THE ARTICLE The definite article (the) We use the to refer again to something which has already been

n mentioned; Take a pen. Put the pen on the desk. with plural states and countries; They went to the Netherlands and the U.S.A. with mountain ranges oceans seas and ri!ers; "e saw the #imalayas $ the Pacific %cean $ the &ississippi '(i!er). with names of hotels cinemas opera houses theatres and museums; "e stayed at the (it* 'hotel). The %deon 'cinema) is !ery good. definite article: "e met her at &etropolitan %pera. #e saw a good play at the Nottara 'theatre). +ast week they !isited the Art &useum. with parts of the day; She arri!ed in the morning$ afternoon $ e!ening with superlati!es; ,t-s one of the best places ,-!e e!er been to. when we talk uni.ue person group of people; The president had a press conference. The /arth mo!es round the Sun. The /nglish like tea. with musical instruments; #e plays the piano.

thing

about

a or

The indefinite article (a $ an) We use "a" when the noun begins with a consonant sound0 a desk a pen a boy a cat a dog. "e use 1an1 when the noun begins with a !owel sound 'a e i o u)0 an apple an elephant an icecream an o2 an umbrella. "e use 1a1 before 1u1 when we pronounce it with a 1y1 sound0 a uniform 3UT an umbrella. "e use 1an1 before 1h1 when it is silent0 an hour 3UT a horse.

We use the indefinite article:

THE 0120 There are four kinds of nouns0 abstract 'lo!e beauty etc.) c "" n 'pen desk etc.) c llecti#e 'class audience family go!ernment staff team etc.) +r +er '&ary Tom /ngland etc.). *ender )asculine 9 men boys animals when we know their se2 'he); ,e"inine 9 women girls ships animals when we know their se2 'she); 0euter 9 things babies $ animals when we don-t know their se2. * &ost personal nouns ha!e the same form whether male or female 'doctor teacher etc.) * Some nouns ha!e different forms though. Some of these are0 actor: actress; boy : girl; bride 'groom) : bride; brother : sister; duke : duchess; emperor : empress; father : mother; gentleman : lady; grandfather : grandmother; headmaster : headmistress; hero : heroine; husband : wife; The +lural f 0 uns A( 0 uns are "ade +lural by addin$: * : s to the noun 'chair : chairs etc.); * : s to the nouns ending in0 # wel34 'radio : radios) d uble '*oo : *oos) abbre#iati ns 'photograph $ photo : photos) "usical instru"ents 'piano 5 +ian s) and +r +er n uns '/skimo : /skimos). Some nouns ending in :o can take either 5es or :s. buffalo : buffalos $ bufalloes;

with certain numbers and e2pressions of .uantity; a do*en a hundred a thousand a lot of a few a little. when we want to emphasi*e that a person is unknown; A &r. 7ones called while you were out. after the !erbs be and bec "e when the noun king : .ueen; landlord : landlady; lord : lady; monk : nun; nephew : niece; policeman : The 6er article policewoman; prince : princess; son : daughter; We use n (6er ) article: steward : stewardess; with the preposition uncle : aunt; waiter : by and waitress; widower : forms of transport; widow. They went by car$ bus $ tram $ train etc. with the words0 sch l! h "e! uni#ersity and c lle$e when has indefinite reference. we are referring to a ,t-s an /nglish book. particular place; ,-m starting sch l % and uni#ersity ne2t week. with with sub5ects abstract nouns; &n wled$e languages; of lan$ua$es is important. She-s studying )aths % with meals; *e $ra+hy % ,rench( They had brea'fast % with sports and games; lunch % dinner $ tea( She plays cards % handball e!ery day. with streets towns and countries; She li!es in -a. n -treet in Winchester( with uncountable nouns; 8o you take su$ar/ with general plurals; , prefer teaching children( when a noun is mentioned for the first time0 4ou can get an icecream if you want. with 5obs; Tom is a teacher. after what and such; "hat a good story6 #e-s such a kind boy6 in e2pressions of ratio 'price speed fre.uency etc); si2 pence a bo2; si2ty miles an hour; once $ twice a day.

mos.uito : mos.uitos $ mos.uitoes; !olcano : !olcanos $ !olcanoes. : s to nouns ending in # wel3y 'boy : boys day : days etc.); : es to nouns ending in :s :ss :2 :ch :sh 'bus : buses glass : glasses bo2 : bo2es torch : torches bush : bushes etc.); * : es to nouns ending in :o 'tomato : tomatoes); * : ies to nouns ending in c ns nant3y 'baby : babies lady : ladies family : families factory : factories); : #es to some nouns ending in :f $ 5fe 'leaf : lea!es wife : wi!es wolf : wol!es knife : kni!es); 72T: chef : chiefs roof : roofs cliff : cliffs handkerchief :handkerchiefs etc. 7( C "+ und n uns f r" their +lural by addin$ 5s $ 5es: * to the second noun if the compound consists of two nouns 'shopkeeper : shopkeepers); * to the first noun if the 9lural compound consists of two 4ou can draw a perfect circle nouns connected with a with c "+asses( preposition 'sister:in law : "hen he got off the plane his sisters:in law); bag was searched at Cust "s( * to the noun if the "e had lots of e2citing compound consists of an ad5ecti!e and a noun 'frying e.+eriences on our 5ourney through Africa. pan : frying pans); "oul * at the end #e can-t see !ery well without d his $lasses( of the compound if milk< There are two hairs in this this is not made up of any soup6 nouns 'breakdown : She weighted herself on the breakdowns). scales( C( Irre$ular +lurals: The boy got lost in the man : "en; w ds( woman : w "en; foot 5 Picasso-s w r's are really feet; tooth : fascinating. teeth; louse : child : children; lice; mouse : goose : $eese; "ice; sheep : shee+ deer : deer; fish : fish; trout : tr ut( 8( - "e n uns ta'e nly a +lural #erb( These are ob5ects which consist of two parts0 garments {trousers, pajamas etc.), tools {scissors, compasses etc.), instruments {binoculars, spectacles etc.) or nouns which ha!e a plural meaning such as0 belongings, cattle, clothes, congratulations, earnings, goods, greens, (good) looks, outskirts, people, police, riches, stairs etc.

E( - "e n uns ta'e nly a sin$ular #erb( These are0 mass nouns {bread, tea, sugar etc.), abstract nouns (advice, love, death etc.), words ending in :ics {athletics, mathematics etc.), games $ diseases ending in :s (billiards, mumps etc.), nouns such as0 weather, luggage, furniture, money, news etc. ,( *r u+ n uns refer to a group of people. These nouns can take either a sin$ular r a +lural #erb depending on whether we see the group as a whole or as indi!iduals. Such group nouns are0 army, audience, class, club, committee, company, council, crew, family, government, press, public, staff, team etc. The tea" was the best in the country 'the team as a group). The tea" were all gi!en medals 'each member separately as indi!iduals). *( - "e n uns ha#e a different "eanin$ in +lural( -in$ular The needle of a c "+ass always points north. ,t is an /nglish cust " to celebrate the ;ueen-s birthday. She has a lot of e.+erience working with children. you like a $lass of She has got long blonde hair( They were shocked at the scale of the disaster. This door is made of w d(

#e goes to w r' e!ery day e2cept Sunday.

C untable 5 2nc untable 0 uns

THE A8;ECTI<E Ad5ecti!es describe nouns. They ha!e the same form in both the singular and the plural. The red pencil is on the table. The red pencils are on the table. 1rder f Ad:ecti#es Ad5ecti!es normally go before nouns.

Nouns can be:

* c untable 'those that can be counted e.g. = bag. > bags etc). * unc untable 'those that can-t be counted e.g.

sugar). Uncountable nouns take a singular !erb. They are not used with a $ an( - "e! any! n ! "uch etc. can be used with them e.g.0 $ need some help, 'not0 a help). There isn't much sugar left. The " st c "" n unc untable n uns are: accommodation, advice, anger, baggage, behavior, blood, bread, business, chess, coal, countryside, courage, damage, dirt, education, evidence, food, fruit, furniture, gold, hair, happiness, help, homework, housework, information, jewellery, knowledge, laughter, luck, luggage, meat, money, music, news, rubbish, seaside, shopping, soap, spaghetti, traffic, trouble, water, weather, work, writing etc. Note that the nouns for types of meat are also uncountable0 beef, mutton, pork etc. )any unc untable n uns can be "ade c untable by "eans f +artiti#es: a piece of ca'e % inf r"ati n % ad#ice % furniture; a glass bottle of water; a jar of :a"; a rasher of bac n; a bo! of ch c lates; a packet of biscuits $ tea; a slice loaf of bread; a pof of y $urt; a pof $ cup of tea; a kilo pound of "eat; a bottle of #ine$ar; a tube of t th+aste; a bar of ch c late % s a+; a bit piece of chal'; an ice cube" a lump of su$ar; a sheet of +a+er; a bag of fl ur; a pair of tr users; a game of s ccer; a(n) item piece of news; a drop can of il; a can of C 'e; a carton of "il'; a block of w d etc.

I have a white cat.

Ad5ecti!es can also be used without a noun after certain !erbs (appear, be, become, feel, seem, taste, smell, look etc.). #e felt ner# us( She looks ha++y( The cake smells $ d( She is +retty( The ad5ecti!es0 afraid! al ne! ali#e! awa'e! aslee+! $lad etc. are ne!er followed by a noun. The girl was afraid 'not0 an afraid girl). * Some nouns can be used as ad5ecti!es if they go before another noun. They ha!e no plural form in this case0 the $arden gate a " rnin$ class a three5wee' holiday 'not0 a three wee's holiday). * ?ertain ad5ecti!es can be used as plural nouns referring to a group of people in general. These are0 the + r! the rich! the blind! the y un$! the ld! the disabled! the hun$ry! the str n$! the deaf! the li#in$! the dead! the sic'! the elderly etc. The rich should help the + r( 3ut in the singular0 The rich man helped the + r woman. 1+ini n ad5ecti!es (w nderful! awful etc.) go before fact ad5ecti!es (lar$e! ld etc.). They li!ed in a w nderful bi$ house. She found an u$ly ld dog.

 "hen there are two or more fact ad5ecti!es they normally go in the following order0 @act Ad5ecti!es
That -s a +in i n nice si6 e big a$e ne w sha +e s.u are c l ur bro wn ri$ in Aer man "at erial woo den +ur + s line n n u n ches t

(egular ?omparati!e and Superlati!e @orms Ad5ecti!es

of one syllable add :'e)r $ 5(e)st to form their comparati!e and superlati!e forms. of two syllables ending in :er :6y :y :w also add 5er%5 est( of two or more syllables take " re % " st( 9 siti# e short big large hea!y shallo w special attracti! e

?omparati!e
shorter 'than) bigger 'than) larger hea!ier 'than) shallower 'than) " re special 'than) " re attracti!e 'than)

Superlati!e
the shortest 'of$in) the bi$$est 'of$in) the largest 'of$in) the hea!iest 'of$in) the shallowest 'of$in) the " st special 'of$in) the " st attracti!e 'of$in)

0 tes: : ?ertain ad5ecti!es form their comparati!e and superlati!e in both ways either by adding :er $ 5est to the positi!e form or taking " re % " st( Some o these are0 cle#er! c "" n! cruel! friendly! $entle! narr w! +leasant! + lite! =uiet! si"+le! stu+id etc. cle!er : cle!erer : the cle!erest or cle!er : " re cle!er : the " st cle!er. : "hen a short ad5ecti!e 'one or two syllables) ends in 5y (dry! ha++y) we change the y to an i and add :er $ 5est( dry : drier : the driest happy : happier : the happiest : "hen a one syllable ad5ecti!e ends in one !owel and one consonant 'not w or y) we double the final consonant. hot : hotter : the hottest big : bigger : the biggest fat : fatter : the fattest : "e can use the intensifiers much, a lot, far to make a comparati!e stronger. much " re important : "e can use almost, nearly, just with as...as. She is almost as tall as her mother. : ?omparati!e phrase the(((the( The lder you get the " re careful you become. Irre$ular Ad:ecti#es 9 siti#e
good bad much "any little far

C "+arati#e better w rse " re " re less further

Superlati!e the best the w rst the " st the " st the least the furthest

0 te: further 9 more @or further details consult your lawyer.

THE A8<ER7 Ad!erbs normally describe !erbs ad5ecti!es or other ad!erbs. They say h w (adverbs of manner), where (adverbs of place), when (adverbs of time), h w "uch $ t what e.tend (adverbs of degree), or h w ften (adverbs of fre#uency) something happens. There are also sentence ad#erbs (certainly, surely, probably, possibly etc.) and relati#e ad#erbs (where, why, when). , r"ati n f Ad#erbs fr " Ad:ecti#es &ost ad!erbs are formed by adding :ly to an ad5ecti!e0

,n spoken /nglish the ad!erbs l ud! =uic'! sl w! chea+ are the same as their ad5ecti!es. ,n formal /nglish we use0 l udly! =uic'ly! sl wly! chea+ly: #e speaks l ud 'spoken /nglish). #e speaks l udly 'formal /nglish). - "e +airs f ad#erbs ha#e different "eanin$s:

1.

quick - quickly
Ad5ecti!es ending in 5ic add 5ally to form their ad!erbs0 dramatic : dramatically Ad5ecti!es ending in :le drop :le and add :ly to form their ad!erbs0 terrible : terribly Ad5ecti!es ending in c ns nant3y drop :y and add 5ily to form their ad!erbs0 happy : happily Ad5ecti!es ending in :ly 'friendly lonely lo!ely fatherly motherly silly li!ely ugly etc.) form their ad!erbs with in a... way: in a friendly way e Ad5ecti!es ending in :e form their ad!erbs adding :ly without dropping 5a: rare : rarely E.ce+ti ns: whole : wholly; true : truly. The ad!erb of $ d is well( . Some ad!erbs are the same as their ad5ecti!es0 (daily! early! fast hard! late monthly best easy low etc.)0 #e works hard '9ad!erb) This is a hard 5ob '9ad5ecti!e).

A( dee+ly 9 greatly The scientist was dee+ly respected. B( freely 9 willingly #e spoke freely about his past. 2. free 9 without payment ?hildren tra!el free 3. hardly 9 on buses. scarcely , hardly 3. hard 9 with a lot of see him. effort #e works hard( 4. hi$hly 9 very much 4. hi$h 9 to $ at a high She is hi$hly regarded by her level The pilot flew hi$h employers. abo!e the clouds. C( lastly 9 finally 5. last 9 after all Lastly! read the instructions others #e got here last( then do the test. D( lately 9 recently 6. late 9 after the , ha!en-t seen him lately( arranged or proper time >( nearly 9 almost They arri!ed late( , ha!e nearly finished. >( near 9 close 8. +rettily 9 in an , li!e near the school. attractive way She smiled ?( +retty 9 fairly +rettily( The film was +retty awful. . sh rtly 9 soon not @( sh rt 9 suddenly long #e will be arri!ing sh rtly( The dri!er stopped sh rt( A4( widely 9 to a large e!tend ,t-s widely belie!ed that the A4( wide % far away from the Prime &inister will resign right point #e soon. threw the ball wide(

dee+ 9 a long way down He dug dee+ into the ground.

1rder f Ad#erbs Ad!erbs can go in fr nt! "id or end position in a sentence0 * fr nt position is at the beginning of the sentence. * "id position is before the main !erb or after the au2iliary. * end position is at the end of the sentence.
,r nt )id /nd

,inally! he will +r bably start working here ne.t wee'( Ad#erbs f fre=uency ( ften! usually! ne#er! e#er! re$ularly! barely! seld "! scarcely! rarely! s "eti"es etc.) normally go before main !erbs but after au2iliary !erbs {mid position). #owe!er in short answers they go before the au2iliary !erb. #e ften drinks coffee. She is usually late for school. #e is always telling lies isn-t he< 4es he always is. &sed to and have to take the ad!erb of fre.uency before them. He always used to drink milk in the morning. They usually ha!e to take the bus to go there. @or reasons of emphasis the ad!erbs of fre.uency can also go at the beginning or at the end of the sentence. - "eti"es , play football. , make that cake ccasi nally( Ad#erbs f ti"e usually go at the end of the sentence 'They went to hospital yesterday)( ,f we want to put emphasis on the time we use them at the beginning of the sentence (Eesterday they went to hospital). Short time ad!erbs as0 s n! n w! still! then etc. can go in mid position. #e is n w ha!ing a bath. The ad!erbs0 already! n l n$er! n r"ally! hardly! nearly! al" st usually go in mid position. They ha!e nearly missed the train. She is n l n$er li!ing here. There-s hardly any cake left.

-entence ad#erbs (+r bably! certainly! + ssibly! clearly! f rtunately! luc'ily! "aybe! +erha+s! f c urse etc.) go in any position0 front, mid or end" but the front position is the most usual though. 9r bably he belie!ed you. #e +r bably belie!ed you. #e belie!ed you +r bably( ,n negations certainly! + ssibly and +r bably go before the au2iliary. #e +r bably didn't belie!e you. Ad!erbs do not normally go between the ob5ect and the !erb. #e likes dogs #ery "uch 'not0 #o likes #ery "uch dogs). Ad#erbs f de$ree (abs lutely! :ust! t tally! #ery! c "+letely! e.tre"ely! a l t! really! terribly! "uch! awfully! rather! =uite! fairly! +retty! a little! a bit! sli$htly! en u$h! t etc.) can go before the ad5ecti!e or the ad!erb they modify. She-s =uite good at &aths. &ost of these ad!erbs can also go before a main !erb or after an au2iliary !erb. , rather like this film. , can-t =uite understand it. The ad!erbs0 a l t! "uch! a little! a bit! awfully! terribly! abs lutely! c "+letely! t tally go in mid or end position. The train was delayed a little( The train was a little delayed. The earth.uake c "+letely destroyed the area. The earth.uake destroyed the area c "+letely( Ad#erbs f "anner (beautifully! badly! ea$erly etc.) and +lace (here! there etc.) go after the !erb or the ob5ect of the !erb if there is one 'end position). She looked at me an$rily( Ad!erbs of manner can also go in mid position. She looked an$rily at me.

Aramatica limbii engle*e

...........................=.C

"hen there is more than one ad!erb in a sentence their order is manner'place'time. #owe!er when there is a !erb of mo!ement 'go run lea!e etc.) the place ad!erb goes ne2t to the !erb of mo!ement.
manner place place manner time time

8E)10-TRATI<E-:9R10120- :91--E--I<E8e" nstrati#es This $ These are used0 for people or things near us. This is my pen and these are my pencils. for present or future situations. #e is lea!ing for Tokyo this month. when the speaker is in the place he $ she is referring to. This room is !ery large. 'The speaker is now in the large room). to introduce people or when we introduce oursel!es on the phone. 1&um this is my friend 7ack61 1#ello< This is Tom "ilson speaking.1 That % Th se are used0 for people or things not near us. , don-t like that picture o!er there. for past situations. They en5oyed !ery much that year. to refer back to something mentioned before. 1#e was !ery rude to her.1 "ThatFs too bad.1 when speaking on the phone to ask who the other person is. 1#ello< This is Pam 3rown. "ho-s that speaking< $ "ho-s that! please<1 0 te: This % these 5 that % th se are not always followed by nouns. This is the best , can do for you. 1,-!e won the lottery.1 "ThatFs too good to be true.1 0 te : f a r t h e r $ f u r t h e r 9 l o n g e r ' i n d i s t a n c e ) # e l i ! e

#e spoke well at the "eetin$ yesterday( She goes to work on foot e!ery day. Re$ular C "+arati#e and -u+erlati#e , r"s
Ad!erbs
ad!erbs ha!ing the same forms as ad5ecti!es add :er$:est 1early1 drops :y and adds :ier$iest. two syllable or compound ad!erbs take more$most 'compound ad!erbs are ad5ecti!esBly e.g. careful :carefully)

Positi!e
fast

?omparati!e
faster

Superlati!e
the fastest

early often safel y easil

earlier more often more safely more

the earliest the most often the most safely the most easily

Irre$ular Ad#erbs
Positi!e much well little badly
fast far

?omparati!e more better less worse faster farther further harder higher later

Superlati!e the most the best the least the worst the fastest the farthest the furthest the hardest the highest the latest

hard high late

s f a r t h e r $ f u r t h e r a w a y t h a n m e .

Pronouns Personal Pronouns

bef re #erbs as sub:ects , you he she it we you they after #erbs as b:ects me you him her it us you the"

Possessi !e ad5ecti!e f ll wed

by n uns my your his her its our your their

Possessi !e pronouns n t
f ll wed by n uns mine yours his hers ours yours theirs

(efle2i!e : /mphatic pronouns

,t is also used for weather distance temperature time e2pressions and in the following0 It see"s that! It a++ears that! It l 's li'e! It is said that etc. ItFs hot today isn-t it< It see"s that it-s going to rain. 3ut we say0 There see"s t be a problem. 9 ssessi#e ad:ecti#es $ +r n uns They e2press possession. Possessi!e ad5ecti!es go before nouns whereas possessi!e pronouns do not go before nouns. This is her 5acket. ,t-s hers( Sometimes possessi!e pronouns go at the beginning of a sentence. E urs is more beautiful. "e use the rather than a + ssessi#e ad:ecti#e with this pattern. #erb3+ers n3+re+ siti n She hit Tom on the back 'not0 on his back). 1wn is used with possessi!e ad5ecti!es to emphasise the fact that something belongs to someone $ and no one else. "e-!e got ur wn house. "e-!e got a house of ur wn( 9 ssessi#e case with Fs r sF f r +e +le r ani"als singular nouns 'person or animal) B-s0 the child's toy, the cat's tail. regular plural nouns B-0 the girls' room. irregular plural nouns not ending in s B-s0 the women's hats, the men's trousers. compound nouns B-s0 my sister'in'law's cat. -s after the last of two or more names to show common possession0 (ob and )nn's house is very big. 'They li!e in the same house).

myself yourself himself herself itself oursel!es yoursel!es themsel!es

9ers nal 9r n uns we use personal pronouns to refer to +e +le! thin$s or ani"als( They-!e brought some flowers. They are on the table. we don-t use a noun and a personal pronoun together. &y cat is under the chair 'not0 &y oat itFs undor tho oh air). &y father took me there 'not0 &y fathor he took mo thoro). , y u! he! she! it go before !erbs as sub5ects and "e! y u! hi"! her! it! us! y u! the" after !erbs as ob5ects. They ga!e "e a beautiful painting but , didn-t like it( There3be is used for something mentioned for the first time or to say that something or someone e2ists. There are some people in the waiting room. It3be is used to gi!e more details about something or someone already talked about. There is someone at the door. ItFs the postman. It3be with t 5infiniti#e r that5clause is used to begin a sentence. ItFs hard to belie!e her. ItFs bad luck that you failed the e2am.

 -s after each name to show indi!idual possession Ted's and *ary's houses aren't big. 'They li!e in different houses). 9 ssessi#e case with " f" f r inani"ate thin$s for inanimate things or abstract nouns0 the walls of the room, the trees of the garden. ofBpossessi!e case $ possessi!e pronoun when there is a determiner 'this some etc.) before the noun0 That's a poem of +en's (one of +en's poems). some books of mine (some of my books). 0 te: : phrases of placeB-s0 at the butcher-s : time or distance e2pressionsB-s $-0 Sunday-s paper two days- lea!e one mile-s walk. : we can use either -1s1 or 1of1 when we talk about places or organisations0 (ome-s churches or the churches f (ome. : we can use 1of1 with people in longer phrases0 That-s the car f ne f "y friends at work. Refle.i#e % E"+hatic 9r n uns Refle.i#e 9r n uns are used after certain !erbs (beha#e! burn! cut! en: y! hurt! 'ill! l '! lau$h at! intr duce! dry! teach etc.) when the sub5ect and the ob5ect of the !erb are the same. #e cut hi"self( They en5oyed the"sel#es at the party. : refle2i!e pronouns can be used after be! feel! l '! see" to describe emotions or states0 She doesn-t look herself these days. : certain !erbs do not normally take a refle2i!e pronoun. These are0 wash! sha#e! (un)dress! aff rd! c "+lain! "eet! rest! rela.! stand u+! $et u+! sit d wn! wa'e u+ etc

She washed and got dressed 'not0 Sho waohod horself and got dresed herself). : we can use a refle2i!e pronoun with wash or dress when we talk about young children or animals0 Although she is only D years old Pam can dress herself( The elephant is washing itself( E"+hatic +r n uns ha!e the same form as refle2i!e pronouns but a different meaning. They emphasise the noun or the fact that one person and not another performs an action0 #e hi"self did the whole 5ob. #e did the whole 5ob hi"self( : they also mean with ut hel+: She painted the gate herself 'without help). : they go after nouns pronouns at the end of a sentence or after but and than0 4ou should count on no one but y urself( 0 te these idi "s: ,njoy yourself- % .ave a good time(ehave yourself- 9 (e goodlike being by myself % like being alone /he lives by herself 9 /he lives on her own .elp yourself to coffee 9 0ou're welcome to take some coffee if you want some 1o it yourself % 1o it without being helped *ake yourself at home- 9 2eel comfortable *ake yourself heard % /peak loudly enough to be heard by others Each ther means ne an ther(

T#/ E/(3 , Present forms A. Present Simple Affirmati!e

= walk 4ou walk #e walks She walks ,t walks "e walk 4ou walk They walk

Negati!e
+ong @orm = do not walk 4ou do not walk #e does not walk She does not ,t doeswalk not walk "e do not walk 4ou do not walk They do not walk Short @orm = don-t walk 4ou don-t walk #e doesn-t walk She doesn-t walk ,t doesn-t walk "e don-t walk 4ou don-t walk They don-t walk

,nterrogati!e
8o = walk< 8o you walk< 8oes he walk< 8oes she walk< 8oes it walk< 8o we walk< 8o you walk< 8o they walk<

Negati!e : interrogati!e
8on-t you walk< 8oesn-t he walk< etc.

repeated $ habitual actions 'especially with fre.uency ad!erbs0 often usually etc.). The fre.uency ad!erbs go after the !erbs 1to be1 and 1can1 but before the main !erbs0 , usually get up at H o-clock. permanent truths or laws of nature0 "ater free*es at IJ?. timetables $ programmes 'future meaning)0 The film finishes at K p.m. The train lea!es at =I a.m. re!iews $ sports $ commentaries $ dramatic narrati!e0 (ichard 3ere acts !ery well in this film. 3. Present ?ontinuous Affirmati!e Negati!e ,nterrogati! e +ong @orm Short +ong @orm Short @orm
, am talking 4ou are talking #e is talking She is talking ,t is talking "e are talking 4ou are talking They are ,-m talking 4ou-re talking #e-s talking She-s talking ,t-s talking "e-re talking , am not talking 4ou are not talking #e is not talking She is not talking ,t is not talking "e are not talking 4ou are not talking They are not talking ,-m not talking 4ou aren-t talking #e isn-t talking She isn-t talking ,t isn-t talking "e aren-t talking 4ou aren-t Am , talking< Are you talking< ,s he talking< ,s she talking< ,s it talking< Are we talking< Are you talking< Are they

Spelling0 : Eerbs ending in0 :ss :sh :ch :2 :o :F:es0 , watch : he watches; , go : he goes. : Eerbs ending in 0 consonantBy :G :ies0 , study : he studies. 3UT !erbs ending in a !owel 'a e o u)By :G ys0 , buy : he buys. Time e2pressions used with Present Simple0 every day $ week $ month $year, usually, often, always, rarely, never, sometimes, in the morning $ evening $ afternoon, at night, on *ondays etc. "e use Present Simple for0 permanent situations or states0 #e works in a hospital. They own a beautiful car.

Negati!e : ,nterrogati!e
Aren-t you talking< ,sn-t he talking< etc.

Spelling0 : "hen !erbs end in one stressed !owel between two consonants we double the final consonant0 swim : swimming; stir : stirring; sit : sitting 3UT0 walk : walking wait : waiting open : opening : "hen the infiniti!e ends in one e we delete the e0 write : writing di!e : di!ing

: +ook at the spelling of these !erbs6 lie : lyin$ die 5 dyin$ Ti"e e.+ressi ns used with 9resent C ntinu us: now, at the moment, at present, nowadays, today, tonight, always, still etc. We use 9resent C ntinu us f r: temporary situations0 They are li#in$ with Ann at present. actions happening at or around the moment of speaking0 She is l 'in$ for a better 5ob. repeated actions with 1always1 e2pressing annoyance or criticism0 4ou are always interru+tin$ me. The baby is always cryin$ at night. fi2ed arrangements in the near future0 "e are #isitin$ grandma on Sunday. ',t-s all arranged). changing or de!eloping situations 4our /nglish is $ettin$ better. C( 9resent 9erfect: ha#e%has3+ast +artici+le (the Grd f r" f the #erb) 4egular 5erbs6 talk ' talked'7talked8 Affir"ati#e
L n$ , r" = ha#e talked 4ou ha!e talked #e has talked She has talked ,t has talked "e ha!e talked 4ou ha!e talked Short @orm ,-!e talked 4ou-!e talked #e-s talked She-s talked ,t-s talked "e-!e

-+ellin$: : stop : stopped; prefer : preferred;

study : studied0 play : played;

type : typed; smoke : smoked.

rregular 5erbs6eat' ate-eaten\ Affir"ati#e

+ong @orm = ha!e eaten 4ou ha!e eaten #e has eaten She has eaten ,t has eaten "e ha!e eaten 4ou ha!e eaten Short @orm ,-!e eaten 4ou-!e eaten #e-s eaten She-s eaten ,t-s eaten "e-!e Negati!e +ong @orm = ha!e not eaten 4ou ha!e not eaten #e has not eaten She has not eaten ,t has not eaten "e ha!e not eaten 4ou ha!e not eaten They ha!e not eaten Short @orm = ha!ent eaten 4ou ha!en-t eaten #e hasn-t eaten She hasn-t eaten ,t hasn-t eaten "e ha!en-t eaten 4ou ha!en-t eaten Interr $ati#e #a!el eaten-< #a!e you eaten< #as he eaten< #as she eaten< #as it eaten< #a!e we eaten< #a!e you eatenK #a!e they

Negati!e : ,nterrogati!e
#a!en-t you eaten< #asn-t he eaten< etc.

0e$ati#e
L n$ , r" 6 ha#e n t talked 4ou ha!e not talked #e has not talked She has not talked ,t has not talked "e ha!e not talked 4ou ha!e not talked They ha!e not -h rt @orm = ha#ent talked 4ou ha!en-t talked #e hasn-t talked She hasn-t talked 6t hasn-t talked "e ha!en-t talked 4ou ha!en-t talked

Interr $ati# e
Ha#e = talked< #a!e you talked< #as he talked< #as she talked< #as it talked< #a!e we talked< #a!e you talked< #a!e

0e$ati#e 5 Interr $ati#e

Ha#enFt you talked< Hasnt he talked< etc.

0 te: @or the past participle look at a list of irregular !erbs. Ti"e e.+ressi ns used with 9resent C ntinu us: just, ever, never, already, yet (negations 9 #uestions) always, how long, so far, recently, since (%from a starting point in the past), for (%over a period of time), today, this week $ month etc. We use 9resent 9erfect f r: recently completed actions0 She has washed her blouse. 'She has finished washing her blouse. 4ou can see it-s clean now : e!idence in the present). actions which happened at an unstated past time and are connected with the present0 #e has l st his keys. '#e is still looking for them) personal e2periences $ changes which ha!e happened0 IF#e l st =I kilos. emphasis on number0 #e-s written three stories this month.

8( 9resent 9erfect C ntinu us: (ha#e % has been 3 #erb 3 in$) Affir"ati#e
L n$ , r" I ha#e been working 4ou ha!e been working #e has been working She has been working ,t has been working "e ha!e been working 4ou ha!e been working They ha!e been working Affir"ati#e -h rt , r" IF#e been working etc.

0e$ati#e
L n$ , r" I ha#e n t been working 4ou ha!e not been working #e has not been working She has not been working ,t has not been working "e ha!e not been working 4ou ha!e not been working They ha!e not been working

Interr $ati#e
Ha#e I been working< #a!e you been workingK #as he been working< #as she been working< #as it been workingK #a!e we been working< #a!e you been working< #a!e they been workingK

0e$ati#e
-h rt , r"

0e$ati#e 5
Ha#enFt you been working< etc.

A ha#enFt been working etc.

Ti"e e.+ressi ns used with 9resent 9erfect C ntinu us: how long, for, since. We use 9resent 9erfect f r: actions started in the past and continuing up to the present0 She-s been listenin$ to music for three hours. 'She started listening to music three hours ago and she is still listening to it). past actions of certain duration ha!ing !isible results or effects in the present0 They-!e been +layin$ football. 'They are tired). actions e2pressing anger irritation annoyance e2planation or criticism0 "ho has been usin$ my toothbrush< 'annoyance) emphasis on duration 'usually with for, since or how long)6 She-s been +ac'in$ since this morning. 0 te: The !erbs0 live, feel and work can be used either in the Present Perfect or the Present Perfect ?ontinuous with no difference in meaning. IF#e been li#in$ % IF#e li#ed in +ondon for two years.

-tati#e <erbs Eerbs describing a permanent state 'stati!e !erbs) do not normally ha!e continuous forms. These are0 #erbs f the senses: see. hear, smell, taste etc. '"e often use can or c uld with these !erbs0 Can you hear that noise<). : The !erbs0 look, watch and listen e2press deliberate actions and can be used in continuous forms 3e .uiet please6 IF" listenin$ to the news. 7ut: , canFt hear you. Can you s+ea' louder please< : The !erbs0 feel and hurt can be used in either continuous or simple forms though. A0 1#ow are y u feelin$ today<1$1#ow d y u feel today<1 30 1&y leg is hurtin$" % ")y leg hurts"( #erbs f +ini n: agree, believe, consider etc. #erbs f e" ti n: feel, forgive, hate, like, love etc. ther #erbs: appear (%seem), be, belong, fit (%be the right shape and si:e for something), have (%possess), know, look (%appear), need, prefer, re#uire, want, weight, wish etc. He 'n ws when Peter is 'not i 'n win$)( Some stative verbs (see, smell, taste, feel, think, have etc.) have continuous forms but there is a difference in meaning. -tate Acti n
A thin' she-s rich 'LG = belie!e). The milk tastes awful '9 it has a bad fla!our). #e has a pet dog '9he owns). The cloth feels like !el!et '9 has the te2ture). = sea you-re in trouble '9 6 understand). The kitchen s"ells of burnt '9 has the smell). #e c "es from Spain '9 he was born in). = l #e holidays '9 in general). 4our hair l 's great '9 it appears). The baby wei$hts M kilos 'it is). Ann is !ery tall IF" thin'in$ about your plan '9 ,-m considering). #e-s tastin$ the sauce; it might need some salt '9 he-s trying its fla!our). #e-s ha#in$ dinner now '9 he-s eating). She-s feelin$ her way in the dark '9 she-s finding her way). ,-m seein$ my lawyer tonight '9 ,- m !isiting). "hy are y u s"ellin$ your food< '9 trying the smell of). #e-s c "in$ from Spain '9 he-s tra!elling from). ,-m l #in$ this holiday '9 ,-m en5oying; specific). She-s l 'in$ at some photos '9 she-s e2amining). ,-m wei$hin$ myself on my new scales '9 ,-m finding out my weight).

II 9ast , r"s A( 9ast -i"+le Re$ular <erbs "e form the past simple of regular !erbs by adding 5ed( Affir"ati#e 0e$ati#e Interr $ati#e
L n$ , r" , walked 4ou walked #e walked She walked ,t walked "e walked 4ou walked They walked , did n t walk 4ou did not walk #e did not walk She did not walk ,t did not walk "e did not walk 4ou did not walk They did not walk -h rt , r" , didnl walk 4ou didn-t walk #e didn-t walk She didn-t walk ,t didn-t walk "e didn-t waik 4ou didn-t walk They didn-t walk 8id , walk-< 8id you walk< 8id he walk< 8id she walkK 8id it walk< 8id we walk< 8id you walk< 8id they walk<

0e$ati#e 5 Interr $ati#e

8idnFt you walk< 8idnFt he walk< etc.

We use 9ast -i"+le f r: pat actions which happened one after the other0 She $ t up washed and had breakfast. past habit or state0 #e used t $ % went to school on foot. complete action or e!ent which happened at a stated past time0 They +h ned three days ago. '"hen< Three days ago.) action which happened at a definite past time although the time is not mentioned. This action is not connected with the present0 Shakespeare wr te a lot of plays. 'Shakespeare is now dead; he won-t write again : period of time now finished). Past Simple is the e.ui!alent of Present Simple in the (eported Speech when the reporting !erb is in the Past Tense0 Tom0 1, am hungry.1 Tom said he was hungry. + 7( 9ast C ntinu us : was % were 3 #erb3in$ 0e$ati#e
L n$ , r" -h rt , r" , was n t walking I wasnFt walking 4ou were n t 4ou werenFt walking #e was not walking #e wasn-t walking She was not walking She walking ,t was not wasn-t walking ,t walking "e were wasn-t walking not walking 4ou "e weren-t were not walking walking 4ou They were not weren-t walking walking They weren-t 0e$ati#e 5 Interr $ati#e WerenFt you walking< WasnFt he walking< etc.

5e5H5ed
like. : liked hats : haled close : closed

d uble c ns prefer : nant3ed

preferred stop. : stopped tra!el :

,rregular !erbs ha!e a special past form0 9resen t 9ast

i go , went

carry : , was walking carried study 4ou were : studied tidy walking #e was : tidied walking She was walking ,t was walking "e were , drink walking 4ou , drank were walking They were

Affir"ati#e ^

Inte

Was Were walki walki walki walk we w you w "ere

0 te: @or the past tense of the irregular !erbs see a list of these !erbs. Ti"e e.+ressi ns used with 9ast -i"+le: yesterday, last week $night $ month $year, how long ago, then, two days ago, in ;<<= etc.

Ti"e e.+ressi ns used with 9ast C ntinu us: while, when, as etc.

We use 9ast C ntinu us f r: an action going on at a stated past time0 She was eatin$ at N a.m. yesterday. a past action in progress which is interrupted by another past action0 "hile , was watchin$ TE mum came home. 0 te: "e use Past ?ontinuous for the longer action and Past Simple for the shorter one. two or more simultaneous past actions0 "hile mum was readin$! dad was watchin$ TE. a description of e!ents in a story0 They were wal'in$ in the forest... The dog was bar'in$ ... Past ?ontinuous is the e.ui!alent of Present ?ontinuous in the (eported Speech when the reporting !erb is in the Past Tense0 Tom0 1, am watching TE.1 Tom said he was watching TE. C( 9ast 9erfect: had 3 +ast +artici+le (I the Grd f r" f the #erb)
Affirmati!e +ong @orm ,had walked 4ou had walked #e had walked She had walked ,t had walked "e had walked 4ou had Short ,d walked 4ou-d walked #e-d walked She-d walked ltd walked

We use 9ast 9erfect f r: a past action which happened before another past action or before a stated past time0 She had finished the e2ercises by the time her mum came home 'or by C p.m.). a past action which had !isible results in the past0 #e was in hospital because he had had an accident. Past Perfect is the past e.ui!alent of Present Perfect in the (eported Speech when the reporting !erb is in the Past Tense0 Tom0 1, can-t recite the poem because , ha!e forgotten the lines.1 Tom said he couldn-t recite the poem because he had f r$ tten the lines. 8( 9ast 9erfect C ntinu us: had been 3 #erb3in$ Affir"ati#e
+ong @orm , had been walking 4ou had been walking #e had been walking She had been walking ,t had been walking "e had been walking 4ou had been walking They Affir"ati#e Short @orm ,-d been walking etc.

0e$ati#e
+ong @orm ,liad not been walking 4ou had not been walking #e had not been walking She had not been walking li had not been walking "e had not been walking 4ou had not been walking They had not 0e$ati#e Short @orm , hadn-t been walking etc.

,nterrogati!e #ad , bean walkhg< #ad you been walking< #ad he been walking< #ad she been walking< #ad it been walking< #ad we been walking< #ad you been walking< #ad5 0e$ati#e #adn-t you been walking< etc.

0e$ati#e
+ong @orm , had not waked 4ou had not walked #e had not walked She had not walked ,t had not walked "e had not walked 4ou had not walked They had not Short @orm = hadn-t walked 4ou hadn-t walked #e hadn-t walked She hadn-t walked ,t hadn-t walked "e hadn-t walked 4ou hadn-t walked

interrogati!e #ad , waked< #ad you walked< #ad he walked< #ad she walked< #ad it walked< #ad we walked< #ad you walked<

Negati!e : ,nterrogati!e
#adn-i you walked< #adn-i he walked< etc.

Ti"e e.+ressi ns used with 9ast 9erfect C ntinu us: for, since. We use 9ast 9erfect C ntinu us f r: a past action going on o!er a period of time up to a specific moment in the past0 She had been w r'in$ as a nurse f r A4 years before she resigned.

Ti"e e.+ressi ns used with 9ast 9erfect: for, since, already, after just, yet before, never, by, by the time etc.

 a past action ha!ing certain duration and !isible results in the past0 #e was tired because he had been +layin$ football. Past Perfect ?ontinuous is the past e.ui!alent of Present Perfect ?ontinuous in the (eported Speech when the reporting !erb is in the Past Tense0 Tom0 1, am going to see a dentist. &y tooth has been aching for a week.1 Tom said he was going to see a dentist because his tooth had been achin$ for a week. Ill ,uture , r"s A( ,uture -i"+le: will 3 #erb Affir"ati#e
L n$ , r" , will walk 4ou will walk #e will walk She will walk ,t will walk "e will walk 4ou will walk They wiil walk -h rt r" ,-ll, walk 4ou-ll walk #e-ll walk She-ll ,t-llwalk walk "e-ll walk 4ou-ll walk They-ll walk

hopes fears threats offers promises warnings predictions re.uests comments 'especially with words such as0 think e2pect suppose hope belie!e know and probably)0 -hall , d the washing:up< Will you hel+ me< @ree*e or ,-ll sh tJ 4ou will soon be rich. ,-m afraid you-ll cut yourself. #e-ll probably "arry you soon. 7( ,uture C ntinu us: will be3 #erb5in$ Affir"ati#e 0e$ati#e Interr $ati#e
L n$ , r" , will be walking 4ou will be walking #e will be walking She will be walking ,t will be walking "e will be walking 4ou will be L n$ , r" I will n t be walking 4ou will not be walking #e will not be walking She will not be walking ,t will not be walking "e will not be walking 4ou will not be walking "il ,i be walking< "ill you be walking< "ill he be walking< "ill she be walking< "ill it be walking< "ill we be walking< "ill you

0e$ati#e
L n$ , r" , wilt n t walk 4ou will not walk #e will not walk She will not walk ,t will not walk "e will not walk 4ou will not walk They will not walk -h rt , r" I w nt walk 4ou won-t walk #e won-t walk She won-t walk ,t won-t walk "e won-t walk 4ou won-t walk They won-t walk

interr $ati#e Will $ -hall I walk< "ill you walk< "ill he walk< "ill she walk< "ill it walk< "ill we walk< "ll you walk< "ill they walk<

Affir"ati#e
-h rt , r" ,-ll be walking 4ou-ll be walking etc.

0e$ati#e
-h rt , r" A w nFt be walking 4ou won-t be walking etc.

0e$ati#e 5
W nt you be walking< "on-t he be walking< etc.

0e$ati#e 5 interr $ati#e

W nFt you walk< W nt he walk< etc.

0 te: -hall can be used with 1,1 or 1"e1 in .uestions suggestions offers or when asking for ad!ice. Ti"e e.+ressi ns used with ,uture -i"+le: tomorrow, tonight, soon, ne!t week $ month $ year etc., in a week $ month etc. We use ,uture -i"+le f r: on:the:spot decisions '9 decisions taken at the moment of speaking)0 %.O. IFll ta'e the blue one '9 5acket).

Ti"e e.+ressi ns used with ,uture C ntinu us: tomorrow, tonight, soon, ne!t week $ month $ year etc., in a week $ month etc. We use ,uture -i"+le f r: actions going on at a certain moment in the future0 ,-ll be wal'in$ on the beach this time tomorrow. actions which are the result of a routine 'instead of Present ?ontinuous)0 ,-ll be seein$ Tom tomorrow. '"e work in the same office so we-ll definitely meet). when we ask politely about people-s arrangements to see if they can do something for us or because we want to offer to do something for them0 Will you be $ in$ to the supermarket< ?an you buy me some tea<

C( ,uture 9erfect: will ha#e 3+ast +artici+le (Ithe Grd f r" f the #erb) Affir"ati#e
L n$ , r" , will ha#e walked 4ou will ha!e walked #e will ha!e walked She will ha!e walked ,t will ha!e walked "e will ha!e walked 4ou will ha!e walked Affir"ati#e -h rt , r" ,-ll ha#e walked 4ou-ll ha!e walked etc.

0e$ati#e
L n$ , r" I will n t ha#e walked 4ou will not ha!e walked #e will not ha!e walked She will not ha!e walked ,t will not ha!e walked "e will not ha!e walked 4ou will not ha!e walked They 0e$ati#e -h rt , r" A w nFt ha#e walked 4ou won-t ha!e walked etc.

Interr $ati#e
Win I ha#e walkedK "ill you ha!e walkedC "ill he ha!e walked< "ill she ha!e walkedK "ill it ha!e walkedC "ill we ha!e walked< "ill you ha!e walked<

Ti"e e.+ressi ns used with ,uture 9erfect C ntinu us: by... for. We use ,uture 9erfect C ntinu us f r: duration of an action up to a certain time in the future0 3y the end of this year she will ha#e been w r'in$ here f r two years. E( 7e * in$ T 3 #erb Affir"ati#e 0e$ati#e Interr $ati#e
L n$ , r" I a" $ in$ t eat 4ou are going to eat #e is going to eat She is going to eat ,t is going to eat "e are going to eat 4ou are going to eat They are going to eat L n$ , r" I a" n t $ in$ t eat 4ou are not going to eat #e is not going to eat She is not going to eat ,t is not going to eat "e are not going to eat 4ou are not going to eat They are not going to eat A" = $ in$ t eat< Are you going to eat< ,s he gang to eat< ,s she going to eat< ,s it going to eat< Are we going to eat< Are you going to eat< Are they going to eat<

0e$ati#e 5

Ti"e e.+ressi ns used with ,uture 9erfect: before, by, by then, by the time, until (is used only in negative sentences with this tense). We use ,uture 9erfect f r: actions which will be finished before a stated future time0 #e will ha#e #isited 7amaica by the end of the year. She w nFt ha#e finished her homework until K o-clock. 8( ,uture 9erfect C ntinu us: will ha#e been 3 #erb5in$
Affir"ati#e L n$ , r" A will ha#e been wal'in$ 4ou will ha!e been walking #e will ha!e been walking She will ha!e been walking ,t will ha!e been walking "e will ha!e been walking 4ou will ha!e been

W nFt you ha#e walked< W nFt he ha#e walked< etc.

Affir"ati#e
-h rt , r" IF" $ in$ t eat 4ou-re going to eat etc.

0e$ati#e
-h rt , r" IF" n t $ in$ t eat 4ou aren-t going to eat etc.

0e$ati#e 5
ArenFt you $ in$ t eat< ,sn-t he going to eat< etc.

0e$ati#e
L n$ , r" will n t ha#e been walking 4ou will not ha!e been walking #e will not ha!e been walking She will not ha!e been walking ,t will not ha!e been walking "e will not ha!e been walking 4ou will not ha!e been

Interr $ati#e
Wil I ha#e been walking< "ill you ha!e been walking< "ill he ha!e been walking< "ill she ha!e been walking< "ill it ha!e been walking< "ill we ha!e been walking< "ill you ha!e

Affir"ati#e
-h rt , r" ,-ll ha#e been walking 4ou-ll ha!e been walking

0e$ati#e
-h rt , r" A w nFt ha#e been walking 4ou won-t ha!e been walkinc

0e$ati#e 5
W nFt you ha#e been walking< "on-t he ha!e been walking<

Ti"e e.+ressi ns used with 7e * in$ T : tomorrow, tonight, ne!t week $ month $ year , in two $ three days, the day after tomorrow, soon, in a week $ month etc. We use 7e * in$ T f r: actions intended to be performed in the near future0 ,-m $ in$ t meet her tomorrow. planned actions or intentions0 They are $ in$ t ha!e a party on their birthday. e!idence that something will definitely happen in the near future0 She is $ in$ t ha!e a baby. +ook6 The sky is grey. ,t-s $ in$ t rain. things we are sure about or we ha!e already decided to do in the near future0 #e-s $ in$ t be promoted 'The boss has decided to do it).

)18AL <ER7The modal !erbs are0 can! c uld! "ay! "i$ht! "ust! u$ht t ! will! w uld! shall! sh uld! ha#e t ! need( They take no :s in the third person singular e2cept for ha#e t and need( They come before the sub5ect in .uestions and take 1not1 after them in negations. /2cept for u$ht t and ha#e t ( modal !erbs are followed by an infiniti#e with ut t ( &odal !erbs are used to e2press0 ability, possibility, probability, logical assumptions, permission, re#uests, offers, suggestions, advice, criticism, obligation, prohibition or necessity. Ability can % be able t 'ability in the present $ future). 1?an1 in more usual and less formal than 1be able to1 when talking about the present and the future0 , can pay you ne2t week 'usual). , will be able t pay you ne2t week 'less usual). c uld%was able t 'ability in the past) are used for either repeated or single actions. #owe!er with the !erbs see, hear, smell, understand etc we normally use 1could1 for single actions0 #e c uld % was able to swim when he was four 'repeated action). , c uld smell something burning 'single action) 'not0 B was able t smell). . Can is the Present Simple and c uld is the Past Simple. Can borrows the rest of its tenses from be able t ( She hasnFt be able t finish work today but she can finish it tomorrow. 9 ssibility "ay%"i$ht % c uld 3 +resent infiniti#e 'it-s possible that something will happen in the future or perhaps it is true at the moment)0 I "ay $ "i$ht % c uld pass this difficult e2am. "ay $ "i$ht % c uld 3 +erfect infiniti#e 'perhaps something happened in the past)0 #e looks !ery happy6 #e "ay $ "i$ht% c uld ha!e won the lottery.

c uld 3+erfect infiniti#e is also used for something which was possible but didn-t actually happened0 8on-t dri!e so fast6 4ou c uld ha#e 'illed that boy6 '+uckily you didn-t kill him). 9r bability u$ht t % sh uld 3 +resent infiniti#e show that something is probable now or in the future0 She u$ht t % sh uld pass her e2ams. 'She will probably pass). u$ht t % sh uld 3 +erfect infiniti#e show that we e2pected something to happen but we don-t know if it happened or not. They u$ht t % sh uld ha#e arri#ed by now. L $ical assu"+ti ns canFt % c uldnFt 3 +resent infiniti#e ', don-t think; it-s logically improbable)0 They canFt be at home. Nobody answered the bell. "ust 3 +resent infiniti#e ',-m sure)0 #er face is red. She "ust be angry. canFt% c uldnFt 3 +erfect infiniti#e ',t-s impossible that something happened in the past)0 #e canFt % c uldnFt ha#e l st his dog. , heard it barking yesterday. "ust3 +erfect infiniti#e 'it-s !ery probable that something happened in the past)0 4ou look tired. 4ou "ust ha#e w r'ed a lot. As'in$ f r +er"issi n can 'informal) $ c uld 'more polite) "ay 'formal) $ "i$ht 'more formal)0 Can %C uld , borrow your pen please< )ay $ )i$ht , talk to your manager please< *i#in$ r refusin$ +er"issi n can 'informal; gi!ing permission)0 Can , use your phone< %f course you canJ 'informal).

"ay 'formal; gi!ing permission : also used in written notices or formal announcements)0 )ay , use your phone< %f course you "ayJ 'formal). +uggage "ay be left here 'written notice). "ustnFt %canFt 'informal : refusing permission)0 ,-m afraid they "ustnFt %canFt come in. "ay n t 'formal : refusing permissing)0 )ay , open the window< No you "ay n tJ Re=uests(as'in= s "e ne t d s "ethin$): Can y u/'informal) Can y u lend me your pen< . Will y u < 'familiar) Will y u fetch me a glass of water< * C uld y u/'polite re.uest) C uld y u bring my glasses< * )ay ,<'formal re.uest) )ay , borrow your pen< . W uld y u %W uld y u "ind/ 'more polite and formal than "c uld y u"/) W uld y u do this for me< W uld y u "ind posting this letters< 1ffers ( fferin$ t d s "ethin$): IFll((( 'informal) IFll do the washing up for you. . -hall I %we %Can I %we(((/ -hall , feed your dog< W uld y u li'e %W uld y u li'e "e t (((/ W uld y u li'e some more tea< -u$$esti ns ("a'in$ su$$esti ns): K -hall I %we -hall we go to the mountains< %%we can %c uld We c uld go to the club if you like. Ad#ice (sayin$ what the best thin$ t d is): * -h uld % u$ht t 3 +resent infiniti#e ', ad!ise you to).4ou sh uld keep a diet. * -hall I 'asking for ad!ice) -hall I come too< had better 'it-s a good idea) E uFd better go home now. Criticis" (sayin$ what the best thin$ t d in the +ast was): K -h uld % u$ht t 3 +erfect infiniti#e: 4ou sh uldnFt ha#e beha#ed like that yesterday. 1bli$ati n 5 0ecessity K "ust % ha#e t 'it-s necessary ,-m obliged to)0 )ust is used only in the present and the future when the speaker decides. ,t borrows the rest of the tenses form

ha#e t which forms its .uestions and negations with d %d es 'Present Simple) and did 'Past Simple)0 , "ust keep a diet. ', say so) 8 you ha#e t write your homework now< 8id you ha#e t finish the report yesterday< Ha#e t is used when somebody else decides for the speaker , ha#e t keep a diet 'the doctor says so). Ha#e $ t t 'more informal and usual then ha#e t )! is used for an obligation on a single occasion0 ,-!e $ t to tidy my room0 mother is angry. 1u$ht t 'duty; it-s the right thing to do but people don-t always do it)0 4ou u$ht t use a *ebra crossing. 0eed 'it-s necessary) is followed by a passi!e full infiniti!e or an :ing form and takes :s in the Prd person singular in statements0 4our hair needs to be cut $ cutting. Absence f necessity neednt 3 bare +resent infiniti#e % d nFt ha#e t % d nFt need t 'it-s not necessary in the present or future)0 4ou neednFt take your umbrella. ,t-s not raining. 4ou d nFt ha#e t % d nFt need t take your umbrella. ,t-s not raining. didnFt need t %didnFt ha#e t ',t wasn-t necessary in the past and we may not know if the action happened or not)0 4ou didnFt need % didnFt ha#e t buy any bread. There was a lot in the cupboard ', don-t know if you brought any). neednFt 3 bare +erfect infiniti#e '"e know that something happened in the past although it was not necessary)0 4ou neednFt ha#e b u$ht any bread. There was a lot in the cupboard ', know you bought some bread but it wasn-t necessary). 9r hibiti n "ustnFt 'it-s forbidden) 4ou "ustnFt go in there 'it-s forbidden). canFt 'you aren-t allowed to) 4ou canFt wait here 'you are not allowed to).

I0,I0ITI<E % 5 ing f r" % 9ARTICI9LETenses f the Infiniti#e Acti!e Eoice Passi!e Eoice 'to) offer 'to) be 'to) be offered offering 'to) to 'to) ha!e been ha!e offered 'to) offered ha!e been offering Tenses of the :ing form Acti!e Eoice 9assi#e < ice

9resent 9resent C ntinu us 9erfect

9resent offering being offered 9resent C ntinu us ha!ing ha!ing been 9erfect offered offered 9erfect 0 te: 5 the 9resent Infiniti#e refers to the present or future0 ,-d like t slee+ for a while. The 9resent C ntinu us Infiniti#e is used with appear, claim, seem, pretend, must, can't, happen, should, would etc. to describe an action going on at the moment of speaking. She must be rehearsin$ by now. The 9erfect Infiniti#e is used with appear, happen, pretend, seem etc. to show that the action of the infiniti!e happened before the action of the !erb. They claim t ha#e +assed the e2am '@irst they passed the e2am then they claimed they had passed it). The 9erfect C ntinu us Infiniti#e is used with appear, seem, pretend etc. to emphasi*e the duration of the action of the infiniti!e which happened before the action of the !erb. #e looks tired. #e seems t ha#e been +layin$ f tball all morning. The 9resent *erund ':ing form) refers to the present or future. , en5oy listenin$ t music. The 9erfect *erund ':ing form) shows that the action of the gerund has happened before the action of the !erb. "e can use the Present Aerund instead of the Perfect Aerund without a difference in meaning.

#e denied ha#in$ st len the money or #e denied stealin$ the money. -ub:ect f the infiniti#e $ :ing f r" The sub5ect of the infiniti!e or of the :ing form is omitted when it is the same as the sub5ect of the !erb. They want to go to the circus. , left without taking my keys. "hen the sub5ect of the infiniti!e or of the :ing form is different from the sub5ect of the !eb then an ob5ect pronoun 'me you him her us you them) or noun is placed before the infiniti!e or the :ing form. The sub5ect of the gerund can also be a possessi!e ad5ecti!e 'my your etc.) the possessi!e case or a noun. , want her to clean the table '9 -he should clean the table). but , want to clean the table '9 , should clean the table). , remember his $him $ Tom's $ Tom complaining about the difficulty of the task. The to : infiniti!e is used0 to e2press purpose0 after nouns6 #e came here t "eet us. ,t-s a pleasure t tal' with after certain !erbs you. (advise, agree, after too $enough appear, decide, e!pect, hope, constructions0 promise, ,t is too good t be true. refuse etc.)0 She is rich enough t $i#e She ad!ised me t wait( money after certain ad5ecti!es to the poor. (angry, happy, with it ? be ? adjective (? glad etc.Q0 of ? #e was happy t c "e( object)6 after .uestion words ,t is nice of you t lend me (where, how, what, your bike. who, which, but not after with >only> to e2press >why>)6 unsatisfactory 8id he tell you where t result0 The infiniti!e without 1toR is used0 after modal verbs6 Gut: in the passi!e form0 be 4ou "ust come back. made $ be heard $ be seen : after had better $ would B to : infiniti!e0 #e was rather. made t a+ l $ise( ,-d rather ha#e stayed in last L; te: help, is followed by night. a to : infiniti!e or an after make $ let $ see $ hear $ infiniti!e without 1to10 #e

The 5in$ f r" Is used:

as a noun0 -+ea'in$ /nglish is a pleasure tor him. S after certain !erbs0 admit to avoid, con' sider, continue, delay, deny, enjoy, escape, e!cuse, fancy, finish, forgive, imagine, involve, keep L continue, look forward to. mention, mind. miss, object to. postpone, practice, prevent, report, resist, risk. save, stand, suggest, understand etc. , suggest $ in$ on a trip. L after0 love. tike, dislike, hate, enjoy, prefer 'to e2press general preference)0 She likes dancin$ 'in general). after0 'm busy, it's no use. it's (no) good, it's (not) worth, what's the use of. can't help, there's no point in, can't stand, be $ get used to, be $ get accustomed to. have difficulty (in)6 ,-m busy d in$ the washing:up. after >go> for physical acti!ities0 They go swi""in$ e!ery summer. S after prepositions6 She came in without 'n c'in$ at the door after see. hear, listen, watch, to e2press an incomplete action an action in progress or a long action0 , saw Oate +aintin$ the kitchen ', saw Oate in the middle of painting. , didn-t wait until she had finished). 3ut0 see. hear, listen, watch ? infinitive without >to>, to e2press a complete action something that one saw or heard from beginning to end. , watched Oate +aint the kitchen. ,t took her two hours ', saw the whole action from beginning to end). ) te: if two infiniti!es are 5oined by >and' the >to> of the second infiniti!e can be omitted0 , want t $ home and watch TE.

<erbs ta'in$ t 5 infiniti#e r 5in$ f r" with a chan$e in "eanin$ a) f r$et 3 t 5 infiniti#e 9 not remember0 ,-m sorry , forget t c "e earlier. f r$et 3 5in$ f r" 9 forget a past e!ent0 ,-ll ne!er forget #isitin$ Spain. b) re"e"ber 3 t 5 infiniti#e 9 remember to do something: (emember t switch ff the lights before lea!ing. re"e"ber 3 5in$ f r" 9 recall a past e!ent0 #e doesn-t remember lea#in$ the keys at home. c) $ n 3 t : infiniti#e 9 finish doing something and start doing something else; then0 After finishing cooking she went on t wash the dishes. $ n 3 5in$ f r" 9 continue0 They went on wal'in$ for hours.

<erbs ta'in$ t 5 infiniti#e r 5in$ f r" with ut a chan$e in "eanin$ K be$in! start! c ntinue 3 t 5 infiniti#e or 5in$ f r"( #owe!er we ne!er ha!e two :ing forms together0 She began dancin$ % t dance( 7ut: ,t-s beginning t $et cold. 0 t: ,t-s boginning $ettin$ c ld. ad#ise! all w! +er"it! rec ""end! enc ura$e when followed by an ob5ect or in passi!e form take a to : infiniti!e. They take the :ing form when not followed by an ob5ect0 #e doesn-t allow us t s" 'e here. They aren-t allowed t s" 'e here. They don-t allow s" 'in$ here. it needs % it re=uires % it wants B :ing form. 1,t needs1 can also be followed by a passi!e infiniti!e0 The house needs $ re.uires $ wants +aintin$( The car needs re+airin$ % t be re+aired(

d) "ean 3 t 5 infiniti#e 9 intend to0 #e means t find a 5ob abroad. "ean 3 5in$ f r" 9 in!ol!e0 @inding a 5ob means attendin$ many inter!iews. e) re$ret 3 t 5 infiniti#e 9 be sorry to0 , regret t tell you there is no money left in your account. re$ret 3 5in$ f r" 9 ha!ing second thoughts about something one has already done0 , regret buyin$ that dress. f) try 3 t : infiniti#e 9 do one-s best attempt0 The policemen are trying t catch the thief. try B 5in$ f r" 9 do something as an e2periment0 "hy don-t you try slee+in$ in the afternoon. $)want 3 t : infiniti#e 9 wish0 , want to c "e with you. want B 5in$ f r" 9 need something done0 This wall needs painting.

h) st + 3 t 5 infiniti#e 9 pause temporarily0 She stopped t finish her lunch. st + 3 5in$ f r" 9 finish end0 She stopped +layin$ the piano. i) be s rry 3 t 5 infiniti#e 9 regret0 ,-m sorry t see you sad. be s rry f r 3 5in$ f r" 9 apologise0 ,-m sorry for tellin$ % ha#in$ t ld you that lie. :) be afraid 3 t 5 infiniti#e 'the sub5ect is too frightened to do something)0 The cat is afraid t cli"b the ladder. be afraid f 3 5in$ f r" 'the sub5ect is afraid that what is described by the :ing form may happen)0 She won-t climb that tree; she is afraid of fallin$ 'she is afraid she might fall). T t : En u$h B ad5ecti!e $ ad!erb 'negati!e meaning)0 #e is t short to reach the ceiling. ad5ecti!e $ ad!erb 3 enough 'positi!e meaning)0 #e is rich en u$h to buy a new house. en u$h3 noun 'positi!e meaning)0 #e-s got en u$h patience to be a teacher. 9artici+les 9resent 9artici+les '!erb B ing) describe what something or somebody is. Tom is an interestin$ person. 9ast 9artici+les '!erb B ed) describe how someone feels0 Ann is interested in maths.

CLA2-EA( Ti"e clauses They are intr duced with the following time con5unctions0 after, as, as long as, as soon as, just as, since, before, by the time, when, while, until$till, the moment (that), whenever etc. )s soon as he 'had) finished studying $ he turned on the TE.
'Time clause) '&ain clause)

Time clauses follow the rule of the se.uence of tenses0 when the !erb of the main clause is in a present or future form the !erb of the time clause is in a present form; when the !erb of the main clause is in a past form the !erb of the time clause is in a past form too. IFll +h ne him when , a" ready 'not0 whon , will bo roady). She did the cleaning after she had d ne the washing:up 'not0 aftor oho dooo). "e ne!er use will % w uld 'future forms) in time clauses; we normally use a present form. 0 te: when 'time con5unction) B present ,-ll c "e when I ha#e time. when '.uestion word) B present or future 8o you know when she-ll be $ is back home< 7( Clauses f +ur+ se ?lauses of purpose follow the rule of the se.uence of tenses 'see Time clauses). IFll lea#e early so that , can catch the train. #e l c'ed the door in case someone br 'e in( Clauses f +ur+ se are intr duced with: t : infiniti#e 'when the sub5ect of the !erb and the sub5ect of the infiniti!e are the same)0 She phoned me t in#ite me to her birthday 'informal). in rder t % in rder n t % s as n t 3 t infiniti#e: She phoned me in rder to me to her birthday 'formal). They hurried s as n t $ in rder n t t miss the train 'not0

 s that 3 will $ can $ "ay 'present $ future reference)0 ,-ll sa#e money s that , can buy a computer. s that 3 w uld % c uld $ "i$ht 'past reference)0 She " #ed the !ase s that the cat w uldnFt break it. in case 3 +resent 'present $ future reference)0 ,-ll buy some flowers in case they arri#e( in case 3 +ast 'past reference)0 , b u$ht some flowers in case they arri#ed( 0 te: "in case" is ne!er followed by 1will $ would1. . f r 3 n un % 5in$ f r": They went out f r a wal'( A pencil is used f r writin$( C( Clauses f c ncessi n They are intr duced with 0 although, even though, though 'at the beginning or at the end of the sentence) despite $ in spite of ? noun $ :ing form despite the fact that, in spite of the fact that? clause white, but or whereas ? clause. E#en th u$h % Alth u$h she likes &aths she gets !ery poor marks in it. Th u$h she had been warned she wants to take the risk or She-s been warned. She wants to take the risk th u$h( 0 te: th u$h 3 clause is informal. She came to work des+ite % in s+ite f her cold $ ha!ing a cold. In s+ite f the fact % 8es+ite the fact that she had a cold she came to work. , did well on the test while % whereas $ but my friend didn-t. 8( Clauses f reas n They are intr duced with: as, since 'are normally used at the beginning of the sentence) because 'which usually answers a why : .uestion). As $ -ince it-s warm outside you can go out and play. "hy didn-t you phone him earlier< 7ecause , was !ery tired.

E( Clauses f result They are intr duced with: such so...that, (and) as a result or therefore. K such a(n) 3 ad:ecti#e 3 sin$ular c untable n un: He is such a $ d teacher that all his students like him. such 3 ad:ecti#e 3 unc untable % +lural n un: It was such nice weather that we went on a trip. . s 3 ad:ecti#e % ad#erb( - can be also used before "uch! "any! few or little: The problem was s difficult that he couldn-t sol!e it. #e dro!e s carefully that no accident happened. , ate s "uch last night that , couldn-t sleep. #ow can you sleep s little and not look tired. as a result % theref re 3 clause: #e has broken his leg and as a result % theref re he had to go to the hospital. ,( E.cla"ati ns They are words and phrases used to e2press surprise shock etc. They take an e2clamation mark '6). Some e2clamations are0 3ood heavens- 3oodness- @h dear- 4eally- )hE.cla"ati ns are intr duced with what or how as follows0 what a(n) % (ad:ecti#e) 3 sin$ular c untable n un: What a nice day6 K what % (ad:ecti#e) 3 unc untable % +lural n un: What beautiful earrings6 K h w 3 ad:ecti#e % ad#erb: H w clearly he speaks6 *( Relati#e clauses They are intr duced with: a) relati!e pronouns0 wh ! wh "! wh se! which or that and0 b) relati!e ad!erbs0 when! where or why as follows0

Relati#e 9r n uns
-ub:ect f the #erb f the relati#e clause (cann "itted) used t be wh % that for +e + le used for thin$ s% ani" als This is the teacher wh $ that taught which % that I saw a cat which % that had no tail 1b:ect f the #erb f the relati#e clause (can% be wh wh "itted) " % that #ere-s the boy wh % wh " % that I ga!e the which $ that This is the dress (which $ that) I brought last night. 9 ssessi n (cann t be "itted) wh se This is )r( -"ith wh se sister li!es wh ne2t se $ tof me which This is the house wh se roof $ the roof f which was recently repaired.

non:defining relati!e clauses the relati!e pronouns cannot be omitted. That cannot replace wh or which( The relati!e clause is put in commas. Ann who is my best friend told me a secret yesterday 'not0 Ann that io my boot friond). H( Clauses f "anner They are intr duced with: as if % as th u$h and are used to e2press the way in which something is done $ said etc. we use as if $ as th u$h after !erbs such as0 act, appear, be, behave, feel, look, seem, smell, sound, taste to say how somebody or something looks beha!es etc.0 #e s unds as if % as th u$h he-s got a cold. She l 's as if % as th u$h she is a model. we use as if $ as th u$h 3+ast tense when we are talking about an unreal present situation. Aere can be used instead of was in all persons0 She beha!es as if $ as th u$h she were the boss '1were1 is more formal than 1was1). 0 te: We can use li'e instead of as if $ as th u$h in spoken /nglish. ,t looks as if $ as th u$h it is going to rain. ,t looks like it is going to rain 'informal spoken /nglish). E)9HATIC -TR2CT2RE"e use them when we want to emphasi*e a particular part of a sentence in spoken or written /nglish. we can use it is $ was (n t) 3 sub:ect % b:ect 3 that or who'm) in statements $ negations or is $ was it B sub:ect $ b:ect B that r wh (") in .uestions. ,f the ob5ect is a person we use that! wh or wh "! otherwise that is the correct form0 ,t was the head"aster that $ wh organised the school ba*aar. It wasnFt T " that $ who cooked the meal. is it "e that $ who you-re talking to<

Aho, whom, which or that can be omitted when there is a noun or personal pronoun between the relati!e pronoun and the !erb that is when they are the ob5ects of the relati!e clause. "hen who, which etc. are sub5ects of the relati!e clause they cannot be omitted 'see the table abo!e). Relati#e Ad#erbs * ti"e: when '9 in $ on $ at which); * +lace: where '9 in $ at $ on $ to which); * reas n: why '9 for which). 7uly is the month when people go to the seaside. This is the garden where , like to play. +ack of money is the reason (why) we stay at home. 8efinin$ % 0 n5definin$ Relati#e clauses A definin$ relati!e clause gi!es necessary inf r"ati n and it is essential to the meaning of the main sentence. The clause is not put in commas. Wh ! which! that can be omitted when they are the ob5ect of the relati!e clause. She is the giri who became famous in the world ("wh " as sub5ect is not omitted). That-s the necklace (which! that) Tom bought for me ("which % that" as ob5ect can be omitted). A n n5 definin$ relati!e clause gi!es e.tra inf r"ati n and it is not essential to the meaning of the main sentence. ,n

K we can use that is % was 3 =uesti n w rd in statements or is $ was that 3 =uesti n w rd in .uestions0 That is what , told the police. Is that where he-s li!ing now< we can use =uesti n w rd 3 is % was it 3 that in .uestions0 Where is that you-re planning to go< Wh was it that sent you flowers< When was it that you realised you were being followed< . we can use =uesti n w rd 3 sub:ect 3 #erb 3 is % was: What he needed was a good mother< . emphatic .uestions can be used to e2press admiration anger etc0 Where#er did you find it< Wh e#er did you talk to< Whate#er are you doing there< in the Present Simple Past Simple or ,mperati!e we can use the construction d $ d es % did 3 bare infiniti#e to gi!e emphasis0 , d care for you. 8 sit down please6 #e did tell me he was lea!ing. I0<ER-I10 "e in!ert the sub5ect and au2iliary !erb in the sentence to gi!e emphasis. This happens0 . after certain e2pressions when they are at the beginning of a sentence0 /eldom" Bittle" 4arely" (arely" /carcely (ever)... when" Cowhere" .ardly (ever)... when" Cot till $ until" Co sooner... ihan" @n no occasion" Cot only... but also" n no way" n $ &nder no circumstances" @nly in this way" Cever @nly by" Cever before Cor $ Ceither" Cot since @nly then"

Cot even once @n no account. Rarely d we see her these days. No sooner had we got into the house than he phoned us. 0 te: "hen the following e2pressions begin a sentence we use in!ersion in the main clause. only after, only by, only if, only when, not till$until, not since. 1nly after he had graduated did he start looking for a 5ob. 1nly if you in!ite her will she c "e to your party. 0 t until all tests had been completed were we t ld the results. after so, such, to such a degree 'in result clauses) when they are at the beginning of a sentence0 - careful is he that he ne!er makes any mistakes. -uch a brilliant student was he that he was offered a scholarship. with should, were, had in conditionals at the beginning of the sentence when 1if1 is omitted0 Type =0 -h uld y u see him tell him to call me '9 ,f you should see...). Type >0 Were I y u! , would cancel my trip '9 ,f , were you). Type P0 Had he 'n wn! he would ha!e made arrangements '9 ,f , had known...). after so neither $ nor as when e2pressing agreement0 1, like icecream1. "- d ,1. '1So1 is used to agree with an affirmati!e statement). 1, don-t like milk1. "0either $ 0 r d ,1 '1Neither $ Nor1 are used to agree with a negati!e statement). The sub5ect and the main !erb are also in!erted in the following structures0 after ad#erbs f +lace: Here c "es the bride 6 Away ran the mouse6 in 8irect s+eech when the reporting !erb comes after the .uote and the sub5ect is a noun0 1,-!e ne!er seen1 him said &ary.

C 1 0 8 I T I 1 0 A L Type = real +res ent

If he +h n es me IFll tell him the ne ws. ,f you ha# e writ ten the e2e rcis es we can go sho ppi ng. ,f youre tire d $ to bed . ,f you hea t wat er it b il s(

'not likel y to hap pen ). ,f , wer e you I w uld nFt eat so ma ny swe ets 'ad !ice ).
If : clause Type G unre al +ast If 3 9ast 9erfect r 9ast 9erfect C ntinu us

n the if: cla use is bef ore the mai n cla use we sep arat e the two cla use s with a co mm a; , f h e c " e s ! w e w i l l b e h a p p y b u t , w i l l b e h a p p y i f h e

c " e s (

I I

If I wer ea t .ue e en , s w : uld : be !ery w h hap e py

If I had f ll w ed his ad!i ce , w uld nFt ha# e had that bad acci den t 'reg ret). ,f he had t ld the trut h the teac her w uld nFt ha# e +un ish ed him. 0

Ar a m ati ca lim bii en gl e* e

o w e ! e r w e c a n u s e w i l l % w u l d i n T y p e = ? o n d it i o n a l s t o m a k e a r e . u e s t o r t o e 2 p r e s s i n s i s t

: w e d o n o t n o r m al ly u s e w ill ! w u l d o r s h u l d in a n if: cl a u s e 0 ,f yo u hu rry ! yo u-ll cat ch the trai n 'no t0 ,f yo u wil l hu rry ( yo u wil l((() ( : h

enc e or ann oya nce and sh uld whe n we are less sur e abo ut a pos sibili ty 'slig ht pos sibili ty). I f y o u w il l g i ! e m e a h a n d w it h m y h o m e w o r k w e c a n g o t o s e e a fi l m ' P l e a s e g

i ! e m e a h a n d .. .) . I f y o u w u l d g i ! e m e a h a n d w it h m y h o m e w o r k w e c a n g o t o s e e a fi l m ' P l e a s e g i ! e

51

me a ha nd. ..). If yo u wil l c nti nu e to go out e! ery nig ht yo u-ll be !er y tire d 'in sist en ce; if yo u insi st on goi ng out ...). If , sh ul d "e et her ,-ll ask her to co me wit h me ', ma y me et her but , do ubt it). : a ft e r if w e c a n

u s e w e r e in st e a d o f w a s in al l p e r s o n s0 If , we re $ wa s yo u, wo uld n-t sp en d so mu ch mo ne y on sw eet s. : u n le s s m e a n s if n t: 2n les s her hu sb an d like s the hat sh e wo n-t

b u y it ' ,f h e r h u s b a n d d o e s n -t li k e t h e h a t s h e w o n -t b u y it ) . : as l n$ as! +r #i din$ % +r #i ded that can be used instea d of it0 A s l n $ a s h e s o n ti m e w e w o n -t b e

l a t e f o r t h e m e e ti n g . ' ,f h e i s o n ti m e w e w o n -t b e l a t e f o r t h e m e e ti n g ) . " e -ll c o m e b y c a r + r # i d e d % + r # i d i n

$ tha t fat her len ds us his '" e-ll co me by car if fat her len ds us his ). & i2 e d c n di ti n al s A ll ty p e s o f c o n di ti o n al

s If 5 clause c a ,f nobody phoned Ty+e n b him B e m ,f he knew her i2 Ty+e ,f he had found a e d > 5ob . A n y t e n s e c o m bi n a ti o n is p o s si bl e if t h e c o n t e 2t p e r m it s it. TTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTT

)ain clause he won-t come to the meeting. he wouldn-t ha!e spoken to her. he wouldn-t be searching for one now. Ty+e A Ty+e G Ty+e B

WI-HE, r" , wish 'if only) 'regret about the present) B Past Simple Use regret about a present situation which we want to be different

5 if nly means the same as I wish but it is more dramatic; If nly I was % were blonde. 9A--I<E <1ICE The Passi!e Eoice is formed by using the appropriate tense of the !erb t be 3 +ast +artici+le
Acti!e Eoice Present Simple Present ?ontinuous Past Simple Past ?ontinuous @uture Simple Present Perfect Past Perfect @uture Perfect Present ,nfiniti!e. Perfect They make chairs. They are making chairs. They made chairs. They were making chairs. They wili make chairs. They ha!e made chairs. They had made chairs. They will ha!e made chairs. They will ha!e to make chairs. #e ought to ha!e made chairs. #e likes people buying his chairs #a!ing made chairs. 4ou must make this chair. Passi!e Eoice ?hairs are made. ?hairs are being made. ?hairs were made ?hairs were being made. ?hairs will be made. ?hairs ha!e been made. ?hairs had been made. ?hairs will ha!e been made. ?hairs will ha!e to be made. ?hairs ought to ha!e been made #e likes his chairs being bought. The chairs ha!ing been made. This chair must be made.

I wish I were $ was rich ', regret ,-m not rich).

@orm , wish 'if only) 'wish $ regret about the present) B sub5ect B could B bare infiniti!e Use wish or regret in the present concerning lack of ability Use wish for a future change unlikely to happen or wish to e2press dissatisfaction; polite re.uest implying dissatisfaction or lack of hope

I wish , c uld s+ea' 7apanese '3ut , can-t).

, r" , wish 'if only) 'impossible wish for a future changeU 3 sub:ect 3 w uld 3 bare infiniti!e

I wish he w uld study harder '3ut 6 don-t think he will : wish for future change unlikely to happen). I wish 7ane w uld $ to uni!ersity '7ane refused to go and ,-m unhappy about it : dissatisfaction). I wish you w uld be .uiet '3ut , don-t e2pect you will : re.uest implying lack of hope). A wish it w uld st + raining '3ut ,-m afraid it won-t stop raining : wish implying dissapointment).
, r" , wish 'if only) 'regret about the past) 3 9ast 9erfect 2se regret that something happened or didn-t happen in the past

I wish I w uldnFt l st my watch '3ut , did : ,t-s a pity). 0 tes: : in wishes we go one tense back. This means that we use Past Simple in the present and Past Perfect in the past0 ,-m poor. , wish , were rich 'present). , lost my watch yesterday. , wish , hadnFt l st it 'past). : after I wish we can use were instead of was in all persons0 I wish I was % were blonde.

We use 9assi#e < ice f r: when the person who does the action '9 agent) is unimportant unknown or ob!ious from the conte2t0 &y bike was st len two days ago 'unknown agent). The files were filled in yesterday 'unimportant agent). The thie!es ha#e been arrested 'by the police : ob!ious agent). to make statements more polite $ formal0 &y fa!orite cup has been br 'en ',t-s more polite than saying 14ou-!e broken my fa!orite cup1). in news reports instructions headlines formal notices processes ad!ertisements 'when the action is usually more important than the agent)0 Smoking is n t all wed 'written notice). The President-s son was 'idna++ed this morning 'news report). &argarine is added(..'process).

......................................................................................

to emphasi*e the agent0 The town of +ondon was built by Willia" the C n=uer r( with only transiti!e !erbs '!erbs that take an ob5ect)0 She bought the dress yesterday. The dress was b u$ht yesterday. in collo.uial /nglish $et can be used instead of be to e2press something happening by accident0 She $ t sunburnt last week 'more usual than 1She was sunburnt last week1). CA2-ATI<E HA<E '#a!ing something done) "e use ha#e 3 b:ect 3 +ast +artici+le to say that we arrange for someone else to do something for us. Sarah arran$ed f r her hair to be cut. Sarah had her hair cut( Acti!e Eoice
Present Simple Present ?ontinuous Past Simple Past ?ontinuous @uture Simple @uture ?ontinuous Present Perfect Present Perfect ?ontinuous Past Perfect Past Perfect ?ontinuous He re+airs his car. He is re+airin$ his car. He re+aired his car. He was re+airin$ his car. He will re+air his car. He will be re+airin$ his car. He has re+aired his car. He has been re+airin$ his car. He had re+aired his car.

RE91RTE8 SPEECH 8irect speech is the e2act words someone said. "e use .uotation marks in 8irect speech. (eported speech is the e2act meaning of what someone said but not the e2act words. "e do not use .uotation marks in (eported speech. 8irect s+eech 1,-ll go there1 he said. (eported speech #e said he would go there. -ay : Tell "e use say in 8irect speech. "e also use say in (eported speech when say is not followed by the person the words were spoken to. "e use tell in (eported speech when tell is followed by the person the words were spoken to0 8irect s+eech: #e said t me 1, can-t sing1. Re+ rted s+eech: #e said that he couldn-t sing. Re+ rted s+eech: #e t ld me that he couldn-t sing. E.+ressi ns with say: say good morning $ evening etc., say something, say one's prayers, say a few words, say so etc. E.+ressi ns with tell: tell the truth, tell a lie, tell somebody the time, tell somebody one's name, tell a story, tell a secret, tell somebody the way tell one from another etc. "e can report0 A statements; 3. .uestions; ? commands re.uests suggestions. A( Re+ rted state"ents To report statements we use a reporting !erb0 say, tell, e!plain etc followed by a that : clause. ,n spoken /nglish that can be omitted0 She said0 1, am alone at home.1 She said (that) she was alone at home. Pronouns and possessi!e ad5ecti!es change according to the conte2t0 8irect s+eech: She said 1,-ll lend you my bike.1 Re+ rted s+eech: She said sheFll lend me her bike.

Passi!e Eoice
#e has his car re+aired( He is ha#in$ his car re+aired( He had his car re+aired( He was ha#in$ his car re+aired( He will ha#e his car re+aired( He will be ha#in$ his car re+aired( He has had his car re+aired( He has been ha#in$ his car re+aired( He had had his car re+aired( He had been ha#in$ his car re+aired( #e must ha#e his car re+aired( #e likes ha#in$ his car re+aired(

0 tes: : the !erb t ha#e used in the ?ausati!e forms its negations and .uestions with d $ d es 'Present Simple) and did 'Past Simple)0 8 nFt ha#e this letter + sted yet6 8id you ha#e your hair cut<

 time words also change;

8irect s+eech tonight today this week - month $ year now yesterday last night $ week - month tomorrow ne2t week $ month $ year a week $ month $ year ago Re+ rted s+eech that night that day that week - month $ year then the day before the pre!ious night - week $ month the following day L- the ne2t day the ne2t week - month $ year the week $ month $ year before

1,-m lea!ing tonight1 she said. She said she was lea!ing that ni$ht! places and demonstrati!e pronouns also change;
8irect s+eech here this these Re+ rted s+eech there that those

when the reporting !erb is in the past the !erb change as follows0
8irect s+eech 9resent -i"+le 1, like chocolate1 he said. 9resent C ntinu us 1She is playing tennis1 he said. 9resent 9erfect 1#e has 5ust left1 she said. 9resent 9erfect C ntinu us 1, ha!e been watching TE since morning1 she said. 9ast -i"+le 1, !isited +ondon1 he said. ,uture 1,-ll go there1 he said. Re+ rted s+eech 9ast -i"+le #e said he li'ed chocolate. 9ast C ntinu us #e said she was +layin$ tennis. 9ast 9erfect She said he had :ust left( 9ast 9erfect C ntinu She us said she had been TE since morning. watchin$ 9ast 9erfect #e said he had #isited +ondon. C nditi nal #e said he w uld $ there.

0 tes: : if the direct !erb is already in the Past Simple in (eported Speech it can either change into Past Perfect or remain the same0 1, was late for work1 she said. She said she was $ had been late for work. : if the direct !erb is in the Past Perfect it remains the same in (eported speech0 1, had already tal'ed to 7im1 he said. #e said he had already tal'ed to 7im. : Past ?ontinuous usually remains the same in (eported speech0 1, was +layin$ football while my sister was readin$ a book1 he said. #e said he was +layin$ football while his sister was readin$ a book. : there are no changes in the !erb tenses in (eported speech when the direct sentence e2press a general truth is ?onditional Type > or Type P or a wish0 1The /arth " #es round the Sun1 he said. #e said the /arth " #es round the Sun. 1,f you w r'ed harder you w uld $et better marks1 he said. #e said if , w r'ed harder , w uld $et better marks. 1,f he had +h ned he w uld ha#e 'n wn the news1 she said. She said if he had +h ned he w uld ha#e 'n wn the news. 1, wish , were $ was a .ueen1 she said. She said she wished she were $ was a .ueen. :when the introductory !erb is in the Present @uture or Present Perfect there are no changes in the !erb tenses0 1"e li'e honey1 they say. They say they li'e honey. : the !erb tenses can change or remain the same in (eported speech when a sentence e2presses something which is up to date or still true. #owe!er the !erb tenses usually change

when something is not true or out of date0 1, like cats1 she said. She said she li'es $ li'ed cats 'still true). 13ig hats are still in fashion1 she said. She said big hats were still in fashion 'we know it isn-t true). 3. Re+ rted =uesti ns in (eported .uestions we use affirmati!e word order0 . we use0 a) ask ? wh'word (who, what etc.) when the direct .uestion begins with such a word; b) ask ? if $ whether when the direct .uestion begins with an au2iliary !erb (do, has, can etc.). pronouns possessi!e ad5ecti!es tenses time e2pressions etc. change as in statements0 8irect s+eech: "Where do you go1 he asked. Re+ rted s+eech: #e asked me where , went. 8irect s+eech: 18o you know Tom1 she asked. Re+ rted s+eech: She asked me if%whether , knew Tom. Indirect =uesti ns are different from Re+ rted =uesti ns( "e use ,ndirect .uestions to ask for information whereas we use (eported .uestions to report someone else-s .uestions. They are introduced with0 Dould you tell me,..E, 1o you know...E, wonder...E, want to know...E and their !erb is in the affirmati!e. There are no changes in the !erb tenses as in (eported .uestions.
8irect =uesti ns 1"hat-s her name1 she asked me. 1"here does she go1 he asked me. Re+ rted =uesti ns She asked me what her name was. #e asked me where she went. Indirect =uesti ns ?ould you tell me what her name is< = wonder where she goes.

b) a not to : infiniti!e; c) an : ing form according to the construction of the introductory !erb.
8irect s+eech #e said to me. 1?ome with me.1 #e said to me 18on-t lie to me.1 #e said. 1+et-s go out.1 Re+ rted s+eech #e told me t $ with him. #e told me n t t lie to him. #e suggested $ in$ out.

) dals in Re+ rted s+eech There are changes in the !erb tenses of some modal !erbs in (eported speech0 will $shall :Fw uld; can :G c uld 'present) $ w uld be able t 'future); may :G "i$ht shall :F sh uld 'asking for ad!ice) $ w uld 'asking for information) L must :G "ust $ had t 'obligation) * must remains the same when it e2presses possibility or deduction * would, could, used to, mustn't, should, might, ought to and had better remain the same.
8irect s+eech She said 1,-ll come later.1 She said 1, can play the piano.1 She said 1, can come tomorrow.1 She said 1, may speak to Tom.She said 1#ow shall , do this.1 She said 1"hen shall we reach 4ork.1 She said 14ou must be back at K o-clock.1 She said 14ou must be a liar.1 She said 14ou should learn more.1 She said 14ou had better Re+ rted s+eech She said 'that) she w uld come later. She said 'that) she c uld play the piano. She said 'that) she w uld be able t come the ne2t day. She said 'that) she "i$ht speak to Tom. She asked 'how) she sh uld do that 'ad!ice). She asked when they w uld reach 4ork 'information). She said 'that) , "ust $ had t be back at K o-clock 'obligation). She said 'that) he "ust be a liar 'deduction). She said 'that) , sh uld learn more. She said that , had better go home.

C( Re+ rted c ""ands % re=uests % su$$esti ns to report commands re.uests suggestions etc. we use a reporting !erb 'ad!ise ask suggest beg offer order tell etc.) followed by0 a) a to : infiniti!e;

Re+ rtin$ a dial $ue r c n#ersati n ,n con!ersations we use a mi2ture of statements commands and .uestions. "hen we turn them into (eported speech we use0 and, as, adding, that, and he $ she, added that, e!plaining that, because, but, since, and then he $she went on to say, while, then etc. "ords or e2pressions such as0 @h, @h dear, Aell etc. are omitted in (eported speech.
8irect s+eech 1%h this is a !ery nice cat1 he said. -"here do you ha!e it from<1"ell my husband ga!e it to me. ,t was a present on my birthday.1 Re+ rted s+eech #e remarked that that was a !ery nice cat and he asked where , had it from. '1%h1 is omitted). She answered that her husband had gi!en it to her and added that it had been a present on her birthday. '1"ell1 is omitted).