DNS

DNS is an Internet service that translates domain names to IP addresses. Every time you query or use a domain name, a DNS server translates the domain name into its corresponding IP address. The DNS server uses cache to resolve queries. The server cache is a part of the memory that stores the recently accessed information. Caching ena les fast responses to the DNS queries. It also reduces net!or" traffic ecause the DNS server can gather responses for queries from its cache, rather than sending the queries to the other DNS servers. The DNS server collects and stores all the information that it receives !hen a query is processed. The server retains this information in the server cache till the specified time#period in the resource record. This time#period is called the time#to#live $TT%& value of the returned record information. 'fter caching, the TT% value starts decreasing so that the server "no!s !hen to delete the resource record. The record is mar"ed for deletion, !hen the TT% value reaches (ero. Consider an e)ample. 'n organi(ation has a *,+++ machine setup !ith a domain controller, three additional domain controllers, and fe! application servers, such as !e servers, data ase servers, and fe! file servers. Domain controller is also a DNS server for the organi(ation. Soft!are developers access these servers and other machines for their day#to#day !or". They notice that it ta"es a longer time to access servers and machines !ith the machine name as compared to the time ta"en !hen they access machines !ith the IP addresses. The reason for this is that the DNS server is loaded and therefore, it slo!s do!n !hile resolving queries. 'fter a query is resolved, the DNS server cache gets deleted. This can e resolved y creating a cache on another DNS server. This !ill help the DNS server to resolve queries faster. The TT% value indicates the time for !hich a DNS client can use a DNS record efore deletion of the record or efore the record e)pires. ,sers can specify the TT% value for a DNS record in seconds. The minimum default value of the TT% for records created y the DNS server is -.++ seconds. ' short TT% value results in heavy DNS traffic. ' large TT% value causes the server to reply to queries y using outdated resource records. Troubleshooting DNS Server
nslookup is a command line utility that ena les you to perform tests to verify !hether the resource records are added or updated correctly or not. The nslookup command helps resolve addresses for

resources on the DNS server, performs DNS queries, and e)amines the content of (one files on the DNS server. The command also helps diagnose and solve name resolution pro lems !hen the machine name does not get resolved !hile accessing the net!or". Synta) ## nslookup [-Subcommand ...] [{ComputerToFind| [-Server]}] The a ove parameters are e)plained elo!/ Subcommand/ Specifies one or more nsloo"up su commands as a command#line option such as nslookup: exit, nslookup: in!er, nslookup: ls, nslookup: lserver ComputerToFind/ %oo"s up for complete information such as DNS name and IP address of a computer system y using the current default DNS name server. Server/ Specifies to use this server as the DNS name server. If you omit Server parameter, the default DNS name server is used.

SMTP S0TP is a protocol that is used for sending e#mail messages. 1henever a user sends an e#mail y using e#mail clients such as 2utloo" E)press, the client uses S0TP to transfer the e#mail to the mail server. E#mail is routed to an intermediate mail server, !hich then delivers it to the recipient3s mail server. 4or e)ample, a company !ith several servers has designated one server as a mail gate!ay to the Internet. 'ny e#mail sent to the company !ould arrive at the gate!ay server, and then e relayed to the appropriate server for delivery to the recipient.

5o!ever, malicious users sometimes try to perform unauthori(ed mail relaying. 4or e)ample, a spammer !ho has a lo!#end server and a slo! net!or" connection might use mail relaying in order to get other company6s higher#po!ered mail server and a fast net!or" connection to send spam mail on their ehalf. Even !orms can use some other server and net!or" to send mass mails. 0any !orm programs are used today to send mass 7un" e#mails to distur net!or"s. Sending mass spam mails is an unla!ful activity. The follo!ing ta le lists ports a out a fe! more protocols. PROTOCOLS POP3 ftp-data File Transfer Protocol (FTP) HTTP TE !ET !a"eser#er Tri#ial File Transfer (TFTP) 'nternet (essa)e *ccess Protocol ('(*P) i)+t,ei)+t -irector. *ccess Protocol ( -*P) 110 20 file transfer[default data] 21 file transfer [control] 80 23 $2 %& 1$3 38& PORTS

Protocols and T+eir /orrespondin) Ports

Solutions to Chapter One Questions

1. %ist the functions of the application layer. Ans. The functions of the application layer are/ It is responsi le for facilitating interaction et!een many applications li"e 111, E0'I%, 4TP, and DNS, and servers li"e mail server and 4TP server. It interfaces directly to and performs common application services for the application processes8 it also issues requests to the presentation layer.

2. 1hat is DNS9 Ans. DNS is a name resolution service that resolves host names to the IP addresses. DNS has a hierarchical and distri uted data ase that contains mappings of host names !ith the corresponding IP addresses. 3. E)plain the !or"ing of DNS !ith an e)ample. Ans. DNS is a name resolution service that resolves host names to IP addresses. ' DNS server resolves host names to IP addresses for DNS queries sent y the DNS clients. These queries can e in the form of a name resolution query or a resource record. The resolver sends a ,ser Datagram Protocol $,DP& pac"et to the local DNS server. The DNS server searches its ta le and returns the IP address, !hich matches the domain name. DNS has a hierarchical and distri uted data ase that contains mappings of host names !ith the corresponding IP addresses.

:esource records are stored in a specific portion of the DNS data ase called the DNS (one. ' DNS (one contains resource records along !ith the o!ner names. 4or e)ample, an application program calls a procedure !ith its domain name as parameter. The procedure sends an ,DP pac"et to the local DNS server. The DNS server searches its ta le and returns the IP address !hich matches the Domain name. The program can no! esta lish a TCP connection or send ,DP pac"ets. 4. 1hat is an iterative resolution9 Ans. Iterative resolution refers to the name resolution technique in !hich a server sends ac" the information to a client or sends the name of the server that has the information. The client then iterates y sending a request to this referred server. This server may return the information itself or send the name of another server. This process continues till the time the client receives the required information. 5. 1hat are the functions of the user agent in the e#mail architecture9 Ans. In the e#mail architecture, the user agent helps users to interact !ith the e#mail systems. The functions of the user agent in e#mail architecture are/ Composition/ It refers to !riting the mail. 5ere users type the message that they !ant to convey. The users have to mention the recipient6s e#mail address. Receiving/ It refers to retrieving the e#mails from the P2P- server. Replying to messages/ It refers to replying to a received e#mail. To reply to the e#mail, the user has to clic" reply, type the message, and send it ac". Support manipulation o mail bo!/ It refers to customi(ation of the mail o). 5ere users can create folders and manage the mail according to the sender.

". Discuss the sending and receiving process of e#mail. Ans. The prerequisites for sending and receiving an e#mail are/ *. <. ;oth the sender and recipient should have an e#mail account. The sender must provide the destination address and !rite a message. 1hen the sender clic"s send, the machine esta lishes a connection !ith the S0TP server y using port <=. 'n S0TP configured e#mail daemon>process uses this port. This daemon>process accepts incoming connections and sends the mails to its appropriate domain. 4or e)ample if you send the mail from yahoo.com to hotmail.com, the mail goes to the yahoo S0TP server, and then the S0TP server sends it to the P2P- server of hotmail.com. If a message cannot e delivered, an error report containing the first part of the undelivera le message is returned to the sender.

The follo!ing is the sequence of the e#mail sending process/

-.

In the implementations of P2P-, the server maintains a collection of te)t files, one for each e#mail account. 1hen a message arrives, the P2P- server simply appends it to the ottom of the recipient3s file. The follo!ing is the sequence of the e#mail receiving process/ *. <. -. The e#mail client connects to the P2P- server y using port **+. The P2P- server requires an account name and a pass!ord. 'fter providing a valid username and pass!ord, the user gets verified y the P2P- server. If the username and pass!ord are valid, the P2P- server opens your te)t file and allo!s you to access it.

#. 1rite a rief note on S0TP. Ans. S0TP is a protocol that transfers mail relia ly and efficiently. S0TP is independent of a particular transmission su system and needs only a relia le ordered data stream channel. 'n important feature of S0TP is its capa ility to relay mail across transport service environments. $. Discuss the !or"ing of P2P- in an e#mail system. 1hat are its limitations9 Ans. 1hen users chec" their e#mail, the e#mail client connects to the P2P- server y using port **+. The P2P- server requires an account name and a pass!ord. The P2P- server issues a series of commands to ring copies of user e#mail messages to user6s local machine. ?enerally, it !ill then delete the messages from the server $unless the user chooses the not to option in the e#mail client&. 2nce the connection has een esta lished, the P2P- protocol goes through three stages in sequence/ *. <. -. 'uthori(ation Transactions ,pdate

The authori(ation state deals !ith the user log in. The transaction state deals !ith the user collecting e#mail messages and mar"ing them for deletion from the mail o). The update state causes the e#mail messages to e deleted. During the authori(ation state, at times, !hen the server is set for three pass!ords trials, if you give the !rong pass!ord thrice, your mail o) !ill get loc"ed. P2P- servers have certain limitations such as/ There is no folder structure for sorting e#mail messages that are saved on the P2P- server. The server has only one folder for incoming mails, !hich is the in o). No rules can e set at the P2P- server. 'll rules are set at the client end only. If a user6s machine crashes, e#mail messages can only e recovered if a copy of them is left on the server. To chec" e#mail, users have to do!nload them first and only then they can vie! their mails on the e#mail client soft!are. ,ser cannot see mails first and then do!nload the required mails. If there are spam e#mail messages in the in o) that can e dangerous for the computer, these !ill also get do!nloaded and the user has to delete them.

:eference $http/>>!!!.evenmail.com>pop-.imap.html& %. 1hat is 1119 Ans. The 111 is a hyperte)t# ased system that provides a uniform and a user#friendly interface for accessing the resources on the Internet. It is an information space in !hich the items of interest, referred to as resources, are identified y glo al identifiers called ,niform :esource Identifiers $,:I&. 1&. Discuss the architecture of 111. Ans. The architecture of 111 is t!o tiered. It consists of the client and the server. The client $!e ro!ser& requests for a !e page. This page is retrieved from the server. The architecture depends on three "ey standards/ 5T0% for encoding document content, ,niform :esource %ocator $,:%& for naming remote information o 7ects in a glo al namespace, and 5TTP for staging the transfer. The follo!ing figure sho!s the t!o#tiered architecture of 111.

:equest C%IENT :esponse SE:@E:

T,o-Tier *rc+itecture of 000

If the !e pages are interacting !ith the data ase, then the architecture ecomes three#tiered, as sho!n in the follo!ing figure. :equest C%IENT :esponse
T+ree-Tier *rc+itecture of 000

SE:@E:

D'T';'SE

11. E)plain the client side and server side events !hen a user clic"s on a ,:%. Ans. The client side events !hen a user clic"s on a ,:% are as follo!s/ *. <. -. A. =. .. C. B. D. *. <. -. A. =. The ro!ser locates the ,:%. The ro!ser as"s DNS for the IP address. DNS replies !ith the IP address. The ro!ser ma"es the Transmission Control Protocol $TCP& connection to Port B+ on the machine !ith the a ove IP address. The ro!ser sends a request for the specific file. The server sends the required file. The TCP connection is closed. The ro!ser displays all te)t information. The ro!ser displays all images. Server accepts a TCP connection from a client. Server searches the file associated !ith the !e page. 4ile from the dis" is retrieved. The !e page is returned to the client. TCP connection is released.

1hen a user clic"s on a ,:%, the server side events are as follo!s/

12. E)plain a server farm !ith an e)ample. Ans. ' server farm is a group of net!or"ed servers that are housed in one location. ' server farm streamlines internal processes y distri uting the !or"load et!een the individual components of the farm and e)pedites computing processes y harnessing the po!er of multiple servers. The farms rely on load alancing soft!are that accomplishes the follo!ing tas"s/ Trac"ing demand for processing po!er from different machines. Prioriti(ing the tas"s.

Scheduling and rescheduling tas"s depending upon priority and demand that users put on the net!or". 1hen one server in the farm fails, another can step in as a ac"up. Com ining servers and processing po!er into a single entity has een relatively common for many years in research and academic institutions. Today, more and more companies are utili(ing server farms as a !ay of handling the enormous amount of computeri(ation of tas"s and services that they require.

Server farm, or !e farm, refers to either a !e site that runs on more than one server or an Internet Service Provider $ISP& that provides !e hosting services y using multiple servers. Server compute farms are ma"ing their !ay into large manufacturing environments for electronic design automation, and to accelerate processes and complete tas"s. ' server farm accomplishes this y harnessing computing po!er from multiple machines and com ining that po!er. E)ample of a server farm includes ?oogle. ?oogle6s services run on several server farms.

FAQs
1. 1hat is 4TP9 Ans' 4TP is a standard protocol for transferring files et!een remote computers. It uses the Internet3s TCP>IP protocols to ena le data transfer. 2. 1hat is I0'P9 Ans' I0'P is an application layer Internet protocol used for accessing e#mail on a remote server from a local client. 3. 1hat is the difference et!een S0TP and P2P-9 Ans' S0TP $Simple 0ail Transfer Protocol& is used for the relaying and delivery of messages. S0TP y default !or"s on <= port. 'n email client sends the email to S0TP server, The server accepts incoming connections and copies message from them into the appropriate mail o)es. If a message cannot e delivered, an error report containing the first part of the undelivera le message is returned to the sender. S0TP is a simple 'SCII protocol. P2P- $Post 2ffice Protocol& is used for retrieving mails from the mail server. P2P- y default !or"s on **+ port. P2P- egins !hen the user starts the mail client. The mail client esta lishes a TCP connection !ith the message transfer agent at port **+. 2nce the connection has een esta lished, the P2P- protocol goes through three states in sequence/ *. <. -. 'uthori(ation. Transactions. ,pdate.

Static Routing Vs. D na!ic Routing

Staic and dynamic routing is compared in the follo!ing ta le. Static Routing 1tatic routin) allo,s routin) ta2les in specific routers to 2e set up in a static "anner so t+at t+e net,or3 routes for pac3ets are set4 Dynamic Routing -.na"ic routin) perfor"s t+e sa"e function as static routin) e5cept it is "ore ro2ust4

Static Routing 'n static routin)6 routin) is done "anuall. in routers4 7outers do not update routin) ta2le t+e"sel#es in case of do,nti"e or c+an)e in route4 'f a router on t+e route )oes do,n6 t+e destination "a. 2eco"e unreac+a2le4 * net,or3 ad"inistrator "anuall. 2uilds and updates t+e routin) ta2le and +andles t+e pro)ra""in) of all t+e routes in t+e routin) ta2le4 1tatic routers can ,or3 ,ell for s"all internet,or3s 2ut t+e. do not scale ,ell for lar)e or d.na"icall. c+an)in) inter-net,or3s 2ecause of t+e "anual ad"inistration re8uired4

Dynamic Routing -.na"ic routin) allo,s routin) ta2les in routers to c+an)e as t+e possi2le routes c+an)e4 T+ere are se#eral protocols used to support d.na"ic routin) includin) 7'P and O1PF4 -.na"ic routin) consists of routin) ta2les t+at are 2uilt and "aintained auto"aticall. t+rou)+ an on)oin) co""unication 2et,een routers4 T+is co""unication is facilitated 2. a routin) protocol6 a series of periodic or on-de"and "essa)es containin) routin) infor"ation t+at is e5c+an)ed 2et,een routers4 E5cept for router9s initial confi)uration6 d.na"ic routers re8uire little on)oin) "aintenance and6 t+erefore6 can scale to lar)er internet,or3s4 7outers are fault tolerant in case of d.na"ic routin)4 -.na"ic routes +a#e a finite lifeti"e4 'f a router or lin3 )oes do,n6 t+e routers sense t+e c+an)e in t+e inter-net,or3 topolo). t+rou)+ t+e e5piration of t+e lifeti"e of t+e route in t+e routin) ta2le4 T+is c+an)e can t+en 2e propa)ated to ot+er routers so t+at all t+e routers on t+e inter-net,or3 2eco"e a,are of t+e ne, inter-net,or3 topolo).4

7outers are not fault tolerant in case of static routin)4 T+e lifeti"e of a "anuall. confi)ured static route is infinite and6 t+erefore6 static routers do not sense and reco#er fro" do,ned routers or do,ned lin3s4

1tatic 7outin) :ersus -.na"ic 7outin)

Routing Protocols
:outing protocol refers to a protocol that ena les routing through implementation of a routing algorithm. ' routing algorithm is an algorithm that determines the possi le route through !hich data pac"ets !ould reach the destination. Some of the routing protocols are/ Interior ?ate!ay :outing Protocol $I?:P& Cisco Discovery Protocol $CDP& 5ot Stand y :outer Protocol $5S:P&

"#RP I?:P is a distance vector Interior ?ate!ay Protocol $I?P&. I?:P mathematically compare routes y using some measurements of distance. This measurement is "no!n as the distance vector. :outers send all or a portion of their routing ta le in a routing#update message at regular intervals to each of their neigh oring routers if the router is using a distance vector protocol. 's routing information propagates through the net!or", routers can identify ne! destinations as they are added to the net!or", learn a out the failures in the net!or", and calculate distances to all "no!n destinations. :eference $http/>>!!!.cisco.com>univercd>cc>td>doc>cisint!">itoEdoc>igrp.htm& CDP CDP is a media and protocol#independent device#discovery protocol that runs on all Cisco#manufactured equipment including routers, access servers, ridges, and s!itches. ;y using CDP, a device can advertise its e)istence to other devices and receive information a out other devices on the same %ocal 'rea Net!or" $%'N& or on the remote side of a 1ide 'rea Net!or" $1'N&.

$SRP 5S:P is a routing protocol that provides ac"up to a router in the event of the failure of the router. 5S:P provides net!or" redundancy for IP net!or"s. It ensures that user traffic recovers immediately and transparently from first hop failures in net!or" edge devices or access circuits.

T"M%RS "N R"P

:IP uses three timers to support its operation/ (eriodic Timer/ The Periodic timer controls the advertising of regular update messages. 'lthough the protocol specifies that the timer must e set to -+ seconds, the !or"ing model uses a random num er et!een <= and -= seconds. This is to prevent any possi le synchroni(ation and, therefore, prevent overload on the net!or" if the routers update simultaneously. Each router has one periodic timer that is set randomly to a num er et!een <= and -= seconds. 1hen the counter reaches (ero, the update message is sent to the other routers and the timer is randomly set once again. )!piration Timer/ The e)piration timer chec"s the validity of a route. 1hen a route receives the update information from the other routers for a specific route, the e)piration timer is set to *B+ seconds. Every time a ne! update for the route is received, the timer is reset. In normal situations, this occurs every -+ seconds. 5o!ever, if there is a pro lem on the Internet and no update is received !ithin the allocated *B+ seconds, the route is considered e)pired and the hop count of the route is set to *.. *arbage Collection Timer/ 1hen the information a out a route ecomes invalid, the router does not immediately purge that route from its ta le. Instead, it continues to advertise the route !ith a metric value of *.. 't the same time, a timer called ?ar age Collection Timer is set to *<+ seconds for that route. 1hen the count reaches (ero, the route is purged from the ta le. This timer allo!s the neigh oring routers to ecome a!are of the invalidity of a route prior to purging.

Solutions to Chapter T&o Questions

1. 1hat is routing9 Differentiate et!een the t!o types of routing, direct routing and indirect routing. Ans. :outing is the process of moving information across an internet!or" from a source router to a destination router. :outing occurs at the third layer of the 2pen System Interconnect $2SI& model, "no!n as the net!or" layer. :outing protocols use metrics to evaluate !hat path !ill e the est for a pac"et to travel. The differences et!een direct routing and indirect routing are as follo!s. Direct Routing 'n direct routin)6 pac3et deli#er. occurs ,+en t+e source and destination of t+e pac3et is located on t+e sa"e p+.sical net,or3 or if t+e pac3et deli#er. is 2et,een t+e last router and t+e destination +ost4 'n direct routin)6 t+e address "appin) is 2et,een t+e 'P address of t+e final destination and t+e p+.sical address of t+e final destination4 * pac3et deli#er. al,a.s in#ol#es one direct routin)4 Indirect Routing 'n indirect routin)6 t+e pac3et )oes fro" router to router until it reac+es t+e router connected to t+e sa"e p+.sical net,or3 as its final destination4

'n an indirect routin)6 t+e address "appin) is 2et,een t+e 'P address of t+e ne5t router and t+e p+.sical address of t+e ne5t router4 * pac3et deli#er. "a. or "a. not in#ol#e indirect routin)4

-irect 7outin) :ersus 'ndirect 7outin)

2. Discuss the different approaches that are used to ma"e a routing ta le more efficient. Ans.

There are many approaches to ma"e a routing ta le efficient such as/ +e!t ,op routing/ In this technique, the routing ta le holds only the address of the ne)t hop instead of holding information a out the complete route. :outing ta les are there y consistent !ith each other. +et-or. speci ic routing/ In this technique, routing ta les are made smaller so that the search process ecomes simpler. Instead of having an entry for every host connected to the same physical net!or", !e have only one entry to define the address of the net!or" itself.

3. Discuss the various sta ility features of :IP. Ans. The sta ility features of :IP are/ /op0count limit/ This feature limits the num er of hops allo!ed in a path from source to destination. The ma)imum num er of hops in a path is *=. If for some reasons the router receives a routing update that contains a ne! or changed entry, and if increasing the metric value y * causes the metric to e infinity $that is, *.&, the net!or" destination is considered unreacha le. /old0do-n timers/ This feature is useful in preventing routing information from flooding the net!or" !hen net!or" lin"s are unsta le. Split ,ori1ons/ This feature prevents routing loops !ithin the net!or".

4. 1hat is the purpose of the route timeout timer9 Ans. The purpose of the route timeout timer is to help purge invalid routes from a :IP node. :outes that are not refreshed for a given period of time are li"ely to e invalid ecause of some change in the net!or". Thus, :IP maintains a timeout timer for each "no!n route. 1hen a route3s timeout timer e)pires, the route is mar"ed invalid ut is retained in the ta le until the route#flush timer e)pires. 5. 1hich t!o capa ilities are supported y :IP< ut are not supported y :IP*9 Ans. T!o capa ilities, !hich are supported y :IP< ut not y :IP*, are/ :IP* cannot increase the net!or" diameter or disseminate net!or" it mas"s needed to properly interpret routes. Therefore, using :IP* is a poor choice for modern net!or"s. 'n updated version of :IP*, "no!n as :IPv< $:IP<& can do this. :IP @ersion < $:IPv<& adds a Fnet!or" mas"F and Fne)t hop addressF field to the original :IP pac"et !hile remaining completely compati le !ith :IP. Thus :IPv< routers can coe)ist !ith :IP routers !ithout any pro lems. The other improvement that :IPv< offers over :IP* is authentication, !hich defines the pass!ord authentication mechanism for :IPv< routers to prevent accidental updates for !rongly configured hosts.

". 1hat is the ma)imum net!or" diameter of a :IP net!or"9 Ans. The ma)imum net!or" diameter of a :IP net!or" is *= hops. #. 1hen using 2SP4, can you have t!o areas attached to each other !here only one autonomous system $'S& has an interface in 'rea +9 Ans. Ges, you can. This descri es the use of a virtual path. 2ne area has an interface in 'rea + $legal&, and the other 'S is rought up and attached off an ';: in 'rea *, so you can call it 'rea <. 'rea < has no interface in 'rea +, so it must have a virtual path to 'rea + through 'rea *. 1hen this is in place, 'rea<

loo"s li"e it is directly connected to 'rea +. 1hen 'rea * !ants to send pac"ets to 'rea <, it must send them to 'rea +, !hich in turn redirects them ac" through 'rea * y using the virtual path to 'rea <. $. 'rea + contains five routers $', ;, C, D, and E&. 'rea * contains three routers $:, S, and T&. 1hat router does router T "no!s9 :outer S is the ';:. Ans. :outer T "no!s a out routers : and S only. %i"e!ise, :outer S only "no!s a out : and T, as !ell as routers to the ';: in 'rea +. The 'S6s separate the areas so that router updates contain only information needed for that 'S. %. Can I;?P e used in place of an I?P $:IP, I?:P, EI?:P, 2SP4, or IS#IS&9 Ans. ,se of I;?P in place of I?P is conditional. The ne)t#hop information from E;?P is carried into I;?P. If I;?P does not have a route to reach the ne)t hop, then the route !ill e discarded. Typically, an I?P needs to e used to e)change routes to the ne)t hop, ut this can e achieved y using static routes on all the routers running I;?P. So, the ans!er is yes if you !ant to use and maintain static routes. 2ther!ise, you can not use I;?P in place of I?P. :eference $http/>>!!!.cisco.com>univercd>cc>td>doc>cisint!">itoEdoc> gp.htm& 1&. 'ssume that a ;?P router is learning the same route from t!o different E;?P peers. The 'SEpath information from peer * is H<-A=, B., =*I, and the 'SEpath information from peer < is H<-A., =*I. 1hat ;?P attri utes could e ad7usted to force the router to prefer the route advertised y peer *9 Ans. 1eight and local preference are t!o ;?P attri utes that ma"e ad7ustments to force the router to prefer the route advertised y peer *. ;oth have a higher preference than 'SEpath length. 11. Can ;?P e used y Internet service providers only9 Ans. No. ;?P can also e used to scale large enterprise net!or"s. ' large net!or" can e divided into segments, !ith each segment running an I?P. :outing information et!een segments could then e e)changed y using ;?P. 12. If a directly connected interface is redistri uted into ;?P, !hat value !ill the original attri ute have for the route9 Ans. 'ny redistri uted route !ill have an incomplete value of origin.

FAQs
1. 1hat are the dra! ac"s of :IP9 Ans' The dra! ac"s of :IP are/ :IP ta"es a long time to sta ili(e after a router failure or lin" failure. :IP uses more roadcasting than 2SP4 and hence requires more net!or" and!idth.

2. 1hat is the difference et!een :IP and 2SP49 Ans' The main difference et!een :IP and 2SP4 is that :IP only "eeps trac" of the closest router for each destination address !hereas 2SP4 "eeps trac" of a complete topological data ase of all connections in the local net!or". 3. 1hat is a metric9 1hat are some of the metrics used y the routing protocols9 Ans' ' metric is a standard of measurement, such as path and!idth, !hich is used y routing algorithms to determine the optimal path to a destination. Some of the metrics used y the routing protocols are path length, relia ility, delay, and!idth, load, and communication cost.

RTSP
The :TSP is a client#server application#level protocol that controls the delivery of data !ith real#time properties. :TSP esta lishes and controls either a single or several time#synchroni(ed streams of continuous media, such as audio and video. :TSP uses the transport protocols such as ,ser Datagram Protocol $,DP&, multicast ,DP, Transmission Control Protocol $TCP&, and :eal#Time Transport Protocol $:TP& to deliver the continuous streams. It acts as a net!or" remote control for multimedia servers. Sources of data can include oth live data feeds and stored clips.

Port Nu!bers use' b

RTSP

The follo!ing ports have een registered !ith the Internet 'ssigned Num ers 'uthority $I'N'&. ;;$<tcp ;;$<udp 8;;$<tcp 8;;$<udp 7T1P 7T1P 7T1P *lternate 7T1P *lternate

RTP
:TP defines a standardi(ed pac"et format for delivering audio and video over the Internet. It !as developed y the audio and video transport !or"ing group of the Internet Engineering Tas" 4orce $IET4& and first pu lished in *DD. as :4C *BBD. :TP does not have a standard TCP or ,DP port from !hich it communicates. The only standard that it o eys is that ,DP communications are done on an even port and the ne)t higher odd port is used for TCP communications. :TP uses ,DP and defines format for additional information required y an application such as sequence num er and time stamp.

R%A()T"M% TRANSPORT CONTRO( PROTOCO( *RTCP+

:TCP is the protocol that gathers transmission statistics during the transmission of multimedia data from a streaming server to a client machine. :TCP gathers information such as ytes sent, pac"ets sent, lost pac"ets, 7itter, feed ac", and round trip delay. To get this information, :TCP monitors data delivery from the streaming server to the receiver6s machine and ena les the receiver to detect if there is any pac"et loss and compensates for any delay 7itter. :TCP !or"s !ith :TP in the delivery and pac"aging of multimedia data ut does not transport any data. It also does not provide any flo! encryption or authentication means y itself. It is used periodically to

transmit control pac"ets to participants in a streaming multimedia session. The primary function of :TCP is to provide feed ac" on the quality of service eing provided y :TP.

Open Source Strea!ing Server ) Pro'uct "n,or!ation

+ote/ ;ecause this chapter deals !ith multimedia data transmission and streaming servers, the products availa le in the mar"et have also een discussed. 'pple Computers, Inc. has developed a streaming server !hich is called Dar!in Streaming Server. This is an open source version of streaming server technology that allo!s a user to ma"e changes according to the requirement and to send multimedia data to clients across the Internet. Industry standard protocols such as :TP and :TSP are used for this purpose. Dar!in Streaming Server supports a high level of customi(a ility and runs on a variety of platforms that allo!s a user to manipulate the code. Dar!in Streaming Server can e e)tended or modified. Dar!in Streaming Server can e modified to alter 0PE?#A media and Juic"Time Streaming Server $JTSS&, !hich is 'pple3s commercial streaming server. JTSS is delivered as a part of 0ac 2S K Server on alternative platforms such as 1indo!s, %inu), and Solaris. Dar!in Streaming Server =.= is the latest version availa le and includes the follo!ing enhancements/ %atest security update changes %atest -?PP release = client support 5igh#definition 5.<.A streaming Support for automatic and!idth detection !ith Juic"Time C Player ' security update for 1indo!s

The source code of Dar!in Streaming Server =.= currently supports 0ac 2S K Server, %inu) $:ed 5at B or higher recommended&, Solaris D, and 1indo!s <+++><++- Server. The source code of Dar!in Streaming Server can e compiled and run on these operating systems.

Solutions to Chapter Three Questions

1. 1hat is multimedia9 ?ive e)amples of multimedia data. Ans. 0ultimedia defines applications and technologies that manipulate te)t, data, images, and voice and full motion video o 7ects. Classic e)ample of multimedia is the games availa le on CDs or songs and music availa le on sites. 2. 5o! does an audio medium differ from a video medium9 Ans. Audio/ It deals !ith only voice. 4or e)ample, a song or a lecture on any university site. 2ideo/ It has got oth voice and live image, such as a movie, a song, or a clipping of a lecture. 3. 1hat is streaming9 Ans. Streaming is the process of receiving stored audio>video application from a server !here they are placed. ' client egins to play either an audio or a video once the media player of the client6s PC egins receiving the audio or video file from the server. During the process, the client !ill e playing audio>video from one location in the file !hile it is receiving the remaining parts of the file from the server. In other !ords, streaming avoids long do!nload times and the need to store the entire file on the user3s computer. 4. 1hat are the dra! ac"s of the present Internet to drive the multimedia data9

Ans. The Internet has some dra! ac"s !ith regard to multimedia data. 4or e)ample, the media player does not communicate !ith the streaming server directly. This delay, efore play#out egins, is typically unaccepta le for audio>video clips of moderate length. 4or this reason, audio>video streaming implementations typically have the server send the audio>video file directly to the media player process. In other !ords, a direct soc"et connection is made et!een the server process and the media player process. 5. 5o! can the present Internet e made to port multimedia data9 Ans. 4or ma"ing the e)isting Internet porta le to multimedia data, the follo!ing modifications need to e done/ ' protocol is required that reserves and!idth on ehalf of the streaming server applications. The scheduling policies in the router queues should e modified so that the and!idth reservations can e done. 1ith the ne! scheduling policies, not all pac"ets get equal treatment, instead the pac"ets from the multimedia provider sites that reserve and pay more, get more and!idth. The applications must give the net!or" a description of the traffic that they intend to send to the net!or". The and!idth and s!itching capacity should e enhanced to provide satisfactory delay and pac"et loss performance !ithin the net!or". Caches must e installed in the net!or"s. Caches ring stored content $!e pages as !ell as stored audio and video& closer to users, there y reducing the traffic in the higher#tier ISPs. Content providers that pay for a Content Distri ution Net!or"s $CDN& service should deliver content faster and more effectively. 0ulticast overlay net!or"s can e deployed. ' multicast overlay net!or" consists of servers scattered throughout the ISP net!or" and potentially throughout the entire Internet. Servers and the logical lin"s et!een servers collectively form an overlay net!or", !hich multicasts traffic from a source to millions of users.

". 1hy do audio and video file need to e compressed9 Ans. Compression is required to reduce the si(e of audio and video so that they can e easily transmitted over the Internet. 4or e)ample, a single image consisting of *+<A pi)el L *+<A pi)els, !ith each pi)el encoded into <A its requires - 0; of storage !ithout compression. There are eight its, three each for the colors red, green, and lue. It !ould ta"e appro)imately seven minutes to send the image over a .A " ps lin". If the image is compressed at a modest *+/* compression ratio, the storage requirement is reduced to -++ M ytes and the transmission time also drops y a factor of *+. #. E)plain the audio streaming process. Ans. 'udio streaming is the transfer of audio#encoded pac"ets that are decoded and sent to the client6s soundcard upon reception. The host side is responsi le for encoding and pac"eti(ing the audio stream. The client side is responsi le for decoding the pac"ets and sending the decoded audio to the sound card. There are delays inherent in the overall system. These delays are contri uted y the encode>decode delay, transfer delay, uffer delay, modem delay, sound card delay, and other delays. 's long as the delays are "ept constant, then the audio !ill e delivered uninterrupted.

$. 1hat is a streaming server9 Ans. Streaming servers are meant for the audio>video streaming applications. ,pon client request, a server directs an audio or a video file to the client y sending the file into a soc"et. ;oth the TCP and ,DP soc"et connections are used. ;efore sending the audio>video file to a net!or", the file is segmented, and the segments are typically encapsulated !ith special headers appropriate for audio and video traffic. Streaming servers send digital video for ne!s, entertainment, or educational content over the Internet y using :TP>:TSP. ' multimedia file gets uploaded on the server and streaming servers encodes content in the latest media formats including 0PE?# A $0oving Picture E)pert ?roup& and the ''C $'dvanced 'udio Coder& audio. %. 1hat are the limitations of the est effort service9 E)plain. Ans. %imitations of the est effort service are/ (ac.et loss/ 's a IP datagram crosses through a net!or" over ,DP, it passes through uffers in the routers in order to access out ound lin"s. It is possi le that one or more of the uffers in the route from sender to receiver is full and cannot admit the datagram. In this case, the IP datagram is discarded, never to arrive at the receiving application. %oss could e eliminated y sending the pac"ets over TCP rather than over ,DP. )!cessive end0to0end delay/ End#to#end delay is the accumulation of transmission, processing, and queuing delays in routers, propagation delays in the lin"s, and end#system processing delays. (ac.et 3itter/ ' crucial component of end#to#end delay is the random queuing delays in the routers. ;ecause of these varying delays !ithin the net!or", the time from !hen a pac"et is generated at the source until it is received at the receiver can fluctuate from pac"et to pac"et. This phenomenon is called 7itter.

1&. Discuss the features of :eal Time Protocol $:TP&. Ans. The features of :eal Time Protocol $:TP& are/ :TP provides end#to#end delivery services for data !ith real#time characteristics such as interactive audio and video. 5o!ever, :TP itself does not provide any mechanism to ensure timely delivery. It needs support from the lo!er layers of 2SI model that actually have control over resources in s!itches and routers. :TP depends on :esource :eservation Protocol $:S@P& to reserve resources and to provide the requested quality of service. :TP provides timestamps, sequence num ers as hoo"s for adding relia ility, flo!, and congestion control for pac"et delivery, ut implementation is totally left to the application. :TP is a protocol frame!or" that is deli erately not complete. It is open to ne! payload formats and ne! multimedia soft!are. ;y adding ne! profile and payload format specifications, one can tailor :TP to ne! data formats and ne! applications. The flo! and congestion control information of :TP is provided y :eal#Time Control Protocol $:TCP& sender and receiver reports. :TP>:TCP provides functionality and control mechanisms necessary for carrying real#time content. ;ut :TP>:TCP itself is not responsi le for the higher#level tas"s li"e assem ly and synchroni(ation. These have to e done at the application level.

11. E)plain ho! does the helper application get data from a streaming server. Ans. ?etting data from streaming server to helper application li"e the media player requires at least t!o servers !here data is placed. 2ne server is the 5TTP server, and the second server is the streaming server.

4or e)ample, !hen a user visits any songs>ne!s !e site, the !e ro!ser communicates !ith the !e server !here the user chooses the file that has music or ne!s. The moment the user clic"s any media file8 media player requests for the media file to the streaming server and user receives the media file on the media player. 12. E)plain :TSP. Ans. :TSP is a protocol that ena les a media player to control the transmission of a media stream. :TSP messages use the port num er =AA from the media stream. The :TSP specification, :4C <-<., permits :TSP messages to e sent over TCP or ,DP. :TSP server "eeps a trac" of the state of the client for each ongoing :TSP session. 4or e)ample, the server "eeps trac" of !hether the client is in an initiali(ation state, a play state, or a pause state. The session and sequence num ers, !hich are part of each :TSP request and response, help the server to "eep trac" of the session state. The session num er is fi)ed throughout the entire session8 the client increments the sequence num er each time it sends a ne! message8 the server echoes ac" the session num er, and the current sequence num er.

FAQs
1. 1hat is ,DP9 Ans' The ,ser Datagram Protocol $,DP& is one of the core protocols of the Internet protocol suite. ;y using ,DP, programs on net!or"ed computers can send short messages "no!n as datagrams to one another. 5o!ever, ,DP does not provide the relia ility and ordering guarantees that TCP provides. 2. 1hat is 'T0 ''%=9 Ans' 'synchronous Transfer 0ode 'daptation %ayer Type = $'T0 ''%=& is a protocol that provides virtual connections et!een end stations attached to the same net!or". 'T0 ''%= supports varia le it rate and delay#tolerant connection#oriented data traffic requiring minimal sequencing or error detection support. 3. ?ive an e)ample of a streaming server availa le in the mar"et today. Ans' 0edia;o) 'S#<.+B is an em edded streaming server capa le of encoding from eight different inputs of high quality audio through road and net!or"s at various stream rates in multiple formats/ 0PE?A, :eal, 0P-, and @or is.

-ireless Technologies
Some of the !ireless technologies are/ 4luetoot,/ It is a !ireless technology. It is a short#range communications system intended to replace the ca les connecting porta le and>or fi)ed electronic devices. The "ey features of =luetoot+ technology include ro ustness, lo! po!er, and lo! cost. ;luetooth offers a num er of advantages. It provides a simple choice for convenient, !ire#free, short#range communication et!een devices. It is a glo ally availa le standard that !irelessly connects mo ile phones, porta le computers, cars, stereo headsets, 0P- players, and more. It is est suited for connecting PD' $Personal Digital 'ssistance& and cell phones. 5))) $&2.1"a 67i8A9:/ It is commonly referred to as 1i0'K or less commonly as 1ireless 0'N or the 'ir Interface Standard, IEEE B+<.*. is a specification for fi)ed road and !ireless metropolitan access net!or"s. It provides added support for the < to ** ?5( range.

5))) $&2.11g 67i0Fi:/ It has a frequency up to =A0 ps in the <.A?5( and. Products that adhere to this standard are considered F1i#4i CertifiedF. Products in this standard are compati le !ith B+<.** and support *A channels availa le in the <.A?5( and !ith only three non#overlapping channels. 5))) $&2.11a 67i0Fi:/ It has frequency up to =A0 ps in the =?5( and. The products that adhere to this standard are considered F1i#4i Certified.F Products in this standard have eight availa le channels. This standard is etter than B+<.** at supporting multimedia voice, video and large image applications in densely populated user environments. It has a relatively shorter range than B+<.** and is not interopera le !ith B+<.** .

CSMA.CA
CS0'>C' is a net!or" contention protocol that listens to a net!or" in order to avoid collisions, unli"e CS0'>CD that deals !ith net!or" transmissions once collisions have een detected. CS0'>C' contri utes to net!or" traffic ecause efore any real data is transmitted, it has to roadcast a signal onto the net!or" in order to listen for collision scenarios and to tell other devices not to roadcast.

-ireless Fi'elit
1ireless 4idelity, or 1i 4i, allo!s a user to connect to the net!or" and Internet from any location situated in a particular facility !ithout !ires. 1i#4i is a !ireless technology li"e a mo ile phone. It ena les computers to send and receive data indoors and out any!here !ithin the range of a !ireless access point or a !ireless router.

Mo'ulation
0odulation is the process of varying a carrier signal in order to use that signal to convey information. The three "ey parameters of a sinusoid are its amplitude, its phase, and its frequency. These parameters can e modified in accordance !ith an information signal to o tain the modulated signal. ' device that performs modulation is "no!n as a modulator and a device that performs the inverse operation of demodulation is "no!n as a demodulator. ' device that can do oth operations is called a modem. Digital 0odulation is the process in !hich the changes in the signal are chosen from a fi)ed list. Each entry of the fi)ed list conveys a different possi le piece of information. In analog modulation, the change is applied continuously in response to the data signal. 0odulation may e applied to various aspects of the signal. 0odulation is generally performed to overcome signal transmission issues such as/ %o! loss, lo! dispersion propagation as electromagnetic !aves 0ultiple)ing, !hich is the transmission of multiple data signals in one frequency and, on different carrier frequencies. Smaller, more directional antennas There are different modes of modulation. Each node has its advantages and disadvantages. The different modulation modes are/

Continuous 1ave 'mplitude 0odulation

Continuous -ave *C-+ C1 is the simplest form of modulation. The output of the transmitter is s!itched on and off, typically to form the characters of the 0orse code. Transmission !ith C1 is simple and ine)pensive. The transmitted C1 signal occupies less than =++ 5( of frequency space. 5o!ever, there is a disadvantage to this ecause the C1 signals is difficult to hear on a normal receiver. A!plitu'e Mo'ulation *AM+

In '0, the strength $amplitude& of the carrier from a transmitter is varied according to ho! a modulating signal varies. 1hen a person spea"s into the microphone of an '0 transmitter, the microphone converts the voice into a varying voltage. This voltage is then amplified and used to vary the strength of the transmitter3s output. '0 adds po!er to the carrier depending on the strength of the modulating voltage. '0 can e easily produced in a transmitter. In addition, '0 receivers are simple in design. 5o!ever, '0 has the follo!ing disadvantages/ ' out t!o#thirds of an '0 signal3s po!er is concentrated in the carrier, !hich contains signals of lo! importance. 2ne#third of the po!er is in the side ands, !hich contain the signal3s intelligence. 2f the total po!er output of an '0 transmitter, only a out one#si)th is actually productive, useful output. The !ide amount of frequency space occupied y an '0 signal is vulnera le to static and other forms of electrical noise. Despite this, '0 is simple to tune on ordinary receivers and is used for almost all short!ave roadcasting.

Solutions to Chapter Four Questions

1. 1hat are 1%'Ns9 Ans. 1%'N is a net!or" that uses high#frequency radio !aves rather than !ires to communicate et!een nodes. 1%'N technologies ena le users to esta lish !ireless connections !ithin a local area such as !ithin a corporate or campus uilding, or in a pu lic space li"e airport. IEEE approved the B+<.** standard for 1%'Ns, !hich specifies a data transfer rate of *#< 0 ps. 2. 1hat is modulation9 Ans. 0odulation is the addition of information or the signal to an electronic or optical signal carrier. There are several reasons to modulate a signal efore transmitting signal in a medium. This includes the a ility of various users sharing a medium and ma"ing the signal properties physically compati le !ith the propagation medium. 3. 1hat is a carrier signal9 Ans. ' carrier signal is a specific frequency in an analog communication channel that is modulated !ith an information#carrying signal. Carrier signals are commonly used in 'mplitude 0odulation $'0&, 4requency 0odulation $40&, and other radio transmissions to differentiate among channels. Gou turn a radio dial to select a carrier frequency. The radio then amplifies the signal carried on the selected frequency. In '0, modulation changes the strength or amplitude of the carrier signal. In 40, the frequency of the carrier signal is modulated. 4. Define SN:. Ans. SN: stands for Signal#to#Noise :atio. It is the ratio et!een the typical signal level and the softest signal that can e produced accurately. 5. 1hat is ;19 Ans.

;1 stands for and!idth, !hich is the range !ithin a and of frequencies or !avelengths. ;1 can also e defined as the amount of data that can e transmitted in a fi)ed amount of time. 4or digital devices, and!idth is usually e)pressed in its per second or ytes per second $ ps&. 4or analog devices, and!idth is e)pressed in cycles per second or 5ert( $5(&. ". Compare B+<.**a, B+<.** , B+<.**g and ;luetooth. Ans. B+<.**a, B+<.** , B+<.**g, and ;luetooth are compared in the follo!ing ta le. Feature Data rate Fre"uency #odu ation C!anne $ Band%idt! &'ai ab e Po%er 802.11a ;$->2(2ps ;@+A OF-( 12<8 300 802.11b 11(2ps 24$@+A -111<//? 11<3 834; 802.11g ;$(2ps 24$@+A -111<P=// 11<3 834; (22(HA per c+annel) 100"0 B uetoot! >21?2ps ;% ?2ps 24$@+A FH11 >& ( 1(+A ,ide) 834;

$0-800"0

100"0

100"0

/o"parison of 802411a6 80241126 82411)6 and =luetoot+

#. %ist out the advantages and disadvantages of 1%'N. Ans. The advantages of 1%'N are/ Fle!ibility/ 1ithin radio coverage, nodes can communicate !ithout further restriction. :adio !aves can penetrate !alls, and senders and receivers can e placed any!here. )asy to use/ The !ireless net!or"s are easy to set#up and use. Nust plug#in a ase station and equip your laptops !ith 1%'N cards. Robustness/ 1ireless net!or"s can survive disasters. Net!or"s requiring a !ired infrastructure !ill rea" do!n completely some time. If one ase station goes do!n, users may e a le to physically move their PCs to e in range of another.

The disadvantages of 1%'N are/ ;uality o Service 6;oS:/ 1%'Ns typically offer lo!er quality than !ired net!or"s. The main reasons for offering lo! quality are lo!er and!idth due to limitations in radio transmission, higher error rates due to interference $*+#A instead of *+#*+ for fi er optics&, and higher delay>delay variation. 2ulnerable to inter erence/ If a po!erful transmitter operating in the same and as the !ireless net!or" is near y, the !ireless net!or" could e rendered completely useless. Speed/ Data speeds drop as the user moves further a!ay from the access point. <peration -it,in limited distance/ Devices !ill only operate at a limited distance from an access point. 2 stacles et!een the access point and the user such as !alls, glass, !ater, trees and leaves can also determine the distance of operation. Sa ety and security/ ,sing radio !aves for data transmission might interfere !ith other high#tech equipment. 'dditionally, the open radio interface ma"es eavesdropping much easier in 1%'Ns than in the case of fi er optics.

$. Compare radio and infrared transmission. Ans. The differences et!een radio and infrared transmissions are as follo!s. Radio Tran$mi$$ion 7adio trans"ission can co#er lar)er areas and can penetrate ,alls6 furniture6 plants6 and so on4 7adio trans"ission does not t.picall. need a direct line of si)+t ( O1) to e5ist 2et,een t+e recei#er and t+e sender if t+e fre8uencies are not too +i)+4 7adio trans"ission offers #er. +i)+ data transfer rates t+an 'nfrared4 /urrent radio-2ased products offer trans"ission rates up to 10 (2ps4 'n t+is case6 s+ieldin) is not so si"ple4 T+erefore6 radio trans"ission can interfere ,it+ ot+er senders and electrical de#ices can destro. data trans"ission #ia radio4 7adio trans"ission is onl. per"itted in certain fre8uenc. 2ands4 :er. li"ited ran)es of license-free 2ands are a#aila2le ,orld,ide6 and t+ose a#aila2le are t.picall. not t+e sa"e in all countries4 7adio trans"ission is used for ,ide area net,or3s (0*!) suc+ as "icro,a#e lin3s and "o2ile cellular p+ones4 0 *! tec+nolo)ies suc+ as 'EEE 8024116 H'PE7 *!6 and =luetoot+ "a3e use of t+is t.pe of trans"ission4 IR Tran$mi$$ion '7 trans"ission cannot penetrate ,alls or ot+er o2stacles4 For )ood trans"ission 8ualit. and +i)+ data rates6 t.picall. a O1 is needed 2et,een t+e sender and t+e recei#er4 '7 trans"ission offers lo,er trans"ission rates4 T+e products usin) t+e latest #ersion of '7 -ata *ssociation interface support data transfer rates up to $ (2ps4 'n t+is case6 s+ieldin) is #er. si"ple4 T+erefore6 electrical de#ices do not interfere ,it+ infrared trans"ission4 !o licenses are re8uired for infrared tec+nolo).4

'7 tec+nolo). is nor"all. used for de#ices li3e P-*s6 laptops6 note2oo3s6 "o2ile p+ones6 and so on4 Onl. 'EEE 802411 "a3es use of t+is t.pe of trans"ission4

7adio Trans"ission :ersus 'nfrared Trans"ission %. Discuss the architecture of 1%'N. Ans. 1%'N architecture consists of three components/ 1ireless end stations 'ccess points ;asic service sets $;SS&

The !ireless end station can e any device that can communicate using the B+<.** standard. These devices include laptops, !or"stations, and PD's, as !ell as printers and scanners. The access point $'P& is a device. It acts as a net!or" platform for connections et!een 1%'Ns or to a !ired %'N and as a relay et!een stations attached to the same 'P. ;SS is the logical component of !ireless architecture. In general, it is a set of !ireless stations controlled y a single management function and has t!o configuration options that is, Infrastructure ;SS $I;SS& and E)tended Service Set $ESS&. In an I;SS, the stations communicate directly to one another !ithout the need for an access point. 'n ESS is a set of infrastructure ;SSs that appear as a single ;SS. This is important for connection redundancy ut has some security issues that need to e addressed.

1&. ;riefly e)plain the 1%'N protocol architecture. Ans. In a typical 1%'N setup, the IEEE B+<.** standard 1%'N $'ccess Point& gets connected to an IEEE B+<.- standard Ethernet $S!itch>5,;& via a ridge. The higher layers $application, TCP, IP& loo" the same for the !ireless node as for the !ired node. The IEEE B+<.** standard only covers the physical layer $P5G& and medium access layer $0'C& li"e the other B+<.) %'Ns do. The physical layer is su divided into the Physical %ayer Convergence Protocol $P%CP& and the Physical 0edium Dependent Su %ayer. The asic tas"s of the 0'C layer comprise medium access, fragmentation of user data, and encryption. The P%CP su layer provides a carrier sense signal called Clear Channel 'ssessment $CC'&, and provides a common P5G interface for the 0'C, !hich is independent of the transmission technology. 11. 1rite a note on DSSS. Ans. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum $DSSS& is the alternative spread spectrum method, in !hich the signal is spread over a !ide range of frequencies using a chipping code. In the case of IEEE B+<.** DSSS, spreading is achieved y using the **#chip sequence $O*,#*,O*,O*,#*,O*,O*,O*,#*,#*,#*&, !hich is also called the ;ar"er code. 12. Discuss the 0'C layer of 1%'N. Ans. 0'C layer controls medium access, and also offers support for roaming, authentication, and po!er conservation. The services offered y 0'C are mandatory asynchronous data service and an optional time# ounded service.

FAQs
1. 1hat is an electromagnetic spectrum9 Ans' The full range of frequencies from radio !aves to gamma rays that characteri(es light is called electromagnetic spectrum. 2. 1hat are radio !aves9 Ans' :adio !aves are electromagnetic radiations that have the lo!est frequency, the longest !avelength, and are produced y charged particles moving ac" and forth. The atmosphere of the earth is transparent to radio !aves !ith !avelengths from a fe! millimeters to a out <+ meters. 3. 1hat is !avelength9 Ans' 1avelength is the distance et!een the repeated units of a !ave pattern.

Co!puter Net&or/ Authentication an' Securit

The various methods of securing data are discussed elo!. 0erberos

Mer eros is a protocol that allo!s individuals communicating over an insecure net!or" to prove their identity to one another in a secure manner. Mer eros prevents replay attac"s and ensures the integrity of the data. Mer eros !or"s on client#server model and it provides mutual authentication, oth the user and the service verify each other3s identity. Mer eros is uilt on symmetric "ey cryptography and requires a trusted third party. Data %ncr ption Stan'ar' *D%S+ DES encrypts and decrypts data in .A# it loc"s, y using a .A# it "ey although the effective "ey strength is only =. its. DES ta"es a .A# it loc" of plainte)t as input and outputs a .A# it loc" of cipher te)t. DES al!ays operates on loc"s of equal si(e and uses permutations and su stitutions in the algorithm. DES is oth a loc" cipher and a product cipher. DES has *. rounds, !hich means that the main algorithm is repeated *. times to produce the cipher te)t. It has een found that the num er of rounds is e)ponentially proportional to the amount of time required to find a "ey using a rute#force attac". Public 0e "n,rastructure *P0"+

It is a system of digital certificates, Certificate 'uthorities $C'&, and other registration authorities that verify and authenticate the validity of each party involved in the Internet transaction. PMI is currently evolving and there is no single PMI or even a single agreed#upon standard for setting up a PMI. 5o!ever, users agree that a relia le PMI is necessary efore electronic commerce is !idespread. Digital Certi,icates ' digital certificate is a digitally signed statement that inds the identifying information of a user, a computer, or a service to a pu lic or private "ey pair. ' digital certificate is commonly used in the process of authentication and security of net!or"s. ' digital certificate is an attachment to an electronic message used for security purposes. The most common use of a digital certificate is to verify the identification of the user !ho is sending a message. Digital certificates also provide the receiver !ith the means to encode a reply. 'n individual !ishing to send an encrypted message applies for a digital certificate from C'. 'n encrypted digital certificate is issued !ith the applicant3s pu lic "ey and a variety of other identification information. CA C' is a trusted third#party organi(ation or company that issues digital certificates. The role of the C' in this process is to guarantee that the individual granted the unique certificate is, in fact, !ho he or she claims to e. ,sually, this means that the C' has an arrangement !ith a financial institution, such as a credit card company, !hich provides it !ith information to confirm an individual3s claimed identity. C's are a critical component in data security and electronic commerce ecause they guarantee that the t!o parties e)changing information are really !ho they claim to e. Public)0e %ncr ption

' pu lic "ey is "no!n to everyone !hile a private or secret "ey is "no!n only to the recipient of the message. Consider an e)ample in !hich user * !ants to send a secure message to user <. ;efore sending the message to user <, user * uses the pu lic "ey of user < to encrypt the message. ,ser < then uses a private "ey to decrypt it. 1hitfield Diffie and 0artin 5ellmann introduced the pu lic "ey cryptography. Therefore, it is also called Diffie#5ellmann encryption. It is also called asymmetric encryption ecause it uses t!o "eys instead of one "ey $symmetric encryption&. Private)0e %ncr ption

Private#"ey encryption is an encryption system that uses t!o private "eys, one for encrypting the message and the other for decrypting it. In this type of encryption, oth the parties must have a secret "ey to

decrypt a message encrypted y the other. The dra! ac" of this method is in the difficulty of distri uting the private "eys.

Top Vulnerabilities in -in'o&s S ste!s

The 1indo!s 2perating system family supports a !ide variety of services, net!or"ing methods, and technologies. 0any of these components are implemented as Service Control Programs $SCP& under the control of Service Control 0anager $SC0&, !hich runs as Services.e)e. @ulnera ilities in these services are one of the most common targets for e)ploitation y an attac"er. The critical vulnera ilities !ere reported in the follo!ing 1indo!s Services/ 0SDTC and C20O Service Print Spooler Service Plug and Play Service $0S+=#+AC, 0S+=#+-D& Server 0essage ;loc" Service E)change S0TP Service 0essage Jueuing Service %icense %ogging Service 1INS Service NNTP Service NetDDE Service Tas" Scheduler

Vulnerabilities in Microso,t O,,ice an' Outloo/ %1press 0icrosoft 2ffice is the most !idely used e#mail and productivity suite across the glo e. This includes applications such as 2utloo", 1ord, Po!erPoint, E)cel, @isio, 4rontPage, and 'ccess. 2utloo" E)press, a asic e#mail client, is installed !ith Internet E)plorer and on all versions of 0icrosoft 1indo!s starting !ith 1indo!s D=. @ulnera ilities in these products can e e)ploited through the follo!ing attac" vectors/ The attac"er can send a malicious 2ffice document in an e#mail message. ' malicious document can e hosted on a 1e server or a shared folder y the attac"er. The attac"er can tempt a user to ro!se the 1e page or the shared folder. The attac"er can run a server, such as a ne!s server, to send malicious responses to trigger a uffer overflo! in e#mail clients.

:eference/ $http/>>!!!.sans.org>top<+>&

"'enti, ing Securit

Controls

Security controls are used to safeguard the net!or" infrastructure from the various ris"s that it faces, such as unauthori(ed access and virus attac"s. Therefore, it is essential for security designers to understand the importance of implementing these security controls. These security controls can reduce the possi ility or the impact of a ris". T pes o, Controls There are different types of security controls that can help reduce ris". These are/ (,ysical controls/ These controls are not directly associated !ith the information, data, system, or net!or" security of an organi(ation. 5o!ever, they indirectly help provide security at every level of the organi(ation. 4or e)ample, loc"ing of rooms or restricting access to various locations !ithin an organi(ation is part of physical controls. Tec,nical controls/ These controls include the hard!are and soft!are !ithin the organi(ation that is used to secure the systems and the data.

4or e)ample, an antivirus soft!are is used to detect and prevent any virus from infecting the net!or" of the organi(ation. It is essential to update the technical controls at regular intervals to ensure that they provide security from ne! ris"s. Administrative controls/ These controls help in creating standards and guidelines to provide a secure net!or" environment !ithin the organi(ation. These controls include elements such as policies and procedures. 4or e)ample, for implementing authentication of resources and information, an organi(ation may use the pass!ord policy. 's per this policy, !ea" pass!ords, such as name of the user, irth dates, and vehicle num ers, should not e used. This policy can e implemented y using ?roup Policy 2 7ects in 1indo!s <++- Server.

Solutions to Chapter Five Questions

1. 1hat is cryptography9 Ans. Cryptography is the science of using mathematics to encrypt and decrypt data. Cryptography ena les us to store or transmit sensitive information across insecure net!or"s $li"e the Internet& so that unauthori(ed users e)cept the intended recipient cannot read it. 2. E)plain cryptographic algorithms. Ans. ' cryptographic algorithm, also referred to as cipher, is a mathematical function used in the encryption and decryption process. ' cryptographic algorithm !or"s in com ination !ith a "ey. The "ey may e a !ord, num er, or phrase used to encrypt the plain te)t, also called a message. The plain te)t encrypts to cipher te)t !ith different "eys. The security of encrypted data is entirely dependent on the strength of the cryptographic algorithm and the secrecy of the "ey. 3. E)plain different types of attac"s. Ans. 'ttac"s are of t!o types. The types are/ (assive attac./ In this attac", the goal of the unauthori(ed user is to o tain information that is eing transmitted. Passive attac"s have t!o su types, release of message contents and traffic analysis.

The release of message contents includes conversation over the phone or through email or transferring a file from one place to another, !hich might contain sensitive information.

The traffic analysis is more delicate. Suppose that !e had a !ay of mas"ing the contents of messages or other information traffic so that unauthori(ed users could not e)tract the information from the message. The common technique for mas"ing contents is encryption. If !e had encryption protection in place, an opponent might still e a le to o serve the pattern of these messages. The opponent could determine the location and identity of communication hosts, and could o serve the frequency and length of messages eing e)changed. This information might e useful in guessing the nature of the communication that !as ta"ing place. Passive attac"s are very difficult to detect ecause they do not involve any alteration of the data. The emphasis in dealing !ith passive attac"s is to prevent the attac" rather than to detect it. Active attac.s/ These attac"s involve some modification of the data stream or the creation of a false stream. These attac"s are divided into four categories such as masquerade, replay, modification of messages, and denial of service $DoS&.

8as=uerade/ It ta"es place !hen an entity pretends to e different than the other entity. This includes one of the other forms of an active attac", !hich is modification of messages or denial of service. Replay/ It involves the passive capture of a data unit and its su sequent retransmission to produce an unauthori(ed effect.

8odi ication o messages/ It implies that some portion of the message is altered or messages are delayed or reordered to produce an unauthori(ed effect.

>oS/ It prevents or inhi its the normal use or the management of communications facilities. This type of attac" has a specific target. 4or e)ample, an entity may suppress all messages directed to a particular destination. 'nother form of DoS is the disruption of an entire net!or", either y disa ling the net!or" or y overloading it !ith messages to degrade the performance of the net!or". 'ctive attac"s posses opposite characteristics than that of passive attac"s. 'ctive attac"s are difficult to prevent ecause physical protection of all communications facilities and paths at all times is required. Instead, the goal is to detect active attac"s and to restore the net!or" from any disruption or delays caused y them. 4. ;riefly e)plain security mechanisms. Ans. 0echanisms that ensure security of an organi(ation are "no!n as security mechanisms. Encryption or encryption li"e transformations of information is the most common means of providing security. There are certain common information integrity functions to secure net!or">data li"e identification, validation, authori(ation, time of occurrence, signature, authenticity, concurrence, o!nership, receipts, registration, endorsement, privacy, access, and endorsement. 5. E)plain the conventional encryption model9 Ans. ;efore the development of pu lic "ey encryption, the conventional encryption $single#"ey encryption& !as availa le to secure the net!or"s. There are t!o types of encryption, classical encryption and modern encryption techniques. These are "ey ased algorithms "no!n as symmetric and pu lic "ey algorithms. In conventional algorithms, the encryption "ey can e calculated from the decryption "ey. 'lternatively, the decryption "ey can e calculated from the encryption "ey. In these algorithms, the encryption "ey and the decryption "ey are same. These algorithms are also called secret "ey algorithms, or the one "ey algorithm. In this encryption technique, the sender and receiver agree to use a "ey efore they communicate securely. The security of the symmetric algorithm rests in the "ey. The "ey allo!s users to encrypt and decrypt messages y using any encryption and decryption algorithms. ". 1hat is Steganography9 Ans. Steganography is a technique that is used to hide the secret message in other messages. ' fe! e)amples of steganography are/ C,aracter mar.ing/ Selected letters of printed or type !ritten te)t are over!ritten in pencil. The mar"s are ordinarily not visi le unless the paper on !hich te)t is printed or type !ritten is held at an angle to right light. 5nvisible in./ ' num er of su stances can e used for !riting ut the in" leaves no visi le trace until heat or a specific chemical is applied to the paper. (in punctures/ Small pin punctures on selected letters are ordinarily not visi le unless the paper is held up in front of a light. Type-riter correction ribbon/ This is a lac" ri on used et!een typed lines typed. The results of typing !ith the correction tape are visi le only in good light.

FAQs
1. 1hat are the advantages of cryptography9 Ans' Cryptography is all a out increasing the level of privacy of individuals and groups. It not only protects the confidentiality of any company6s information ut also allo!s anyone to order a product over the Internet !ithout the fear of the credit card num er eing intercepted y any malicious attempt. 4or e)ample, cryptography is often used to prevent forgers from counterfeiting !inning lottery tic"ets. Each lottery tic"et can have t!o num ers printed onto it, one plainte)t and the other its corresponding cipher. 2. 1hat is the disadvantage of a transposition cipher9 Ans' The disadvantage of a transposition cipher is that such ciphers are considera ly more la orious and error prone than simpler ciphers. 3. 1hat is cryptology9 Ans' The study of oth cryptography $enciphering and deciphering& and cryptanalysis $ rea"ing a code system& together is called cryptology.