Fitting the Rules to the Ranks: A Look into the Nature of Discipline in the Abraham Lincoln Brigade Irene

S. Walcott isw205@nyu.edu Permanent phone number: 78 !"#2!0$$8 %urrent Phone &umber '(obile Phone in (adrid )or this semester*: $2$ 8" 20

+ery recently the Spanish %i,il War- the International .ri/ades- and more speci)ically the 0braham 1incoln .ri/ade ha,e been recei,in/ the attention they ha,e ri/ht)ully deser,ed- but ha,e ne,er been /i,en until now. 0 debate has emer/ed re/ardin/ the ,olunteers who ris2ed their li,es to )i/ht a/ainst )ascism on the side o) 3epublican Spain )rom "4$!": the notion that has somewhat latently e5isted about the 6/ood )i/ht7 wa/ed by the idealistic youth o) 8epression!era 0merica is now bein/ countered by another perspecti,e- the 6dar2 side7 o) %ommunist %ontrol comin/ direct )rom (oscow that )orced ,olunteers to stay )i/htin/ in Spain and punished them harshly )or e,ery 2ind o) military and political dissent. 9his debate has important implications on the study o) discipline 'the sub:ect o) this research* within- speci)ically- the 0braham 1incoln .ri/ade and- more /enerally- the International .ri/ades as a whole. 9he more positi,e ,iew is that discipline was ,oluntary and sel)!imposed as a result o) such stron/ political commitment to such a worthy cause: the battle a/ainst )ascism and the e5tension o) democracy worldwide. 9he dar2er side- thou/h- poses the notion that discipline was completely imposed upon the youn/ ,olunteers by the %omintern- with harsh punishments waitin/ )or any military or political dissenter. 9he /uidin/ ;uestions o) this research are as )ollows: What was discipline in the 0braham 1incoln .ri/ades< =ow much was ,oluntary and how much was imposed< 0nd- perhaps most importantly- what did discipline mean to the 0merican ,olunteers )i/htin/ in the Spanish %i,il War< What research on these ;uestions has produced- and what the e,idence will show- is that while discipline was not ;uite the ideal o) bein/ completely sel)!imposed with political con,iction enou/h to carry the soldiers throu/h any and all hardships- neither was it at all the case that discipline came direct )rom Stalin

himsel) with ,iolent punishments )or any indi,iduals who went a/ainst the %ommunist Party line. What emer/es is the )act that discipline was- )or the most part- somethin/ that the International .ri/ade leadership was wor2in/ on as the Spanish %i,il War was bein/ )ou/ht. 0nd )or the 0merican ,olunteers in the Spanish %i,il War- the discipline that wor2ed was the 2ind that reco/ni>ed them as the indi,iduals they were and that respected them as such- ta2in/ into account their rebellious natures- stron/ sentiments o) e;uality and social :ustice- and o) course- the political con,ictions that brou/ht them to Spain. 9he )ollowin/ topics will be co,ered in order to create a more complete ima/e o) the nature o) discipline in the 0braham 1incoln .ri/ade: a more in!depth loo2 at the current debate- an e5amination o) both the uni;ue nature o) the Spanish %i,il War and the 0merican ,olunteers who )ou/ht- a loo2 into the role o) Political %ommissars and the successes and )ailures they encountered- a closer loo2 at desertion and how it was dealt with 'a crucial element o) the recent debate*- a case study o) the reaction to the imposition o) salutin/ in the 01. when the International .ri/ades were incorporated into the Spanish 3epublican 0rmy- and the problems o) discipline durin/ and )ollowin/ the )irst battle in which the 0merican ,olunteers were at the )ront- ?arama- and the political and military preparation a)ter the @reat 3etreats in the Sprin/ o) "48- /oin/ into the )inal battle in which the 0mericans )ou/ht- the Abro. 9o conduct this research both primary and secondary sources were used- both o) which present important problems and limitations worth mentionin/ here. Birst- howe,erit is important to note that any study o) the Spanish %i,il War- and more speci)ically )or this research the 0merican ,olunteers who )ou/ht- is )rau/ht with political sympathies. 9his will become more ob,ious upon a closer e5amination o) the uni;ue nature o) the

war- but the reason why such radically di))erent interpretations o) one e,ent and e,en o) the same e,idence about that e,ent- can and do e5ist is the aura o) politics and political ideolo/ies that surround it. 9he Spanish %i,il War was )ou/ht on Spanish land- but it )ar transcended the ,alleys and ri,ers on which the battles were )ou/ht to ta2e on be)oredurin/- and a)ter the characteri>ation as a /lobal con)lict between the ma:or ideolo/ies e5istin/ in the world at the time it was )ou/ht: %ommunism- 8emocracy- and Bascism. It is precisely this reason that any research on the Spanish %i,il War must there)ore loo2 closely at how all e,idence is attained- presented- and )or what a/endas it is bein/ used. 0 study o) the discipline ma/ni)ies these di))iculties- which is made ob,ious by the ,ery e5istence o) the current debate. 1imitations in the primary sources emer/e in that 0merican ,olunteers themsel,es had an a/enda that promoted the ar/ument )or political con,iction and sel)!imposed discipline that seems to ha,e at times o,ershadowed the possibility )or a more comple5 loo2 into the topic. Inter,iews conducted a)ter the )acteither soon a)ter 'as in the case o) the 8ollard inter,iews* or lon/ a)ter 'as in the case o) the 6@ood Bi/ht7 inter,iews* promoted this same ,iew- re)lectin/ the a/endas o) both the ,olunteers and the inter,iewers themsel,es. 0 secondary source 'which includes ,ast amounts o) primary source material* loo2ed at in some depth below is the relati,ely recent boo2 that has come out by editors 3onald 3adosh- (ary 3. =abec2- and @ri/ory Se,ostiano, entitled Spain Betrayed: The Soviet Union in the Spanish Civil War. Csin/ recently re,ealed material )rom the (oscow 0rchi,es- this te5t is what ma2es the ar/ument about the 6dar2 side7 o) discipline and control in the Spanish %i,il War. 9he problem here is that much o) the e,idence the editors draw upon is hi/hly deconte5tuali>ed- ma2in/ it e5tremely di))icult to see connections between the ar/ument
0merican +olunteers in the Spanish %i,il War- %lass 8iscussion- 8 0pril 2005

bein/ made and the actual document bein/ presented. Binally- another secondary source o) which much use has been made in conductin/ this research is Peter %arrollDs The Odyssey of the Abraham Lincoln Brigade. While o,erall this is a complete and belie,able te5t that does seem to treat all o) the ma:or issues surroundin/ the 0braham 1incoln .ri/ade- there is an issue o) somewhat poor documentation- which made it di))icult to )ollow up much o) the e,idence presented in the te5t itsel). 0lso- it is written in such a way that did away with some o) the con,entions o) an analysis o) an historical e,ent by loo2in/ at it chronolo/ically. Peter %arroll said himsel) that he produced this wor2 to de! politici>e and humani>e the 01. and the issues surroundin/ it.2 While this somewhat deals with the problem o) the Spanish %i,il War as an o,er!ideolo/i>ed e,ent- it presents new problems as )ar as producin/ a strictly academic piece o) wor2. In loo2in/ at the debate at hand- between the le/acy o) the 6/ood )i/ht7 wa/ed by the 0merican ,olunteers and the use o) new e,idence to show an o,er!in,ol,ement o) the So,iet Cnion it is somewhat easier to present the latter than the )ormer ar/umentprimarily because it is has pro,en easier to dispro,e the second ar/ument than the )irst. In the research that has been conducted- the primary source material and the research ta2en )rom Peter %arrollDs boo2 point more clearly to the )ormer ar/ument- while the ar/ument made by 3adosh- et.al. and =ar,ey Elehr- et. al. in their wor2 The Secret World of American Communism is more easily pro,en i) not )alse- then at least ha,in/ /one )ar beyond what the actual e,idence presents. 0part )rom much o) the other primary sources and %arroll- the source that seems to best and most uni,ersally present the ar/ument )or political con,iction not only as the impetus )or ,olunteerin/ to )i/ht in the )irst place- but as the momentum )or sel)!
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Peter %arroll- 0merican +olunteers in the Spanish %i,il War- $ Bebruary 2005

discipline durin/ the war are the responses /i,en by 0merican ,olunteers to the ;uestions posed by ?ohn 8ollard in the inter,iews he conducted )or his research on 6Bear and %oura/e under .attle %onditions.7 In the inter,iews e5amined )or this research- one thin/ that all o) the ,olunteers seemed ;uite sure about was that- 6another thin/ that helps a man to /o thru is the stren/th o) the con,iction that the thin/ he is )i/htin/ )or is ri/ht.74 9his- the same ,olunteer contended- was why 6education on the political lines o) the ideals in,ol,ed7# were so importantF because i) the soldiers 2now why they are bein/ told to )ollow certain orders they are )ar more li2ely to )ollow them willin/ly and well. (ore can be e5pected in battle )rom the soldier who is conscious and appro,in/ o) the cause that he is )i/htin/ to )urther.5 9he ,olunteers were realistic in pointin/ out that there are moments under the pressure o) battle that soldiers may panic or e,en lose their human instinct )or sel)!preser,ation. 9his is why it was so important to pre,ent panic )rom runnin/ throu/h the ran2s- which too2 a /reat deal o) sel)!discipline. In describin/ a case when durin/ a particular day o) battle so many were 2illed- but yet they did not retreatthe ,olunteer states that e,en when a man was hit he did not let himsel) cry out. A,en thou/h e,eryone was aware o) how bad the situation was- 6nobody made himsel) responsible )or causin/ the mo,e and we held the position.7$ Such e5treme sel)!control was made possible by always 2eepin/ in mind the cause and the :ustness o) the cause )or which the ,olunteers were )i/htin/. 0nd- the more a soldier )i/hts- the more he sustains in battle- the better he becomes as a )i/hterF 6GhHe clin/s to his con,ictions- and /ets

01.0- ?ohn 8ollard 3esearch Biles )or 6Bear and %oura/e Cnder .attle %onditions-7 .o5 - Bolder #9ranscript o) inter,iew with ,olunteer I.: ?une 7- "#2 # 01.0- ?ohn 8ollard 3esearch Biles- inter,iew with ,olunteer I.: ?une 7- "#2 5 01.0- ?ohn 8ollard 3esearch Biles )or 6Bear and %oura/e Cnder .attle %onditions-7 .o5 - Bolder #9ranscript o) additional inter,iew with ,olunteer I.: ?une 2$- "#2 $ 01.0- ?ohn 8ollard 3esearch Biles- additional inter,iew with ,olunteer I.: ?une 2$- "#2

stron/er all the time.77 9his e,idence shows an ideolo/ical o,er,iew o) how political con,iction created sel)!discipline- which will be hi/hli/hted )urther in the more speci)ic e5amples that )ollow later- includin/ especially the discussion o) the si/ni)icant role o) political commissars. In September 200 an article entitled 6Innocents 0broad7 was published in anity !air claimin/ that the cheery myth o) heroic youn/sters who ,olunteered to )i/ht in Spain- ris2in/ e,erythin/ to )i/ht )or democracy- had recently been e5ploded by new e,idence presented in 3adoshDs edited wor2 Spain Betrayed. .e/innin/ with a ;uic2 and incomplete e5planation o) the rise o) the 6le/end o) Spain-7 9anenhaus /oes on to describe 6a second- or shadow- story o) the 1incoln .ri/ade-7 one which see2s to destroy the 6most stubbornly endurin/ political myth o) the 20th century: the myth o) the ,irtuousinnocent le)t.78 While the author ma2es the claim that this new e,idence- or rather new ar/ument- does not mean that the bra,ery o) the ,olunteers was any less realF howe,er- it means the con,iction with which they )ou/ht was utterly un)ounded. Csin/ 3adoshDs boo2 as e,idence- 9anenhaus /oes on to describe the ri/id yet incompetent So,iet control o,er the ,olunteer armies in Spain- the ,iolent punishments that too2 place in the 6re! education camps7- the internal dissention and distrust between Spanish and 0merican soldiers- the 6)ra//in/7 o) commander Jli,er 1aw- the hu/e problem o) desertion amon/ the .ri/ades- and the So,iet an5iety about the e5istence o) spies- which 9anenhaus connects directly to the numbers o) 0mericans who simply ,anished )rom the records." 0be Jshero))- a well!2nown 0braham 1incoln .ri/ade ,eteran is ;uoted as statin/ that he and many others re)used acceptance o) the 6dar2 side o) Spain7 because- 6DI) youDre
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01.0- ?ohn 8ollard 3esearch Biles- additional inter,iew with ,olunteer I.: ?une 2$- "#2 9anenhaus- Sam. 6Innocents 0broad.7 anity !air. September 200 : p. 04! 0# " 9anenhaus- Sam. 6Innocents 0broad.7 anity !air. September 200

dri,en by the blindin/ )orce o) passion- youDre not /oin/ to critici>e it-D7 0 which su//ests that political con,iction has o,ershadowed the truth o) what most ,olunteers claim to be one- i) not the- most si/ni)icant e5periences o) their li,es. 9he article )inally ends with a hypothetical situation: What would Spain ha,e become i) Stalin 'there is no mention o) the Spanish 3epublic* had pre,ailed< 9he answer: 6Spain would ha,e become a dictatorship depressin/ly similar to the one Branco ultimately installed.7 3adosh- =abec2 and Se,ostano, ma2e their bold claim early in the introduction o) their wor2: 6We now ha,e- )or the )irst time- hard e,idence that pro,es what many had suspected since the be/innin/ o) the Spanish %i,il War: that Stalin sou/ht )rom the ,ery be/innin/ to control e,ents in Spain and to mana/e or pre,ent the spread o) actualKsocial re,olution.7 2 9hey ar/ue that throu/h the use o) 6ad,isors7 sent by the %omintern- the International .ri/ades )unctioned essentially as a So,iet 0rmy- 2eepin/ a close watch on and in turn punishin/ harshly- any suspected 6bad elements-7 as they are re)erred to in se,eral o) the (oscow 0rchi,e documents. 4 Aspecially important )or this ar/ument is that ,olunteers who wanted to be sent home a)ter their tour o) duty were not allowedwhich lends itsel) to another part o) the ar/ument- that desertion and problems o) morale were enormous amon/ the International .ri/ades. # 0ll o) the in)ormation :ust presented appears in the editorial sections o) 3adoshDs boo2- where he and the other editors ma2e their ar/uments based 'it seems ;uite loosely* on the documents they selected )rom the (oscow 0rchi,es. What is actually presented in the primary source documents- thou/his ;uite di))erent )rom these opinions. 3ather than con)irmin/ the domination o) the
9anenhaus- Sam. 6Innocents 0broad.7 anity !air. September 200 : p. 0" 9anenhaus- Sam. 6Innocents 0broad.7 anity !air. September 200 : p. 0" 2 3adosh- 3onald- (ary 3. =abec2 and @ri/ory Se,ostiano,. Spain Betrayed: The Soviet Union in the Spanish Civil War. &ew =a,en and 1ondon: Lale Cni,ersity Press- 200 - Introduction p. 5,iii. 4 3adosh- p. 0# # 3adosh- p. 24#
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So,iet Cnion and the %omintern o,er 3epublican Spain and strict military and political discipline it imposed- the documents show that there were hu/e problems in the or/ani>ation o) the International .ri/ades- which soldiers- o))icers- and %ommunist representati,es all had to deal with throu/hout the Spanish %i,il War. The Secret World of American Communism by =ar,ey Elehr- et. al- was produced in the same ,ein as 3adoshDs wor2. 9he more speci)ic debate Elehr treats is between two contrary ,iews o) the %PCS0: )irst- that it had ti/ht connections with the CSS3- ne,er actin/ as an independent 0merican political partyF the second- the re,isionist perspecti,eis that the 0merican %ommunist Party was a political party li2e any other- disconnected in its )unctionin/ )rom the So,iet Cnion. Elehr see2s to pro,e the latter )alse and the )ormer true. =e ar/ues that e,en thou/h the %omintern and %PCS0 or/ani>ed ,olunteer armies )or the Spanish %i,il War as a Popular Bront e))ort- the reality is that 0merican ,olunteers were watched ,ery closely and it was o) especially /reat concern to the %omintern that the o))icers be %ommunists. 5 0 2ey point o) e,idence Elehr presents is the suspicious death 'which he ar/ues too2 place )or ideolo/ical reasons* o) 0lbert Wallach- an 0merican ,olunteer in the Spanish %i,il War. Adward Pale/a- another ,olunteer and )riend o) Wallach- testi)ied twice about WallachDs death. In his )irst account Pale/a says that Wallach was arrested when )ound in .arcelona in ci,ilian clothin/ and with 6alle/ed7 )or/ed papers )rom the 0merican %onsul- /i,in/ him protection by the CS @o,ernment. Suspected as a spy- he was then ta2en to the prison camp %astle de Bells where he was ta2en out durin/ the ni/ht and ne,er seen or heard o) a/ain. In Pale/aDs second account he adds that Wallach

Elehr- =ar,ey- ?ohn Aarl =aynes and Bridri2h I/ore,ich Birso,. The Secret World of American Communism. &ew =a,en: Lale Cni,ersity Press- ""5- p. $! 7

was wor2in/ )or the %&9 '%on)ederaciMn national del traba:oF an anti!communistanarcho!syndicalist labor union )ederation o) Spain* at the time o) his arrest and that Wallach was ;uestioned by 9ony 8e (aio 'who was in char/e o) the prison* twice be)ore his mysterious ni/httime death. %itin/ 6document #7-7 an International .ri/ade document- Wallach is stated to ha,in/ wor2ed as a spy at this time- which Elehr says simply cannot be pro,ed. =e also admits at the end o) his commentary that- 6althou/h the documents )ound in the International .ri/ades records and discussed here do not pro,e that Wallach was e5ecuted- they do stron/ly point to a death sentence )or him.7 $ While Elehr ob,iously sees the death o) 0lbert Wallach as e,idence o) the per,asi,e role o) the So,iet Cnion and its )ear o) spies amon/ the International .ri/ades- Peter %arroll tells a somewhat similar story about the- admittedly- mysterious death o) this same ,olunteerbut does not )ollow it to the same lo/ic as Elehr. 8escribin/ Wallach as a liar and a multiple!time deserter and a spreader o) rumors amon/ the unit- %arroll admits that he did die in Spain. =owe,er- %arroll states clearly that 9ony 8e (aio denied any 2nowled/e o) murders ha,in/ ta2en place at %astle de Bells- %ommissar @ates only admitted to 2nowin/ o) the death o) Wallach but not the circumstances around it- and Pale/aDs 'real name =oran* testimony cannot be pro,ed nor dispro,ed. %arroll lets the story remain an un)ortunate mystery while Elehr uses it as e,idence o) the strict and politically!oriented discipline imposed on the 0merican ,olunteers by the So,iet Cnion. =a,in/ stated the ar/uments )or 6the dar2 side7 o) the role o) the So,iet Cnion in the %PCS0 and in the International .ri/ades- it is important to loo2 somewhat more critically at the e,idence 3adosh uses )rom the (oscow 0rchi,es- because what they actually present- while somewhat di))icult to interpret- is )ar )rom the conclusions 3adosh
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Elehr ' ""5*- p. 55! $

has made. In 8ocument #8- what becomes clear is that serious problems e5isted in the I.s as a result o) incompetent o))icers- chau,inism o) the internationals toward the Spanish soldiers- and a desire )or repatriation amon/ some o) the soldiers 7 'which- /i,en the harsh conditions they were withstandin/ and the e5tended duration o) their time )i/htin/- is e,idence o) pure human nature more so than unduly harsh treatment comin/ strai/ht )rom the %omintern*. Burthermore- in 8ocument #"- the writer is e5tremely sympathetic to the )eelin/s o) demorali>ation amon/ the International .ri/ades- statin/ that 6it is always their wea2nesses and )ailures- ne,er their successes and sacri)ices- that are brou/ht to li/ht.7 8 1ater on in this document- the writer actually calls )or better treatment o) the I.s to pre,ent )urther dama/e to their )eelin/s o) solidarity in the )i/ht a/ainst )ascism. 9hrou/hout these documents there is re)erence made to 6hostile elements7 within the ran2s and a concern )or the number o) deserters- but what is also presented is e,idence that these seem only natural reactions /i,en the lac2 o) or/ani>ation and the conditions o) war in /eneral- more speci)ically the horri)ic conditions that were e5perienced durin/ the Spanish %i,il War. Burthermore- in 8ocument 5 - the need )or more ade;uate political wor2 is that the International .ri/ades had a poor sense o) the 6realities o) Spain-7 not to impose a stricter political discipline based on the %ommunist Party line.
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9wo more important issues ta2en up in the documents presented in 3adoshDs boo2 are or/ani>ation o) the International .ri/ades and desertion. While these are hu/e topics o) research- it can be stated brie)ly that these documents do not pro,e the strict control o) the So,iet Cnion o,er the International .ri/ades re/ardin/ or/ani>ation or discipline. 0s
3adosh '200 *- 8ocument #8- 6%opy o) a letter )rom %om. Shtern o) 24K$K47.7 3adosh '200 *- p. 2#4!#- 8ocument #"- 6%on)idential &ote on the situation o) the International .ri/ades at the end o) ?uly "47.7 " 3adosh '200 *- p. 25$- 8ocument 5 - untitled 6top secret7 letter- 2" 0u/ust "47.
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)or or/ani>ation- it is stated clearly in 8ocument 70 that- 6the international units need to wor2 out an or/ani>ation that is uni)ied- solid- and standardi>ed- somewhat di))erent )rom the /enerally accepted G2indH- as it ta2es into account its speci)ic character.720 0nd re/ardin/ desertion- in this same document it is stated that when durin/ a military tribunal to punish a Spanish soldier )or e5ecution the )act that desertion was said to be 6unworthy o) a %ommunist-7 was critici>ed by the author o) this letter because party a))iliation was completely unrelated and 6the tribunal mi/ht be composed o) anarchists.7 Burthermore- re/ardin/ the )act that this soldier was e5ecuted is loo2ed upon ne/ati,ely in this document- with the writer as2in/- 6Where were the bri/ade commander- the bri/ade commissar- and the commissar o) the International .ri/ades Gto help the soldierH<72 It is important here to brin/ up one problem with the e,idence presented here. 9he )rame o) re)erence o) the spea2er is unclear- because the people who wrote these documents- with close ties to the %omintern- are o)ten shown to be critical o) the times when %ommunism is too present amon/ the International .ri/ades and they o)ten seem more sympathetic to the situations the ,olunteers are bein/ )aced with than with strictly )ollowin/ the party line. 9here)ore- the way the e,idence is bein/ used comes into e,en /reater ;uestion- /i,en the editorial sections pro,ide no /uidance as to how these documents should- or e,en are- bein/ analy>ed. 9wo short wor2s- one by Peter %arroll and the other by =elen @raham- stron/ly criti;ue the wor2 done by scholars aimin/ to pro,e the dubious role o) the So,iet Cnion in the )unctionin/ o) the International .ri/ades in the Spanish %i,il War. %allin/ the wor2 o) 9ananhaus- 3adosh- and Elehr 6pseudo!research-7 he states that all they ha,e
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3adosh '200 *- p. ##4- 8ocument 70- 6&otes on the Situation in the International Cnits in Spain 3eport by %olonel %om. S,erche,s2y 'Walter* G # ?anuary "48H.7 2 3adosh '200 *- p. #55!$- 8ocument 70- 6&otes on the Situation in the International Cnits in Spain 3eport by %olonel %om. S,erche,s2y 'Walter* G # ?anuary "48H.7

done is simply to compile )acts )rom the (oscow 0rchi,es without loo2in/ at all into the ori/ins o) the documents or the a/endas o) the indi,iduals who wrote the documents. 0lso- much use is made o) lists o) names which state political a))iliation or- more importantly perhaps- 6bad elements7 in 3adosh and Elehr to pro,e that any names that disappeared became ,ictims o) the strict So,iet discipline and punishment 'in other words- that they were summarily e5ecuted*. =owe,er- %arroll ma2es the point that the e5istence o) soldiers who de)ied military discipline are present in e,ery army and in e,ery war- and merely the )act that such lists were compiled by the %omintern does not point to anythin/ more than that. %arroll does not deny that the documents unco,ered in the (oscow 0rchi,es are important pieces o) historical e,idenceF howe,er- he does state clearly that they are di))icult sources and as )or comin/ to the 2inds o) conclusions reached by 3adosh and Elehr- 6the (oscow archi,es do not say.722 Jne o) the main criti;ues @raham ma2es in her article is that- 6Pro)essor 3adosh and his co!editors lea,e entirely out o) account the broader picture o) 3epublican Spain at war. It is as i) they see it as a blan2 screen waitin/ to be written on by So,iet and %omintern players.724 While the documents do clearly show disor/ani>ation and )ra/mentation o) the International .ri/ades and an honest attempt to stru//le with these problems by So,iet and %omintern leadership- what they do not show is the attempt o) the So,iet Cnion and %omintern to set up a Socialist 3epublic in Spain- which is a ma:or part o) what 3adosh ar/ues.2# In sum- it is clear that the ar/ument presented in the wor2s by authors tryin/ to pro,e the 6shadow story7 o) the role o) the So,iet Cnion- and the )unctionin/ o) the I.s in /eneral
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%arroll- Peter. 69he (yth o) the (oscow 0rchi,es.7 Science and Society- +ol. $8- &o. 4- Ball 200#- 447! 4# . 24 @raham- =elen. 6Spain .etrayed< 9he &ew =istorical (c%arthyism.7 Science and Society- +ol. $8- &o. 4- Ball 200#- 4$7. 2# @raham- =elen. 6Spain .etrayed< 9he &ew =istorical (c%arthyism.7 Science and Society- +ol. $8- &o. 4- Ball 200#- 4$#!4$".

and the 0braham 1incoln .ri/ade more speci)ically- is e5tremely di))icult to accept. .e)ore attemptin/ to )urther this debate- /oin/ beyond simply the two e5tremes in the discussion o) what discipline was in the 0braham 1incoln .ri/ade and what it meant to the ,olunteers- it is crucial to identi)y the uni;ue nature o) the Spanish %i,il War and the ,olunteers )rom the CS who went to )i/ht in it. Who the ,olunteers were has important implications )or how discipline wor2ed and did not wor2- how it was accepted or not accepted- within the ran2s o) the 01.. 9he Spanish %i,il War was uni;ue because it was political- 6a war o) ideolo/y-7 accordin/ to .ill .ailey- an 0merican seaman and ,olunteer.25 It was also uni;ue in that it was so international. 9hou/ht the )i/ht was on Spanish soil- and the war was to 2eep the democratically elected Spanish 3epublican @o,ernment in power- it too2 on such ideolo/ical power that Spain seemed in many ways to ha,e become simply the place where the )i/ht a/ainst )ascism was located. 9he ,olunteers who )ou/ht in the Spanish %i,il War were also uni;ue- re)lecti,e o) the Spanish %i,il War itsel) and the si/ni)icance it too2 on as the battle)ield where %ommunism- 8emocracy- and Bascism clashed in the "40s. 3e)errin/ to the ,olunteers in the 0braham 1incoln .ri/ade- .ailey said that it was politics that made the di))erence in the war and the soldiers: 6Nyou were political be)ore you went to Spain- and we remained political while we were in Spain.72$ When the ,olunteers le)t )or Spain- they were aware that what they were doin/ was somethin/ newF they were- accordin/ to 01. ,olunteer (orris (ic2enber/- the 6Dpioneers o) the proletarian army.D727 9hou/h united in their political con,ictions and belie) in the possibility o) a better )uture- the ,olunteers were indi,iduals. 9hou/h many were members o) the %ommunist
25 2$

01.0 2 $- 6@ood Bi/ht7 Production (aterials- .o5 - Bolder # - Inter,iew 9ranscript: .ailey- .ill 'II* 01.0 2 $- 6@ood Bi/ht7 Production (aterials- .o5 - Bolder # - Inter,iew 9ranscript: .ailey- .ill 'II* 27 %arroll- Peter. The Odyssey of the Abraham Lincoln Brigade. Stan)ord- %0: Stan)ord Cni,ersity Press""#- p.

Party and other )ar le)t political parties and or/ani>ations- they were e,en the radicals o) these /roups. 9he most common reason ,olunteers /i,e )or why they went to )i/ht in Spain is simply- 6I came to Spain because I )elt I had to.728 While this response su//ests the decision was only natural- the )act that the choice to ris2 oneDs li)e- especially )i/htin/ )or the preser,ation o) democracy in another country- is not at all natural- and it ta2es a ,ery uni;ue indi,idual to ma2e such a choice. 9he many %ommunists who :oined in the stru//le were at the )ore)ront o) many local and world stru//les- includin/ )i/htin/ po,erty 'which was especially important durin/ the @reat 8epression in "40s 0merica* and stru//lin/ a/ainst racism- which was also rampant a/ainst .lac2s in the Cnited States at this time- with the %ommunist Party the only /roup ta2in/ an acti,e and pro/ressi,e stance.2" What is also si/ni)icant is that the /eneration o) "40s youth /rew up with a /reat )ear o) war a)ter World War I- and so they were pro)oundly a/ainst war. Bor these same indi,iduals to willin/ly put themsel,es in the position o) 2illin/ and possibly bein/ 2illed- was a hu/e commitment and spea2s to the hu/e sense o) stru//le they )elt and their belie) that to )i/ht in Spain was to )i/ht a 6:ust war-740 one that needed to be )ou/ht to a,oid )uture wars.4 9he a,era/e ,olunteer amon/ the 4000 in the 0braham 1incoln .ri/ade was a man between 2 !27 )rom an industrial urban center with acti,e labor unions and radical political partiesF an indi,idual who was amon/ the wor2in/ class or a colle/e studentwho had su))ered )rom the 8epression- and who had a )amily with a history o) stru//le

28

&elson- %ary and ?e))erson =endric2s- eds. "adrid #$%&: Letters of the Abraham Lincoln Brigade !rom the Spanish Civil War. &ew Lor2 and 1ondon: 3outled/e- ""$. 2" .uhle- Paul and 8an @eor/a2as. 6%ommunist Party- CS0.7 'ncyclopedia of the American Left. Cni,ersity o) Illinois Press- ""2- p. ! 2. 40 (oe Bishman- 0merican +olunteers in the Spanish %i,il War- 28 (arch 2005. 4 &elson ' ""$*- p. 48

and su))erin/- many o) whom were )orei/n!born or )irst!/eneration 0mericans.42 (any o) the ,olunteers had /rown up marchin/ in pic2et lines- )i/htin/ )or union reco/nitionparticipatin/ in e,ery possible 2ind o) political actionF )or many- includin/ 0be Smorodan- li)e re,ol,ed around the political action that too2 place in &ew Lor2 %ityDs Cnion S;uare.44 Se,eral important /roups o) people ,olunteered- includin/ studentsartists- and the lar/est sin/le /roup o) ,olunteers- the seamen- who deser,e special attention. In many sources- it is stated that the seamen- who )ormed an entire unit within the 01.- were 2nown to be an anarchistic- anti!authoritarian /roup o) troublema2ers. Why radicalism )lourished amon/ these indi,iduals is somewhat hard to say- but it seems that such an occupation where the men li,e in their own communities- relati,ely shut o)) )rom the rest o) society and the moderatin/ in)luences that come with it contribute to their so!called anarchistic tendencies. Burthermore- bein/ a seaman a))ords a wor2er time to read and thin2 about the world and the ,arious )orms o) e5ploitation that they see. While in Spain they brou/ht with them their bac2/round o) indi,idualism and unwillin/ness to be shortchan/ed. 0s .ill .ailey stated about the seamen in terms o) discipline- 6Ni) there were conditions to be /ot- we wanted them.74# 0nother si/ni)icant /roup o) ,olunteers were artists- perhaps not so much in numbers- but- in the words o) 0be Jshero))- 6Where- where be)ore or since did you ha,e a situation where poets came to the )ront<745 9hat the ,olunteers )ormed such a uni;ue /roup o) indi,iduals is especially important in loo2in/ at their e5periences and reactions to discipline in the war because all o) the men brou/ht with them to Spain their past e5periences and li)estyles42

3osenstone- 3obert 0. Crusade of the Left: The Lincoln Battalion in the Spanish Civil War. &ew Lor2: Western Publishin/ %ompany- Inc- "$"- p. "8!". 44 0be Smorodan- 0merican +olunteers in the Spanish %i,il War- 28 (arch 2005. 4# 01.0 2 $- 6@ood Bi/ht7 Production (aterials- .o5 - Bolder #0- Inter,iew 9ranscript: .ailey- .ill 45 01.0 2 $- 6@ood Bi/ht7 Production (aterials- .o5 - Bolder 5#- Inter,iew 9ranscript: Jshero))- 0be

which led to conduct amon/ the ran2s that ,eered )rom that o) other soldiers in other wars.4$ Jne o) the ma:or characteristics o) the Spanish %i,il War was the use o) political commissars within the Spanish 3epublican 0rmy- includin/ the International .ri/ades. 9he %ommissariat was a political structure to mirror the military or/ani>ationF at each le,el o) command there was a commissar with e;ual ran2 to the military o))icer and the two shared authority at that le,el. 9his structure re)lected the political nature o) the war and the army- especially the char/e o) 2eepin/ the army disciplined lay lar/ely on the commissars- since they were the o))icers responsible )or political education o) the troops. In )act- perhaps the best way to describe the commissars as )ar as their relation to the military structure- was that they ser,ed as 6bu))ers between the men and the military.747 9he main role o) the commissar was to 2eep up moral amon/ the troops not only by 2eepin/ them up!to!date politically and e5plainin/ the political reasons behind military decisions- but also by dealin/ with such issues as )ood- clothin/- tobacco- and the sendin/Krecei,in/ o) mail. 3obert (erriman held that the political commissars were important /i,en the composition o) the 0braham 1incoln .ri/ade o) stron/ indi,idualsbecause the only way to achie,e ,oluntary discipline )rom the men was by pro,idin/ constant political education and e5planations o) the rationale behind military problems and decisions- because the men were not predisposed to )ollowin/ orders simply because they were /i,en and without /ood reason )or doin/ so. 9he commissars and the role they played were truly re)lecti,e o) the si/ni)icance o) political con,iction in 2eepin/ the men in Spain and )i/htin/ a/ainst )ascism.48
4$ 47

01.0 2 $- 6@ood Bi/ht7 Production (aterials- .o5 - Bolder 5#- Inter,iew 9ranscript: Jshero))- 0be 01.0 2 $- 6@ood Bi/ht7 Production (aterials- .o5 - Bolder # - Inter,iew 9ranscript: .ailey- .ill 'II* 48 %arroll- Peter ' ""#*- p. "5!$

9here are some who ar/ue that the real :ob o) the political commissars was 6to 2eep the army under %ommunist domination and loyal to the party line-74" but many more are o) the opinion that commissars- thou/h completely political in nature- played a much more encompassin/ role by ma2in/ ,ery clear to the men why they were )i/htin/ and by 2eepin/ up morale and spirit 'which o)ten had more to do with daily necessities such as )ood and tobacco than with politics* amon/ the soldiers as more o) a )riend than a superior.#0 9his is not to say that the commissars did not play a crucial role as interpreters o) and educators on the political conditions o) Spain- which certainly was true- but simply ha,in/ 2nowled/e o) the situation and disseminatin/ that 2nowled/e throu/hout the ran2s was not enou/h to ma2e a /ood commissar. 9he relati,e si/ni)icance o) a /i,en political commissar had much to do with his personality and how he could relate to his men- how well they were able to adapt directi,es to the social composition o) their units.# Stated somewhat more bluntly by ,olunteer 0be Jshero))- 6I) you were luc2y- it Gthe commissarH was a decent human bein/ who was part o) the )i/ht you were inF i) you were unluc2y- it was some stupid- i/norant bastard who made li)e more di))icult.7#2 In loo2in/ at what made )or a /ood political commissar and what made )or a bad one- it is use)ul to loo2 closely at two political commissars. While both played important roles in the 0braham 1incoln .ri/ade- 8a,e 8oran is remembered as a rather poor commissar while Ste,e &elson is uni,ersally hailed as probably the ,ery best. In two articles in the olunteer for Liberty- %ommissar 8a,e 8oran is praised )or the ability he showed in trans)ormin/ the 5th .ri/ade into a 6disciplined re/ular army unit.7 3ememberin/ the time be)ore 8oran imposed discipline amon/ the .ri/ade- the
4" #0

3osenstone- 3obert 0. ' "$"*- p. 57 3osenstone- 3obert 0. ' "$"*- p. 57!8 # 3osenstone- 3obert 0. ' "$"*- p. 58 #2 01.0 2 $- 6@ood Bi/ht7 Production (aterials- .o5 - Bolder 5#- Inter,iew 9ranscript: Jshero))- 0be

soldiers are described as )eelin/ themsel,es too 6bour/eois7 to )ollow normal military discipline 'such as salutin/ o))icers*.#4 8oran did not belie,e that the 0braham 1incoln .ri/ade- nor any o) the ,olunteers- deser,ed any 2ind o) special or di))erent treatment and he saw to it that the ,olunteers learn 6the necessity )or strict discipline.7## Peter %arroll- howe,er- tells a somewhat less )latterin/ account o) the %ommissar. In the case o) ,olunteer Pat 3eade- who made a habit o) attac2in/ the %ommunist Party 'bein/ an anarchist and ,ery anti!%ommunist*- unli2e Ste,e &elson who 6matched his ar/uments and ,alued his coura/e-7 8oran was not only intolerant- but actually had 3eade remo,edwhich was one o) the only cases o) an 0merican bein/ openly persecuted )or his political belie)s.#5 0nother e5ample o) 8oranDs strictness- which seems to ha,e mani)ested itsel) as a lac2 o) humanity while he ser,ed as %ommissar- was in a ;uarrel 8oran had with .en:amin @oldstein o,er ha,in/ to wait )or appropriate ;uarters near 9eruel. When @oldstein complained to 8oran about ha,in/ to wait- 8oran made it clear he belie,ed it was not the ,olunteerDs concern- to which @oldstein replied by tellin/ 8oran to 6/o )uc2 himsel).7 8oran pe//ed @oldstein )or insubordination- orderin/ his arrest. 0nother altercation ensued two hours later '@oldstein had not been arrested due to the inter,ention o) other o))icers on his behal)* and this time when 8oran ordered his arrest@oldstein was placed under /uard. When @oldstein was beseeched to apolo/i>e to 8oran he re)used- claimin/- 6DI belie,e in conscious discipline- not imposed discipline-D7 and belie,in/ 8oran to thin2 himsel) superior and a 6bi/ shot-7 he re)used to apolo/i>e. Binally- )or the sa2e o) the party- @oldstein a/reed to say sorry to 8oran and the entire
#4

01.0 +ertical Bile- 8a,e 8oranF 68oran!Birst to 0d,ance!1ast to 3etreat7 by ?ohn @ates- The olunteer for Liberty- (ay "48 ## 01.0 +ertical Bile- 8a,e 8oranF 68a,e 8oran: O@reat loyalty- capacity )or sacri)ice- modestyD7 by 1t.! %ol. +ladimir %opic- The olunteer for Liberty- (ay "48 #5 %arrol- Peter ' ""#*- p. $5!$

episode came to an end. &ot only does this ser,e as testimony to 8oranDs lac2 o) humility 'which it will become clear is a ,ery important attribute in a /ood political commissar*but it is also important as an illustration o) how discipline was ,ery di))erent in the 0braham 1incoln .ri/ade than in ,irtually any other army to date.#$ It is important and only )air- howe,er- to state that %ommissar 8a,e 8oran died a hero- willin/ to char/e ahead at @andessa e,en i) it meant that e,ery man would die- li,in/ and dyin/ accordin/ to the motto o) the commissars: 69he )irst to ad,ance- the last to retreat.7#7 9here)ore- it is not whether or not an indi,idual is a /ood soldier that ma2es him a /ood commissar- but rather i) he has a personality that )its him to the :ob. %ommissar Ste,e &elson- on the other hand- was one o) the most hi/hly respected indi,iduals 'by soldiers- o))icers- and 0mericans bac2 home* to )i/ht in Spain. 0)ter the .attle o) ?arama- the 1incolns were weary- demorali>ed- sad at the loss o) so many )riends- bitter about the incompetence o) the leadership- and an/ry at their inability to /et lea,es )rom the )ront. What they were in /reat need o) was someone who could patch thin/s up- which is e5actly what Ste,e &elson- a ,eteran %ommunist or/ani>er )rom the coal )ields o) Pennsyl,ania- was brou/ht in to do. Brom the moment he arri,ed on 0pril 4 - "47- &elson made himsel) one o) the men. 9his was apparent when on his second day in the 0braham 1incoln .ri/ade- &elson marched with his men 'still )ilthy )rom the trenches o) ?arama* throu/h the streets o) 0lcalP in a (ay 8ay parade- 6while smartly dressed @eneral @al re,iewed them )rom horsebac2 and made a len/thy speech.7#8 (oreo,er- he brou/ht with him his e5periences )rom 5 years o) participation in the wor2in/!class mo,ement in the CS- so he 2new the 2ind o) men and the 2ind o)
#$ #7

%arrol- Peter ' ""#*- p. $$ 3osenstone- 3obert 0. ' "$"*- p. 5" #8 3osenstone- 3obert 0. ' "$"*- p. 5#!5

political- social- and moral de,elopment they all had to ha,e come to )i/ht in Spain. &elson saw his role as bein/ 6Dto su//est- to stimulate- to cut throu/h red tape and release the menDs own initiati,e.D7#" While other commissars carried out commands too literally and without ;uestions- &elson saw the need to adapt the rules to his ran2s- which comes with 2nowled/e and understandin/ o) the men: &elson said- 6DLou must be one o) the boys- concern yoursel) directly with their problemsN.I trusted the men and they trusted me.D750 What %ommissar &elson also came ;uic2ly to reali>e was that while politics was a hu/e part o) his :ob- the problems o) the 0braham 1incoln .ri/ade 'and the International .ri/ades as a whole* were not solely o) a political nature- nor did they re;uire solely political solutions. &elson reali>ed 6that morale was a human problemGandH that it was constructi,e action- not words- which impro,ed the lot o) the soldiers and made them happy.75 9he description Ste,e &elson /i,es o) the role o) political commissars in Spain in his 6@ood Bi/ht7 inter,iew re,eals 'thou/h in a modest manner that seems to ha,e been characteristic o) the leader* much about himsel) and the attributes he had as a commissar that made him so popular and well!respected. &elsonDs con)idence as a leader in the Spanish %i,il War came )rom the )act that upon arri,in/- he met men he had 2nown bac2 in the Cnited States- men with whom he had shared trade union and political e5periences be)ore lea,in/ )or Spain- which /a,e him a /ood sense o) 6how much theyDre /oin/ to respond- 2nowin/ their political bac2/round- or trade union bac2/round.7 =e arri,ed at a particularly /ood time to hear complaints 'about )ood- )irst aid- truc2s- ambulances*- to which he not only listened and attended- but wal2ed up and down the trenches loo2in/ )or
#" 50 5

%arroll- Peter ' ""#*- p. 4 %arroll- Peter ' ""#*- p. 42 3osenstone- 3obert 0. ' "$"*- p. 55

more. =e saw the men as the politically conscious indi,iduals they were- reali>in/ that 6you could not order these men around li2e- automatons- you 2now- turn ri/ht- and turn le)t- and march- and attac2 and so )orth.7 In other words- he saw that traditional military discipline was not )or this bunch- but rather that in order )or them to )ollow orders- they had to 2now what lay ahead and why they were bein/ e5pected to ris2 their li,es 'which they were willin/ to do i) the cause was :ust*F and to e5plain this to them- accordin/ to &elson- was the role o) the political commissar. 9he ,ast ma:ority o) the ,olunteers in the 0braham 1incoln .ri/ade had no prior e5perience in battle- which meant they did not ha,e automatic military responses and could automatically o,ercome )ear in battle- and the only way they ac;uired such reactions was i) they were /i,en the reasonin/ behind e,ery e,ent and the military and political reasons they were presented with e,ery situation. 0nother point which spea2s to &elsonDs humanity and /ood sense to appeal to the menDs pride is that rather than ma2in/ an e5ample o) those men who made errors- he belie,ed it was crucial to ma2e e5amples o) the men who did thin/s well- to /i,e the men who la//ed incenti,e to impro,e.52 What this e5ample o) %ommissar Ste,e &elson shows- there)ore- is that discipline was by no means inherent within the 0braham 1incoln .ri/ade- but that by appealin/ to their reason- political awareness- and indi,iduality- the men pro,ed themsel,es to be e5cellent soldiers time and a/ain. It would be impossible to discuss the nature o) discipline in any army without ta2in/ a close loo2 at desertionF why soldiers deserted- reactions o) )ellow soldiers and o))icers- and the punishment those who were retrie,ed and returned recei,ed. =owe,er- a discussion o) desertion is particularly important in e5aminin/ the nature o) discipline within the 0braham 1incoln .ri/ade )or two reasons: )irst- it ma2es up a si/ni)icant
52

01.0 2 $- 6@ood Bi/ht7 Production (aterials- .o5 - Bolder 54- Inter,iew 9ranscript: &elson- Ste,e

aspect o) the recent debate o,er how and whether discipline was imposed by the So,iet CnionF second- it is curious that desertion has )ormed such a ma:or part o) the study o) the 0braham 1incoln .ri/ade- /i,en the actual number o) deserters )rom the ran2s does not ma2e it stand out )rom any other army in any other war. =ar,ey Elehr ta2es up the topic o) deserters in the 0braham 1incoln .attalionusin/ 8ocument #8- a 61ist o) Suspicious Indi,iduals and 8eserters )rom the I+th .ri/ade-7 to ar/ue that there were serious problems o) morale and discipline amon/ the I+ .ri/ade and that to de,iate )rom %ommunist ideolo/y was considered a crime.54 =e /oes on to introduce 8ocument #" with a ;uote by %ecil Aby statin/ that twenty!)i,e 0merican deserters demandin/ repatriation were sent bac2 to 0ra/on under /uard and 6D0ccordin/ to three witnessesN- these men were later e5ecuted.D75# What 8ocument #" 'a letter to .ill 1awrence )rom " Jctober "47* contains is that 0mericans were in )a,or o) the sentences /i,en to twel,e deserters a)ter trials and that they )elt it time that a clear position be ta2en on the issue o) desertion. 9he 8ocument /oes on to describe the importance o) political education to pre,ent )urther problems with desertion and the )act that the soldiers were ;uite unhappy with J))icer ?oe 8allet- e,en re;uestin/ his remo,al )rom the .attalion- and ends with a statement o) the propa/andandistic ,alue o) the political commissariat and the use o) time o)) )rom the )ront to de,elop political and cultural acti,ities. What 8ocument #" ne,er pro,es- thou/h- and Elehr clearly admits this- is that the deserters were e5ecuted. 9his does not pre,ent him )rom statin/- thou/hthat 6se,ere problems with morale and desertion amon/ the 0merican ,olunteers in the Spanish %i,il War and the ideolo/ical war)are and personal terror directed at some

54 5#

Elehr- =ar,ey ' ""5*- p. 84 Elehr- =ar,ey ' ""5*- p. 8#

,olunteers by their own comrades need to be honestly e5amined-7 which Elehr clearly sees himsel) as doin/ here.55 Where Elehr sees desertion as ha,in/ been a per,asi,e and se,ere problem within the 0braham 1incoln .ri/ade- %arroll- 3osenstone and se,eral ,olunteers see it as not only ha,in/ been a small problem with )ew deserters amon/ the ran2s- but also were ;uite ready to :usti)y the reasons )or desertion by ,olunteers who did lea,e the )ront. It also becomes clear )rom these authors and ,eterans that desertion had a particular meanin/ and was o)ten carried out in particular ways in the 0braham 1incoln .ri/ade 'and in the Spanish %i,il War in /eneral*- which are re)lecti,e o) the political and indi,idualistic nature o) the soldiers. Birst- althou/h it is di))icult to 2now e5actly how many indi,iduals deserted- the number seems small and accounts by ,eterans con)irm thisF one estimate puts the number o) deserters amon/ the 4000 ,olunteers at about 00 indi,iduals.5$ 0lso important is who was most li2ely to desert- to which ,olunteers ha,e responded that it was those who lac2ed su))icient political con,iction in comin/ to Spain in the be/innin/F in other words- it was the men who did not ha,e a /ood understandin/ o) what they were )i/htin/ )or. 9his is not to say that )ear )rom seein/ hea,y casualtiesparticipation in battles 'particularly the most brutal ones* and the always poor- especially in the Spanish %i,il War- conditions o) war did not ta2e their toll on indi,iduals- but /i,en how poorly!o)) the International .ri/ades were compared to their )ascist enemy in terms o) weapons- hospital and )irst aid ser,ices and other conditions- 6the rate o) de)ection was minuteQ757 While Elehr claims that a common punishment )or deserters was e5ecution- .ri/ade policy allowed the return o) deserters and then retribution by
55 5$

Elehr- =ar,ey ' ""5*- p. 8#! 87 %arroll- Peter ' ""#*- p. #8 57 01.0 2 $- 6@ood Bi/ht7 Production (aterials- .o5 - Bolder 5#- Inter,iew 9ranscript: Jshero))- 0be

assi/nment to a labor battalion- which meant e5tra time di//in/ trenches.58 9he 6punishment7 doled out by %ommissar William 1awrence when he was con)ronted with two 0merican deserters was 6a pep tal27 to persuade the deserters that the 6Dwise thin/D was to return to the units.7 0s it happens these men did return to the 0ra/on )rontF neither was punished )or ha,in/ de)ected and neither attempted to desert a/ain.5" 8esertion was also carried out di))erently by de)ectin/ ,olunteers in the 0braham 1incoln .ri/ade than by soldiers in other armies. Bor e5ample- se,eral ,olunteers made attempts to desert more than once 'which is only possible i) they are not punished ,ery se,erely a)ter the )irst- second- or subse;uent desertion*F /roups o) deserters mi/ht )lee to/ether 'which hinted at possible demorali>ation throu/hout a unit or part o) it*F$0 and there is the case o) %omrade (arin )rom the (achine!/un %ompany who deserted his own .attalion )or one in another bri/ade. 9he International .ri/ades responded to this last case in a letter by statin/ that comrades cannot simply 6/o o)) on their own when they please without the necessary permission7 because this could potentially lead to a 6complete brea2down in discipline and intelli/ent discipline is most necessary )or ;uic2 ,ictory o,er the )ascist enemy.7$ 0lso si/ni)icant is an account told by Ste,e &elson about his own response to desertion amon/ the 01.. While wal2in/ throu/h the trenches durin/ the .ri/adeDs time )i/htin/ on the ?arama )ront- &elson stumbled on a man hidin/ in a low spot on the /round- away )rom the rest o) his unit. 9his ,olunteer pleaded with &elson to shoot him- but )ar )rom it &elson told the man- 6D%ome on- )or/et itQ 1etDs /o bac2 to the line-D7 which the soldier did do- somewhat sha2ily and e5pectin/ to ha,e his ri)le ta2en away )rom him 'which &elson did not do*. Jnly twenty minutes later &elson
58 5"

%arroll- Peter ' ""#*- p. 77 %arroll- Peter ' ""#*- p. $4 $0 %arroll- Peter ' ""#*- p. #8 $ (oscow 0rchi,es- Jpis 4- ). #5 - letter dated 22 ?une "47.

returned to see the same man- with an open chest wound- and yet smilin/- proud that &elson should see this e5tremely physical mani)estation o) his bra,ery. &elson ne,er told anyone o) what had ta2en place be)ore his in:ury- but he contends that 6i) it was in a di))erent army- he mi/ht ha,e been char/ed with desertion- and you 2now- court! martialed- and in the midst o) battle- you 2now- ,ery o)ten- what they do is- uh- ma2e short wor2 o) them. .ut in our case- we ne,er had to do that to any man.7$2 Cn)ortunately- there is one case o) an e5ecution o) an 0merican ,olunteer )or desertion that stands outF that o) seaman Paul White. %arroll presents his account o) WhiteDs desertion and e5ecution with the )ollowin/ )orebodin/ statement: 6In the a)termath o) the retreats- the bri/ade leadership resol,ed to ti/hten discipline in the ran2s Rwith some tra/ic results.7$4 Paul White was instructed to collect additional ammunition durin/ battle- but instead too2 an empty ambulance and )led. =e /ot as )ar as the Brench border when he decided that he could ne,er return home- to his wi)e and newborn sonwith the /uilt o) bein/ a deserter.$# Jn his way bac2 to the .ri/ade- he ran into .ill .ailey- who was on lea,e )or the a)ternoon and who was aware o) WhiteDs desertion and was pleased to hear he had decided to return. Jn their way bac2 to/ether- thou/h- White was arrested because he was not in possession o) a sal,o conducto. .ailey did returnthou/h- and told the other men o) WhiteDs return- about which all o) them were ,ery pleased to hear- admittin/ that anyone can ma2e a mista2e and at that they did not see this as a bi/ one. 9he ne5t mornin/- howe,er- a lea)let was disseminated sayin/ that the deserter Paul White had been )ound /uilty a)ter a court!martial and had been e5ecuted by a )irin/ s;uad. .ailey described himsel) and his )ellow soldiers as in a complete state o)
$2 $4

01.0 2 $- 6@ood Bi/ht7 Production (aterials- .o5 - Bolder 54- Inter,iew 9ranscript: &elson- Ste,e %arroll- Peter ' ""#*- p. 8 $# %arroll- Peter ' ""#*- p. 82

shoc2- /i,en that White was the only 0merican they had heard o) to ha,e been e5ecutednot to mention the hurt and sadness they )elt at ha,in/ lost a /ood man and a )riend. 9his )eelin/ turned into ra/e amon/ the seamen and )elt that such a punishment was completely un)oundedF that hard labor would surely ha,e su))iced. .ailey said that he assumed the 6hi/h command7 was hopin/ to use White as an e5ample that would stop desertions- but the reality is that 6it did not stop desertionsF7 and- in )act- in ne,er stops desertions. 8esertion- and the pressure in a person that causes such an action- is 6the nature o) warNthe nature o) the human bein/.7 =ad the seamen been consulted on what to do about Paul White as a deserter- .ailey ar/ues- they would ha,e loo2ed at the indi,idual as a whole human- at his character and at the contribution he had made to the cause- and reali>in/ that anyone can brea2 down under pressure- and the result would ha,e been that 6the man would ha,e been still li,in/ amon/st us today.7 0lthou/h there was no direct e5planation nor admission by the o))icers or the commissars about Paul WhiteDs e5ecution- .ailey was ;uite sure that they were aware o) the ra/e and hurt the men )elt at what had happened.$5 9his seems to ha,e been the case- /i,en that 6that daythe di,ision command re,ersed its orders- discontinuin/ the policy o) e5ecutions-7$$ un)ortunately thou/h not in time to sa,e the li)e o) one man who thou/ht that by returnin/ he 6had been sa,ed )rom wrec2in/ GhisH li)e completely.7$7 9his e5ample is si/ni)icant because it shows not only that e5ecutions were not the rule but the e5ceptionbut also that the soldiers 'in this case the seamen* were ,ery much human- and :ust as they 2new themsel,es capable o) ma2in/ mista2es- they were willin/ to )or/i,e the mista2es o) others.
$5 $$

01.0 2 $- 6@ood Bi/ht7 Production (aterials- .o5 - Bolder #0- Inter,iew 9ranscript: .ailey- .ill %arroll- Peter ' ""#*- p. 84 $7 %arroll- Peter ' ""#*- p. 82

In the )all o) "47- the International .ri/ades were incorporated into the re/ular Spanish 3epublican 0rmyF what )ollowed with this was 6that we Gthe 01. and other I.sH would ha,e to conduct our a))airs the way that the re/ular army did.7$8 9his included salutin/ to o))icers- which presents an important and tellin/ e5ample o) what discipline meant 'or did not mean* to the 0merican ,olunteers in the Spanish %i,il War. 9he ,olunteers were unhappy with this order because they were used to e/alitarianism- such as addressin/ o))icers by their )irst names-$" and they were unhappy with the hierarchy and arro/ance that salutin/ an o))icer and addressin/ him by his ran2 and last name implied.70 .ill .ailey described the reaction o) the seamen- widely reco/ni>ed as a bunch o) anarchists- to the imposition o) salutin/ in the International .ri/ades. .aileyDs lo/ic- and it seems ri/ht)ully so- was that there was no reason )or an o))icer to be salutin/ :ust because he had the title o) o))icer- /i,en that 6a bullet doesnDt discriminate when it whi>>es- it doesnDt say Othis is )or a lieutenant-D or Othis is )or a common do/)ace- or @I-D it :ust says- whoe,erDs in )ront o) it- they hit himQ7 .ailey said that respect was earned amon/ the men o) the 0braham 1incoln .ri/ade- and dedication not bars on his chestearned him such respect. 0nd e,en thou/h the seamen did blatantly re)use to )ollow orders about salutin/- most o) the o))icers were willin/ to ta2e that as it came- because they 2new 6that when the time came )or these /uys to lu/ a machine /un and /et into action- that they were there.77 9he way in which soldiers were obli/ed to adhere to the policy o) salutin/ 'which$8

01.0 2 $- 6@ood Bi/ht7 Production (aterials- .o5 - Bolder $5- Inter,iew 9ranscript: Wol))- (ilton 'I* $" 3osenstone- 3obert 0. ' "$"*- p. 22 70 %arroll- Peter ' ""#*- p. $5 and 3osenstone- 3obert 0. ' "$"*- p. 22 7 01.0 2 $- 6@ood Bi/ht7 Production (aterials- .o5 - Bolder #0- Inter,iew 9ranscript: .ailey- .ill

clearly- not all did* is as si/ni)icant as the )act that many re)used. Ste,e &elsonDs solution to a soldier who re)used to salute would ha,e been to tal2 with the man as a )riende5plain to him why he was there in Spain and that an army- any army- cannot be without rules and or/ani>ation and a clear understandin/ o) who is in char/e and why- and salutin/ is nothin/ more than a reco/nition o) the responsibility o) and respect )or a commandin/ o))icer. =e admits- howe,er- that i) this did not su))ice- rather than condemn the man- he would probably send him to wor2 in the 2itchen.72 What this research has unco,ered re/ardin/ the nature o) discipline in the 0braham 1incoln .ri/ade is this: the rules had to )it to the ran2s. 8iscipline- which can mean many di))erent thin/s- did not mean to the 0merican ,olunteers that they were )orced to adhere to strict %ommunist Party directi,es and su))er inhumane punishments ordered )rom the ,ery top %ommunist leaders in (oscowF nor did it mean willin/ly ta2in/ orders and e5planations )rom a man who did not understand what it meant to be human- to be an indi,idualF and nor did it mean salutin/ an o))icer with a per)unctory 60 sus orderes- mi commandanteQ774 i) the o))icer did not ri/ht)ully deser,e the title he had and the bars he wore on his chest. What discipline did mean to the 1incolns- howe,erwas that they were willin/ to do anythin/- includin/ /i,e up their li,es- i) shown in a democratic and humanistic way that what they were told to do- what they had to dowould )urther their cause and political con,ictions- and ad,ance the )i/ht to end )ascism and to )urther democracy worldwide. 9he political commissars were success)ul- i) they were- )or two reasons: their position and role appealed to the political con,ictions o) the soldiers- and as )or the /ood political commissars- li2e Ste,e &elson- their personalities
72 74

01.0 2 $- 6@ood Bi/ht7 Production (aterials- .o5 - Bolder 54- Inter,iew 9ranscript: &elson- Ste,e 01.0 2 $- 6@ood Bi/ht7 Production (aterials- .o5 - Bolder $5- Inter,iew 9ranscript: Wol))- (ilton 'I*

reco/ni>ed the soldiers )or the stron/ indi,iduals they were be)ore they came to Spain and which they remained while )i/htin/ in Spain. It was the leaders who 2new their men and who could )it the orders and directi,es to the social composition o) the men that achie,ed the /reatest success in )ormin/ a disciplined unit. Political con,iction and the )i/ht )or social :ustice is what brou/ht the ,olunteers to Spain and it is also what 2ept them there- and while it made them bra,e and committed soldiers- it did not ma2e them accept military discipline which they did not )eel was :ust. ?ohn Eee/an and 3ichard =olmes state in their boo2 Soldiers: A (istory of "en in Battle- that 6the discipline en)orced by )irin/ s;uad or pistol is in)erior to that accepted- sel)!imposed discipline that characteri>es /ood soldiers.77# It seems )air to say that the 0braham 1incoln .ri/ade stands as an e5emplary case o) the truth o) this statement. 9he debate that is currently ra/in/ is /i,in/ to the ,olunteers and their cause some much!deser,ed attention. Whether this attention is :usti)ied )or the reasons presented by 3adosh- Elehr- 9anenhaus and the others )i/htin/ )or the 6dar2 side-7 howe,er- must seriously be ;uestioned. It is true that the 0braham 1incoln .ri/ade has been shrouded by the co,er o) 6the /ood )i/ht-7 but it seems that this hides ,ery little. 9his is not to say that it is not important to )urther research the topic o) the Spanish %i,il War and the 0merican ,olunteers who ris2ed their li,es to )i/ht it. 9his is the reason- a)ter all- that this research was conducted and this paper produced. 9he only way to )urther the debate is to loo2 critically and care)ully at any and all e,idence a,ailable. Peter %arroll beseeches his readers to reali>e that 6the archi,es do not spea2 )or themsel,es.775 What is more troublin/ than this- howe,er- is that time is runnin/ out to let the ,olunteers spea2
7#

Eee/an- ?ohn and 3ichard =olmes. Soldiers: A (istory of "en in Battle. &ew Lor2: +i2in/ Pen/uinInc- "85. 75 %arrol- Peter '200#*- p. 447

)or themsel,es. 9he 1incolns came to Spain as stron/ indi,iduals- sure o) their belie)s and o) their dreams and /oals )or the )uture. 9hey had much e5perience in stru//le- be it a/ainst po,erty or racism- or in pursuit o) the ri/ht to or/ani>e as trade unions or to achie,e ,oice as youn/ people. 9hey brou/ht all o) these e5periences with them to Spain alon/ with their politics- and :ust as they remained political throu/hout the duration o) the Spanish %i,il War and ha,e- )or the most part- remained political until death or still do to this dayso too did they brin/ with them their indi,iduality and stron/ sense o) sel)- o) )airness and humanity- which they ha,e also held until death or do so to this day. Political con,iction and the willin/ness to )i/ht and stru//le- at home and abroad- )or a better )uture and worldwide e;uality is what united the soldiers o) the 0braham 1incoln .ri/ade- but this does not ta2e away )rom a timeless and uni,ersal lesson 88!year!old ,eteran ?ac2 Sha)ran said :ust wee2s a/o- with which the other ,eterans o) the 0braham 1incoln .ri/ade- both ali,e and dead- would surely a/ree: 69han2 @od we are all indi,iduals.77$

7$

?ac2 Sha)ran- 0merican +olunteers in the Spanish %i,il War-

0pril 2005

Bibliography Primary Sources 'in order o) appearance* 01.0- ?ohn 8ollard 3esearch Biles )or 6Bear and %oura/e Cnder .attle %onditions-7 .o5 - Bolder #- 9ranscript o) inter,iew with +olunteer I.: ?une 7- "#2. 01.0- ?ohn 8ollard 3esearch Biles )or 6Bear and %oura/e Cnder .attle %onditions-7 .o5 - Bolder #- 9ranscript o) additional inter,iew with +olunteer I.: ?une 2$"#2. 01.0 2 $- 6@ood Bi/ht7 Production (aterials- .o5 - Bolder # - Inter,iew 9ranscript: .ailey- .ill 'II*. 01.0 2 $- 6@ood Bi/ht7 Production (aterials- .o5 - Bolder #0- Inter,iew 9ranscript: .ailey- .ill. 01.0 2 $- 6@ood Bi/ht7 Production (aterials- .o5 - Bolder 5#- Inter,iew 9ranscript: Jshero))- 0be. 01.0 +ertical Bile- 8a,e 8oran- 68oran!Birst to 0d,ance!1ast to 3etreat7 by ?ohn @ates- The olunteer for Liberty- (ay "48. 01.0 +ertical Bile- 8a,e 8oran- 68a,e 8oran: O@reat loyalty- capacity )or sacri)icemodestyD7 by 1t.!%ol. +ladimir %opic- The olunteer for Liberty- (ay "48. 01.0 2 $- 6@ood Bi/ht7 Production (aterials- .o5 - Bolder 54- Inter,iew 9ranscript: &elson- Ste,e. (oscow 0rchi,es- Jpis 4- ). #5 - letter dated 22 ?une "47. 01.0 2 $- 6@ood Bi/ht7 Production (aterials- .o5 - Bolder $5- Inter,iew 9ranscript: Wol))- (ilton 'I*. Secondary Sources .uhle- Paul and 8an @eor/a2as. 6%ommunist Party- CS0.7 'ncyclopedia of the American Left. Cni,ersity o) Illinois Press- ""2. %arroll- Peter. The Odyssey of the Abraham Lincoln Brigade. Stan)ord- %0: Stan)ord Cni,ersity Press- ""#. %arroll- Peter. 69he (yth o) the (oscow 0rchi,es.7 Science and Society. +ol. $8- &o. 4Ball 200#: 447!4# . @raham- =elen. 6Spain .etrayed< 9he &ew =istorical (c%arthyism.7 Science and

Society. +ol. $8- &o. 4- Ball 200#: 4$#!4$". Eee/an- ?ohn and 3ichard =olmes. Soldiers: A (istory of "en in Battle) &ew Lor2: +i2in/ Pen/uin- Inc.- "85. Elehr- =ar,ey- ?ohn Aarl =aynes and Bridri2h I/ore,ich Birso,. The Secret World of American Communism. &ew =a,en: Lale Cni,ersity Press- ""5. &elson- %ary and ?e))erson =endric2s- eds. "adrid #$%&: Letters of the Abraham Lincoln Brigade !rom the Spanish Civil War. &ew Lor2 and 1ondon: 3outled/e""$. 3adosh- 3onald- (ary 3. =abec2 and @ri/ory Se,ostiano,. Spain Betrayed: The Soviet Union in the Spanish Civil War. &ew =a,en and 1ondon: Lale Cni,ersity Press200 . 3osenstone- 3obert 0. Crusade of the Left: The Lincoln Battalion in the Spanish Civil War. &ew Lor2: Western Publishin/ %ompany- Inc.- "$". 9anenhaus- Sam. 6Innocents 0broad.7 anity !air. September 200 : p. 02! 0".