ANALYZER BASICS

2-1
WHAT IS AN FFT SPECTRUM ANALYZER?

The SR760 FFT Spectrum Analyzer takes a time
varying input signal, like you would see on an
oscilloscope trace, and computes its frequency
spectrum.

Fourier's basic theorem states that any waveform
in the time domain can be represented by the
weighted sum of pure sine waves of all
frequencies. f the signal in the time domain (as
viewed on an oscilloscope) is periodic, then its
spectrum is probably dominated by a single
frequency component. What the spectrum
analyzer does is represent the time domain signal
by its component frequencies.

Why Iook at a signaI's spectrum?
For one thing, some measurements which are
very hard in the time domain are very easy in the
frequency domain. Take harmonic distortion. t's
hard to quantify the distortion by looking at a good
sine wave output from a function generator on an
oscilloscope. When the same signal is displayed
on a spectrum analyzer, the harmonic frequencies
and amplitudes are displayed with amazing clarity.
Another example is noise analysis. Looking at an
amplifier's output noise on an oscilloscope
basically measures just the total noise amplitude.
On a spectrum analyzer, the noise as a function of
frequency is displayed. t may be that the amplifier
has a problem only over certain frequency ranges.
n the time domain it would be very hard to tell.

Many of these types of measurements used to be
done using analog spectrum analyzers. n simple
terms, an analog filter was used to isolate
frequencies of interest. The remaining signal
power was measured to determine the signal
strength in certain frequency bands. By tuning the
filters and repeating the measurements, a
reasonable spectrum could be obtained.

The FFT AnaIyzer
An FFT spectrum analyzer works in an entirely
different way. The input signal is digitized at a high
sampling rate, similar to a digitizing oscilloscope.
Nyquist's theorem says that as long as the
sampling rate is greater than twice the highest
frequency component of the signal, then the
sampled data will accurately represent the input
signal. n the SR760, sampling occurs at 256 kHz.
To make sure that Nyquist's theorem is satisfied,
the input signal passes through an analog filter
which attenuates all frequency components
above128 kHz by 90 dB. This is the anti-aliasing
filter. The resulting digital time record is then
mathematically transformed into a frequency
spectrum using an algorithm known as the Fast
Fourier Transform or FFT. The FFT is simply a
clever set of operations which implements
Fourier's basic theorem. The resulting spectrum
shows the frequency components of the input
signal.

Now here's the interesting part. The original digital
time record comes from discrete samples taken at
the sampling rate. The corresponding FFT yields a
spectrum with discrete frequency samples. n fact,
the spectrum has half as many frequency points
as there are time points. (Remember Nyquist's
theorem). Suppose that you take 1024 samples at
256 kHz. t takes 4 ms to take this time record.
The FFT of this record yields 512 frequency
points, but over what frequency range? The
highest frequency will be determined by the period
of 2 time samples or 128 kHz. The lowest
frequency is just the period of the entire record or
1/(4 ms) or 250 Hz. Everything below 250 Hz is
considered to be dc. The output spectrum thus
represents the frequency range from dc to 128
kHz with points every 250 Hz.

Advantages and Iimitations
The advantage of this technique is its speed. The
entire spectrum takes only 4 ms to measure. The
limitation of this measurement is its resolution.
Because the time record is only 4 ms long, the
frequency resolution is only 250 Hz. Suppose the
signal has a frequency component at 260 Hz. The
FFT spectrum will detect this signal but place part
of it in the 250 Hz point and part in the 500 Hz
point. One way to measure this signal accurately
is to take a time record that is 1/260 or 3.846 ms
long with 1024 evenly spaced samples. Then the
signal would land all in one frequency bin. But this
would require changing the sampling rate based
upon the signal (which you haven't measured yet).
Not a good solution. n fact, the way to measure
the signal accurately is to lengthen the time record
and change the span of the spectrum.
ANALYZER BASICS

2-2
FREQUENCY SPANS

Before we continue, let's clarify a couple of points
about our frequency span. We just described how
we arrived at a dc to 128 kHz frequency span
using a 4 ms time record. Because the signal
passes through an anti-aliasing filter at the input,
the entire frequency span is not useable. The filter
has a flat response from dc to 100 kHz and then
rolls off steeply from 100 kHz to 128 kHz. No filter
can make a 90 dB transition instantly. The range
between 100 kHz and 128 kHz is therefore not
useable and the actual displayed frequency span
stops at 100 kHz. There is also a frequency bin
labelled 0 Hz (or dc). This bin actually covers the
range from 0 Hz to 250 Hz (the lowest measurable
frequency) and contains the signal components
whose period is longer than the time record (not
only dc). So our final displayed spectrum contains
400 frequency bins. The first covers 0 - 250 Hz,
the second 250 - 500 Hz, and the 400th covers
99.75 - 100.0 kHz.

Spans Iess than 100 kHz
So the length of the time record determines the
frequency span and resolution of our spectrum.
What happens if we make the time record 8 ms or
twice as long? Well we ought to get 2048 time
points (sampling at 256 kHz) yielding a spectrum
from dc to 100 kHz with 125 Hz resolution
containing 800 points. But the SR760 places some
limitations on this. One is memory. f we keep
increasing the time record, then we would need to
store more and more points. Another limitation is
processing time. The time it takes to calculate an
FFT with more points increases more than linearly.
The net result is that the SR760 always takes
1024 point FFT's to yield 400 point spectra.

Here's how it's done. The analyzer digitally filters
the incoming data samples (at 256 kHz) to limit the
bandwidth. This is similar to the anti-aliasing filter
at the input except the digital filter's cutoff
frequency can be changed. n the case of the 8 ms
record, the filter reduces the bandwidth to 64 kHz
with a filter cutoff of 50 kHz (the filter rolls off
between 50 and 64 kHz). Remember that Nyquist
only requires samples at twice the frequency of
the highest signal frequency. Thus the digital filter
only has to output points at 128 kHz or half of the
input rate (256 kHz). The net result is the digital
filter outputs a time record of 1024 points
effectively sampled at 128 kHz to make up an 8
ms record. The FFT processor operates on a
constant number of points and the resulting FFT
will yield 400 points from dc to 50 kHz. The
resolution or linewidth is 125 Hz.

This process of doubling the time record and
halving the span can be repeated by using
multiple stages of digital filtering. The SR760 can
process spectra with a span of only 191 mHz with
a time record of 2098 seconds if you have the
patience. However, this filtering process only
yields baseband measurements (frequency spans
which start at dc).

Starting the span somewhere other than dc
Besides being able to choose the span and
resolution of the spectrum, we would also like the
span to be able to start at frequencies other than
dc. t would be nice to center a narrow span
around any frequency below 100 kHz. Using
digital filtering alone requires that every span start
at dc. What is needed is heterodyning.
Heterodyning is the process of multiplying the
incoming signal by a sine wave. The resulting
spectrum is shifted by the frequency of the sine
wave. f we incorporate heterodyning with our
digital filtering, we can shift any frequency span so
that it starts at dc. The resulting FFT yields a
spectrum offset by the heterodyne frequency.
When this spectrum is displayed, the frequencies
of the X axis are the frequencies of the actual
signal, not the heterodyned frequencies.

Heterodyning allows the analyzer to compute
zoomed spectra (spans which start at frequencies
other than dc). The digital filter processor can filter
and heterodyne the input in real time to provide
the appropriate filtered time record at all spans
and center frequencies. Because the digital signal
processors in the SR760 are so fast, you won't
notice any calculation time while taking spectra.
The longest it can take to acquire a spectrum is
the length of the time record itself. But more about
that later.


ANALYZER BASICS

2-3
THE TIME RECORD

Now that we've described the process in simple
terms, let's complicate it a little bit. The SR760
actually uses 512 point complex time records.
Each point is a complex value (with real and
imaginary parts) so the record actually has 1024
data points in it. But how does a real point get to
be complex?

As we described in the previous section, the input
samples are digitally filtered and heterodyned to
produce a time record with the appropriate
bandwidth and a constant number of samples.
What we need to add to this is that the
heterodyning is a complex operation. This means
that the input points are multiplied by both sine
and cosine to yield a real and imaginary part.

So instead of using 1024 real points, we use 512
complex points. The time records have the same
duration so the complex record has half the
sampling rate of the real record. Thus at full span,
the real points would occur at 256 kHz and the
complex points at 128 kHz. You can think of the
complex record as two separate records, one real
and one imaginary, each with 64 kHz of
bandwidth. (1/2 of the sample rate). One covers 0
to +64 kHz and the other covers -64 kHz to 0 for a
total bandwidth of 128 kHz (the same bandwidth
as the real record). What a negative frequency
means is beyond this discussion but suffice to say
it works the same.

The time record dispIay
What do you see when you display the time
record? Clearly the time record is not as simple as
the raw digitized data points you would see if this
were a digital oscilloscope.

The analyzer stores the 512 point complex time
record described above. Because the display is
designed for 400 point spectra, only the first 400
points of the time record are displayed. You can
use the trigger delay to "translate" the time record
to see the part not normally displayed.

The time record for every span has been digitally
filtered and heterodyned into a complex record.
You can display the magnitude, real or imaginary
part as well as the phase. Normally, the easiest
display to understand is Linear Magnitude.
Remember that magnitudes are always positive.
The negative parts of the waveform will be folded
around zero so that they appear positive.

Because of the filtering and heterodyning, the time
waveform may not closely resemble the input
signal. For baseband measurements (when the
start frequency of the span is 0.0 Hz) the
waveform will resemble the signal waveform (with
folding if magnitude is displayed). The bandwidth
will be limited by the anti-alias filter and the digital
filtering. For zoomed measurements (when the
span start is not 0.0 Hz) the displayed waveform
will not closely resemble the input signal because
of the heterodyning.

Why use the time record?
The time display can be useful in determining
whether the time record is triggered properly. f the
analyzer is triggered, either internally by the signal
or externally with another pulse, and the signal
has a large component synchronous with the
trigger, then the time record should appear
stationary on the display. f the signal triggers
randomly, then the time display will jitter back and
forth.

Watch out for windowing!
The time display is not windowed. This means the
time record which is displayed will be multiplied by
the window function before the FFT is taken (see
"Windowing" later in this section). Most window
functions taper off to zero at the start and end of
the time record. f the transient signal occurs at the
start of the time record, the corresponding FFT
may not show anything because the window
function reduces the transient to zero.

Either use a Uniform window with transients, or
use the trigger delay to position the transient at the
center of the time record. (Remember that the
display only shows the first 400 points of the
record. The center is always at the 256th sample,
which is not at the center of the display.)

To repeat, the time record is not a snapshot of
the input signaI. It is the output of the digitaI
fiIter and the input to the FFT processor.




ANALYZER BASICS

2-4
MEASUREMENT BASICS

Now that we know that the input to the FFT
processor is a complex time record, it should be
no surprise to find out that the resulting FFT
spectrum is also a complex quantity. This is
because each frequency component has a phase
relative to the start of the time record. f there is no
triggering, then the phase is random and we
generally look at the magnitude of the spectrum. f
we use a synchronous trigger then each frequency
component has a well defined phase.

Spectrum
The spectrum is the basic measurement of an FFT
analyzer. t is simply the complex FFT. Normally,
the magnitude of the spectrum is displayed. The
magnitude is the square root of the FFT times its
complex conjugate. (Square root of the sum of the
real part squared and the imaginary part squared).
The magnitude is a real quantity and represents
the total signal amplitude in each frequency bin,
independent of phase.

f there is phase information in the spectrum, i.e.
the time record is triggered in phase with some
component of the signal, then the real or
imaginary part or the phase may be displayed.
Remember, the phase is simply the arctangent of
the ratio of the imaginary and real parts of each
frequency component. The phase is always
relative to the start of the triggered time record.

Power SpectraI Density or PSD
The PSD is simply the magnitude of the spectrum
normalized to a 1 Hz bandwidth. This
measurement approximates what the spectrum
would look like if each frequency component were
really a 1 Hz wide piece of the spectrum at each
frequency bin.

What good is this? When measuring broadband
signals such as noise, the amplitude of the
spectrum changes with the frequency span. This
is because the linewidth changes so the frequency
bins have a different noise bandwidth. The PSD,
on the other hand, normalizes all measurements
to a 1 Hz bandwidth and the noise spectrum
becomes independent of the span. This allows
measurements with different spans to be
compared. f the noise is Gaussian in nature, then
the amount of noise amplitude in other bandwidths
may be approximated by scaling the PSD
measurement by the square root of the bandwidth.
Thus the PSD is displayed in units of V/!Hz or
dBV/!Hz.

Since the PSD uses the magnitude of the
spectrum, the PSD is a real quantity. There is no
real or imaginary part or phase.

Octave AnaIysis
The magnitude of the normal spectrum measures
the amplitudes within equally divided frequency
bins. Octave analysis computes the spectral
amplitude within 1/3 octave bands. The start and
stop frequencies of each frequency bin are in the
ratio of 1/3 of an octave (2
1/3
). The octave
analysis spectra will closely resemble data taken
with older analog type equipment commonly used
in acoustics and sound measurement.

To compute the amplitude of each band, the
normal FFT is taken. Those bins which fall within a
single band are rms summed together (square
root of the sum of the squared magnitudes). The
resulting amplitudes are real quantities and have
no phase information. They represent total signal
amplitude within each band.

We will have more about octave analysis later.



ANALYZER BASICS

2-5
DISPLAY TYPES

Spectrum
The most common measurement is the spectrum
and the most useful display is the Log Magnitude.
The Log Mag display graphs the magnitude of the
spectrum on a logarithmic scale using dBV as
units.

Why is the Log Mag display useful? Remember
that the SR760 has a dynamic range of 90 dB and
a display resolution of -114 dB below full scale.
magine what something 0.01% of full scale would
look like on a linear scale. f we wanted it to be 1
centimeter high on the graph, the top of the graph
would be 100 meters above the bottom. t turns
out that the log display is both easy to understand
and shows features which have very different
amplitudes clearly.

Of course the analyzer is capable of showing the
magnitude on a linear scale if you wish.

The real and imaginary parts are always displayed
on a linear scale. This avoids the problem of
taking the log of negative voltages.

The PSD and Octave analysis are real quantities
and thus may only be displayed as magnitudes. n
addition, the Octave analysis requires the display
to be Log Magnitude.

Phase
n general, phase measurements are only used
when the analyzer is triggered. The phase is
relative to the start of the time record.

The phase is displayed in degrees or radians on a
linear scale from -180 (-!) to +180 (+!) degrees
(rads). There is no phase "unwrap".

The phase of a particular frequency bin is set to
zero if neither the real nor imaginary part of the
FFT is greater than 0.012% of full scale (-78 dB
below f.s.). This avoids the messy phase display
associated with the noise floor. (Remember, even
if a signal is small, its phase extends over the full
360 degrees.)

Watch Out For Phase Errors
The FFT can be thought of as 400 bandpass
filters, each centered on a frequency bin. The
signal within each filter shows up as the amplitude
of each bin. f a signal's frequency is between
bins, the filters act to attenuate the signal a little
bit. This results in a small amplitude error. The
phase error, on the other hand, can be quite large.
Because these filters are very steep and selective,
they introduce very large phase shifts for signals
not exactly on a frequency bin.

On full span, this is generally not a problem. The
bins are 250 Hz apart and most synthesized
sources have no problem generating a signal right
on a frequency bin. But when the span is
narrowed, the bins move much closer together
and it becomes very hard to place a signal exactly
on a frequency bin.


ANALYZER BASICS

2-6
WINDOWING

What is windowing? Let's go back to the time
record. What happens if a signal is not exactly
periodic within the time record? We said that its
amplitude is divided into multiple adjacent
frequency bins. This is true but it's actually a bit
worse than that. f the time record does not start
and stop with the same data value, the signal can
actually smear across the entire spectrum. This
smearing will also change wildly between records
because the amount of mismatch between the
starting value and ending value changes with each
record.

Windows are functions defined across the time
record which are periodic in the time record. They
start and stop at zero and are smooth functions in
between. When the time record is windowed, its
points are multiplied by the window function, time
bin by time bin, and the resulting time record is by
definition periodic. t may not be identical from
record to record, but it will be periodic (zero at
each end).

In the frequency domain
n the frequency domain, a window acts like a
filter. The amplitude of each frequency bin is
determined by centering this filter on each bin and
measuring how much of the signal falls within the
filter. f the filter is narrow, then only frequencies
near the bin will contribute to the bin. A narrow
filter is called a selective window - it selects a
small range of frequencies around each bin.
However, since the filter is narrow, it falls off from
center rapidly. This means that even frequencies
close to the bin may be attenuated somewhat. f
the filter is wide, then frequencies far from the bin
will contribute to the bin amplitude but those close
by will probably not be attenuated much.

The net result of windowing is to reduce the
amount of smearing in the spectrum from signals
not exactly periodic with the time record. The
different types of windows trade off selectivity,
amplitude accuracy, and noise floor.

The SR760 offers four types of window functions -
Uniform (none), Flattop, Hanning and Blackman-
Harris (BMH).

Uniform
The uniform window is actually no window at all.
The time record is used with no weighting. A
signal will appear as narrow as a single bin if its
frequency is exactly equal to a frequency bin. (t is
exactly periodic within the time record). f its
frequency is between bins, it will affect every bin of
the spectrum. These two cases also have a great
deal of amplitude variation between them (up to
4 dB).

n general, this window is only useful when looking
at transients which do not fill the entire time
record.

Hanning
The Hanning window is the most commonly used
window. t has an amplitude variation of about
1.5 dB (for signals between bins) and provides
reasonable selectivity. ts filter rolloff is not
particularly steep. As a result, the Hanning window
can limit the performance of the analyzer when
looking at signals close together in frequency and
very different in amplitude.

FIattop
The Flattop window improves on the amplitude
accuracy of the Hanning window. ts between-bin
amplitude variation is about .02 dB. However, the
selectivity is a little worse. Unlike the Hanning, the
Flattop window has a wide pass band and very
steep rolloff on either side. Thus, signals appear
wide but do not leak across the whole spectrum.

BMH
The BMH window is a very good window to use
with this analyzer. t has better amplitude accuracy
(about 0.7 dB) than the Hanning, very good
selectivity and the fastest filter rolloff. The filter is
steep and narrow and reaches a lower attenuation
than the other windows. This allows signals close
together in frequency to be distinguished, even
when their amplitudes are very different.

f a measurement requires the full dynamic range
of the analyzer, then the BMH window is probably
the best one to use.



ANALYZER BASICS

2-7
AVERAGING

The SR760 analyzer supports several types of
averaging. n general, averaging many spectra
together improves the accuracy and repeatability
of measurements.

RMS Averaging
RMS averaging computes the weighted mean of
the sum of the squared magnitudes (FFT times its
complex conjugate). The weighting is either linear
or exponential.

RMS averaging reduces fluctuations in the data
but does not reduce the actual noise floor. With a
sufficient number of averages, a very good
approximation of the actual random noise floor can
be displayed.

Since RMS averaging involves magnitudes only,
displaying the real or imaginary part or phase of
an RMS average has no meaning. The RMS
average has no complex information.

Vector Averaging
Vector averaging averages the complex FFT
spectrum. (The real part is averaged separately
from the imaginary part.) This can reduce the
noise floor for random signals since they are not
phase coherent from time record to time record.

Vector averaging requires a trigger. The signal of
interest must be both periodic and phase
synchronous with the trigger. Otherwise, the real
and imaginary parts of the signal will not add in
phase and instead will cancel randomly.

With vector averaging, the real and imaginary
parts as well as phase displays are correctly
averaged and displayed. This is because the
complex information is preserved.

Peak HoId
Peak Hold is not really averaging, rather the new
spectral magnitudes are compared to the previous
data, and if the new data is larger, then the new
data is stored. This is done on a frequency bin by
bin basis. The resulting display shows the peak
magnitudes which occurred in the previous group
of spectra.

Peak Hold detects the peaks in the spectral
magnitudes and only applies to Spectrum, PSD,
and Octave Analysis measurements. However, the
peak magnitude values are stored in the original
complex form. f the real or imaginary part or
phase is being displayed for spectrum
measurements, the display shows the real or
imaginary part or phase of the complex peak
value.

Linear Averaging
Linear averaging combines N (number of
averages) spectra with equal weighting in either
RMS, Vector or Peak Hold fashion. When the
number of averages has been completed, the
analyzer stops and a beep is sounded. When
linear averaging is in progress, the number of
averages completed is continuously displayed
below the Averaging indicator at the bottom of the
screen.

Auto ranging is temporarily disabled when a linear
average is in progress. Be sure that you don't
change the input range manually either. Changing
the range during a linear average invalidates the
results.

ExponentiaI Averaging
Exponential averaging weights new data more
than old data. Averaging takes place according to
the formula,

AverageN = (New Spectrum 1/N) +
(Average
N-1
) (N-1)/N

where N is the number of averages.

Exponential averages "grow" for approximately the
first 5N spectra until the steady state values are
reached. Once in steady state, further changes in
the spectra are detected only if they last
sufficiently long. Make sure that the number of
averages is not so large as to eliminate the
changes in the data that might be important.



ANALYZER BASICS

2-8
REAL TIME BANDWIDTH AND OVERLAP PROCESSING

What is real time bandwidth? Simply stated, it is
the frequency span whose corresponding time
record exceeds the time it takes to compute the
spectrum. At this span and below, it is possible to
compute the spectra for every time record with no
loss of data. The spectra are computed in "real
time". At larger spans, some data samples will be
lost while the FFT computations are in progress.

For all frequency spans, the SR760 can compute
the FFT in less time than it takes to acquire the
time record. Thus, the real time bandwidth of the
SR760 is 100 kHz. This includes the real time
digital filtering and heterodyning, the FFT
processing, and averaging calculations. The
SR760 employs two digital signal processors to
accomplish this. The first collects the input
samples, filters and heterodynes them, and stores
a time record. The second computes the FFT and
averages the spectra. Since both processors are
working simultaneously, no data is ever lost.

Averaging speed
How can you take advantage of this?Consider
averaging. Other analyzers typically have a real
time bandwidth of around 4 kHz. This means that
even though the time record at 100 kHz span is
only 4 ms, the "effective" time record is 25 times
longer due to processing overhead. An analyzer
with 4 kHz of real time bandwidth can only
process about 10 spectra a second. When
averaging is on, this usually slows down to about 5
spectra per second. At this rate it's going to take a
couple of minutes to do 500 averages.

The SR760, on the other hand, has a real time
bandwidth of 100 kHz. At a 100 kHz span, the
analyzer is capable of processing 250 spectra per
second. n fact, this is so fast, that the display can
not be updated for each new spectra. The display
only updates about 6 times a second. However,
when averaging is on, all of the computed spectra
will contribute to the average. The time it takes to
complete 500 averages is only a few seconds.
(nstead of a few minutes!)

OverIap
What about narrow spans where the time record is
long compared to the processing time? The
analyzer computes one FFT per time record and
can wait until the next time record is complete
before computing the next FFT. The update rate
would be no faster than one spectra per time
record. With narrow spans, this could be quite
slow.

And what is the processor doing while it waits?
Nothing. With overlap processing, the analyzer
does not wait for the next complete time record
before computing the next FFT. nstead it uses
data from the previous time record as well as data
from the current time record to compute the next
FFT. This speeds up the processing rate.
Remember, most window functions are zero at the
start and end of the time record. Thus, the points
at the ends of the time record do not contribute
much to the FFT. With overlap, these points are
"re-used" and appear as middle points in other
time records. This is why overlap effectively
speeds up averaging and smoothes out window
variations.

Typically, time records with 50% overlap provide
almost as much noise reduction as non-
overlapping time records when RMS averaging is
used. When RMS averaging narrow spans, this
can reduce the measurement time by 2.

OverIap percentage
The amount of overlap is specified as a
percentage of the time record. 0% is no overlap
and 99.8% is the maximum (511 out of 512
samples re-used). The maximum overlap is
determined by the amount of time it takes to
calculate an FFT and the length of the time record
and thus varies according to the span.

The SR760 always tries to use the maximum
amount of overlap possible. This keeps the display
updating as fast as possible. Whenever a new
frequency span is selected, the overlap is set to
the maximum possible value for that span. f less
overlap is desired, then use the Average menu to
enter a smaller value. On the widest spans (25, 50
and 100 kHz), no overlap is allowed.

Triggering
f the measurement is triggered, then overlap is
ignored. Time records start with the trigger. The
analyzer must be in continuous trigger mode to
use overlap processing.



ANALYZER BASICS

2-9
INPUT RANGE

The input range on the SR760 varies from a
maximum of 34 dBV full scale to a minimum of -
60 dBV full scale. A signal which exceeds the
current input range will cause the OvrLoad
message to appear at the bottom of the screen. A
signal which exceeds the maximum safe range will
turn on the H V indicator.

The input range is displayed in dBV. The
maximum and minimum range equivalents are
tabulated below.

Max 34 dBVpk
31 dBVrms
50.1 Vpk
35.4 Vrms

Min -60 dBVpk
-63 dBVrms
1.0 mVpk
0.7 mVrms

ManuaI Range
The input range can be specified in the nput
menu to be fixed at a certain value. Signals that
exceed the range will overload and become
distorted. Signals which fall to a small percentage
of the range will become hard to see.

Auto Range
The input range can be set to automatically correct
for signal overloads. When autoranging is on and
an overload occurs, the input range is adjusted so
that the signal no longer overloads. f the signal
decreases, the input range is not adjusted. You
must take care to ensure that the signal does not
fall dramatically after pushing the input range to a
very insensitive setting.

While the analyzer is performing linear averaging,
the input range is NOT changed even if the signal
overloads. The overload indicator will still light to
indicate an over range condition. Changing the
range during a linear average invalidates the
average.