and Cl are
recommended by API and many other references.
The effects of marine growth must also be considered. Marine growth has the following effects on the system loading: the
increased pipe diameters increase the hydrodynamic loading; the increased roughness causes an increase in Cd, and therefore
the hydrodynamic loading; the increase in mass and added mass cause reduced natural frequencies and increase the dynamic
amplification factor; it causes an increase in the structural weight; and possibly causes hydrodynamic instabilities, such as
vortex shedding.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-33
Finally, Morrisons force equation is based the small body assumption. The term small refers to the diameter to wave
length ratio. If this ratio exceeds 0.2, the inertial force is no longer in phase with the acceleration of the fluid particles and
diffraction effects must be considered. In such cases, the fluid loading as typically implemented by CAESAR II is no longer
applicable.
Additional discussions on hydrodynamic loads and wave theories can be found in the references at the end of this article.
Input: Specifying Hydrodynamic Parameters in CAESAR II
The hydrodynamic load analysis requires the specification of several measurable parameters which quantify the physical
aspects of the environmental phenomenon in question.
Note: Users can enter four different wave loads here. Use the Editing Load Case buttons to move up or down between the
Wave Load Input Spreadsheets.
The necessary hydrodynamic parameters are discussed in the following paragraphs and a CAESAR II hydrodynamic loading
dialog is shown in the figure below.
Wave Loading Editing in the Load Case Editor
6-34 Technical Discussions
Current Data
Profile TypeThis entry defines the interpolation method used by CAESAR II to determine the current velocity as a function
of depth. Available options for this entry are: a power law profile, a piece-wise linear profile, and a linear profile.
The power law profile determines the current velocity at depth D according to the equation:
Vd = Vs * [di / D]
p
Where
Vd - is the velocity at depth di
Vs - is the specified velocity at the surface
D - is the water depth
p - is the power, set to 1/7
The piece-wise linear profile performs a linear interpolation of a velocity verse depth table (provided by the user) to obtain
the current velocity at depth di. When this type profile is specified, a table of depths and velocities must be provided. The
table should start at the surface (a depth of zero) and progress in the direction of increasing depth, to the sea bed.
The linear profile also performs a linear interpolation to obtain the current velocity at depth di. However, this method
assumes the current velocity varies linearly from the specified surface velocity to zero at the sea bed.
Current Speed This entry defines the current speed at the surface. The units for this entry are (length/time) as defined
by the active units file at the time of input. This value should always be a positive entry.
Current Direction Cosines These entries define the direction of fluid transport due to the current. These fields are
unitless, and follow the standard software global axis convention.
Wave Data
Wave Theory Indicator This entry specifies which wave theory is to be used to compute the water particle velocities
and accelerations. The wave theories presently available are:
Standard Airy Wave This is also known as linear wave theory. Discussion of this theory can be found in the previously
mentioned references.
Modified Airy Wave This is a modification of the standard Airy theory which includes the free surface effects due to
the wave. The modification consists of determining a depth scaling factor equal to the depth divided by the depth plus the
surface elevation. Note that this scale factor varies as a function of the location in the wave train.
Standard Stokes 5th Wave This is a 5th order wave theory, also discussed in the previously mentioned references.
Modified Stokes 5th Wave This is a modification of the standard Stokes 5th theory. The modification is the same as
applied to the Airy theory.
Stream Function Wave This is Deans Stream Function theory, also discussed in the previously mentioned references.
Modified Stream Function Wave This is Deans Stream Function theory, modified to directly consider current in the
wave solution.
Stream Function Order When the Stream Function theory is activated, the solution order must be defined. Typical
values for the stream function order range from 3 to 13, and must be an "odd" value (see API-RP2A figure).
Water Depth This entry defines the vertical distance (in units of length) from the still water level (the surface) to the sea
bed.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-35
Wave Height This entry defines the height of the incident wave. The height is the vertical distance (in units of length)
from the wave crest to the wave trough.
Wave Period This entry defines the time span (in seconds) for two successive wave crests to pass a fixed point.
Wave Kinematic Factor Because the two dimensional wave theories do not account for spreading, a reduction factor is
often used for the horizontal particle velocity and acceleration. Wave kinematic measurements support values in the range
of 0.85 to 0.95. Refer to the applicable offshore codes before using this item.
Wave Direction Cosines These entries define the direction of wave travel. These fields are unitless, and follow the
standard software global axis convention.
Wave Phase Angle This entry defines the position of the wave relative to the starting node of the piping system. The
phase angle is a measure (in degrees) of position in the wave train, where 0 is the wave crest, 180 is the wave trough, and
360 is the following crest. Since the wave propagates over the piping structure, each point in the structure experiences all
possible wave phase angles. One analysis technique specifies the wave phase at the system origin, and then the phase at
each node point in the model is determined. From these exact phase locations, the water particle data is computed from the
wave theory.
Alternatively, a conservative engineering approach is to use the same phase angle (usually zero) for all points in the model.
This technique produces higher loads; however, the extra conservatism is warranted when given the unknowns in specifying
environmental data.
Seawater Data
Free Surface Elevation This entry defines the height of the free surface, from the global system origin. If the system
origin is at the free surface, this entry should be specified as zero. If the system origin is at the sea bottom, this entry is equal
to the water depth. By default, the first node in a CAESAR II model is at an elevation of zero. This elevation can be changed
using the [Alt-G] key sequence.
Kinematic Viscosity This entry is used to define the kinematic viscosity of water. This value is used to determine the
Reynolds number, which is subsequently used to determine they hydrodynamic coefficients Cd, Cm, and Cl. Typical values of
kinematic viscosity for sea water are listed in the table below.
Temp Deg (F) v(ft
2
/sec) Temp (C) v(m
2
/sec)
60 1.26
e-5
15.556 1.17058
e-6
50 1.46
e-5
10.000 1.35639
e-6
40 1.55
e-5
4.444 1.44000
e-6
30 2.00
e-5
-1.111 1.85807
e-6
Fluid Weight Density - This entry defines the weight density of the fluid. For sea water, this value is approximately
.037037 pounds per cubic inch (.001025 kg/cm3, 1.0256SG).
Piping Element Data
Element Exposure In implementing hydrodynamic loading in a software program, one must be able to indicate that
elements are either exposed to the fluid or not exposed to the fluid. In CAESAR II, this is accomplished by a set of radio
buttons, which indicate that the particular element is exposed to hydrodynamic loads, wind loads, or not exposed. This
specification carries forward for all subsequent elements, until changed.
6-36 Technical Discussions
Hydrodynamic Coefficients Piping elements which are to be subjected to hydrodynamic loading must have a drag (Cd),
an inertia (Cm), and a lift (Cl) coefficient defined. The specification of these items is optional. A user may specify these
values as constants to be applied to all subsequent exposed elements, regardless of depth or phase position in the wave.
Alternatively, these values may be left blank, which will cause CAESAR II to interpolate their values from the charts
previously discussed.
Marine Growth This entry defines the amount of marine growth on the piping elements. The value of this entry is used
to increase the diameter of the piping elements. The units for this field are the current diameter units. The diameter used in
the computation of the hydrodynamic forces is equal to the pipe diameter plus twice the marine growth entry.
References
1 Mechanics of Wave Forces On Offshore Structures, Turgut Sarpkaya and Michael Isaacson, Van Nostrand Reinhold
Co., 1982, ISBN 0-442-25402-4.
2 Handbook of Ocean and Underwater Engineering, Myers, Holm, and McAllister, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1969, ISBN
07-044245 -2.
3 Fifth Order Gravity Wave Theory, Lars Skjelbreia and James Hendrickson, National Engineering Science Co.,
Pasadena, California, 1960.
4 Planning and Design of Fixed Offshore Platforms, McClelland and Reifel, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1986, ISBN 0-
442-25223-4.
5 Intercomparison of Near-Bottom Kinematics by Several Wave Theories and Field and Laboratory Data, R. G. Dean and
M. Perlin, Coastal Engineering, #9 (1986), p399-437.
6 A Finite Amplitude Wave on a Linear Shear Current, R. A. Dalrymple, Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol 79, No
30, 1974.
7 Application of Stream Function Wave Theory to Offshore Design Problems, R. G. Dean, OTC #1613, 1972.
8 Stream Function Representation of Nonlinear Ocean Waves, R. G. Dean, Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol 70, No
18, 1965.
9 American Petroleum Institute - Recommended Practice 2A (API-RP2A), American Petroleum Institute, July 1993.
10 Improved Algorithm for Stream Function Wave Theory, Min-Chih Huang, Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal, and
Ocean Engineering, January 1989.
11 Stream Function Wave Theory with Profile Constraints, Min-Chih Huang, Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal, and
Ocean Engineering, January/February 1993.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-37
Evaluating Vessel Stresses
The ASME Section VIII, Division 2 code provides for a fairly elaborate procedure to analyze the local stresses in vessels
and nozzles. Only the elastic analysis approach will be discussed in this manual. The user should always refer to the
applicable code if any of the limits described in this section are approached, or if any unusual material, weld, or stress
situation exists, or there are non-linear concerns such as the material's operation in the creep range.
The first step in the procedure is to determine if the elastic approach is satisfactory. Section AD-160 contains the exact
method and basically states that if all of the following conditions are met, then fatigue analysis need not be done:
1 The expected design number of full-range pressure cycles does not exceed the number of allowed cycles corresponding
to an Sa value of 3Sm (4Sm for non-integral attachments) on the material fatigue curve. The Sm is the allowable stress
intensity for the material at the operating temperature.
2 The expected design range of pressure cycles other than startup or shutdown must be less than 1/3 (1/4 for non-integral
attachments) the design pressure times (Sa/Sm), where Sa is the value obtained on the material fatigue curve for the
specified number of significant pressure fluctuations.
3 The vessel does not experience localized high stress due to heating.
4 The full range of stress intensities due to mechanical loads (including piping reactions) does not exceed Sa from the
fatigue curve for the expected number of load fluctuations.
Once the user has decided that an elastic analysis will be satisfactory, either a simplified or a comprehensive approach may
be taken to the vessel stress evaluation. Both methods will be described in detail below, after a discussion of the Section
VIII Div. 2 Requirements.
ASME Section VIII Division 2 - Elastic Analysis of Nozzle
Ideally, in order to address the local allowable stress problem, the user should have the endurance curve for the material of
construction and complete design pressure / temperature loading information. If any of the elastic limits are approached, or
if there is anything out of the ordinary about the nozzle/vessel connection design, the code should be carefully consulted
before performing the local stress analysis. The material Sm table and the endurance curve for carbon steels are given in this
section for illustration. Only values taken directly from the code should be used in design.
There are essentially three criteria that must be satisfied before the stresses in the vessel wall due to nozzle loads can be
considered within the allowables. These three criteria can be summarized as:
Pm < kSmh
Pm + Pl + Pb< 1.5kSmh
Pm + Pl + Pb + Q < 3Smavg
Where Pm, Pl, Pb, and Q are the general primary membrane stress, the local primary membrane stress, the local primary
bending stress, and the total secondary stresses (membrane plus bending), respectively; and K, Smh, and Smavg are the
occasional stress factor, the hot material allowable stress intensity, and the average material stress intensity (Smh + Smc) / 2.
Due to the stress classification defined by Section VIII, Division 2 in the vicinity of nozzles, as given in the Table 4-120.1,
the bending stress terms caused by any external load moments or internal pressure in the vessel wall near a nozzle or other
opening, should be classified as Q, or the secondary stresses, regardless of whether they were caused by sustained or
expansion loads. This causes Pb to disappear, and leads to a much more detailed classification:
PmGeneral primary membrane stress (primarily due to internal pressure)
PlLocal primary membrane stress, which may include
--Membrane stress due to internal pressure
--Local membrane stress due to applied sustained forces and moments
6-38 Technical Discussions
QSecondary stresses, which may include
--Bending stress due to internal pressure
--Bending stress due to applied sustained forces and moments
--Membrane stress due to applied expansion forces
--Bending stress due to applied expansion forces and moments
--Membrane stress due to applied expansion moments
Each of the stress terms defined in the above classifications contains three parts: two stress components in normal directions
and one shear stress component. To combine these stresses, the following rules apply:
Compute the normal and shear components for each of the three stress types, i.e. Pm, Pl, and Q;
Compute the stress intensity due to the Pm and compare it against kSmh;
Add the individual normal and shear stress components due to Pmand Pl; compute the resultant stress intensity and
compare its value against 1.5kSmh;
Add the individual normal and shear stress components due to Pm, Pl, and Q, compute the resultant stress intensity, and
compare its value to against 3Smavg.
If there is an occasional load as well as a sustained load, these types may be repeated using a k value of 1.2.
These criteria can be readily found from Figure 4-130.1 of Appendix 4 of ASME Section VIII, Division 2 and the
surrounding text. Note that the primary bending stress term, Pb, is not applicable to the shell stress evaluation, and therefore
disappears from the Section VIII, Division 2 requirements. Under the same analogy, the peak stress limit may also be
written as:
Pl + Pb + Q + F < Sa
The preceding equation need not be satisfied, provided the elastic limit criteria of AD-160 is met based on the statement
explicitly given in Section 5-100, which is cited below:
If the specified operation of the vessel meets all of the conditions of AD-160, no analysis for cyclic operation is required
and it may be assumed that the peak stress limit discussed in 4-135 has been satisfied by compliance with the applicable
requirements for materials, design, fabrication, testing and inspection of this division.
Procedure to Perform Elastic Analyses of Nozzles
The procedure for checking stresses in vessel shells using WRC 107 can be summarized as follows:
1 Check geometric limitation to see whether WRC 107 is applicable;
2 If yes, check to see whether or not the elastic approach as outlined in Section VIII, Division 2, AD-160 is satisfactory;
3 Compute the sustained, expansion and occasional loads in the vessel shell due to the applied nozzle loads. Consider the
local restraint configuration in order to determine whether or not the axial pressure thrust load (P * Ain) should be added
to the sustained (and occasional loads). If desired by the user, this thrust load will be automatically calculated and added
to the applied loads.
4 Calculate pressure stresses, Pm, on the vessel shell wall in both longitudinal and circumferential (hoop) directions for
both sustained and occasional cases. Notice that two different pressure terms are required in carrying out the pressure
stress calculations. P is the design pressure of the system (sustained), while Pvar is the DIFFERENCE between the peak
pressure and the design pressure of the system, which will be used to qualify the vessel membrane stress under the
occasional load case.
Note: The Pm stresses will be calculated automatically if a pressure value is entered by the user.
5 Run WRC 107 to calculate the Pl, and Q stresses as defined earlier. Note that the local stresses due to sustained,
expansion and occasional loads can now be compute simultaneously.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-39
6 Various stress components can be obtained from combining the stress intensities computed from applying the sustained,
expansion and occasional loads, if applicable. These stress intensities can then be used to carry out the stress
summations and the results are used to determine acceptability of the local stresses in the vessel shell. Notice now
CAESAR II can provide the WRC 107 stress summation module in line with the stress calculation routines
Under the above procedure, the equations used in CAESAR II to qualify the various stress components can be summarized as
follows:
Pm(SUS) < Smh
Pm(SUS + OCC) < 1.2Smh
Pm(SUS) + Pl(SUS) < 1.5Smh
Pm(SUS + OCC) + Pl(SUS + OCC) < 1.5(1.2)Smh
Pm(SUS + OCC) + Pl(SUS + OCC) + Q(SUS + EXP + OCC) < 1.5(Smc + Smh)
Description of Alternate Simplified ASME Sect. VIII Div. 2 Nozzle Analysis
The most difficult problem associated with the comprehensive ASME Sect. VIII, Div. 2 nozzle/vessel analysis involves the
pressure calculation. Hoop and longitudinal hand pressure calculations can not be considered dependable, and axial pressure
loading on the junction is often calculated incorrectly or omitted. A smaller, yet significant problem with the comprehensive
calculation is the time it takes to organize and manipulate the stress data.
For these reasons, an alternate simplified approach was developed. To eliminate the concern for pressure, both the pressure
term in the loading on the left side of the inequality and the pressure term in the allowable on the right side of the inequality
are cancelled.
The first check is Pm (due to pressure) must be less than or equal to 1.0 Smh. Assuming that the area reinforcement around the
nozzle will satisfy the pressure requirements, let this first check equal the maximum value.
The second check is Pm + Pl + Pb must be less than or equal to 1.5 Smh. Subtracting the stresses due to pressure (assumed
equal to Smh) reduces this check to: Pl + Pb (due to external sustained forces without pressure) < 0.5 Smh.
Unfortunately, the third check on the Pm + Pl + Q terms is at the root of an application controversy. There are primarily three
schools of thought:
Pm+Pl+Q is an operating loading condition, and as such, includes the loads due to pressure and weight.
Pm+Pl+Q is the range of loads, i.e. the expansion loading condition, and as such, excludes the effects of sustained, or
primary loads. Primary sustained loads, such as weight and pressure, should be excluded.
Pm+Pl+Q is the range of loads and should exclude the primary load weight, but should include the varying pressure load
at least in those thermal load cases where the system goes from a startup (ambient temperature and pressure condition to
operating condition).
For the simplification, it is assumed that the Pm component due to pressure should be included in both the left and right side
of the Pm+Pl+Pb+Q < 3Sm inequality, thus assuming that the area reinforcement requirements are exactly satisfied, i.e.
Again, letting Pm = Sm and subtracting this pressure term from the expansion allowable (Pm + Pl + Q < 3Sm) provides a
simplified allowable limit.
The expansion (or operating, or both) loads from the CAESAR II restraint report should satisfy the computed stress
requirement:
Pl + Pb + Q (operating or expansion excluding pressure) < 2Sm.
In summary
Ensure proper nozzle reinforcement for pressure and assume pressure stresses are at their maximum.
6-40 Technical Discussions
Compare primary stresses (without pressure) to 1/2 Smh.
Compare stresses due to the sum of primary and secondary loads to 2Sm(avg); where Sm(avg) is the average of the hot and
cold allowable stress intensities (Smh & Smc).
Simplified ASME Sect. VIII Div. 2 Elastic Nozzle Analysis
1 Perform a CAESAR II analysis of the piping loads on the vessel/nozzle junction. Use WRC 297 flexibilities to compute
loads more accurately, but less conservatively (or do two analysis, one with flexibilities and one without). From this
analysis the user should have sustained, operating, and expansion loads on the vessel/nozzle junction.
2 Find Smh and Smc from the Sect. VIII allowable stress tables. Smh is the vessel material hot allowable, and Smc is the vessel
material cold allowable.
3 Run WRC 107 with the sustained loads on the vessel/nozzle junction from CAESAR II, and make sure that the computed
stress intensities are less than 0.5 Smh. This conservatively considers bending stresses from internal pressure and
sustained moments to have a primary classification; if it fails, the stresses must be reviewed in more detail.
4 Run WRC 107 with the operating loads on the vessel/nozzle junction from CAESAR II, and make sure that the computed
stress intensities are less than Smh + Smc.
5 Run WRC 107 with the expansion loads on the vessel/nozzle junction from CAESAR II, and make sure that the
computed stress intensities are less than Smh + Smc.
Should any of the checks described fail, then the more comprehensive analysis (described earlier) of the junction should be
performed.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-41
Inclusion of Missing Mass Correction
The response of a system under a dynamic load is often determined by superposition of modal results, with CAESAR II
specifically providing the spectral analysis method for use. One of the advantages of modal analysis is that usually only a
limited number of modes are excited and need be included in the analysis. The drawback to this method is that although
displacements may be obtained with good accuracy using only a few of the lowest frequency modes, the force, reaction, and
stress results may require extraction of far more modes (possibly far into the rigid range) before acceptable accuracy is
attained. CAESAR IIs Missing Mass option offers the ability to include a correction which represents the quasi-static
contribution of the higher order modes not explicitly extracted for the modal/dynamic response, thus providing greater
accuracy with reduced calculation time.
The dynamic response of a linear multi-degree-of-freedom system is described by the following equation:
Ma(t) + Cv(t) + Kx(t) = F(t)
Where:
M = n x n mass matrix of system
C = n x n damping matrix of system
K = n x n stiffness matrix of system
a(t) = n x 1, time-dependent acceleration vector
v(t) = n x 1, time-dependent velocity vector
x(t) = n x 1, time-dependent displacement vector
F(t) = n x 1, time-dependent applied force vector
Assuming harmonic motion and neglecting damping, the free vibration eigenvalue problem for this system is
Ku - Mu e
2
= 0
Where:
u = n x n mode shape matrix
e
2
= n x n matrix where each diagonal entry is the frequency squared of the corresponding mode
The modal matrix u may be normalized such that u
T
M u = I (where I is the n x n identity matrix) and u
T
K u = e
2
.
The modal matrix u may be partitioned into two submatrices:
u = [ ue ur ]
Where:
ue = mode shapes extracted for dynamic analysis (i.e., lowest frequency modes)
ur = residual (non-extracted) mode shapes (corresponding to rigid response, or the missing mass
contribution)
The extracted mode shapes are orthogonal to the residual mode shapes, or:
ue
T
x ur = 0
The displacement components can be expressed as linear combinations of the mode shapes:
x = uY = ue Ye + ur Yr = xe + xr
6-42 Technical Discussions
Where:
x = total system displacements
xe = system displacements due to extracted modes
xr = system displacements due to residual modes
Y = generalized modal coordinates
Ye = partition of Y matrix corresponding to extracted modes
Yr = partition of Y matrix corresponding to residual modes
The dynamic load vector can be expressed in similar terms:
F = K u Y = K ue Ye + K ur Yr = Fe + Fr
Where:
F = total system load vector
Fe = load vector due to extracted modes
Fr = load vector due to residual modes
Y = generalized modal coordinates
Ye = partition of Y matrix corresponding to extracted modes
Yr = partition of Y matrix corresponding to residual modes
Normally, modal superposition analyses completely neglect the rigid response the displacements X r caused by the load
Fr. This response, of the non-extracted modes, can be obtained from the system displacement under a static loading Fr.
Based upon the relationships stated above, Fr can be estimated as follows:
F = K ue Ye + K ur Yr
Multiplying both sides by ue
T
(and considering that ue
T
ur = 0):
ue
T
F = ue
T
K ue Ye + ue
T
K ur Yr = ue
T
K ue Ye
Substituting ee
2
for ue
T
K ue and solving for Ye:
ue
T
F = ee
2
Ye
Ye = ue
T
ee
-2
F
The residual force can now be stated as
Fr = F - K ue Ye = F - ue
T
K ue ee
-2
F
As seen earlier
u
T
M u e
2
= I e
2
= u
T
K u
Substituting ue
T
Mue ee
2
for ue
T
K ue:
Fr = F - ue
T
M ue ee
2
ee
-2
F = F - ue
T
M ue F
Therefore, CAESAR II calculates the residual response (and includes it as the missing mass contribution) according to the
following procedure:
1 The missing mass load is calculated for each individual shock load as
Fr = F - ue
T
M ue F
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-43
Note: The load vector F represents the product of the force set vector and the rigid DLF for force spectrum loading; the
product of the mass matrix, ZPA, and directional vector for non-ISM seismic loads; and the product of the mass matrix,
ZPA, and displacement matrix (under unit ISM support displacement) for seismic anchor movement loads. Note that the
missing mass load will vary, depending upon the number of modes extracted by the user and the cutoff frequency selected
(or more specifically, the DLF or acceleration corresponding to the cutoff frequency). "Rigid, for the purposes of
determining the rigid DLF, or the ZPA, may be designated by the user, through a setup parameter, to be either the
DLF/acceleration associated with the frequency of the last extracted mode, or the true spectral DLF/ ZPAthat
corresponding to the largest entered frequency of the input spectrum.
2 The missing mass load is applied to the structure as a static load. The static structural response is then combined
(according to the user-specified combination method) with the dynamically amplified modal responses as if it were a
modal response. Actually this static response is the algebraic sum of the responses of all non-extracted modes
representing in-phase response, as would be expected from rigid modes.
3 The Missing Mass Data report is compiled for all shock cases, whether missing mass is to be included or not. The
percent of mass active is calculated according to:
% Active Mass = 1 - ( Fr[i] / F [i])
summed over i = 1 to n
The maximum possible percent that is theoretically possible for this value is of course 100%, however numerical
inaccuracies may occasionally cause the value to be slightly higher. If the missing mass correction factor is included, the
percent of mass included in the correction is shown in the report as well.
Since CAESAR IIs procedure assumes that the missing mass correction represents the contribution of rigid modes, and that
the ZPA is based upon the spectral ordinate value at the frequency of the last extracted mode, it is recommended that the
user extract modes up to, but not far beyond, a recognized rigid frequency. Choosing a cutoff frequency to the left of the
spectrums resonant peak will provide a non-conservative result, since resonant responses may be missed. Using a cutoff
frequency to the right of the peak, but still in the resonant range, will yield conservative results, since the ZPA/rigid DLF
will be overestimated. Extracting a large number of rigid modes for calculation of the dynamic response may be
conservative, since all available modal combination methods (SRSS, GROUP, ABS, etc.) give conservative results versus
the algebraic combination method which gives a more realistic representation of the net response of the rigid modes. Based
upon the response spectrum shown below, an appropriate cutoff point for the modal extraction would be about 33 Hz.
6-44 Technical Discussions
Maximum Stress vs. Extracted Nodes
CAESAR II provides two options for combining the missing mass correction with the modal (dynamic) resultsSRSS and
Absolute. The Absolute combination method of course provides the more conservative result, and is based upon the
assumption that the dynamic amplification is going to occur simultaneously with the maximum ground acceleration or force
load. Literature (References 1, 2) states that the modal and the rigid portions of the response to typical dynamic loads are
actually statistically independent, so that an SRSS Combination method is a more accurate representation of reality. For this
reason, CAESAR IIs default missing mass combination method is SRSS.
References
1 A. K. Gupta, Response Spectrum Method in Seismic Analysis and Design of Structures, CRC Press, 1990
2 K. M. Vashi, Computation of Seismic Response from Higher Frequency Modes, ASME 80-C2/PVP-50, 1980
3 O. E. Hansteen and K. Bell, On the Accuracy of Mode Superposition Analysis in Structural Dynamics, Earthquake
Engineering and Structural Dynamics, Volume 7, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., 1979
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-45
Fatigue Analysis Using CAESAR II
For most piping codes supported by CAESAR II, performance of fatigue analysis is an extension to, rather than an explicit
part of, the code requirements (however, it is an explicit part of the IGE/TD/12 Pipework Stress Analysis for Gas Industry
Plant code).
Fatigue Basics
Piping and vessels have been known to suffer from sudden failure following years of successful service. Research done
during the 1940s and 1950s (primarily advanced by A. R. C. Markls Piping Flexibility Analysis, published in 1955)
provided an explanation for this phenomenon, as well as design criteria aimed at avoiding failures of this type. The
explanation was that materials were failing due to fatigue, a process leading to the propagation of cracks, and subsequent
fracture, following repeated cyclic loading.
Steels and other metals are made up of organized patterns of molecules, known as crystal structures. However, these
patterns are not maintained throughout the steel producing an ideal homogeneous material, but are found in microscopic
isolated island-like areas called grains. Inside each grain the pattern of molecules is preserved. From one grain boundary to
the next the molecular pattern is the same, but the orientation differs. As a result, grain boundaries are high energy borders.
Plastic deformation begins within a grain that is both subject to a high stress and oriented such that the stress causes a
slippage between adjacent layers in the same pattern. The incremental slippages (called dislocations) cause local cold-
working. On the first application of the stress, dislocations will move through many of the grains that are in the local area of
high stress. As the stress is repeated, more dislocations will move through their respective grains. Dislocation movement is
impeded by the grain boundaries, so after multiple stress applications, the dislocations tend to accumulate at grain
boundaries, eventually becoming so dense that the grains lock up, causing a loss of ductility and thus preventing further
dislocation movement. Subsequent applications of the stress cause the grain to tear, forming cracks. Repeated stress
applications cause the cracks to grow. Unless abated, the cracks propagate with additional stress applications until sufficient
cross sectional strength is lost to cause catastrophic failure of the material.
6-46 Technical Discussions
The fatigue capacity of a material can be estimated through the application of cyclic tensile/compressive displacement loads
with a uniaxial test machine. A plot of the cyclic stress capacity of a material is called a fatigue (or endurance) curve. These
curves are generated through multiple cyclic tests at different stress levels. The number of cycles to failure usually increases
as the applied cyclic stress decreases, often until a threshold stress (known as the endurance limit) is reached below which
no fatigue failure occurs, regardless of the number of applied cycles. An endurance curve for carbon and low alloy steels,
taken from the ASME Section VIII Division 2 Pressure Vessel Code is shown in the following figure.
Fatigue Analysis of Piping Systems
IGE/TD/12 does, on the other hand, present specific requirements for true fatigue evaluation of systems subject to a cyclic
loading threshold. Furthermore, ASME Section III, Subsection NB and ASME Section VIII Division 2 provide guidelines
by which fatigue evaluation rules may be applied to piping (and other pressure retaining equipment). These procedures have
been adapted, where possible, to CAESAR IIs methodology.
Performing Fatigue Analyses:
1 Assigning fatigue curve data to the piping material: This is done on the Allowable auxiliary screen. Fatigue data may
be entered directly, or read in from a text file (a number of commonly used curves have been provided). Users may define
their own fatigue curves as defined later in this section.
2 Defining the fatigue load cases: This may be done in either the static or dynamic load case builders. For this purpose, a
new stress type, FAT, has been defined. For every fatigue case, the number of anticipated cycles must also be defined.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-47
3 Calculation of the fatigue stresses: This is done automatically by CAESAR II the fatigue stresses, unless explicitly
defined by the applicable code are calculated the same as CAESAR II calculates stress intensity, in order to conform to the
requirements of ASME Section VIII, Division 2 Appendix 5. (The IGE/TD/12 is currently the only piping code supported
by CAESAR II which does have explicit instructions for calculating fatigue stresses.) The equations used in the calculation of
fatigue stresses are documented at the end of this section.
4 Determination of the allowable fatigue stresses: Allowables are interpolated logarithmically from the fatigue curve
based upon the number of cycles designated for the load case. For static load cases, the calculated stress is assumed to
be a peak-to-peak cyclic value (i.e., thermal expansion, settlement, pressure, etc.), so the allowable stress is extracted
directly from the fatigue curve. For harmonic and dynamic load cases, the calculated stress is assumed to be a zero-to-
peak cyclic value (i.e., vibration, earthquake, etc.), so the extracted allowable is divided by 2 prior to use in the
comparison.
5 Determination of the allowable number of cycles: The flip side of calculating the allowable fatigue stress for the
designated number of cycles is the calculation of the allowable number of cycles for the calculated stress level. This is
done by logarithmically interpolating the Cycles axis of the fatigue curve based upon the calculated stress value.
Since static stresses are assumed to be peak-to-peak cyclic values, the allowable number of cycles is interpolated
directly from the fatigue curve. Since harmonic and dynamic stresses are assumed to be zero-to-peak cyclic values, the
allowable number of cycles is interpolated using twice the calculated stress value.
6 Reporting the results: CAESAR II provides two reports for viewing the results of load cases of stress type FAT. The first
of these is the standard stress report, which displays the calculated fatigue stress and fatigue allowable at each node.
Stress reports may be generated individually for each load case, and show whether any of the individual load cases in
isolation would fail the system.
However, in those circumstances where there is more than one cyclic load case potentially contributing to fatigue failure,
the Cumulative Usage report is appropriate. In order to generate this report, the user selects all of the FAT load cases which
contribute to the overall system degradation. The Cumulative Usage report lists for each node point the usage ratio (actual
cycles divided by allowable cycles), and then sums these up for total Cumulative Usage. A total greater than 1.0 indicates a
potential fatigue failure.
6-48 Technical Discussions
Static Analysis Fatigue Example
Consider a sample job that potentially has several different cyclic load variations:
1 Operating cycle from ambient (70F) to 500F (12,000 cycles anticipated)
2 Shut down external temperature variation from ambient (70F) to -20F (200 cycles anticipated)
3 Pressurization to 1800 psig (12,000 cycles anticipated)
4 Pressure fluctuations of plus/minus 30 psi from the 1800 psig (200,000 cycles anticipated)
In order to do a proper fatigue analysis, these should be grouped in sets of load pairs which represent the worst-case
combination of stress ranges between extreme states. These load variations can be laid out in graphical form. The figure
below shows a sketch of the various operating ranges this system experiences. Each horizontal line represents an operating
range. At the each end of each horizontal line, the temperatures and pressures defining the range are noted. At the center of
each horizontal line, the number of cycles for each range is defined.
Using this sketch of the operating ranges, the four fatigue load cases can be determined. The procedure is as follows.
Case 1: Cover the absolute extreme, from 20F and 0 psi to 500F and 1830 psi. This occurs 200 times. As a result of this
case, the cycles for the ranges defined must be reduced by 200. The first range (-20,0 to 70,0) is reduced to zero, and has no
contribution to additional load cases. The second range (70,0 to 500,1800) is reduced to 11,800 cycles. The third and fourth
ranges are similarly reduced to 199,800 cycles.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-49
These same steps can be used to arrive at cases 2 through 4, reducing the number of considered cycles at each step. This
procedure is summarized in the table below.
Segment -20, 0 to 70, 0 70, 0 to 500, 1800 500, 1700 to 500, 1800 500, 1800 to 500, 1830
Case
Initial 200 12,000 200, 000 200,000
After 1 0 11,800 200, 000 199,800
After 2 0 0 200, 000 188,000
After 3 0 0 12,000 0
After 4 0 0 0 0
This table is then used to set the load cases as cycles between the following load values:
Between -20F, 0 psig and 500F, 1830 psig (200 cycles)
Between 70F, 0 psig and 500F, 1830 psig (11,800 cycles)
Between 500F, 1770 psig and 500F, 1830 psig (188,000 cycles)
Between 500F, 1770 psig and 500F, 1800 psig (12,000 cycles)
These temperatures and pressures are entered as operating conditions accordingly:
Static Analysis Fatigue Example
6-50 Technical Discussions
It is next necessary to enter the fatigue curve data for the material. This is done by clicking the Fatigue Curves button,
revealing the Material Fatigue Curve dialog box. This can be used to enter the fatigue curve for the material (note: for the
IGE/ TD/12 code it is necessary to enter five sets of fatigue curves, for fatigue classes D, E, F, G, and W). Up to eight Cycle
vs. Stress data points may be entered to define the curve; interpolations are made logarithmically. Cycle/Stress pairs should
be entered in ascending order (ascending by cycles). Stress values should be entered as allowable Stress Range, rather than
allowable Stress Amplitude.
Material Fatigue Curves Dialog
Fatigue curves may be alternatively acquired from a text file, by clicking on the Read from file button. This displays a
list of all \CAESAR\SYSTEM\*.FAT files.
Read From File Dialog
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-51
Shipped with the program are the following fatigue curve files (the user may easily construct additional fatigue curve files,
as described in Appendix A below):
5-110-1A.FAT ASME Section VIII Division 2 Figure 5-110.1, UTS < 80 ksi
5-110-1B.FAT ASME Section VIII Division 2 Figure 5-110.1, UTS = 115-130 ksi
5-110-2A.FAT ASME Section VIII Division 2 Figure 5-110.2, Curve A
5-110-2B.FAT ASME Section VIII Division 2 Figure 5-110.2, Curve B
5-110-2C.FAT ASME Section VIII Division 2 Figure 5-110.2, Curve C
In this case, for A106B low carbon steel, operating at 500F, 5-110-1A.FAT is the appropriate selection. This fills in the
fatigue curve data:
A106B Low Carbon Steel Example Fatigue Curve Data
At this point, users can error check the job, and the load cases can be set up.
The static load case builder offers a new stress type, FAT (fatigue). Selecting this stress type does the following:
1 invites the user to define the number of cycles for the load case (dragging the FAT stress type into the load case or
pressing the Load Cycles button opens the Load Cycles field),
2 causes the stress range to be calculated as per the fatigue stress method of the governing code (currently this is stress
intensity for all codes except IGE/TD/12),
3 causes the calculated stress range to be compared to the full value extracted from the fatigue curve, and
4 indicates that the load case may be included in the Cumulative Usage report.
6-52 Technical Discussions
The last four load cases represent the load set pairs defined earlier.
Example with Fatigue Load Cases Defined in the Load Case Editor
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-53
Once the job has been run, note that the presence of a FAT stress type adds the Cumulative Usage report to the list of
available reports.
Static Output Processor
6-54 Technical Discussions
The fatigue stress range may be checked against the fatigue curve allowable for each load case by simply selecting it along
with the Stresses report. Review of each load case shows that all stress levels pass.
Fatigue Stress Report
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-55
However, this is not a true evaluation of the situation, because it is not a case of either-or. The piping system is subjected
to all of these load cases throughout its expected design life, not just one of them. Therefore, we must review the
Cumulative Usage report, which shows the total effect of all fatigue load cases (or any combination selected by the user) on
the design life of the system. This report lists for each load case the expected number of cycles, the allowable number of
cycles (based upon the calculated stress), and the Usage Ratio (actual cycles divided by allowable cycles). The Usage Ratios
are then summed for all selected load cases; if this sum exceeds 1.0, the system has exceeded its fatigue capabilities. In this
case, it is apparent that the sum of all of the cyclic loadings at node 115 can be expected to fail this system:
Cumulative Usage Report
6-56 Technical Discussions
Fatigue Capabilities in Dynamic Analysis
Fatigue analysis capability is also available for harmonic and dynamic analyses as well. Harmonic load cases are entered as
they always have been; they may be designated as being stress type FAT simply by entering the number of expected load
cycles on the harmonic input screen:
Harmonic Input Screen
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-57
This produces the same types of reports as are available for the static analysis; they can be processed as discussed earlier.
Static Output Processor
The only difference between the harmonic and static fatigue analyses is that for harmonic jobs, the calculated stresses are
assumed to be zero-to-peak calculations, so they are compared to only half of the stress value extracted from the fatigue
curve. Likewise, when creating the Cumulative Usage report, the number of allowable cycles is based upon twice the
calculated stress.
For other dynamic applications (response spectrum and time history), the stress type may be identified as fatigue by
selecting the stress type from the drop list for the Load Case or Static/Dynamic Combination, and by entering the number of
expected cycles in the provided field.
Note that as with the harmonic analyses, the calculated stresses are assumed to be zero-to-peak calculations, so they are
compared to only half of the stress value extracted from the fatigue curve. Likewise, when creating the Cumulative Usage
report, the number of allowable cycles is based upon twice the calculated stress.
6-58 Technical Discussions
Creating the .FAT Files
The .FAT file is a simple text file, containing the data points necessary to describe the fatigue curve for the material, for
both butt welded and fillet welded fittings. A sample FAT file is shown below.
* ASME SECTION VIII DIVISION 2 FATIGUE CURVE
* FIGURE 5-110.1
* DESIGN FATIGUE CURVES FOR CARBON, LOW ALLOY, SERIES 4XX,
* HIGH ALLOY AND HIGH TENSILE STEELS FOR TEMPERATURES NOT
* EXCEEDING 700 F
* FOR UTS s 80 KSI
*
0.5000000 - STRESS MULTIPLIER (PSI); ALSO CONVERTS AMPLITUDE TO FULL RANGE
*
10 580000.0
100 205000.0
1000 83000.0
10000 38000.0
100000 20000.0
500000 13500.0
1000000 12500.0
0 0.0
*
This text file can be created using any available text editor. Any line beginning with an asterisk is treated as a comment
line. It is highly recommended that comment lines be used so that the data can be related back to a specific material curve.
The first actual data line in the file is a stress multiplier. This value is used to adjust the data values from zero to peak to
peak to peak and/or to convert the stress levels to psi (the entered values will be divided by this number -- i.e., if the stress
values in the file represent a stress amplitude, in psi, rather than a range, this "stress multiplier should be 0.5). Following
this line is the fatigue curve data table. This table consists of eight lines, of two columns. The first column is the Cycle
column, the second column is the Stress column. For each value in the cycle column, the corresponding stress value from
the material fatigue curve should be listed in the stress column.
Fatigue curves intended for use in the IGE/TD/12 code are built slightly different. The first data line contains not one, but
three values: the stress multiplier described above, a modulus of elasticity correction, and a modulus of elasticity
multiplier (the correction factor is divided by this to convert to psi) upon file read, the modulus of elasticity correction
is inserted into the appropriate field on the fatigue curve screen. Furthermore, the IGE/TD/12 fatigue files include five
fatigue curves (sequentially Fatigue Class D, E, F, G, and W), rather than one. Optional comment lines may be used to
separate the tables these comments aid in the readability of the data file. The format of the IGE/TD/12 fatigue files can
best be determined by reviewing the contents of the file TD12ST.FAT.
In all tables, the number of cycles increases as you work down the table. If there is not enough data to utilize all eight lines,
unused lines should be populated with zeroes.
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-59
Calculation of Fatigue Stresses
For IGE/TD/12 the computation of fatigue stresses is detailed in Section 5.4.4 of that code. This section of the code states:
"The principal stress in any plane can be calculated for any set of conditions from the following formula:"
2 2
1
2
( ) ( ) 4
h a h a q
S S S S S
(
+ +
(
Where,
Sh = Hoop stress
Sa = Axial stress
Sq = Shear stress
"This should be used for establishing the range of stress, due regard being paid to the direction and sign." For all other
piping codes in CAESAR II, the fatigue stress is computed as the stress intensity, as follows:
3D Maximum Shear Stress Intensity (Default)
SI = Maximum of:
S1OT - S3OT
S1OB - S3OB
Max(S1IT,RPS) - Min(S3IT,RPS)
Max(S1IB,RPS) - Min(S3IB,RPS)
Where:
S1OT=Maximum Principal Stress, Outside Top
= (SLOT+HPSO)/2.0+(((SLOT-HPSO)/2.0)
2
+TSO
2
)1/2
S3OT=Minimum Principal Stress, Outside Top
=(SLOT+HPSO)/2.0-(((SLOT-HPSO)/2.0)2+TSO2) 1/2
S1IT=Maximum Principal Stress, Inside Top
=(SLIT+HPSI)/2.0+(((SLIT-HPSI)/2.0)
2
+TSI
2
) 1/2
S3IT=Minimum Principal Stress, Inside Top
=(SLIT+HPSI)/2.0-(((SLIT-HPSI)/2.0)
2
+TSI
2
) 1/2
S1OB=Maximum Principal Stress, Outside Top
=(SLOB+HPSO)/2.0+ (((SLOB-HPSO)/2.0)
2
+TSO
2
) 1/2
S3OB=Minimum Principal Stress, Outside Bottom
=(SLOB+HPSO)/2.0- (((SLOB-HPSO)/2.0)
2
+TSO
2
) 1/2
6-60 Technical Discussions
S1IB=Maximum Principal Stress, Inside Bottom
=(SLIB+HPSI)/2.0+ (((SLIB-HPSI)/2.0)
2
+TSI
2
) 1/2
S3IB=Minimum Principal Stress, Inside Bottom
=(SLIB+HPSI)/2.0- (((SLIB-HPSI)/2.0)
2
+TSI
2
) 1/2
RPS=Radial Pressure Stress, Inside
HPSI=Hoop Pressure Stress (Inside, from Lame's Equation)
HPSO=Hoop Pressure Stress (Outside, from Lame's Equation)
SLOT=Longitudinal Stress, Outside Top
SLIT=Longitudinal Stress, Inside Top
SLOB=Longitudinal Stress, Outside Bottom
SLIB=Longitudinal Stress, Inside Bottom
TSI=Torsional Stress, Inside
TSO=Torsional Stress, Outside
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-61
Pipe Stress Analysis of FRP Piping
Underlying Theory
The behavior of steel and other homogeneous materials has been long understood, permitting their widespread use as
construction materials. The development of the piping and pressure vessel codes (Reference 1) in the early part of this
century led to the confidence in their use in piping applications; the work of Markl et. al. in the 1940s and 1950s was
responsible for the formalization of todays pipe stress methods, leading to an ensuing diversification of piping codes on an
industry by industry basis. The advent of the digital computer, and with it the appearance of the first pipe stress analysis
software (Reference 2), further increased the confidence with which steel pipe could be used in critical applications. The
1980s saw the wide spread proliferation of the micro computer, with associated pipe stress analysis software, which in
conjunction with training, technical support, and available literature, has brought stress analysis capability to almost all
engineers. In short, an accumulated experience of close to 100 years, in conjunction with ever improving technology has led
to the utmost confidence on the part of todays engineers when specifying, designing, and analyzing steel, or other metallic,
pipe.
For fiberglass reinforced plastic (FRP) and other composite piping materials, the situation is not the same. Fiberglass
reinforced plastic was developed only as recently as the 1950s, and did not come into wide spread use until a decade later
(Reference 3). There is not a large base of stress analysis experience, although not from a lack of commitment on the part of
FRP vendors. Most vendors conduct extensive stress testing on their components, including hydrostatic and cyclic pressure,
uniaxial tensile and compressive, bending, and combined loading tests. The problem is due to the traditional difficulty
associated with, and lack of understanding of, stress analysis of heterogeneous materials. First, the behavior and failure
modes of these materials are highly complex and not fully understood, leading to inexact analytical methods, and a general
lack of agreement on the best course of action to follow. This lack of agreement has slowed the simplification and
standardization of the analytical methods into universally recognized codes (BS 7159 Code (Design and Construction of
Glass Reinforced Plastics Piping Systems for Individual Plants or Sites) and UKOOA Specification and
Recommended Practice for the Use of GRP Piping Offshore being notable exceptions). Secondly, the heterogeneous,
orthotropic behavior of FRP and other composite materials has hindered the use of the pipe stress analysis algorithms
developed for homogeneous, isotropic materials associated with crystalline structures. A lack of generally accepted
analytical procedures has contributed to a general reluctance to use FRP piping for critical applications.
Stress analysis of FRP components must be viewed on many levels. These levels, or scales, have been called Micro-Mini-
Macro levels, with analysis proceeding along the levels according to the MMM principle (Reference 4).
Micro-Level Analysis
Stress analysis on the Micro level refers to the detailed evaluation of the individual materials and boundary mechanisms
comprising the composite material. In general, FRP pipe is manufactured from laminates, which are constructed from
elongated fibers of a commercial grade of glass (called E-glass), which are coated with a coupling agent or sizing prior to
being embedded in a thermosetting plastic material, typically epoxy or polyester resin.
This means, on the micro scale, that an analytical model must be created which simulates the interface between these
elements. Since the number and orientation of fibers is unknown at any given location in the FRP sample, the simplest
representation of the micro-model is that of a single fiber, extending the length of the sample, embedded in a square profile
of matrix.
Evaluation of this model requires use of the material parameters of
1 the glass fiber
2 the coupling agent or sizing layer (normally of such microscopic proportion that it may be ignored)
3 the plastic matrix
6-62 Technical Discussions
It must be considered that these material parameters may vary for an individual material based upon tensile, compressive, or
shear applications of the imposed stresses, and typical values vary significantly between the fiber and matrix (Reference 5):
Young's
Modulus
Ultimate
Strength
Coefficient of
Thermal Expansion
Material tensile (MPa) tensile (MPa) m/m/C
7.25 x 10
3
1.5 x 10
3
5.0 x 10
-6
2.75 x 10
3
7.0x 10
3
7.0 x 10
-3
The following failure modes of the composite must be similarly evaluated:
failure of the fiber
failure of the coupling agent layer
failure of the matrix
failure of the fiber-coupling agent bond
failure of the coupling agent-matrix bond
Because of uncertainties about the degree to which the fiber has been coated with the coupling agent and about the nature of
some of these failure modes, this evaluation is typically reduced to
failure of the fiber
failure of the matrix
failure of the fiber-matrix interface
Micro-Level GRP Sample-- Single Fiber Embedded in Square Profile of Matrix
Stresses in the individual components can be evaluated through finite element analysis of the strain continuity and
equilibrium equations, based upon the assumption that there is a good bond between the fiber and matrix, resulting in
compatible strains between the two. For normal stresses applied parallel to the glass fiber:
cf = cm = oaf / Ef = oam / Em
oaf = oam Ef / Em
Where:
cf = strain in the fiber
c = strain in the matrix
oaf = normal stress parallel to fiber, in the fiber
Chapter 6 Technical Discussions 6-63
Ef = modulus of elasticity of the fiber
oam = axial normal stress parallel to fiber, in the matrix
E = modulus of elasticity of the matrix
Due to the large ratio of the modulus of elasticity of the fiber to that of the matrix, it is apparent that nearly all of the axial
normal stress in the fiber-matrix composite is carried by the fiber. Exact values are (Reference 6):
oaf = oL / [| + (1-|)Em/Ef]
oam = oL / [|Em/Ef + (1-|)]
Where:
oL = nominal longitudinal stress across composite
| = glass content by volume
The continuity equations for the glass-matrix composite seem less complex for normal stresses perpendicular to the fibers,
since the weak point of the material seems to be limited by the glass-free cross-section shown in the following figure.
For this reason, it would appear that the strength of the composite would be equal to that of the matrix for stresses in this
direction; in fact, its strength is less than that of the matrix due to stress intensification in the matrix caused by the irregular
stress distribution in the vicinity of the stiffer glass. (Since the elongation over distance D1 must be equal to that over the
longer distance D2, the strain, and thus the stress at location D1 must exceed that at D2 by the ratio D2/D1.) Maximum
intensified transverse normal stresses in the composite are:
( )
1.25
2
2 2
1 ( ) /(1 )
(1 0.85 )[1 (2 3 )1 ( )(1 )]
m f m
m f m
E E V
E E V
|
(
o | + |
(
o =
+ | | t
Where:
ob = intensified normal stress transfer to the fiber in the composite
o
`
= nominal transverse normal stress across composite
V = Poissons ratio of the matrix
6-64 Technical Discussions
Note: Because of the Poisson effect, this stress produces an additional s'