HC VIN CNG NGH BU CHNH VIN THNG

NHP MN
TR TU NHN TO
(Dng cho sinh vin h o to i hc t xa)
Lu hnh ni b









H NI - 2007




HC VIN CNG NGH BU CHNH VIN THNG







NHP MN
TR TU NHN TO

Bin son : PGS.TS. NGUYN QUANG HOAN
LI NI U

Tr tu nhn to (hay AI: Artificial Intelligence), l n lc tm hiu nhng yu t tr tu.
L do khc nghin cu lnh vc ny l cch ta t tm hiu bn thn chng ta. Khng ging
trit hc v tm l hc, hai khoa hc lin quan n tr tu, cn AI c gng thit lp cc cc yu t
tr tu cng nh tm bit v chng. L do khc nghin cu AI l to ra cc thc th thng
minh gip ch cho chng ta. AI c nhiu sn phm quan trng v ng lu , thm ch ngay t lc
sn phm mi c hnh thnh. Mc d khng d bo c tng lai, nhng r rng my tnh
in t vi thng minh nht nh c nh hng ln ti cuc sng ngy nay v tng lai pht
trin ca vn minh nhn loi.
Trong cc trng i hc, cao ng, Tr tu nhn to tr thnh mt mn hc chuyn
ngnh ca sinh vin cc ngnh Cng ngh Thng tin. p ng kp thi cho o to t xa, Hc
vin Cng ngh Bu chnh Vin thng bin son ti liu ny cho sinh vin, c bit h o to t
xa hc tp. Trong qu trnh bin son, chng ti c tham kho cc ti liu ca i hc Bch khoa
H ni [1] gio trnh gn gi v tnh cng ngh vi Hc vin. Mt s gio trnh khc ca i hc
Quc gia thnh ph H Ch Minh [], ti liu trn mng v cc ti liu nc ngoi bng ting Anh
[] cng c tham kho v gii thiu sinh vin o to t xa c thm.
Ti liu ny nhm hng dn v gii thiu nhng kin thc c bn, cc khi nim, nh
ngha tm tt. Mt s thut ng c ch gii bng ting Anh hc vin c bng ting Anh d
dng, trnh hiu nhm khi chuyn sang ting Vit.
Ti liu gm cc chng sau:
- Chng 1 : Khoa hc Tr tu nhn to: tng quan
- Chng 2 : Cc phng php gii quyt vn
- Chng 3 : Biu din tri thc v suy din
- Chng 4 : X l ngn ng t nhin
- Chng 5 : Cc k thut tr tu nhn to hin i
Cn nhiu vn khc cha cp c trong phm vi ti liu ny. ngh cc bn c
tm hiu thm sau khi c nhng kin thc c bn ny.
Nhiu c gng cp nht kin thc nhng thi gian, iu kin, kh nng c hn nn ti
liu chc chn cn nhiu thiu st. Chng ti mong nhn c nhiu kin ng gp ti liu
c hon thin hn cho cc ln ti bn sau.

TC GI



2
3
CHNG 1: KHOA HC TR TU NHN TO: TNG QUAN

Hc xong phn ny sinh vin c th nm c:

1. ngha, mc ch mn hc; lch s hnh thnh v pht tri. Cc tin c bn ca Tr
tu nhn to (TTNT)
2. Cc khi nim c bn, nh ngha ca TTNT.
3. Cc lnh vc nghin cu v ng dng c bn. Nhng vn cha c gii quyt trong
TTNT
1.1 LCH S HNH THNH V PHT TRIN
Trong phn ny chng ti n lc gii thch ti sao chng ti coi tr tu nhn to l mt b
mn ng nghin cu nht; v n lc ca chng ti nhm gii thch tr tu nhn to l g. y c
phi l b mn hp dn khi nghin cu khng.
Tr tu nhn to hay AI (Artificial Intelligence) l mt trong nhng ngnh tin tin nht.
N chnh thc c bt u vo nm 1956, mc d vic ny bt u t 5 nm trc. Cng vi
ngnh di truyn hc hin i, y l mn hc c nhiu nh khoa hc nh gi: l lnh vc ti
thch nghin cu nht trong s nhng mn ti mun theo ui. Mt sinh vin vt l c l khi
ni rng: tt c cc tng hay c Galileo, Newton, Einstein tm ri; mt s tng khc
li mt rt nhiu nm nghin cu trc khi c vai tr thc tin. AI vn l vn trng t thi
Einstein.
Qua hn 2000 nm, cc trit gia c gng hiu cch nhn, hc, nh v lp lun c
hnh thnh nh th no. S kin nhng chic my tnh c th s dng c vo u nhng nm
50 ca th k XX lm cc nh tri thc thay i hng suy ngh. Rt nhiu ngi cho rng:
nhng tr tu siu in t mi ny cho ta d on c tim nng ca tr tu. AI thc s kh
hn rt nhiu so vi ban u mi ngi ngh.
Hin nay AI chuyn hng sang nhiu lnh vc nh, t cc lnh vc c mc ch chung
chung nh nhn thc, lp lun, t duy logic n nhng cng vic c th nh nh c, cung cp
nh l ton hc, lm th v chun on bnh. Thng, cc nh khoa hc trong cc lnh vc khc
cng nghing v tr tu nhn to. Trong lnh vc ny h thy cc phng tin lm vic, vn t
vng c h thng ho, t ng ho: cc nhim v tr tu l cng vic m h s c th cng hin
c i. y thc s l mt ngnh rt ph bin.
1.1.1. T duy nh con ngi: phng php nhn thc
Nu mun mt chng trnh my tnh c kh nng suy ngh nh con ngi, chng ta phi
tm hiu con ngi t duy nh th no? C mt s tiu ch xc nh nh th no l suy ngh
kiu con ngi. Chng ta cn xem cng vic bn trong ca b c con ngi. C hai phng php
thc hin iu ny: th nht l thng qua t duy bn trong - phi nm bt c suy ngh ca
con ngi khi lm vic - th hai thng qua th nghim tm l. Khi chng ta c c y l
thuyt v t duy th chng ta c th chng trnh ho n trn my tnh. Nu u vo/ra ca
chng trnh v thi gian lm vic ph hp vi con ngi th nhng chng trnh t ng ny c
th hot ng theo con ngi. V d, Newell v Simon pht trin phng php gii quyt vn
GPS- General Problem Solver (Newell and Simon 1961). y l phng php i lp vi cc
4
nghin cu ng thi (nh Wang (1960)) ng quan tm n vic c c nhng gii php ng
n, khng quan tm n vic con ngi phi lm nh th no.
1.1.2. Cc qui tc t duy
Trit gia Aristote l ngi u tin h thng ho t duy chnh xc. Php tam on lun ca
ng a ra kt lun ng nu c tin chnh v tin th l ng. Chng hn: nu S-crt l
con ngi, mi con ngi u cht, nh vy S-crt s cht.
Mn t duy logic pht trin vo cui th k XIX u XX. Nm 1965 cc chng trnh cung
cp cho chng ta nhng thng tin, chi tit v mt vn trong t duy logic v tm ra phng
php gii. Nu vn cn vn cha c cch gii th chng trnh s khng ngng tm kim cch
gii. Mn logic truyn thng trong AI l iu mong mi c c mt chng trnh m t h
thng tr tu.
1.1.3. Khi ngun ca AI (1943 - 1956)
Nhng cng vic u tin ca AI c Warren McCulioch v Walter Pitts (1943) thc hin.
H nghin cu ba c s l thuyt: trit hc c bn v chc nng ca cc n ron thn kinh; phn
tch v cc mnh logic l ca Russell v whitehead v cui cng l thuyt d on ca
Turning. H ra m hnh n ron nhn to, trong mi n ron c c trng bi hai trng
thi bt, tt. McCulloch v Pitts cng pht hin: mng n ron c kh nng hc. Donald
Hebb (1949) s dng lut hc n gin tng trng cho vic truyn thng tin gia cc gia cc n
ron.
u nhng nm 1950, Claude Shannon (1950) v Alan Turning (1953) vit chng trnh
nh c theo cch m Von Newman sng ch ra my tnh. Cng lc , hai sinh vin khoa ton
trng i hc Princeton, Marvin Minsky v Dean Edmond xy dng h thng my tnh n ron
u tin vo nm 1951 c gi l SNARC. N s dng khong 3000 bng in t chn khng v
thit b c kh t ng tnh gi tr thng d t chm B-24 m phng mng vi 40 n ron.
Nhm thc s ca Minsky nghi ng rng liu y c c coi l mt phn ca ton hc, nhng
Neuman mt thnh vin ca nhm cho bit rng nu by gi n khng phi l mt phn ca
ton hc th mt ngy no n s l nh th. Tht ma mai, sau ny Minsky li chnh l ngi
chng minh hc thuyt ny v bc b nhiu h thng nghin cu v mng n ron trong sut
nhng nm 1970.
Lng say m v tn trng ln ngay t rt sm (1952-1969)
Nm 1958 McCarthy nh ngha ngn ng bc cao Lisp, v tr thnh ngn ng lp
trnh cho AI. Lisp l ngn ng lp trnh lu i th hai m hin nay vn s dng. Vi Lisp,
McCarthy c phng tin ng cn, nhng p ng c yu cu v ti nguyn tnh ton l
mt vn quan trng. Cng vo nm 1958, McCarthy xut bn bi bo Cc chng trnh vi
cch nhn nhn chung. Trong bi bo ny, ng bn v chng trnh t vn, mt chng trnh gi
nh c coi l h thng AI hon thin u tin. Ging hc thuyt logic v cch chng minh cc
nh l hnh hc, chng trnh ca McCarthy c thit k nhm s dng kin thc nghin cu
cch gii quyt vn . Khng nh cc chng trnh khc, chng trnh ny l mt b phn kin
thc ca ton b th gii quan. ng ch ra rng lm th no nhng iu rt n gin li lm
cho chng trnh c th khi qut c mt k hoch n sn bay v ln my bay. Chng trnh
ny cng c thit k n c th chp nhn vi chn l mi v qu trnh thc hin bnh thng.
Chnh v vy, chng trnh ny c c nhng kh nng thc hin trong cc chng trnh mi m
khng cn lp trnh li.
5
Nm 1963, McCarthy c cc nghin cu v s dng logic xy dng chng trnh
ngi t v Chng trnh ny c pht trin do khm ph ca Robinson v phng php ci
cch. Nhng cng vic u tin to ra nhng h thng mi ca McCulloch v Pitts lm cho chng
pht trin. Cc phng php nghin cu ca Hebb c Widrow ng h (Widrow v Hoff,
1960; Widrow, 1962). H t tn mang n ron l mng ca ng, v cng c Frank
Rosenblatt (1962) cng c. Rosenblatt chng minh rng thut ton m ng nghin cu c th
thm vo nhng kh nng ca nhn thc ph hp vi bt c d liu u vo no.
Nhng nh nghin cu AI cng d on v nhng thnh cng sau ny. Herbert Simon
pht biu (1957): Khng phi mc ch ca ti l lm cc bn ngc nhin, nhng cch n gin
nht c th khi qut l hin nay trn th gii, my mc c th suy ngh, c th hc v sng to
c. Hn na, kh nng ca n l lm vic vi tin cao- trong tng lai r rng cho n khi
vn chng ta c th gii c, s cng tn ti vi t duy ca con ngi c th p dng c.
Nm 1958, ng d on trong 10 nm na, mt my tnh c th v ch trong mn c vua, v cc
nh l ton hc mi s c my chng minh.
1.2. CC TIN C BN CA TTNT
Ton cnh v phng php gii quyt vn hnh thnh trong thp k u nghin cu AI l
mc ch nghin cu n lc lin kt cc bc lp lun c bn vi nhau tm ra phng php
hon thin. Cc phng php ny c coi l cc phng php km v s dng thng tin km v
lnh vc. i vi nhiu lnh vc phc tp, th cc phng php thc hin li rt km. Cch duy
nht quanh vn l s dng kin thc ph hp hn c bc lp rng hn v gii quyt cc
trng hp ny sinh nht nh trong cc lnh vc nh chuyn mn. Chng ta chc s ni rng gii
quyt cc vn kh th hu nh phi bit trc p n.
Chng trnh DENDRAL (Buchanan, 1969) l mt v d sm tip cn phng php ny.
N c pht trin ti Stanford, y chnh l ni Ed Feigenbaum (mt sinh vin chnh qui ca
Herbert Simon). Bruce Buchanan (mt trit gia chuyn sang lm nghin cu my tnh) v Joshua
Lederberg (nh nghin cu di truyn ot gii Nobel) hp nhau li cng suy lun, gii quyt
vn c cu trc phn t t nhng thng tin do my o quang ph cung cp. D liu a vo
chng trnh gm cc cu trc c bn ca phn t (V d C
6
H
12
NO
2
), v rt nhiu di quang ph
a ra hng lot on phn t khc nhau khi qut chung khi n cng mt lc a ra cc dng
in t. V d di quang ph cha ng mt im nhn ti m=15 tng ng vi mt di ca on
methyl (CH
3
).
Phin bn s khai ca chng trnh khi qut c ton b cu trc c th bn trong bng
phn t v sau phng on bng cch quan st mi di quang ph, so snh n vi quang ph
thc t. Nh chng ta ngh th iu ny tr nn nan gii i vi cc phn t c kch thc ng
k. Cc nh nghin cu DENDRAL khuyn cc nh phn tch dc khoa v cho thy rng h
nghin cu bng cch tm kim cc phn bn trn ca im nhn trong di quang ph, iu
a ra gi chung v cc cu trc nh bn trong phn t. V d, qui lut sau y c s dng
nhn ra mt nhm nh xeton (C=0)
Nu c hai nh x1, x2 nh sau:
(a) x1+x2 = M+28 (M l khi lng ca phn t)
(b) x1-28 l mt nh
(c) x2-28 l mt nh
(d) C t nht mt nh x1 hoc x2 l nh cao. Sau c mt nhm nh xeton.
6
Khi nhn ra phn t cha mt cu trc nh c bit, s lng thnh phn tham gia c th b
gim xung nhanh chng. Nhm DENDRAL kt lun rng h thng mi l rt mnh bi v: ton
b kin thc c lin quan n gii quyt cng vic c phc tho s qua t cu trc chung
trong [thnh phn quang ph on trc] c nhng cu trc c bit
Tm quan trng ca DENDRAL l n l h thng cm nhn kin thc thnh cng u tin.
Cc chuyn gia ca lnh vc ny i su t s lng ln cc qui lut c mc ch c bit. Cc h
thng sau ny cng khng kt hp li thnh ch chnh ca phng php chuyn gia ca
McCarthy - phn hon ton tch bit ca kin thc (trong cu trc ca qui lut) v thnh phn lp
lun.
Vi bi hc ny, Feigebaum v cc thnh vin khc ti Stanford bt u lp d n chng
trnh Heuristic, u t m rng vo cc phng php mi ca h chuyn gia nhm p dng vo
cc lnh vc khc nhau. Nhng n lc chnh sau l chun on y hc. Feigenbaum, Buchanan
v Edward Shortlife pht trin h chuyn gia MYCIN chn on bnh nhim trng mu.
Vi khong 450 lut, h chuyn gia MYCIN c th thc hin tt hn nhiu bc s mi. N c hai
s khc bit c bn vi h chuyn gia DENDRAL. Th nht: khng ging nh cc lut
DENDRAL, khng mt mu l thuyt chung no tn ti m c th suy lun t cc lut ca h
MYCIN. Cc lut phi c cu cht vn ca chuyn gia, ngi c nhim v tm chng t kinh
nghim. Th hai: cc lut phn nh mi lin quan khng chc chn vi kin thc y hc. MYCIN
kt hp vi h vi phn ca bin s c coi l cc nhn t ph hp tt ( mi lc) vi phng
php m cc bc s tip cn vi cc triu chng trong qu trnh chun on.
Cch tip cn khc chun on y hc cng c nghin cu. Ti trng i hc Rutger,
nhng my tnh trong ngnh sinh ho ca Sual Amarel bt u tham vng nhm c gng chun
on bnh tt da trn kin thc c biu t r rng ca nhng chic my phn tch qu trnh
bnh tt. Trong khi , mt s nhm ln hn ti MIT v trung tm y t ca Anh ang tip tc
phng php chun on v iu tr da trn hc thuyt c tnh kh thi v thc t. Mc ch ca
h l xy dng cc h thng c th a ra cc phng php chn on y hc. V y hc, phng
php Stanford s dng cc qui lut do cc bc s cung cp ngay t u c chng minh l ph
bin hn. Nhng h chuyn gia PROSPECTOR (Duda 1979) c cng b cho mi ngi bng
cch gii thiu thit b khoan thm qung
Mt vi ngn ng da vo logic nh ngn ng Prolog ph bin chu u, v
PLANNER M. Cc ngn ng khc, theo sau cc tng ca Minsky (1975) chp nhn
phng php tip cn cu trc, thu thp cc chng c v i tng v cc loi s kin.
1.3. CC KHI NIM C BN
1.3.1. Tr tu nhn to(AI) l g?
Chng ta c th ni: Tuyt tht, y l mt chng trnh c thc hin bng nhng suy
din thng minh, v th cn phi tip tc v mi ngi cn b sung cho n. Nhng theo s pht
trin ca khoa hc cho thy: s c ch nu ta i ng hng. nh ngha v AI c ti tm cun
sch cp. Nhng nh ngha a ra trn hai nhn nh chnh:
- Th nht: quan tm ch yu n qu trnh t duy v lp lun
- Th hai: vn t c quan tm hn, l hot ng.
Mt h thng c coi l hp l nu nh n thc hin ng. iu ny s a ngnh AI n
4 mc tiu.(xem Bng 1.1).
Chng ta s i vo chi tit ca tng hng theo cc pht biu sau y:
7

Nh ng n l c th v m i y l
t o ra my tnh... nh ng my mc
c tr tu , hi u theo c nghi y
l n ngh a bng.
(Haugeland, 1985)
[s t ng ho c a] cc ho t
ng gip chng ta k t h p
nh ng t duy c a con ng i v i
cng vi c c ng nh quy t nh,
gi i quy t v n , h c t p...
(Bellman 1978)
Vi c nghin c u c s tr tu
thng qua s d ng my vi tnh
(Charniak and McDermott, 1985)
Nghin c u my tnh l m cho
my tnh c kh n ng c m nh n,
l p lu n v l m vi c.


(Winston, 1992)
Ngh thu t sng t o my mc l
th c hi n ch c n ng hnh th nh t
duy khi con ng i l m vi c
(Kurzweil,
1990)
"Vi c nghin c u l m cch n o
b t my tnh l m nh ng vi c m
cng m t lc con ng i c th l m
t t h n.
(Rich and Knight, 1991)
Trong l nh v c nghin c u l
tm ra cch gi i thch v t
c nh ng h nh ng c t duy
trong l nh v c x l tnh ton.
(Schalkoff, 1990)
Trong ng nh khoa h c my tnh
c lin quan n s t ng ho
nh ng ho t ng mang tnh tr
tu .
(Luger and
Stubbefield, 1993)

Hnh 1.1 Nhng nh ngha v AI c chia thnh 4 nhm:

H thng t duy nh con ngi H thng t duy c lp lun
H thng hot ng nh con ngi H thng hot ng c lp lun

Hot ng nh con ngi: phng php trc nghim Turning
Phng php trc nghim Turning c Alan Turning (1950) a ra . y l phng php
nhm nh ngha mt hot ng gi l thng minh. Turning cho rng: hot ng tr tu l kh
nng c c nh con ngi trong nhng cng vic cn tri thc, nh la ngi thm vn
mnh. Ni khi qut, phng php trc nghim ca ng l: my tnh s b mt ngi hi thng
qua giao tip g ch qua v tuyn. Kt thc th nghim s l lc ngi hi khng cn cu no
hi hoc c ngi v my u hon thnh. lp chng trnh cho my tnh qua c qu trnh
kim tra cn hon thnh nhiu vic. My tnh cn c cc kh nng sau:
X l ngn ng t nhin giao tip tt bng ting Anh (hoc ngn ng khc)
8
Biu din tri thc, lu tr thng tin c cung cp trc hoc trong qu trnh thm vn.
T ng lp lun s dng thng tin c lu nhm tr li cu hi v phc tho kt lun
mi.
My hc: thch nghi vi mi trng mi, kim tra v chp nhn nhng mu mi.
i vi AI, khng cn c s c gng cao mi qua c qu trnh kim tra ca Turning. Khi
cc chng trnh AI giao tip trc tip vi con ngi th vic hot ng c ging nh ngi
l vn thit yu. Qu trnh trnh din v l gii nhng h thng nh th c th hoc khng
cn da vo con ngi.
1.3.2. Tri thc l g?
Tri thc l s hiu bit bng l thuyt hay thc t v mt ch hay lnh vc. Tri thc l
tng ca nhng ci ang bit hin nay; tri thc l sc mnh. Nhng ngi c tri th tt l nhng
chuyn gia (expert).
So vi chng trnh truyn thng (c cu to t hai cht liu c bn l d liu v
thut ton), chng trnh tr tu nhn to c cu to t hai thnh phn l c s tri thc
(knowledge base) v ng c suy din (inference engine).
1.3.3. C s tri thc (Knowledge Base: KB)
nh ngha:
C s tri thc l tp hp cc tri thc lin quan n vn m chng trnh quan tm gii
quyt. C s tri thc cha cc kin thc c s dng gii quyt cc vn (bi ton) trong tr
tu nhn tao.
1.3.4. H c s tri thc
Trong h c s tri thc cha hai chc nng tch bit nhau, trng hp n gian gm hai
khi: khi tri thc hay cn gi l c s tri thc; khi iu khin hay cn gi l ng c suy din.
Vi cc h thng phc tp, bn thn ng c suy din cng c th l mt h c s tri thc cha
cc siu tri thc (tri thc v cc tri thc). Hnh di y m t cu trc chng trnh truyn thng
(bn tri) v cu trc chng trnh tr tu nhn to (bn phi).

ng c suy din: l phng php vn dng tri thc trong c s tri thc gii quyt vn .

D LIU
D LIU C S TRI THC

THUT
TON

NG C SUY
DIN
9
1.4 CC LNH VC NGHIN CU V NG DNG C BN
1.4.1 L thuyt gii bi ton v suy din thng minh
L thuyt gii bi ton cho php vit cc chng trnh gii cu , chi cc tr chi thng
qua cc suy lun mang tnh ngi. H thng gii bi ton GPS do Newel, Shaw v Simon a ra
ri c hon thin nm 1969 l mt mc ng ghi nh. Trc nm 1980, Buchanal v Luckham
cng hon thnh h thng chng minh nh l. Ngoi ra cc h thng hi p thng minh nh S,
QA2, QA3,.. cho php lu tr v x l khi lng ln cc thng tin. Chng trnh ca McCarthy
v cc phng n hnh ng c kh nng cho cc li khuyn.
1.4.2 L thuyt tm kim may ri
Vic tm kim li gii cng l vic bi ton. L thuyt tm kim nh may ri gm cc
phng php v k thut tm kim vi s h tr ca thng tin ph gii bi ton mt cch hiu
qu. Cng trnh ng k v l thuyt ny l ca G.Pearl vo nm 1984.
1.4.3 Cc ngn ng v Tr Tu Nhn To
x l cc tri thc ngi ta khng th ch s dng cc ngn ng lp trnh dng cho cc x
l d liu s m cn c cc ngn ng khc. Cc ngn ng chuyn dng ny cho php lu tr v
x l cc thng tin k hiu. Dng cc ngn ng ny cng l cch tr li cu hi th no
(what). ri ti cu hi lm sao vy(how). Mt s ngn ng c nhiu ngi bit n l:
Cc ngn ng IPL.V, LISP.
Ngn ng mnh hn nh PLANNER, PROLOG. Ngay trong mt ngn ng cng c nhiu
th h vi nhng pht trin ng k.
1.4.4 L thuyt th hin tri thc v h chuyn gia
Theo quan im ca nhiu chuyn gia cng ngh thng tin, tr tu nhn to l khoa hc v
th hin tri thc v s dng tri thc. Ngi ta nhn xt v phng php th hin tri thc nh sau:
Lc dng th hin tri thc trong chng trnh
Mng ng ngha, logc v t , khung, mng l cc phng php th hin tri thc mt cch
thng dng.
Dng khung th hin tri thc chc chn l phng php c nhiu ha hn trong cc
nm gn y.
Vic gn lin cch th hin v s dng tri thc l c s hnh thnh h chuyn gia. Vy nn
phi kt hp cc qu trnh nghin cu cc quy lut, thit k v xy dng h chuyn gia. Tuy nhin
cho n nay, a s cc h chuyn gia mi thuc lnh vc y hc.
1.4.5 L thuyt nhn dng v x l ting ni
Giai on pht trin u ca tr tu nhn to gn lin vi l thuyt nhn dng. Cc phng
php nhn dng chnh c gii thiu gm:
Nhn dng dng tm l hc
Nhn dng hnh hc
Nhn dng theo phng php hm th.
Dng my nhn dng
10
ng dng ca phng php ny trong vic nhn dng trong ch vit, m thanh, hnh nh
cho n ngay tr nn quen thuc. Ngi ta c h thng x l hnh nh ba chiu, h thng
tng hp ting ni.
Do khi lng s ca tri thc v l thuyt nhn dng. cc chng trnh sau cha cp
n cc phng php nhn dng c.
1.4.6 Ngi my
Cui nhng nm 70, ngi my trong cng nghip t c nhiu tin b Khoa hc
ngi my l ni kt thng minh ca nhn thc vi hnh ng. Ngi my c b cm nhn v
cc c ch hot ng c ni ghp theo s iu khin thng minh. Khoa hc v c hc v tr tu
nhn to c tch hp trong khoa hc v ngi my. Cc n tr tu nhn to nghin cu v
ngi my bt u t n mt tay. Trong thc t, ngi my c dng trong cc nhim v
chuyn su, thuc cc dy truyn cng nghip.
Ni dung v khoa hc ngi my s c trnh by trong ti liu ring, khng thuc cc
chng ca ti liu ny.
1.4.7 Tm l hc x l thng tin
Cc kt qu nghin cu ca tm l hc gip tr tu nhn to xy dng cc c ch tr li
theo hnh vi, c thc. N gip thc hin cc suy din mang tnh ngi.
H thng chuyn gia thng mi u tin, R1, bt u hot ng ti cng ty thit b k thut
s (McDemott, 1982). Chng trnh gip sp xp cu hnh cho cc h thng my tnh mi v
trc nm 1986, n tit kim cho cng ty khong 40 triu dollar mi nm. n trc nm
1988, nhm nghin cu AI ca DEC c 40 h thng chuyn gia c trin khai. Du pont c
100 chic i vo s dng v 500 chic c pht trin, tit kim c khong 10 triu dollar mi
nm. Dng nh mi mt cng ty chnh ca M u c mt nhm AI ca ring cng ty v cng s
dng hoc u t vo cng ngh h chuyn gia.
Nm 1981, Nht bn thng bo v d n Th h th nm, k hoch 10 nm xy dng
nhng chic my tnh thng minh chy Prolog ging nh nhng chic my chy chng trnh m
my. tng vi kh nng thc hin hng triu php tnh mi giy, my tnh c th thun li
trong vic lu tr hng lot lut c sn. D n c a ra nhm my tnh c th giao tip bng
ngn ng t nhin cng mt s cc tham vng khc.
D n th h 5 thc y nim am m vo AI, bng cch tn dng ni lo lng ca ngi
Nht, cc nh nghin cu, cc tng cng ty c th h tr chung cho vic u t tng t nh
nc M. Tng cng ty cng ngh my tnh v siu in t (MMC) c hnh thnh nh mt
cng ty lin kt nghin cu d n ca Nht. Anh, bi bo Alvey lm phc hi s vn b bi
bo Lighthill lm ht. Trong c hai trng hp, th AI u l mt phn trong n lc ln bao gm
c thit k con chip v nghin cu giao din vi con ngi.
Bng n cng nghip AI cng bao gm c cc cng ty nh tp on Carnegie, Inference,
Intellicorp, v Teknowledge cc cng ty ny yu cu cc cng c phn mm xy dng h
chuyn gia v cc cng ty phn cng nh Lisp Machine, cng ty thit b Texas, Symbolic v
Xerox xy dng h thng lm vic ti u pht trin cc chng trnh Lisp. Trn 100 cng ty
lp rp h thng cng nghip robot. Ni chung ngnh cng nghip i t mc ch bn c vi
triu trong nm 1980 ln 2 t dollar nm 1988.
Mc d khoa hc my tnh b qun lnh vc mng n ron sau khi cun sch kh nng nhn
thc ca Minsky v Papert ra i, nhng cc lnh vc khc vn tip tc, c bit l vt l. Mt s
11
lng ln cc n ron n gin c th coi nh mt s nguyn t trong cht rn. Cc nh vt l
hc nh Hopfield (1982) s dng cc k thut c hc thng k dn ti cc tng th thai
cho quan trng. Cc nh trit hc David Rumelhart v Geoff Hinton nghin cu cc mu mng
n ron tr nh. Vo nhng nm 1980, c t nht bn nhm khc nhau nghin cu li thut ton
Back-propagation. Thut ton ny c cng b ln u vo nm 1969 bi Bryson v Ho. Thut
ton c p dng rt nhiu trong khoa hc my tnh v tm l hc, v ph bin kt qu trong
cun x l phn tn song song (Rumelhart v McClelland, 1986).
Nhng nm gn y, chng ta chng kin s thay i rt ln trong ni dung v phng
php nghin cu AI. N tr nn ph bin khi da trn cc l thuyt c sn. Trong nhng nm
1970, mt s ln cc kin trc v cc phng php buc phi th. Rt nhiu trong s ny, thm
tr l ad hoc v fragile v c tng trng mt vi v d c chn l c bit. Trong nhng
nm gn y, cc phng php da trn m hnh Markov n (HMMs) thng tr lnh vc ny,
hai kha cnh ca HMMs c lin quan n nhng vn bn lun hin ti. u tin, chng c
da trn l thuyt ton hc chnh xc. iu ny cho php cc nh nghin cu ting ni xy dng
cc kt qu ton hc ca mt vi thp k c pht trin mt s lnh vc khc. Th hai,
chng c sinh ra bi mt qu trnh x l trn tp d liu ting ni. Chc chn rng thc hin
l dng th, v trong cc trc nghim HMMs kht khe khng r rng tin trin u n.
Lnh vc khc xem ra c li ch t s chnh thc ho l lp k hoch. Cng vic sm c
thc hin bi Austin Tate (1977), sau l David Chapman (1987) c kt qu trong s tng
hp ca cc chng trnh lp k hoch vo mt khung lm vic n gin. c mt vi li
khuyn rng nn xy dng trn mi ci khc nhau hn l bt u t con s khng ti mi thi
im. Kt qu ca cc h thng lp k hoch ch thc s tt trong cc th gii thu hp, trong
nm 1970 nhim v lp lch cho cng vic ca nh my. Xem Chng 11 v 12 bit thm chi
tit.
Cun Tranh lun theo xc sut trong cc h thng thng minh nh du mt s tn
thng ca l thuyt quyt nh v xc sut trong AI, tip theo s hi sinh ca mt s thu nh l
th theo bi bo Trong bin h ca xc sut ca Peter Cheeseman (1985). Tin tng rng hnh
thc mng l pht minh cho php tranh lun hiu qu v chng minh ca s phi hp khng
chc chn. Cch tip cn ln ny vt qua c vn cc h thng lp lun c kh nng trong
nhng nm 1960 n 1970... Chng 14 ti 16 bn ti lnh vc ny.
Cng tng t nh cuc cch mng trong lnh vc ngi my, kh nng ca my tnh, my
hc (bao gm c cc mng neural) v s trnh din tri thc. Mt cch hiu tt nht ca cc vn
v s phc tp cc thuc tnh, phi hp cng vi s ngy bin gia tng trong ton hc, c s
ch o v lch nghin cu cng vic c kh nng v cc phng php dng th. C l c
khuyn khch bi s tin trin trong gii quyt cc vn con ca AI, cc nh nghin cu bt
u tm kim yu t y cho vn . Cng vic ca Allen Newel, John Laird v Paul
Rosenbloom SOAR (Newel, 1990; Laird 1987) l nhng v d hiu bit tt nht ca mt yu t
hon chnh v kin trc trong AI. Cng gi l hnh ng c mc ch trong nhng hon cnh xc
nh ca cc yu t a vo trong cc mi trng thc t vi cc u vo cm bin lin tc.
Nhiu kt qu l th c tm thy trong cng vic; bao gm s thc rng trc cc lnh
vc con ring bit ca AI cn ti to li ci g khi m cc kt qu ca h l cng ch trong thit
k mt yu t ring r.
12
1.5 NHNG VN CHA C GII QUYT TRONG TR TU
NHN TO
Kin tng c vua quc t Amold Denker, nghin cu cc qun c trn bn c trc mt
ng ta. ng ta khng hy vng l hin thc: ng phi t b cuc chi. i th ca ng, HITECH,
tr thnh chng trnh my tnh u tin nh thng mt kin tng c trong mt vn chi
(Berliner, 1989).
Ti mun i t Boston ti San Francisco mt ngi du lch ni trong micro. Bn s i
vo thi gian no? l cu hi li. Ngi du lch gii thch rng c y mun i vo ngy 20 thng
10, trn chuyn r nht c th, v tr v vo ngy Ch nht. Mt chng trnh giao tip bng tay
c th hiu c hnh ng ni ca ngi l PEGASUS, l kt qu khim tn dng t ch
chuyn i du lch vi gi 894 dollar bng xe khch ng di. Mc d vy chng trnh nhn bit
ting ni c qu 10 t b sai, n c th l s tng hp t cc li nh bi v s hiu ca n t cc
hi thoi l a vo cng mt lc (Zue 1994).
Mt phn tch t ni iu khin cc nhim v ca phng th nghim Jet Propulsion bt u
xu hng thanh ton. Mt thng bo mu xut hin trn mn hnh ch ra rng s khng bnh
thng vi ngi du hnh trn tu khng gian, l mt ni no trong vng xung quanh sao
Hi vng. May thay, vn phn tch c th ng t mt t. Nhng ngi iu khin tin tng
rng c vn phi c b qua l MARVEL, mt h chuyn gia thi gian thc c cc mn
hnh, dng d liu th c chuyn t tu khng gian, cc cng vic iu khin chng trnh v
phn tch cnh bo i vi nhng vn nghim trng
TNG KT
Chng ny a ra cc nh ngha v AI v thit lp li cc c s ca n, l s pht
trin. Mt s cc im quan trng ng lu nh sau:
Ngi ta ngh v AI c khc nhau. C hai cu hi quan trng l: bn c quan tm n suy
ngh hoc hnh vi? v Bn c mun hnh mu con ngi hoc t mt tng chun mc?
Cc nh trit hc (quay tr li nm 400 tr.CN) a ra kin cho rng no b cng nh mt
chic my, rng n c iu khin bng tri thc c m ho, v ngh c th mang theo thi
quen gip nhng hnh ng ng n.
Mt s nh ton hc cung cp nhng cng c cc lnh tnh ton logic chc chn cng tt
nh l khng chc chn, cc lnh khng chnh xc. H cng t c s lm vic cho cc thut ton.
Ngnh tm l hc cng c thm tng rng loi ngi v ng vt c th a ra cch x
l thng tin my mc. Ngnh ngn ng hc trnh by rng ngn ng dng trong m hnh
ny.
Ngnh cng nghip my tnh cung cp cc ng dng ca AI. Cc chng trnh AI c xu
hng kh ln, v h khng lm vic c nu my tnh khng c tc v b nh cn thit.
Lch s ca AI c cc chu k thnh cng, ti u ho t khng ng ch, v kt qu dn n
gim lng nhit tnh v chi ph. Cng c nhng bc lp ch ra c cc cch tip cn mi v
trau di c h thng trong s cc cch .
Nhng tin trin gn y trong hc thuyt cn bn v s thng minh tin b cng vi kh
nng ca cc h thng thc t.
Nhng im ch v tiu s v lch s
13
Cun sch Artificial Intelligence ca Daniel Crevier (1993) a ra lch s kh hon chnh
ca lnh vc ny, v Age of Intelligent Machines ca Raymond Kurzweil (1990) v AI trong ng
cnh ca khoa hc my tnh v lch s tr tu. Cc vn bn ca Dianne Martin (1993) cng cng
nhn rng t rt sm cc my tnh l c kh nng bi sc mnh thn k ca tr tu.
Phng php lun trng thi ca AI c Herb Simon bn ti trong The Sciences of the
Artificial (1981), l cc lnh vc nghin cu c quan tm cng vi cc to tc phc tp.
N cng l gii ti sao AI c th c tm nhn trn c hai lnh vc ton hc v khoa hc.
Artificial Intelligence: The very Idea bi John Haugeland (1985) a ra s tng thut c
th c c ca trit hc v cc vn ca AI. Khoa hc nhn thc c m t tt nht bi
Johnson Laird, My tnh v no b: gii thiu v khoa hc nhn thc. Baker (1989) gm c phn
c php ca ngn ng hc hin i, cng Chierchia v McConnel-Ginet (1990) bao gm c ng
ngha, Allen (1995) bao gm c ngn ng hc t quan im ca AI.
Feigenbaum v Feldman lm vic vi AI t rt sm, cun sch ca h c ta My
tnh v suy ngh. Cun X l thng tin ng ngha ca Minsky v mt lot bi vit v Tr tu my
ca Donald Michie. Mt s lng ln cc trang bo c tp hp li trong S hiu bit trong AI
(Webber v Nilsson, 1981).
Cc cuc hi tho xut hin gn y bn v vn chnh ca AI, l: thng nht c hai
nm mt ln din ra hi tho quc t AI, gi tt l IJCA (International Joint Conference AI), v
hi tho din ra hng nm mc quc gia v AI, v AAAI l t chc ng ra bo tr cho AI. Cc
tp ch chuyn ngnh chung v AI l AI, Computation Intelligence, t chc IEEE Transactions on
Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, v tp ch in t Journal of Artificial Intelligence
Research. Cc sn phm thng mi a ra trong cc tp ch nh AI Expert v PC AI. T chc x
hi chuyn nghip v AI l American Association for AI (AAAI), ACM Special Interest Group in
AI (SIGART) v AISB (Society for AI and Simulation of Behaviour). Tp ch v AI ca AAAI v
SIGART Bullentin c rt nhiu cc ti v thy hng dn tt nh l thng bo ca cc cuc
hi tho v tho lun.
Vit Nam gn y c t chc cc Hi nghi Khoa hc: H m mng n ron; Hoi tho Quc
gia v H m do vin Toan hc, Vin Cng ngh Thng tin thuc vin Khoa hc Cng ngh Quc
gia t chc hng nm.
BI TP V CU HI
1. Chng ti a ra nh ngha ca AI theo hai kha cnh, con ngi, tng v hnh ng.
Nhng c nhiu kha cnh khc c gi tr ng xt n. Mt trong s l s chn la gia: s
phn khch ca chng ti v cc kt qu l thuyt hoc cc ng dng thc hnh. Mt kha cnh na
l chng ti c d kin c th nhn ra cc my tnh ca chng ti c thng minh hay khng. c
8 nh ngha tiu biu trong Hnh 1.1 v c 7 nh ngha theo bn kha cnh chng ti va cp
v bn c cm thy cc nh ngha l hu ch sau y
AI l ...
a. mt tp hp cc thut ton d tnh ton, thch hp tnh gn ng cho cc bi ton c bit
kh . (Partridge, 1991)
b. s tham gia vo xy dng mt h thng k hiu vt l sao cho c th vt qua trc nghim
ca Turning.
c. lnh vc khoa hc my tnh nghin cu v cc my c th hnh ng thng minh ra sao.
(Jackson, 1986)
14
d. mt lnh vc nghin cu l xoay quanh cc k thut tnh ton, cho php thc hin cc
cng vic i hi thng minh thc s khi c con ngi tham d. (Tanimoto, 1990)
e. mt s u t rt ln ca tr tu ca t nhin v cc nguyn l, cc my mc yu cu s
am hiu hoc ti to n . (Sharples , 1989)
f. Li ch ca my tnh l lm c mi th, xem n nh l thng minh. (Rowe, 1988)
2. Nghin cu ti liu AI tm ra cc cng vic no di y c th gii quyt c bng
my tnh:
a. Tr chi bng bn
b. Li xe trung tm Cair
c. Khm ph v chng minh cc l thuyt ton hc mi.
d. Vit mt truyn ci
e. a ra mt li khuyn kh hp l trong phm vi lin quan n lut php.
f. Dch ting Anh sang ting Vit theo thi gian thc.
3. Thc t, h cu v d on:
a. Tm mt bn cng b ca mt nh trit hc hoc nh khoa hc c uy tn cho rng hiu qu
ca chc chn s khng bao gi c trnh din bi my tnh, rng by gi c
trnh din.
b. Tm mt cng b ca mt nh khoa hc v my tnh c uy tn cho rng hiu qu ca o
chc chn c trnh din bi thi im t khi n hp qui cch.
c. So snh chnh xc ca nhng d on trong cc lnh vc khc nhau, chng hn nh y
sinh, cng ngh nano, hoc in gia dng.
4. Cho rng nhng chic my tnh l khng thng minh - chng ch c th lm c nhng g
m lp trnh vin bo chng l cu lnh phn trc th ng v hm sau khng ng?






15
CHNG 2: CC PHNG PHP GII QUYT VN

2.1. GII QUYT VN KHOA HC V TR TU NHN TO
Trong phn ny, chng ta ch ra mt agent c th hnh ng nh th no bng cch t ra
mc tiu v xem xt chui cc hnh ng m c th t c nhng mc tiu ny. Mt mc tiu
v tp cc phng tin t c mc tiu c gi l vn . Qu trnh khm ph cc phng
tin c th lm c g gi l tm kim. Chng ta cho thy tm kim c th thc hihie v nhng
gii hn ca n..
Gii quyt bi ton bng cch tm kim
Chng ta xem mt agent quyt nh phi lm g? nh th no? bng cch xem xt c h
thng kt qu cc chui hnh ng m n thc hin.
Trong chng ny, chng ta m t mt agent da trn mc ch gi l agent gii quyt bi
ton. Cc agent gii quyt vn s quyt nh phi lm g bng cch tm kim chui cc hnh
ng dn n trng thi mong mun. Chng ny phn tch cc thut ton.
2.2. GII QUYT VN CA CON NGI
Hy tng tng cc agent ca chng ta trong thnh ph Arad, Rumani ang thc hin
mt chuyn du lch. Agent c v bay n Bucart vo ngy hm sau. V my bay khng th
tr li c, visa ca agent chun b ht hn, v k t ngy mai s khng cn ch trong 6 tun ti.
Phm vi thc hin ca agent cha nhiu yu t khc ngoi chi ph tin v my bay v c mt iu
khng mong mun l c th b trc xut. Chng hn, agent mun ci thin nc da rm nng ca
mnh, hc thm ting Rumani, i chi u vv Tt c nhng yu t ny c th gi ra v s
cc hnh ng.
Agent a ra mc tiu: li xe ti Bucart, v xem nhng thnh ph no cn phi caa,
xut pht t Arad. C ba con ng ra khi Arad, mt ng n Sibiu, mt ng n
Timisoara v mt n Zerind. Tt c cc con ng ny u khng n Bucaret, v vy tr khi
agent nm r bn Rumani, agent s khng bit phi i con ng no tip theo. Ni cch khc,
agent khng bit hnh ng no l tt nht trong cc hnh ng. Nu agent khng c cc kin
thc tr gip, n s b tc (khng tm ra c ng i tip theo). Cch tt nht n c th lm l
chn ngu nhin mt trong cc hnh ng.
Gi thit agent c mt bn Rumani, hoc trn giy hoc trong tr nh. Mc ch ca bn
l cung cp cho agent cc thng tin v cc trng thi m n c th n v nhng hnh ng m
n c th thc hin. Agent c th s dng thng tin ny xem xt cc cc on ca hnh trnh
mang tnh gi thit l: khi n tm ra mt con ng trn bn t Arad ti Bucaret, n c th t
mc tiu bng cch thc hin cc hnh ng tng ng vi cc chng ca hnh trnh. Sau
agent la chn cc gi tr cha bit quyt nh phi lm g bng cch kim tra chui cc hnh
ng khc nhau dn n cc trng thi bit; sau chn hnh ng tt nht. Qu trnh tm
kim mt chui cc hnh ng nh vy c gi l tm kim. Gii thut tm kim coi mt vn
nh d liu vo v p s l mt gii php di dng chui hnh ng. Khi mt gii php c
tm thy, cc hnh ng m n xut c th c tin hnh. iu ny c gi l giai on thc
hin
16
Trong phn ny, chng ta s tm hiu qu trnh xc nh bi ton chi tit hn. Trc tin, ta
xem xt khi lng kin thc m agent c th c s dng hng n cc hnh ng ca n v
trng thi m n phi i qua. iu ny ph thuc vo s nhn thc ca agent vi mi trng ca
n nh th no thng qua kt qu gic quan v hnh ng ca n. Chng ta bit c bn loi bi
ton khc nhau: bi ton mt trng thi n gin; bi ton a trng thi; bi ton ngu nhin v bi
ton thm d
2.3. PHN LOI VN . CC C TRNG C BN CA VN
Nhng vn (bi ton) xc nh r rng v cc gii php
Mt vn l mt tp hp cc thng tin m agent s dng quyt nh phi lm g. Chng
ta bt u bng cch phn loi cc thng tin cn thit dng cho nh ngha bi ton n trng thi.
Cc yu t c bn ca vic nh ngha mt bi ton l cc trng thi v cc hnh ng.
xc nh c chng mt cch chnh xc, chng ta cn cc yu t sau:
Trng thi ban u ca agent. Tp cc hnh ng c th i vi agent. Thut ng thao tc
(operation) c s dng m t mt hnh ng trong ng cnh l trng thi no n s n nu
thc hin hnh ng trong t mt trng thi c bit. (Mt cng thc s dng hm S. Cho trc
trng thi x, S(x) cho trng thi c th i ti t x bng bt c mt hnh ng n).
nh ngha: khng gian trng thi ca vn : l tp cc trng thi c th t c bng
chui hnh ng bt k xut pht t trng thi ban u. Mt hnh trnh trong khng gian trng
thi l tp cc hnh ng tu xut pht t trng thi ny n trng thi khc.
Yu t tip theo ca vn nh sau: tiu chun kim tra trng thi hin thi l trng thi
ch (mc tiu)? Vic kim tra n gin ch l nhm kim tra xem chng ta i ti mt trong
cc trng thi mc tiu hay cha. Thnh thong mc tiu c xc nh bi mt thuc tnh tru
tng thay v mt tp m c cc trng thi. Chng hn, trong mn nh c, mc tiu l i ti
mt trng thi gi l chiu tng, khi tng ca i phng s b n bt k i phng i nh
th no bc k tip.
Cui cng, chn gii php thch hp nht, d c nhiu gii php ti ch. V d, chng ta c
th thch nhng hnh trnh c t hnh ng hoc cc hnh ng c chi ph thp.
Hm chi ph ng i l hm c gn chi ph cho mt ng i. Trong tt c cc trng
hp chi ph ca ng i l tng cc chi ph ca cc hnh ng n dc theo ng i. Hm chi
ph ng i thng c k hiu l hm g. Trng thi ban u, tp ton t, th tc kim tra mc
tiu v hm chi ph ng i xc nh mt vn . V mt t nhin, chng ta c th xc nh mt
kiu d liu biu din cc vn :

Ki u d li u B i ton
Cc thnh ph n: Tr ng thi ban u, cc ton t , ki m tra m c
tiu, h m chi ph ng i

Gii quyt vn
Hiu qu ca tm kim c th o c theo t nht ba ch tiu Th nht, c tm thy mt gii
php no khng? Th hai, c phi l mt gii php tt khng (gii php c chi ph ng i
17
thp)? Th ba, chi ph tm kim vi thi gian tm kim v b nh yu cu tm mt gii php l
bao nhiu? Chi ph ton b ca vic tm kim l tng chi ph ng i v chi ph tm kim (S).
i vi vn tm ng i t Arad n Bucart, chi ph ng i t l thun vi tng
di ca ng, cng thm chi ph do s c dc ng. Chi ph tm kim ph thuc vo cc tnh
hung. Trong mi trng tnh, n bng khng v phm vi thc hin l c lp vi thi gian. Nu
phi cp tc n Bucart, mi trng l bn ng bi v vic cn nhc lu hn s lm chi ph
nhiu hn. Trong trng hp ny, chi ph tm kim c thbi n thin xp x tuyn tnh vi thi
gian tnh ton(t nht vi mt khong thi gian nh). Do , tnh ton tng chi ph, chng ta
cn phi b sung thm cc gi tr l dm v mili giy. iu ny khng phi lun d dng bi v
khng c mt t l trao i chnh thc gia hai i lng ny. Agent bng cch no phi
quyt nh nhng ti nguyn no s dnh cho vic tm kim v nhng ti nguyn no dnh cho
vic thc hin. i vi nhng vn c khng gian trng thi rt nh, d dng tm ra gii php
vi chi ph ng i thp nht. Nhng i vi nhng vn phc tp, ln, cn phi thc hin mt
s tho hip- agent c th tm kim trong mt thi gian di tm ra gii php ti u hoc agent
c th tm kim trong mt thi gian ngn hn v nhn c mt gii php vi chi ph ng i
cao hn mt cht. Chn la trng thi v hnh ng
By gi chng ta c cc nh ngha mi, chng ta hy bt u s iu tra cc vn ca
chng ta vi mt vn kh d nh sau: Li xe t Arad n Bucart s dng cc con ng trn
bn Mt khng gian trng thi c xp x 20 trng thi, mi trng thi c xc nh bi v tr,
c ghi r l mt thnh ph. Nh vy, trng thi ban u l Arad v kim tra mc tiu l
y c phi l Bucart khng?. Cc ton hng tng ng vi vic li dc theo cc con ng
gia cc thnh ph.
Cc bi ton v d
Phm vi ca cc mi trng nhim v m c th c m t c im bi cc vn c
nh ngha r rng l rt rng ln. Chng ta c th phn bit gia ci gi l cc bi ton tr
chi, m nhm minh ho hay thc hnh rt nhiu cc phng php gii quyt vn , v ci
gi l cc bi ton thuc th gii thc m s l cc vn kh khn hn v mi ngi thc s
quan tm n cc gii php gii quyt cc vn ny. Trong phn ny, chng ta s a ra v d
cho c hai loi vn . Cc vn chi tt nhin c th m t mt cch chnh xc, ngn
gn. iu c ngha l cc nh nghin cu khc nhau c th d dng s dng cc vn ny
so snh vic thc hin ca cc gii thut. Ngc li, cc vn th gii thc li khng th c mt
s miu t mt cch n gin, nhng chng ta s c gng a ra mt cch chung nht v s m t
chnh xc cc vn ny.
Cc bi ton Tr chi
Tr chi 8 qun c (C ta canh)
Mt v d ca tr chi 8 qun c c ch ra trong hnh 2.1, gm mt bng kch thc 3 x 3
vi 8 qun c c nh s t 1 n 8 v mt trng. Mt qun c ng cnh trng c th i
vo trng. Mc tiu l tin ti v tr cc qun c nh trong hnh bn phi. Mt mo quan trng
cn ch l thay v dng cc ton t nh chuyn qun c s 4 vo trng, s tt hn nu c
cc ton t nh trng thay i v tr vi qun c chuyn sang bn tri ca n, bi v loi ton
t th hai ny s t hn. iu s gip chng ta c cc khi nim nh sau:
Cc trng thi: mt s m t trng thi ch r v tr ca mi qun c trong 8 qun c mt
trong 9 vung. c hiu qu, s c ch nu trng thi bao gm c v tr ca trng.
Cc ton t: trng di chuyn sang tri, phi, ln trn, i xung.
18
Kim tra mc tiu: trng thi khp vi hnh dng ch ra hnh 3.4
Chi ph ng i: mi bc i chi ph l 1, v vy chi ph ng i bng di ca
ng i.

1
2 3
7 4 6
5 8

1 2 3
4 7 6
5 8


Hnh 2.1 Mt v ca tr chi 8 qun c

Tr chi 8 qun c thuc v loi tr chi trt khi. Lp tr chi ny c bit n c mc
hon thnh NP, v vy chng ta khng mong mun tm c cc phng php tt hn cc
thut ton tm kim c m t trong chng ny v trong cc chng tip theo. Tr chi 8
qun c v s m rng ca n, tr chi 15 qun c l nhng vn kim tra tiu chun i vi
cc gii thut tm kim trong AI.
Bi ton 8 qun hu
Mc tiu ca bi ton 8 qun hu l t 8 con hu trn mt bn c vua sao cho khng con
no n con no. (Mt con hu s n bt c con no nm trn cng hng, cng ct hoc cng
ng cho vi n). Hnh 2.2 ch ra mt gii php c gng gii quyt bi ton nhng khng
thnh cng: con hu ct bn phi nht b con hu trn cng bn tri chiu.
Mc du cc gii thut c bit hiu qu tn ti gii quyt bi ton ny v tp cc bi
ton tng qut n con hu, n thc s vn l vn rt th v dng kim tra cc gii thut tm
kim. C hai hai loi phng php chnh. Phng php gia tng bao gm vic t cc con hu
tng con mt, trong khi phng php trng thi hon thnh li bt u vi 8 con hu trn bn c
v tin hnh di chuyn cc con hu. Trong c hai phng php, ngi ta khng quan tm n chi
ph ng i do ch tnh n trng thi cui cng: cc gii thut do ch c so snh v chi
ph tm kim. Nh vy, chng ta c vic kim tra mc tiu v chi ph ng i nh sau:
Hnh 2.2 Gn nh l mt gii php i vi bi ton 8 con hu. ( Gii php thc s c
dnh cho bn c t lm nh mt bi tp.)
Trng thi u Trng thi ch
19
Hnh 2.2 Mt gii php i vi bi ton 8 con hu
Kim tra mc tiu: 8 con hu trn bn c, khng con no n con no
Chi ph ng i: bng khng
Cng c cc trng thi v cc ton t c th khc
.Hy xem xt s cng thc ho
Cc trng thi: bt c s sp xp ca t 0 n 8 con hu trn bn c
Cc ton t: thm mt con hu vo bt c no
Trong cch cng thc ho ny, chng ta c 648 dy c th th. Mt s la chn khn
kho s s dng thc t l vic t mt con hu vo m n b chiu s khng thnh cng bi
v vic t tt c cc con hu cn li s khng gip n khi b n(b con hu khc chiu). Do vy
chng ta c th th cch cng thc ho sau:
Cc trng thi: l s sp xp ca 0 n 8 con hu m khng con no n con no
Cc ton t: t mt con hu vo ct trng bn tri nht m n khng b n bi bt c con
hu no khc.
D thy rng cc hnh ng a ra ch c th to nn cc trng thi m khng c s n
ln nhau; nhng i khi c th khng c hnh ng no. Tnh ton nhanh cho thy ch c 2057
kh nng c th xp th cc con hu. Cng thc ho ng n s to nn mt s khc bit rt
ln i vi kch thc ca khng gian tm kim. Cc s xem xt tng t cng s c p dng
cho cch cng thc ho trng thi y . Chng hn, chng ta c th thit lp vn nh sau:
Cc trng thi: l s sp xp ca 8 con hu, mi con trn mt ct.
Cc ton t: di chuyn bt c con hu no b chiu ti mt khc trn cng ct.
Cch cng thc ny s cho php cc gii thut cui cng tm ra mt gii php, nhng s l
tt hn nu di chuyn ti b chiu.
Cc bi ton th gii thc
Tm kim ng i
Chng ta xem vic tm kim ng i c nh ngha nh th no bng cc thut ng
ch cc v tr xc nh v cc php di chuyn dc theo cc ng ni gia chng. Cc gii thut
tm kim ng i c s dng trong rt nhiu cc ng dng, nh tm ng i trong cc mng
my tnh , trong cc h thng t vn du lch t ng, v trong cc h thng lp k hoch cho cc
chuyn du lch bng my bay. ng dng cui cng c l phc tp hn, bi v du lch bng my
bay c chi ph ng i rt phc tp, lin quan n vn tin nong, cht lng gh ngi, thi
gian trong ngy, loi my bay, cc gii thng cho cc l trnh bay thng xuyn, v.v Hn na,
cc hnh ng trong bi ton khng c kt qu c bit y : cc chuyn bay c th n chm
hay ng k trc qu nhiu, c th b mt lin lc, sng m hoc s bo v khn cp c th gy
ra s tr hon.
Bi ton ngi bn hng rong v cc chuyn du lch
Hy xt bi ton kinh in sau: Thm tt c cc thnh ph mi thnh ph thm t nht mt
ln, khi hnh v kt thc Bucaret. iu ny rt ging vi tm kim ng i, bi v cc ton
t vn tng ng vi cc chuyn i gia cc thnh ph lin k. Nhng i vi bi ton ny,
khng gian trng thi phi ghi nhn nhiu thng tin hn. Ngoi v tr ca agent, mi trng thi
phi lu li c cc thnh ph m agent i qua. Nh vy, trng thi ban u s l Bucaret:
thm{Bucaret}., mt trng thi trung gian in hnh s l Vaslui: thm {Bucaret,
20
Urziceni, Vaslui}. v vic kim tra mc tiu s kim tra xem agent Bucaret cha v tt c
20 thnh ph c ving thm xong ton b cha.
Bi ton ngi bn hng rong (TSP) l mt bi ton du lch ni ting trong mi thnh
ph phi c ving thm ng chnh xc mt ln. Mc ch l tm hnh trnh ngn nht. 6 Bi
ton c phc tp NP(Karp,1972), nhng c mt s c gng rt ln nhm ci thin kh nng
ca cc thut ton TSP. Ngoi cc chuyn i c lp k hoch cho ngi bn hng rong,
nhng thut ton ny c s dng cho cc nhim v nh lp k hoch cho s dch chuyn ca
cc mi khoan trn trn bng mch mt cch t ng.
Bi ton hnh trnh ngn nht - ng dng nguyn l tham lam (Greedy)
Bi ton: Hy tm mt hnh trnh cho ngi giao hng i qua n im khc nhau, mi im
i qua mt ln v tr v im xut pht sao cho tng chiu di on ng cn i l ngn nht.
Gi s rng c con ng ni trc tip t gia hai im bt k.
Tt nhin l c th gii bi ton ny bng cch lit k tt c cc con ng c th i, tnh
chiu di ca mi con ng ri tm con ng c chiu di ngn nht. Tuy nhin cch gii
ny c phc tp O(n!) Do , khi s i l tng th s con ng phi xt s tng ln rt nhanh.
Mt cch n gin hn nhiu cho kt qu tng i tt l ng dng thut ton heuristic ng
dng nguyn l tham lam Greedy. T tng ca thut gii nh sau:
im khi u, ta lit k tt c cc qung ng t im xut pht cho n n i l ri chn
i theo con ng ngn nht.
Khi i n mt i l chn i n i l k tip cng theo nguyn tc trn. Ngha l lit
k tt c cc con ng t i l ta ang ng n nhng i l cha n. Chn con ng
ngn nht. Lp li qu trnh ny cho n lc khng cn i l no i
Bi ton phn vic - ng dng ca nguyn l th t
Bi ton: Mt cng ty nhn c hp ng gia cng m chi tit my J
1
, J
2
, J
m
. Cng ty c
n my gia cng ln lt l P
1
, P
2
, P
n
. Mi chi tit u c th gia cng trn bt k my gia cng
no. Mt khi gia cng mt chi tit trn mt my, cng vic s tip tc cho n lc hon thnh,
khng th b ct ngang. gia cng mt vic J
1
trn mt my bt k ta cn dng thi gian tng
ng l t
1
. Nhim v ca cng ty l lm sao gia cng xong ton b n chi tit trong thi gian sm
nht.
Chng ta xt bi ton trong trng hp c 3 my P
1
, P
2
, P
3
v su cng vic vi thi gian l
t
1
= 2 , t
2
= 5, t
3
= 8, t
4
= 1, t
5
= 5, t
6
= 1. C mt gii php c t ra l: Ti thi im t = 0, ta
tin hnh gia cng chi tit J
2
trn my P
1
, J
5
trn my P
2
v J
1
ti P
3
. Ti thi im t = 2 cng vic
J
1
c hon thnh, trn my P
3
ta gia cng tip chi tit J
4
. Trong lc , hai my P
1
v P
2
vn
ang thc hin cng vic u tin ca mnh Theo vy sau my P
3
s tip tc hon thnh nt
cc cng vic J
6
v J
3
. Thi gian hon thnh cng vic l 12. Ta thy phng n ny thc hin
cng vic mt cch khng tt. Cc my P
1
v P
2
c qu nhiu thi gian rnh.
Thut ton tm phng n ti u L
0
cho bi ton ny theo kiu vt cn c phc tp c
O(m
n
) (vi m l s my v n l s cng vic). By gi ta xt n mt thut gii Heuristic rt n
gin ( phc tp O(n)) gii bi ton ny:
Sp xp cc cng vic theo th t gim dn v thi gian gia cng
Ln lt sp xp cc vic theo th t vo my cn d nhiu thi gian nht
Vi t tng nh vy ta hon ton c th a ra mt phng n ti u L
*
, thi gian thc
hin cng vic bng 8, ng bng thi gian thc hin cng vic J
3

21
iu khin Robot
iu khin robot l s tng qut ho ca bi ton tm ng i c miu t lc trc.
Thay v mt tp cc l trnh ri rc, mt robot c th di chuyn trong mt khng gian lin tip vi
(v mt nguyn l) mt b v hn cc hnh ng v trng thi c th. n gin, robot trn di
chuyn trn mt mt phng, khng gian bn cht l hai chiu. Khi robt c cnh tay v chn m
phi c iu khin, khng gian tm kim tr nn a chiu. Cn c cc k thut tin tin bin
khng gian tm kim tr nn hu hn. Ngoi s phc tp ca bi ton cn ch cc robot tht s
phi x l cc li trong vic c thng tin sensor v cc b iu khin ng c.
Sp xp dy
S lp rp t ng cc i tng phc tp c thc hin bi rbt ln u tin c
tin hnh bi robot Freddy (Michie,1972). S pht trin k t kh chm chp nhng chc chn
n rt cn cho nhng ni lp rp phc tp nh lp rp in t. Trong cc bi ton lp rp, vn
l tm mt th t lp rp cc phn ca mt sn phm. Nu nh la chn sai mt th t, s
khng th lp thm mt s cc b phn ca sn phm nu nh khng phi d b mt s b phn
lp rp lc trc . Kim tra mt bc trong dy m bo tnh kh thi l mt bi ton tm
kim hnh hc phc tp rt gn vi iu khin robot. Nh vy, vic sinh ra nhng bc k v hp
l l khu t nht trong dy truyn lp rp v vic s dng cc gii thut tt lm gim vic tm
kim l iu cn thit.
2.4 CC PHNG PHP BIU DIN VN
Tm kim cc gii php
Chng ta xem xt cch lm th no xc nh mt vn , v lm th no cng nhn
mt gii php. Phn cn li tm kim mt gii php- c thc hin bi mt php tm kim
trong khng gian trng thi. tng l duy tr v m rng mt tp cc chui gii php cc b.
Trong phn ny, chng ta ch ra lm th no sinh ra nhng chui ny v lm th no kim
sot c chng bng cch s dng cc cu trc d liu hp l.
Khi to cc chui hnh ng
V d gii quyt bi ton tm ng i t Arad n Bucaret, chng ta bt u vi trng
thi u l Arad. Bc u tin l kim tra xem n c phi l trng thi ch hay khng. R rng
l khng, nhng vic kim tra l rt quan trng chng ta c th gii quyt nhng vic b chi
x nh bt u Arad, i n Arad. Do n khng phi l trng thi ch, chng ta cn phi
xem xt mt s trng thi khc. iu ny c thc hin bng cch p dng cc ton t cho trng
thi hin thi, do xy dng nn mt tp cc trng thi mi. Qu trnh ny c gi l s m
rng trng thi. Trong trng hp ny, chng ta c ba trng thi mi, Sibiu, Timisoara v
Zerind bi v c mt ng i mt bc trc tip t Arad n ba thnh ph ny. Nu nh ch
c duy nht mt kh nng, chng ta s chn kh nng v tip tc i tip. Nhng bt c khi no
m c nhiu kh nng la chn, chng ta phi quyt nh s chn phng n no i tip.
y chnh l vn ct yu ca vic tm kim la chn mt v tr v cc la chn
cn li cho vic la chn sau ny nu nh s la chn u tin khng a n mt gii php. Gi
s chng ta chn Zezind. Chng ta kim tra xem n phi l trng thi ch cha (n cha phi
trng thi ch), v sau m rng n c Arad v Oradea. Nh th chng ta c th
chn mt trong hai trng thi ny, hoc l quay li v chn Sibiu hay Timisoara. Chng ta tip tc
chn , kim tra v m rng cho n khi tm c mt ng i, hoc cho n khi khng cn trng
22
thi no na m rng. Vic la chn trng thi no m rng trc tin do chin lc tm
kim quyt nh.
2.5. CC PHNG PHP GII QUYT VN C BN
Cc chin lc tm kim
Cng vic ch yu ca vic tm kim chuyn sang vic tm kim mt chin lc tm
kim ng n i vi mt vn . Trong s nghin cu ca chng ta v lnh vc ny, chng ta s
nh gi cc chin lc bng cc thut ng ca bn tiu chun sau:
Tnh hon thnh: chin lc c bo m tm thy mt gii php khi c mt vn
phc tp thi gian: chin lc mt bao lu tm ra mt gii php?
phc tp khng gian (dung lng b nh): chin lc cn bao nhiu dung lng
b nh cn thit thc hin vic tm kim.
Tnh ti u: chin lc c tm c gii php c cht lng cao nht khi c mt s cc
gii php khc nhau?
Phn ny s ni n 6 chin lc tm kim m c s dng di tiu tm kim khng
thng tin (uninformed search). Thut ng ny c ngha l khng c cc thng tin v s cc
bc hay chi phi ng i t trng thi hin ti cho ti ch tt c nhng g chng c th lm l
phn bit mt trng thi ch vi mt trng thi khng phi l trng thi ch. Tm kim khng c
thng tin y i khi cn c gi l tm kim m (blind search).
Tm kim theo chiu rng
Mt chin lc tm kim n gin l tm kim theo chiu rng. Trong chin lc ny, nt
gc c m rng trc tin, sau n lt tt c cc nt m c sinh ra bi nt gc c m
rng, v sau tip n nhng nt k tip ca chng v c nh vy. Ni mt cch tng qut, tt
c cc nt su d trn cy tm kim c m rng trc cc nt su d+1. Tm kim theo
chiu rng c th c thc hin bng cch gi gii thut general-search vi mt hm hng i
m a cc trng thi mi c sinh ra vo cui ca hng i, ng sau tt c cc trng thi m
c sinh ra trc n:





Hnh 2.3. Tm kim trn mt cy nh phn n gin

Tm kim theo chiu rng l mt chin lc rt c phng php (c h thng) bi v n
xem xt tt c cc ng i c di bng 1 trc, sau n tt c nhng ng i c di
Function Tm- kim- rng(problem)
Returns mt gii php hoc tht bi
Return General-search (problem, xp vo cui hng)
23
bng 2, v c nh vy. Hnh 2.3 ch ra qu trnh ca s tm kim trn mt cy nh phn n gin.
Nu nh c mt gii php, tm kim theo chiu rng m bo s tm c n, v nu c nhiu gii
php, tm kim theo chiu rng s lun tm ra trng thi ch nng nht trc tin. Di thut ng
ca 4 tiu chun, tm kim theo chiu rng l hon thnh, v n c cung cp mt cch ti u
chi ph ng dn bng mt hm tng ca su cc nt.
Chng ta phi xem xt thi gian v dung lng b nh n s dng hon thnh mt cuc
tm kim. lm iu ny, chng ta xem xt mt khng gian trng thi c tnh gi thit trong
mi trng thi c th c m rng to ra cc trng thi mi b. Chng ta ni rng yu t phn
nhnh ca nhng trng thi ny (v ca cy tm kim) l b. Gc ca cy tm kim sinh ra b nt
mc u tin, mi nt li sinh ra thm b nt, v s c c thy b2 nt mc th hai. Mi mt
nt ny li sinh ra thm b nt, to ra b3 nt mc th ba, v c nh vy. By gi chng ta gi s
rng gii php cho bi ton ny c di ng i l d, nh vy s nt ti a c m rng trc
khi tm thy mt gii php l :
1 + b + b2 + b3 +.... + bd
y l s nt ti a, nhng gii php c th c tm thy bt c im no thuc mc c
su l d. Do , trong trng hp tt nht , s lng cc nt s t hn.
Tm kim vi chi ph thp nht
Php tm kim theo chiu rng tm c trng thi ch, nhng trng thi ny c th khng
phi l gii php c chi ph thp nht i vi mt hm chi ph ng i ni chung. Tm kim vi
chi ph thp nht thay i chin lc tm kim theo chiu rng bng cch lun lun m rng nt
c chi ph thp nht (c o bi cng thc tnh chi ph c i g(n)), thay v m rng nt c
su nng nht. D thy rng tm kim theo chiu rng chnh l tm kim vi chi ph thp nht
vi g(n)= DEPTH(n).
Khi t c nhng iu kin nht nh, gii php u tin c tm thy s m bo l gii
php r nht, do nu nh c mt ng i khc r hn, n phi c m rng sm hn v nh
vy n s phi c tm thy trc. Vic quan st cc hnh ng ca chin lc s gip gii thch
iu ny. Hy xem xt bi ton tm ng i. Vn l i t S n G, v chi ph ca mi ton t
c ghi li. u tin chin lc s tin hnh m rng trng thi ban u, to ra ng i ti A, B
v C. Do ng i ti A l r nht, n s tip tc c m rng, to ra ng i SAG m thc s
l mt gii php, mc d khng phi l phng n ti u. Tuy nhin, gii thut khng cng nhn
n l mt gii php, bi v n chi ph l 11, v n b che bi ng i SB c chi ph l 5 trong
hng i. Dng nh tht l xu h nu sinh ra mt gii php ch nhm chn n su trong hng
i, nhng iu l cn thit nu chng ta mun tm mt gii php ti u ch khng n thun
l tm bt c gii php no. Bc tip theo l m rng SB, to ra SBG, v n l ng i r nht
cn li trong hng i, do vy mc tiu c kim tra v a ra mt gii php.
Php tm kim chi ph t nht tm ra gii php r nht tho mn mt yu cu n gin: Chi
ph ca mt ng i phi khng bao gi gim i khi chng ta i dc theo ng i. Ni cch
khc, chng ta mong mun rng
g(Successor(n)) g(n) vi mi nt n.
Gii hn i vi chi ph ng i khng c gim thc s s l vn cn quan tm nu
chi ph ng i ca mt nt l tng chi ph ca cc ton t m to nn ng i. Nu nh mi
ton t c mt chi ph khng m, th chi ph ca ng i khng bao gi c th gim i khi chng
ta i dc theo ng i v php tm kim vi chi ph ging nhau c th tm c ng i r nht
m khng cn kim tra ht ton b cy. Nhng nu mt s ton t c chi ph m th chng c mt
24
cch tm kim no khc ngoi mt php tm kim ton b tt c cc nt tm ra gii php ti u,
bi v chng ta s khng bao gi bit c rng khi no mt ng i s chuyn sang mt bc
vi chi ph m cao v do tr thnh ng i tt nht trong tt c cc ng i, bt k l n di
bao nhiu v chi ph th no.
Tm kim theo chiu su
Tm kim theo chiu su lun lun m rng mt trong cc nt mc su nht ca cy. Ch
khi php tm kim i ti mt im ct (mt nt khng phi ch m khng c phn m rng), vic
tm kim s quay li v m rng i vi nhng nt nng hn. Chin lc ny c th c thc
hin bi General-search vi mt hm hng i m lun a cc trng thi mi c sinh ra vo
trc hng i. Do nt c m rng l su nht, cc nt k tip ca n thm ch s su hn v
khi s tr thnh su nht. Qu trnh tm kim c minh ho trong hnh 2.4.

Hnh 2.4. Tm kim theo chiu su

Php tm kim theo chiu su yu cu dung lng b nh rt khim tn. Nh hnh v cho
thy, n ch cn phi lu mt ng duy nht t gc ti nt l, cng vi cc nt anh em vi cc
nt trn ng i cha c m rng cn li. i vi mt khng gian trng thi vi h s r
nhnh b v su ti a m, php tm kim theo chiu su ch yu cu lu tr bm nt, ngc lai
so vi bd nt m php tm kim theo chiu rng yu cu trong trng hp mc tiu nng nht
su d.
phc tp thi gian ca php tm kim su l O(bm). i vi nhng vn m c rt
nhiu gii php, php tm kim su c th nhanh hn tm kim rng, bi v n c mt c hi tt
tm ra mt gii php ch sau khi khm ph mt phn nh ca ton b khng gian. Tm kim theo
chiu rng s vn phi tm tt c cc ng i c su d-1 trc khi xem xt bt c ng i
no c su d. Php tm kim theo chiu su vn cn thi gian O(bm) trong trng hp ti nht.
Mt hn ch ca php tm kim su l n c th b tc khi i theo mt ng sai. Rt nhiu
bi ton c cc cy tm kim rt su, thm ch v hn, v vy tm kim su s khng bao gi c th
quay tr li c mt trong cc nt gn nh ca cy sau khi c mt s la chn sai. Php tm
kim s lun lun tip tc i xung m khng quay tr li, thm ch khi c mt gii php mc
rt nng tn ti. Nh vy i vi nhng bi ton ny, php tm kim su s hoc l b sa ly trong
mt vng lp v hn v khng bao gi a ra mt gii php, hoc l cui cng n c th a ra
mt ng i gii php m di hn so vi phng n ti u. iu c ngha l php tm kim
theo chiu su l khng hon thnh v khng ti u. Bi v iu ny, cn trnh s dng php tm
kim su cho cc cy tm kim c su ti a l v hn hoc rt su.
25
Vic thc hin php tm kim su vi general-search l kh tm thng:





Ngi ta thng thc hin php tm kim su cng vi mt hm qui m gi ti chnh n
ln lt mi con ca n. Trong trng hp ny, hng i c lu tr hon ton trong khng
gian a phng ca mi ln gi trong ngn xp gi.
Tm kim theo su gii hn
Tm kim theo su gii hn trnh cc by m tm kim theo chiu su mc phi bng
cch t mt gii hn i vi su ti a ca ng i. Gii hn ny c th c thc hin vi
mt gii thut tm kim theo su gii hn c bit hoc s dng cc gii thut tm kim tng
qut vi cc ton t theo di su. Chng hn, trn bn Rumani, c 20 thnh ph, v vy
chng ta bit rng nu nh c mt gii php, th n phi c di nhiu nht l bng 19. Chng ta
c th thc hinvic gii hn su bng cch s dng cc ton t di dng Nu bn thnh
ph A v va i mt on ng t hn 19 bc, th khi to mt trng thi mi thnh ph B
vi di ng i ln hn 1. Vi tp cc ton t mi ny, chng ta m bo tm thy gii php
nu n tn ti, nhng chng ta vn khng m bo tm thy gii php ngn nht trc tin: php
tm kim theo chiu su gii hn l hon thnh nhng khng ti u. Nu chng ta chn mt gii
hn su m qu nh, th php tm kim theo chiu su gii hn thm ch khng hon thnh.
phc tp v khng gian v thi gian ca php tm kim theo chiu su gii hn tng ng vi
php tm kim su. N mt O(bl) thi gian v O(bl) khng gian, vi l l gii hn su.
Tm kim lp su dn (Iterative Deepening Search)
Thnh phn kh khn ca tm kim theo su gii hn em li mt gii hn kh tt.
Chng ta ly 19 nh l mt gii hn su hin nhin cho bi ton Rumani, nhng thc ra nu
chng ta nghin cu k bn , chng ta s thy rng bt c thnh ph no cng c th i n
c t bt k thnh ph no khc vi nhiu nht l 9 bc. Con s ny, c bit n nh l
ng knh ca khng gian trng thi , cho chng ta mt gii hn su tt hn, v a n mt
php tm kim theo su gii hn hiu qu hn. Tuy nhin, i vi hu ht cc bi ton, chng
ta ch bit mt gii hn su tt sau khi gii quyt xong bi ton.








Hnh 2.5 Gii thut tm kim lp su dn


Function tm kim su(bi ton)
returns mt gii php hoc tht bi
returns General-search(bi ton, xp u hng i)
Function tm kim -lp -su dn(bi ton) returns mt dy gii php
Inputs: bi ton, mt vn cn gii quyt
For su = 0 to do
If tm kim - su -gii hn(bi ton, su) thnh cng
then returns kt qu
End
Return tht bi
26
Php tm kim lp su dn l mt chin lc n trnh vn la chn gii hn su tt
nht v c gng th tt c cc gi hn su c th: u tin th su bng 0, sau su
bng 1, tip theo l 2, v c nh vy. V mt hiu qu, vic lp su dn kt hp li ch ca c hai
php tm kim theo chiu su v tm kim theo chiu rng. y l phng php ti u v y ,
ging nh php tm kim theo chiu rng, nhng ch yu cu b nh rt t nh php tm kim su
yu cu. Th t m rng cc trng thi tng t vi tm kim rng, ngoi tr vic mt s trng
thi c m rng nhiu ln.
Php tm kim lp su dn c th dng nh l hi lng ph, bi v c rt nhiu trng thi
c m rng nhiu ln. Tuy nhin, i vi hu ht cc bi ton, tng chi ph ca s m rng
nhiu ln ny thc ra kh nh. Bng trc gic, c th thy rng trong mt cy tm kim theo lut
s m, hu ht tt c cc nt l mc thp nht, v vy vic cc mc bn trn c m rng
nhiu ln s khng thnh vn lm. nhc li rng s ln m rng trong php tm kim theo
su gii hn ti su d vi h s phn nhnh b l:
1+ b + b
2
+ .+ bd
-2
+ bd
-1
+ bd

C th, cho b=10, v d=5 th s ln m rng l :
1+10+100+1000+10.000+100.000= 111.111
Trong php tm kim lp su dn, cc nt mc di cng c m rng mt ln, nhng
nt trn mc di cng c m rng hai ln, v c nh vy n gc ca cy tm kim s c
m rng d+1 ln. Do tng s ln m rng trong mt php tm kim lp su dn l :
(d+1)1 + (d)b + (d-1)b
2
+ ..+ 3bd
-2
+ 2bd
-1
+ 1bd
V c th li cho b=10, v d=5 th s ln m rng l :
6+50+400+3000+20.000+100000= 123.456
Nh vy chng ta thy, mt php tm kim lp su dn t su1 xung ti su d ch
m rng nhiu hn khong11% s nt so vi php tm kim theo chiu rng hay php tm kim
theo chiu su ti su d khi h s phn nhnh b=10. H s phn nhnh cng cao, tng s cc
trng thi c m rng lp li (nhiu ln) cng thp, nhng thm ch khi h s phn nhnh l 2,
php tm kim lp su dn ch m rng s trng thi nhiu gp hai so vi mt php tm kim theo
chiu rng y . iu c ngha rng phc tp thi gian ca php tm kim lp su dn
vn l O(bd), phc tp khng gian l O(bd). Ni chung, lp su dn l php tm kim c
tham kho n khi c mt khng gian tm kim ln v su ca gii php l khng bit trc.
Tm kim tin li
tng ca php tm kim tin li l thc hin ng thi hai php tm kim: tm kim t
trng thi u v pha trc v tm kim ngc li t trng thi ch, v dng li khi hai php tm
kim ny gp nhau.
i vi nhng bi ton m h s r nhnh l b c hai hng, php tm kim tin li c th
a li mt s khc bit rt ln. Nu chng ta vn gi s rng c mt gii php su d, th
gii php s c tm thy sau O(2bd/2) = O(bd/2) bc, bi v mi php tm kim tin v li ch
phi i mt na qung ng. Xt v d c th, vi b=10 v d=6, php tm kim rng sinh ra
1.111.111 nt, trong khi php tm kim tin li thnh cng khi mi hng su bng 3, ti
thi im 2.222 nt c to ra. iu ny v mt l thuyt nghe rt hp dn. Chng ta cn phi
xem xt mt s vn trc khi thc hin gii thut
27
Cu hi chnh l, tm kim li t ch c nghi l nh th no? Chng ta nh ngha cc nt
t tin (predecessor) ca mt nt n l tt c cc nt m c nt n l nt k v (successor). Php tm
kim li c ngha l sinh ra nhng nt t tin lin tip bt u t nt ch.
Khi tt c cc ton t l c th o ngc, cc tp k v v tp t tin l ging ht nhau.
Tuy nhin, i vi mt s bi ton, vic tnh ton cc phn t t tin l rt kh khn.
Con s O(bd/2) ca phc tp tha nhn rng qu trnh kim tra s giao nhau ca hai bin
gii c th c thc hin trong mt khong thi gian khng i (nh vy, n khng ph thuc
vo s trng thi). iu ny thng c th thu c vi mt bng bm. hai php tm kim cui
cng s gp nhau, tt c cc nt ca t nht mt trong hai php tm kim phi c lu gi trong
b nh (ging nh vi trng hp ca php tm kim rng). iu ny c ngha l phc tp
khng gian ca php tm kim tin li khng c thng tin l O(bd/2).

So snh cc chin lc tm kim

Tiu chun
Tm kim
theo chiu
rng
Tm kim
chi ph
thp nht
Tm kim
theo
su
Tm kim
theo su
gii hn
Tm
kim lp
su dn
Tm
kim
tin li
Thi gian
Khng gian
C ti u
khng?
C hon thnh?
b
d
b
d
C
C
b
d
b
d
C
C
b
m
bm
Khng
Khng
b
l
bl
Khng
C, nu l d
b
d
bd
C
C
b
d/2
b
d/2

C
C
nh gi cc chin lc tm kim, b l h s phn nhnh, d l su ca gii php; m l su
ti a ca cy tm kim; l l gii hn su

Cho n lc ny, chng ta xt tt c cc vn ngoi tr cn mt trong nhng vn
phc tp nht ca qu trnh tm kim, l: kh nng lng ph thi gian do vic m rng cc trng
thi m gp v c m rng trc trn mt s ng i. i vi mt s bi ton, kh
nng ny khng bao gi xy ra, mi trng thi ch c i n theo mt con ng. Vic xc
nh chnh xc vn bi ton 8 con hu rt c tc dng, l mi trng thi ch c th nhn
c thng qua mt ng i.
i vi rt nhiu bi ton, cc trng thi b lp li l iu khng th trnh khi. iu ny c
tt c cc bi ton m cc ton t l c th o ngc, nh cc bi ton tm ng i v bi ton
nhng nh truyn gio v nhng k n tht ngi. Cc cy tm kim cho nhng bi ton ny l v
hn, nhng nu chng ta ta bt mt s trng thi lp li, chng ta c th ct cy tm kim xung
cn kch thc hu hn, ch sinh ra mt phn ca cy m m rng th khng gian trng thi.
Thm ch khi cy l hu hn, vic trnh cc trng thi lp c th dn n mt s suy gim theo
cp s m chi ph tm kim. Mt v d kinh in c m t hnh 2.4. Khng gian ch cha m+1
trng thi, vi m l su ti a. Do cy bao gm mi ng i c th trong khng gian, n c
2m nhnh.

28
2.6. GII QUYT VN V CC K THUT HEURISTIC
Cc phng php tm kim c y thng tin
Phn trc ch ra rng cc chin lc tm kim khng y thng tin c th tm thy
gii php i vi cc bi ton bng cch to ra mt cch c h thng cc trng thi mi v kim
tra chng vi mc tiu. iu khng may l, nhng chin lc ny r rng l khng c hiu qu
trong hu ht cc trng hp. Phn ny cho mt chin lc tm kim c thm hiu bit (c
thng tin the- mt chin lc s dng cc tri thc c th i vi bi ton - c th tm cc gii
php mt cch hiu qu hn nh th no. Phn ny cng ch ra cc bi ton ti u c th c
gii quyt.

Phng php tm kim tt nht (Best-first)








Hnh 2.6 Mt phng php tm kim tt nht s dng cc gii thut tm kim tng qut

Trong chng trc, chng ta tm thy mt s cch p dng cc tri thc cho qui
trnh xc nh r rng chnh xc mt vn bng cc thut ng v trng thi v cc ton t.
Tuy nhin, khi chng ta c a cho mt bi ton m c ch r c th, cc s la chn
ca chng ta l c gii hn. Nu chng ta s dng gii thut tm kim tng qut, th cch duy
nht c th p dng c tri thc l hm "hng i, hm quyt nh nt no s c m rng
tip theo. Thng thng, tri thc quyt nh iu ny c cung cp bi mt hm nh gi
tr v mt s c ngha m t s mong mun c m rng nt. Khi cc nt c xp th t
nt no c nh gi tt nht s c m rng trc. Chin lc nh vy c gi l php
tm kim tt nht (best-first). N c th c ci t trc tip vi tm kim tng qut, nh
hnh 2.6.
Tn gi tm kim tt nht l php tm kim quan trng nhng khng chnh xc. Nu
chng ta m rng nt tt nht trc tin, khng phi l php tm kim - l mt cch i
thng n mc tiu. iu c th lm l chn nt t ra l tt nht theo hm gi. Nu hm gi l
r, th nt ny s l nt tt nht. Trong thc t, hm gi thnh thong c sai st v vic tm
kim b lc ng. Tuy nhin, chng ta s dng tn tm kim tt nht, v tn tm kim v
ngoi tt nht c v khng tin.
Khi c mt h gii thut tm kim tng qut vi cc hm theo th t khc nhau, tn ti
mt h cc gii thut tm kim tt nht vi cc hm gi khc nhau. V mc ch l tm kim
cc gii php c chi ph thp, nhng gii thut ny s dng phng php nh gi cc chi ph
ca gii php v c gng ti thiu n. Chng ta c mt phng php o: s dng chi ph
Function best-first-search(problem, hm nh gi) return mt dy gii php
Input : problem, mt bi ton
Hm nh gi, mt hm gi tr
Hm hng i mt hm m sp th t cc nt theo hm gi
Return general-search ( problem, hm hng i)

29
ng i g quyt nh ng i no s m. Tuy nhin, phng php ny khng tm trc
tip v pha ch. lm chm php tm kim, phng php kt hp mt s cch nh gi chi
ph ng i t mt trng thi ti trng thi ch gn nht. Xt hai phng php c bn.
Phng php th nht m nt gn ch nht. Phng php th hai m nt ng i c chi
ph t nht.

Ti thiu ho chi ph nh gi i ti mc tiu: php tm kim tham lam
Mt trong nhng chin lc tm kim tt nht trc n gin nht l ti thiu chi ph c
lng i ti mc tiu. l, nt m trng thi ca n c nh gi l gn vi trng thi
mc tiu nht lun lun c m rng trc. i vi hu ht cc bi ton, chi ph ca vic i
ti ch t mt trng thi no c th c c lng nhng khng th xc nh chnh xc.
Mt hm m tnh ton nhng c lng chi ph nh vy c gi l hm heuristic v thng
c biu din bng ch ci h:
h(n) = chi ph c lng ca ng i r nht t trng thi nt n ti trng thi ch.
Mt php tm kim tt nht trc m s dng h la chn nt m rng tip theo c gi l
phng php tm kim tham lam(greedy search), v cc l do m chng ta s thy r rng sau
y. Cho mt hm heuristic h, php tm kim tham lam c th c thc hin nh sau:




Ni mt cch chnh thc, h c th l bt c hm no. Chng ta s ch yu cu l h(n) = 0
nu n l mt mc tiu.
hnh dung mt hm heuristic l nh th no, chng ta cn chn mt bi ton in
hnh, bi v cc hm heuristic chuyn xc nh cc bi ton c bit. Chng ta hy quay tr li
vi bi ton tim ng i t Arad n Bucaret.
Mt hm heuristic tt i vi nhng bi ton tm ng i ging nh th ny l khong
cch ng thng(straight-line distance hay SLD) ti mc tiu. Tc l,
hSLD(n) = khong cch ng thng gia n v v tr ch.
Vi php heuristic khong cch -ng thng, nt u tin s m rng t Arad s l Sibiu,
bi v n gn Bucaret hn so vi Zerind v Timisoara. Nt m rng tip theo s l Fagaras, do n
l nt gn nht. Fagaras s sinh ra Bucaret, v l ch.i vi bi ton ny, php heuristic dn ti
chi ph tm kim ti thiu: n tm mt gii php m khng cn m mt nt no khng nm trn
ng i gii php (ng i ti ch). Tuy nhin, n khng phi l hon ton ti u: ng i
m n tm ra i qua Sibiu v Fagaras ti Bucaret di hn ng i xuyn qua Rimnicu Vilcea v
Pitesti (ri ti Bucaret) l 32 km. Con ng ny n khng tm ra bi v Fagaras gn vi Bucaret
theo khong cch ng thng hn so vi Rimnicu, v vy n c m trc. Chin lc u tin
chn kh nng c ming ngom ln nht (tc l i bc u tin i c xa nht) khng quan
tm n cc chi ph cn li i n ch, khng m xa n vic bc i ny c phi l tt nht
xt v ton cc hay khng chnh v th n c gi l phng php tm kim tham lam. Mc
d tham lam c coi l mt trong 7 li nng, nhng cc gii thut tham lam thng t ra kh
hiu qu. Chng c thin hng tm gii php nhanh chng, mc d nh ch ra trong v d va
function greedy-search(problem) returns mt gii php hoc tht bi
return best-first-search(problem,h)
30
ri, chng khng phi lun lun tm ra cc gii php ti u: cn phi c s phn tch mt cch k
cc gii php ton cc, ch khng ch mt s la chn tt nht tc th.
Php tm kim tham lam tng t php tm kim theo su im l n u tin i theo
mt ng n ti ch, nhng n s quay lui khi gp ng ct.N c nhng nhc im ging
vi phng php tm kim su - khng ti u, v khng hon thnh v c th ri vo mt ng
v hn v khng bao gi quay li chn kh nng khc. phc tp thi gian trong trng hp
ti nht ca php tm kim tham lam l O(b
m
), vi m l su ti a ca khng gian tm kim.
Bi v php tm kim tham lam lu tr tt c cc nt trong b nh, phc tp khng gian ca n
tng t nh phc tp thi gian. Vi mt hm heuristic tt, phc tp khng gian v phc
tp thi gian c th gim ng k. Lng gim ph thuc vo bi ton c th v cht lng ca
hm h.
Ti thiu ho tng chi ph ng i: Thut ton tm kim A
*

Phng php tm kim hu n ti thiu ho chi ph d tnh ti ch, h(n), v do gim chi
ph tm kim i ng k. iu khng may l, khng phi l phng php ti u cng nh hon
thnh. Mt khc, php tm kim theo chi ph t nht li ti thiu ho chi ph ng tnh n thi
im hin ti, g(n); l phng php tm kim ti u v hon thnh, nhng c th rt khng
hiu qu. S rt tt nu chng ta kt hp c hai phng php ny li dng im mnh ca c
hai phng php. Rt may l chng ta c th lm c chnh xc iu , kt hp hai hm nh
gi n gin bng cch cng chng li:
f(n) = g(n) + h(n) .
Do g(n) a ra chi ph ng i t nt u ti nt n, v h(n) l chi ph c tnh ca ng i r
nht t n n ch, c :
f(n) = chi ph c tnh ca gii thut tt nht i qua n
Nh th, nu chng ta c gng tm gii php r nht, nt cn m rng trc hp l mt cch hp
l nht l nt c gi tr thp nht ca f. iu th v v phng php ny l phng php ny cn
hn c s hp l. Thc t chng ta c th chng minh rng n l hon thnh v ti u, vi mt
hn ch n gin i vi hm h.
Hn ch l cn chn mt hm h m khng vt qu chi phi i ti ch. Mt hm h nh vy
dc gi l mt heuristic c th chp nhn. Nhng heuristic c th chp nhn l theo quan im
ca nhng ngi lc quan, v h ngh chi ph ca vic gii quyt vn l t hn thc t. S lc
quan ny cng s chuyn hm f: Nu h l chp nhn c, f(n) khng bao gi vt qu chi ph
thc t ca gii php n. Php tm kim tt nht s dng f nh l mt hm gi v mt hm h chp
nhn c vi tn phng php tm kim A*.




Hnh 2.7.
V d r rng v php heuristic chp nhn c l khong cch ng thng hSLD m
chng ta s dng i n Bucaret. Khong cch ng thng l chp nhn c bi v ng i
ngn nht gia bt c hai im l mt ng thng. Trong hnh 2.7, chng ta ch ra mt s bc
u tin ca php tm kim A* ti Bucaret s dng php heuristic hSLD. Ch rng php tm
kim A* u tin m rng t Rimnicu Vilcea hn so vi m rng t Fagaras. Mc d thm ch
Function A*-search(problem) return mt gii php hoc tht bi
Return best-first-search(problem, g+h)
31
Fagaras gn Bucaret hn, ng i ti Fagaras khng hiu qu bng ng i ti Rimnicu trong
vic tin gn ti Bucaret. Bn c c th mong mun tip tc v d ny xem iu g s xy n
tip theo.
S hot ng ca php tm kim A*
Trc khi chng ta chng minh tnh hon thnh v tnh ti u ca A*, chng ta nn a ra
mt bc tranh trc gic v hot ng ca phng php tm kim ny (Hnh 2.8).Mt minh ho
khng th thay th cho mt bng chng, nhng n thng d nh v c th s dng to ra cc
chng c khi c yu cu. Trc tin, mt s quan st ban u: nu nh bn kim tra cc cy tm
kim, bn s ch mt hin tng th v: Dc theo bt c ng i no t gc, chi ph f khng
bao gi tng. iu ny khng phi l ngu nhin. N l ng i v hu nh tt c cc heuristic
chp nhn c. Ngi ta ni mt heuristic nh vy l a ra s n iu (monotonicity1).
Nu heuristic l mt trong nhng heuristic k cc m khng phi l n iu. Chng ta c
th sa cha nh phc hi tnh n iu. Xt hai nt n v n, vi n l nt cha ca n. Gi s
g(n) = 3 v h(n) = 4, ta c, f(n)= g(n)+h(n) = 7 nh vy ta bit rng gi tr thc ca mt gii
php ti n t nht l 7. Cng gi s g(n) = 4 v h(n) = 2, do vy f(n) =6. R rng, y l mt v
d v mt heuristic khng n iu. Rt may l, t thc t rng bt c ng i no n n th
cng l ng i n n, chng ta c th thy rng gi tr 6 l khng c ngha g, bi v chng ta
bit chi ph thc t t nht l 7. Nh vy, chng ta nn kim tra , mi ln chng ta to ra mt
nt mi, xem chi ph f ca n c nh hn chi ph f ca nt cha ca n nay khng: nu nh hn,
chng ta s s dng chi ph f ca nt cha ca n:
f(n) = max(f(n), g(n) + h(n)).
Theo cch ny, ta b qua cc gi tr dn sai ng c th xy ra vi mt heuristic khng
n iu. Cng thc ny gi l cc i ng i. Nu s dng cng thc , th f lun khng
gim dc theo bt c ng i t gc, gi tr h c cung cp l chp nhn c.
















phc tp ca thut ton A*


Hnh 2.8 Cc giai on ca php tm kim A i n Bucharest. Cc nt c gn nhn vi f
= g +h . Cc gi tr h l cc khong cch ng thng ti Bucharest ly t gi thit
32
Phng php tm kim A* l hon thnh, ti u v hiu qu mt cch ti u trong s tt c
cc thut ton nh vy. iu khng c ngha l A* l cu tr li cho tt c cc yu cu tm kim.
i vi hu ht cc bi ton, s nt trong khng gian tm kim ng vin mc tiu l cp s m
theo di ca gii php. Mc d khng chng minh, n c ch ra rng tng theo cp s
m s xy ra tr phi sai s trong hm heuristic khng tng nhanh hn logarits ca chi ph ng i
thc t. Theo k hiu ton hc, iu kin i vi tng nh hn cp s m l :
h(n) h*(n) O(logh*(n)),
vi h*(n) l chi ph thc t ca vic i t n n mc tiu. i vi hu ht tt c cc heuristic
trong thc t s dng, sai s t nht cng t l vi chi ph ng i , v tng theo cp s m
cui cng s vt qu bt c kh nng ca my tnh no. Tt nhin, vic s dng mt heuristic tt
vn cho chng ta mt tit kim rt ln so vi cc php tm kim khng thng tin. Trong phn
tip theo, chng ta s xem xt n vn thit k cc heuristic tt.
Tuy nhin, thi gian tnh ton khng phi l mt tr ngi chnh ca A*. Do n lu tr tt
c cc nt c to ra trong b nh, A* thng b vt ra khi b nh rt lu trc khi n ht thi
gian. Cc gii thut pht trin gn y vt qua tr ngi v dung lng b nh m khng phi
hi sinh tnh ti u hay tnh hon thnh.
Cc hm heuristic
Cho n lc ny, chng ta mi ch xem xt mt v d v mt heuristic: khong cch ng
thng i vi cc bi ton tm ng i. Trong phn ny, chng ta s xt cc hm heuristic i vi
tr chi s 8. iu ny s soi ri v yu t t nhin ca cc hm heuristic ni chung.
Tr chi s 8 l mt trong nhng bi ton tm kim theo phng php heuristic sm nht. Nh
cp trong phn 2.5, mc tiu ca tr chi ny l i cc con c theo chiu ngang hoc chiu dc vo
trng cho n khi thu c trng thi cc qun c nh m hnh mc tiu (hnh 2.9).








Trng thi u Trng thi ch
Hnh 2.9 Mt v d in hnh ca tr chi 8 qun c

Tr chi s 8 mc kh va phi nn l mt tr chi rt th v. Mt gii php in hnh
gm khong 20 bc, mc d tt nhin con s ny bin i ph thuc vo trng thi u. H s r
nhnh khong bng 3 (khi trng gia, c bn kh nng di chuyn; khi n gc bn c, c
hai kh nng di chuyn; v khi n trn cc cnh, c 3 kh nng i). iu ny c ngha l mt
php tm kim vt cn ti su 20 s xem xt khong 320 = 3,5 x 109 trng thi. Bng cch theo
di cc trng thi lp li, chng ta c th gim s trng thi ny xung ng k, bi v ch c 9! =
362980 cc s sp xp khc nhau ca 9 vung. y vn l mt s rt ln cc trng thi, v th
1 2 3


8 4


7 6 5
5 4


6 1 8


7 3 2
33
bc tip theo l tm mt hm heuristic tt. Nu chng ta mun tm kim cc gii thut ngn nht,
chng ta cn mt hm heuristic m khng bao gi c on vt qu s cc bc i ti mc tiu.
Sau y l hai ng c vin:
h1 = s lng qun c m sai v tr. i vi hnh 2.9, 7 trong s 8 qun c sai v tr, v
vy trng thi u s c h1 = 7. h1 l mt hm heuristic chp nhn c, bi v r rng l
bt c qun c no m ang sai v tr phi di chuyn t nht mt ln.
h
2
= tng s khong cch ca cc qun c so vi v tr mc tu. Bi v cc qun c khng
th i theo cc ng cho, khong cch m chng ta tnh tng s l tng ca cc khong
cch theo chiu ngang v theo chiu dc. Khong cch ny i khi c gi l khong
cch khi thnh ph(city block distance) hoc khong cch Manhantan h
2
l chp
nhn c, v bt c nc i no cng ch c th di chuyn mt qun c mt bc gn
hn ti ch. Cc qun c t 1 n 8 trong trng thi u cho ta mt khong cch
Manhatan l:
h
2
= 2 + 3 + 3 + 2 + 4 + 2 + 0 + 2 = 18
Hiu qu (tc dng) ca chnh xc heuristic trong khi thc hin
Mt cch xc nh cht lng ca mt hm heuristic l h s phn nhnh hiu qu b*.
Nu tng s cc nt c m rng bi A* i vi mt bi ton no l N, v su gii php l
d, th b* l h s phn nhnh m mt cy ng dng c su d s phi c cha c N nt.
Nhvy,
N = 1 + b* + (b*)2 +.+ (b*)d
Chng hn, nu A* tm thy mt gii php su bng 5 s dng 52 nt, th h s phn
nhnh hiu qu l 1,91. Thng thng, h s phn nhnh hiu qu a ra bi mt heuristic cho
trc l kh n nh i vi a s cc bi ton. Do , cc php o th nghim gi tr b* trong
mt tp nh cc bi ton c th a ra mt ch dn tt khi xt tng th hm heuristic. Mt hm
heuristic c thit k tt s c gi tr b* gn vi 1, cho php gii quyt mt s lng ln cc bi
ton. kim tra cc hm heuristic h1 v h2, chng ta t khi sinh ra 100 bi ton, mi bi ton vi
cc di gii php l 2,4,,20, v gii quyt chng vi php tm kim A* vi h1 v h2, cng
vi php tm kim lp su dn khng y thng tin. Hnh 2.8 a ra s trung bnh cc nt
c m rng bi chin lc tm kim v h s phn nhnh hiu qu. Kt qu cho thy l h2 tt
hn h1 v php tm kim thiu thng tin ti hn nhiu.
Xy dng cc hm heuristic
Chng ta thy rng, c h1 v h2 l nhng heuristic kh tt i vi tr chi s 8, v h2 th
tt hn h1. Nhng chng ta khng bit lm th no pht minh ra mt hm heuristic. Lm sao
mt ngi c th c c mt heuristic nh h2? Mt my tnh c th pht minh mt cch my
mc ra c mt heuristic nh vy khng?
h1 v h2 l cc nh gi (c on) i vi di ng i cn li trong tr chi s 8,
nhng chng cng c th c xem l cc di ng i c chnh xc tuyt vi i vi
nhng kiu n gin ho ca tr chi ny. Nu nh qui tc ca tr chi c thay i mt
qun c c th di chuyn n bt c ch no, thay v ch c th i n trng ngay cnh n, th h1
s a ra mt cch chnh xc s cc bc ca gii php gn nht. Tng t, nu mt qun c c
th i mt theo tt c cc hng, thm ch i vo b chim bi mt qun c khc, th h2 s
a ra con s chnh xc cc bc i ca gii php ngn nht. Mt bi ton vi t rng buc hn
i vi cc ton t c gi l mt bi ton gii tr (relaxed problem). Thng xy ra trng hp
34
l chi ph ng i ca mt gii php ng i vi mt bi ton gii tr l mt heuristic tt i
vi bi ton gc (ban u).
Nu vic nh ngha vn c vit di dng mt ngn ng chnh thc, c th xy dng
cc bi ton th gin mt cch t ng. 3 V d, nu cc ton t ca tr chi s 8 c miu t
nh sau:
Qun c A c th i t A n B nu A l cnh B v B trng, th chng ta c th to ra ba
bi ton gii tr bng cch b i mt hoc nhiu hn cc iu kin:
(a) Qun c A c th i t A n B nu A cnh B.
(b) Qun c A c th i t A n B nu B l trng.
(c) Qun c A c th i t A n B.
Gn y, mt chng trnh c gi l ABSOLVER c vit m c th to ra cc
heuristic mt cch t ng t cc khi nim xc nh bi ton, s dng phng php bi ton th
gin v rt nhiu cc k thut khc (Prieditis, 1993). ABSOLVER sinh ra mt heuristic mi cho
tr chi s 8 tt hn bt c heuristic ang tn ti no, v tm ra heuristic hu ch u tin cho tr
chi ni ting l hnh khi lp phng Rubik.
Mt vn ca vic to ra cc hm heuristic mi l chng ta thng tht bi trong vic c
c mt heuristic tt nht mt cch r rng. Nu chng ta c mt tp cc heuristic chp nhn
c h1hm cho mt bi ton, v khng c hm no vt tri hn hm no, chng ta nn chn
heuristic no? Nh chng ta s thy, chng ta khng cn thit phi la chn. Chng ta c th c
heuristic tt nht , bng cch nh ngha:
h(n) = max(h
1
(n) ,, hm(n)).
Heuristic t hp ny s dng bt c hm no chnh xc nht i vi nt trong cu hi. Do
cc heuristic thnh phn l chp nhn c , h cng chp nhn c. Hn na, h vt tri hn so
vi tt c cc heuristic thnh phn to nn n.
Mt cch khc pht minh ra mt heuristic tt l s dng thng tin thng k. iu ny
c th thu c bng cch chy mt php tm kim i vi mt s cc bi ton o to, nh 100
m hnh ngu nhin ca tr chi s 8 c chn, v thu thp cc thng k. V d, chng ta c th
tm thy rng, khi h
2
(n) = 14, th 90% ca qung ng thc s ti ch l 18. Nh vy khi
gp nhng bi ton thc s, chng ta c th s dng 18 lm gi tr qung ng bt c khi no
h
2
(n) cho gi tr 14. Tt nhin, nu chng ta s dng cc thng tin theo xc xut nh th ny,
chng ta ang t b s bo m v tnh c th chp nhn c, nhng tnh trung bnh chng ta c
l s m rng t nt hn.
Thng thng c th ly ra cc c im ca mt trng thi m ng gp cho hm nh gi
heuristic ca n, thm ch nu rt kh ni chnh xc s ng gp l g. Chng hn, mc tu trong
nh c l chiu tng i phng, v cc c im lin quan nh s qun mi loi ca mi bn,
s qun m b n bi qun ca i th, v. .v. Thng thng, hm nh gi c gi nh l t hp
tuyn tnh ca cc gi tr c im. Thm ch nu chng ta khng bit cc c im quan trng
nh th no, hay thm ch mt c im l tt hay xu, ta vn c th s dng mt gii thut hc
tp thu c cc h s hp l cho mi c im. V d, trong nh c, mt chng trnh c th
hc hi c rng con hu ca mt ngi nn c h s dng ln, trong khi mt con tt ca i
th nn c mt h s m nh.
Mt yu t khc m chng ta cha xem xt n l chi ph tm kim ca vic chy tht s
hm heuristic trn mt nt. Chng ta va gi nh rng chi ph ca vic tnh ton hm heuristic
35
tng ng vi chi ph m rng mt nt. do vy ti thiu ho s lng nt m rng l mt iu
tt. Nhng nu hm heuristic phc tp n ni m tnh ton gi tr ca n cho mt nt mt khong
thi gian m rng hng trm nt th chng ta cn phi cn nhc. Cui cng, rt d c mt
hm heuristic m chnh xc tuyt i nu chng ta cho php hm heuristic thc hin, v d, mt
php tm kim theo chiu rng kn o. iu s ti thiu ho s lng cc nt c m rng
bi php tm kim thc s, nhng n s khng ti thiu ho chi ph tm kim tng th. Mt hm
heuristic tt phi va chnh xc va hiu qu.
2.7. CC PHNG PHP GII QUYT VN KHC
Phng php tm kim A* lp su dn (IDA*)




















Hnh 2.10. Gii thut tm kim IDA
Trong phn trc, chng ta ch ra rng lp su dn l mt k thut rt hiu qu gim b
nh. Chng ta c th li th php ln na, bin php tm kim A* tr thnh A* lp su dn hay
phng php IDA* (Hnh 2.10). Trong gii thut ny, mi php lp l mt php tm kim theo chiu
su, cng nh trong phng php tm kim lp su dn bnh thng. Php tm kim theo chiu su
c sa i s dng mt gii hn chi ph f thay v mt gii hn su. Nh vy, mi vng lp
m rng cc nt bn trong dng vin ca chi ph f hin ti, nhin vo trong ng vin tm
ng vin tip theo u. Khi php tm kim bn trong mt ng vin cho hon thnh,
vng lp mi li bt u s dng mt chi ph f mi cho ng vn tip theo.IDA* l hon thnh v
ti u vi cng mt d bo cho trc nh php tm kim A*, nhng do n l phng php tm
kim theo chiu su, n ch yu cu khng gian b nh t l vi ng i di nht m n khm
function IDA*(problem) return mt dy gii php
Inputs: problem, mt bi ton, vn
Cc bin a phng: gii hn-f, gii hn chi ph f hin thi
root, mt nt
root - Make-node(trng thi u[problem])
gii hn-f - chiph- f(root)
loop do
gii php, giihn-f - DFS-contour(root,gii hn-f)
if gii php khc rng then return gii php
if gii han-f = then return tht bi; end
function dfs-contour(node, giihn-f) returns mt dy gii php v mt gii hn chi ph f mi.
Input: node, mt nt
Gii hn f, gii hn chi ph f hin thi
Cc bin a phng: next-f, gii hn chi ph f ca contour tip theo, ban u l
If chiph -f[node] > giihn-f then return rng, chiph-f[node]
If goal-test[problem](state[node]) then return node, giihn-f
For mi nt s trong successor(node) do
Gii php, f-mi dfs-contour(s, giihn-f)
If gii php khc rng then return gii php, giihn-f
Next-f MIN(next-f, new-f); end
Return rng, next-f
36
ph. Nu l chi ph nh nht v f* l chi ph gii php ti u, th trong trng hp ti nht,
IDA* s yu cu bf*/ nt lu tr. Trong hu ht cc trng hp, bd l s c on rt tt i vi
yu cu v dung lng lu tr

Phng php tm kim SMA*
Nhng kh khn ca IDA* v khng gian bi ton no c th tm ra c l s dng qu
t b nh. Gia cc vng lp, n ch lu li mt s duy nht, l gii hn chi ph f hin thi. Do
n khng th nh c cc bc i ca n, IDA* buc phi lp li chng. iu ny cng ng
trong cc khng gian trng thi m l cc bn thay v cc cy. IDA* c th c sa i
kim tra ng i hin thi i vi nhng trng thi lp li, nhng n khng th trnh c cc
trng thi lp li c to ra bi cc ng i thay i.
Trong phn ny, chng ta miu t gii thut SMA* m c th s dng tt c b nh sn c
tin hnh vic tm kim. Vic s dng b nh nhiu hn ch c th ci thin c hiu qu tm kim
mt gii thut c th lun b qua khng gian ph, nhng thng tt hn l nh mt nt thay v to
ra n khi cn thit. SMA* c cc thuc tnh sau y:
N s s dng tt c dng lng b nh c to ra dnh cho n.
N trnh cc trng thi lp li chng no m b nh cn cho php.
N l hon thnh nu b nh c sn l hiu qu lu tr ng i gii php nng nht.
N l ti u nu c b nh ct gi ng i gii php ti u nng nht. Tri li, n tr
v gii php tt nht c th c c trong phm vi b nh cho php.
Khi c b nh cho cy tm kim ton b, php tm kim l hiu qu mt cch ti u.
Vn khng gii quyt c l khng r SMA* c phi lun hiunqu mt cch ti u
trong cc gii php cho bi cng cc thng tin heuristic v cng dung lng b nh.
Vic thit k SMA* l n gin , t nht l v tng qut. Khi cn phi to ra mt nt tip
theo nhng khng cn b nh, n s cn phi to ra khng gian nh trong hng i. lm iu
ny, n b qua mt nt trong hng i. Nhng nt m b b ri trong hng i theo cch ny oc
gi l nhng nt b b qun. N u tin b qua nhng nt m khng c trin vng tc l nhng
nt c chi ph f cao. trnh khm ph li nhng cy conm b b ri khi b nh, n lu li
trong cc nt t tin nhng thng tin v cht lng ca ng i tt nht trn cy con b b qua.
Theo cch ny, n ch ti sinh ra ccc cy con khi tt c cc ng i khc c ch ra l ti
hn ng i m n va b qua. Mt cch ni khc l nu tt c cc hu du ca mt nt n b b
qun, th chng ta s khng bit i ng no t n, nhng chng ta vn c vn c tng v gi
tr ca vic i khi n n bt c ch no.
Cc gii thut ci tin lp
Chng ta thy trong chng 2 rng mt s bi tp ni ting (v d, bi ton 8 con hu) c
thuc tnh l s miu t trng thi c cha tt c cc thng tin cn thit cho mt gii php. ng
i m dn ti ch l khng lin quan. Trong nhng trng hp nh vy, cc gii thut ci tin lp
thng cung cp cc gii php c tnh thc t nht. Chng hn , chng ta bt u vi 8 con hu
trn bn c, hoc tt c cc dy u i qua cc knh no . Theo cch ny th, chng ta c th i
cc con hu sang xung quanh gim s con hu b chiu; hoc chng ta c th di chuyn mt ci
dy t mt knh ny n mt knh khc gim s tc nghn. tng chung l bt u vi mt
m hnh y v thay i m hnh ci thin cht lng ca n.
37
Cch tt nht hiu cc gii thut ci tin lp l xt tt c cc trng thi c by ra trn
b mt ca mt phong cnh. cao ca bt c im no trn phong cnh tng ng vi hm gi
ca trng thi im . tng ci tin lp l di chuyn quanh phong cnh c gng tm cc
nh cao nht, m l cc gii php ti u. Cc gii thut ci tin lp thng ch theo st trng thi
hin thi, v khng nhn v pha trc vt qua nhng ln cn tc th ca trng thi . iu ny
cng ging vi vic c gng tm nh ca ngn ni Everest trong sng m dy c trong khi phi
chu ng chng hay qun. Tuy nhin, i khi cc gii thut ci tin lp l mt phng php ca
s la chn cc bi ton thc t v hc ba.
Cc gii thut ci tin lp c chia thnh hai lp chnh. Cc gii thut tro ni (hay
cn gi gradient h xung nu chng ta xem hm nh gi nh l chi ph thay v cht lng)
lun c gng thay i ci tin trng thi. Cc gii thut rn luyn ti to thnh thong to thay
i m lm cho mi th ti t hn, t nht l tm thi.
Php tm kim leo ni (Hill-climbing)
Gii thut tm kim leo ni c ch ra hnh 2.11. N n gin l mt vng lp m di
chuyn lin tc theo hng lm tng gi tr. Gii thut khng duy tr mt cy tm kim , v vy
cu trc d liu nt ch cn ghi li trng thi v gi tr ca n, m chng ta biu din bng gi tr.
Mt khi nim quan trng l khi c nhiu hn mt nt k tip tt nht chn la, gii thut c
th la chn trong s chng mt cch ngu nhin. Qui tc n gin ny c ba nhc im ni
ting nh sau:
Cc gi tr cc i a phng: mt gi tr cc i a phng, tri ngc vi mt gi tr
cc i ton cc, l mt nh m thp hn nh cao nht trong khng gian trng thi. Khi
trn mt i lng cc i a phng , giithut s dng li thm ch mc d gii php
vn cn lu mi ti u.
Cc cao nguyn: mt cao nguyn l mt khu vc ca khng gian trng thi m hm nh
gi l phng tuyt i. Php tm kim s thc hin mt bc i ngu nhin.
Cc nh chp: mt nh chp c th c cc bn sn vng v dc, v vy php tm kim
i n nh ca chp mt cch d dng, nhng nh c th dc rt t v pha mt nh
khc. Tr phi c cc ton t m di chuyn trc tip dc theo nh ca hnh chp,
php tm kim c th dao ng t bn ny qua bn kia, khin cho s tin chuyn rt t.
Trong mi trng hp, gii thut i n mt im m ti n khng tin trin g thm. Nu
iu ny xy ra, mt iu chc chn phi lm l bt u li t mt im khi u khc. Php leo
ni- bt u li -ngu nhin lm nh sau: n thc hin mt lot cc php tm kim leo ni t cc
trng thi ban u c to ra mt cch ngu nhin , thc hin mi php tm kim cho n khi n
dng li hoc khng c s tin trin r rt. N lu li kt qu tt nht tm dc ca bt c php tm
kim no. N c th s dng mt s bc lp hn hp, hoc c th tip tc cho n khi kt qu lu
c tt nht cha c ci thin i vi mt s php lp no .
R rng, nu cho php s ln lp, php tm kim leo ni bt u li ngu nhin
cui cng s tm ra gii php ti u. S thnh cng ca php tm kim leo ni ph thuc rt nhiu
vo hnh fdng ca b mt khng gian trng thi: nu nh ch c mt vi gi tr cc i a
phng, php tm kim leo ni bt u li ngu nhin s rt nhanh chng tm thy mt gii php
tt. Mt bi ton thc s c mt b mt m trngrt ging mtj con nhm. Nu bi ton l hon
thnh trong thi gian NP, th rt c th chng ta khng th lm tt hn thi gian theo cp s m.
Tip theo l phi c s cc cc i a phng theo cp s m m gii thut s mc kt vo .
Tuy nhin, thng thng, mt gii php tt hp l c th c tm thy sau mt s t ln lp .
38












Hnh 2.11. Gii thut tm kim tro ni.

Gii hn ca vic tm kim
Phng php d hu nht iu khin khi lng vic tm kim l thit lp mt su
gii hn, vic kim tra ngng (gii hn) tin hnh i vi tt c cc nt su d hay bn
di su d. su c chn khi lng thi gian s dng s khng vt qu nhng g m
lut chi cho php. Khi thi gian ht, chng trnh s quay li bc i m c la chn bi php
tm kim kt thc su nht.
Nhng phng php ny c mt s nhng hu qu tai hi do tnh cht gn ng ca hm
nh gi. R rng, cn c mt hm kim tra gii hn phc tp . Hm gi ch nn p dng cho cc
v tr th ng, tc l dng nh s khng ph by s ung a chuyn ng d di (s bin
ng ln) v mt gi tr trong tng lai gn. V d trong nh c, cc v tr m d n c th c
to ra l khng th ng di vi mt hm nh gi m ch tnh n vt cht. Cc v tr khng th
ng c th c m rng hn na cho n khi chm ti cc v tr th ng. Vic tm kim b
sung ny c gi l mt phng php tm kim th ng; i khi n c gii hn ch xem
xt cc kiu i no , nh bc i n (qun i phng), m s nhanh chng gii quyt s khng
chc chn v tr.
Trnh pht trin ca cc chng trnh tr chi
Vic thit k cc chng trnh tr chi c hai mc ch: c hai u nhm hiu r hn vic
lm th no chn cc hnh ng trong cc min gi tr phc tp vi cc kt qu khng chc
chn v pht trin cc h thng hiu sut cao i vi tr chi c nghin cu.
C vua
C vua thu ht c s quan tm ln nht trong tr chi. Mc d khng t ti nh li
khng nh ca Simon nm 1957 rng trong vng 10 nm na, cc my tnh s nh bi bt c
nh v ch th gii no, nhng gi y cc my tnh gn nh sp t c mc tiu . Trong
mn c vua tc , cc my tnh nh bi nh v ch th gii, Gary Kasparov, trong cc tr
chi 5 pht v 25 pht, nhng trong cc tr chi y , my tnh ch xp trong tp 100 tay c
gii nht th gii. Hnh di y cho thy t l ca cc nh v ch c vua l ngi v my tnh
trong nhng nm qua.
Function Hill-climbing(problem) return mt trng thi gii php
Inputs : problem, mt bi ton
Cc bin cc b: current, mt nt
Next, mt nt
Curent make-node(initial-state[problem])
Loop do
Next mt nt con chu c gi tr cao nht ca nt current(hin ti)
If value[next] < value[current] then return current
Current next
End
39










Bc nhy u tin trong vic thc hin khng phi xut pht t nhng gii thut tt hn
hay cc hm nh gi m l t phn cng. Belle, my tnh chuyn dng cho vic chi c vua u
tin (Condon v Thomson, 1982) s dng cc mch tch hp ci t cc nh gi v tr v
cc th h di chuyn, lm cho n c th tm kim khong vi triu v tr ch i mt nc.


H thng HITECH l mt my tnh c mc ch c bit c thit k bi ngi xng ng
cu v ch th gii Hans Berliner v sinh vin ca ng Carl Ebeling, c th tnh ton nhanh cc
hm nh gi rt phc tp. To ra khong 10 triu trn mi nc i v s dng vic nh gi chnh
xc nht cc v tr c pht trin. HITECH tr thnh v ch th gii v my tnh nm
1985 v l chng trnh u tin nh bi thn ng ca nhn loi, Arnold Denker nm 1987. Vo
thi im n ng trong 800 ngi chi c gii nht th gii.
H thng tt nht hin thi l Deep Thought 2 c sn xut bi IBM. Mc d Deep
Thought 2 s dng hm nh gi n gin, n kim tra khong mt na t v tr cho mi nc i,
t n su 10 hoc 11 (n tng tm c 37 nc chiu tng ht c).Thng 2 nm 1993,
Deep Thought 2 thi u vi i Olympic ca an mch v thng 3-1, nh bi mt i kin
tng v ho vi mt i kin tng khc. H s FIDE ca n l 2600, xp trong s 100 ngi
chi c gii nht th gii.
C am
Bt u vo nm 1952, Arthur Samuel ca IBM lm vic trong thi gian ri ca ng,
xy dng mt chng trnh chi c am (loi c gm 24 qun c cho 2 ngi chi ND) m t
hc hm nh gi ca n bng cch t chi vi n hng nghn ln. Chng trnh ca Samuel bt
u nh m ngi mi hc vic, nhng ch sau mt vi ngy t chi vi chnh n c th u
trong nhng cuc thi ln ca loi ngi. Khi mt ngi thy rng cng c tnh ton ca Samuel
(mt chic my tnh IBM 704) c 10.000 t trong b nh chnh, bng t lu tr d liu v
mt chu k thi giankhong hu nh mt miligiy, iu cho thy y l mt trng nhng thnh
tch v i ca AI.
C rt t nhng ngi khc c th c gng lm c tt hn cho n khi Jonathan Schaeffer
v cc ng nghip vit trnh Chinook, m chy trn mt my tnh thng thng s dng php
tm kim alpha-beta, nhng s dng mt s k thut, bao gm c s d liu gii php tuyt vi
cho tt c cc v tr 6-qun c, v gy ra s tn ph th trn dn n chm dt vn c. Chinook
chin thng trong gii M m rng 1992 v tr thnh chng trnh u tin m th thch mt
Hnh 2.12 T l ca cc nh v ch c vua: con ngi v my tnh.
40
cch chnh thc nhng nh v ch th gii. Sau n gp phi mt vn ,di ci tn
MarionTinsley. Tin s Tinsley l nh v ch th gii sut hn 40 nm, ch thua c 3 trn
trong sut khong thi gian . Trong trn u tin vi Chinook, Tinsley chu thua vn th 4
v th nm ca mnh, nhng thng chung cuc 21.518.5. Gn y, gii v ch th gii thng
8 nm 1994 gia Tinsley v Chinook kt thc sm khi Tinsley phi xin rt lui v l do sc kho.
Chinook chnh thc tr thnh nh v ch th gii.
Tr chi l cc bi ton tm kim
Chi tr chi cng l mt trong nhng khu vc c nht ca ccc n lc trong lnh vc tr
tu nhn to. Nm 1950, hu nh ngay khi my tnh tr nn c th lp trnh c, cc chng
trnh chi c c vit bi Shannon (ngi pht minh ra l thuyt thng tin) v bi Alan Turing.
K t , c nhng pht trin rt mnh m v cc tiu chun ca vic chi, t ti im m cc
h thng hin thi c th th thch cc nh v ch ca loi ngi m khng s xu h.
Cc nh nghin cuu tin chn c v mt s l do. Mt my tnh chi c s l mt
chng c sinh tn ca mt my c kh lm mt iu g m cn s thng minh. Hn na, s
n gin ca lut chi, v thc t rng trng thi th gii c th nm bt c y i vi
chng trnh c ngha l rt d biu din tr chi nh l mt cuc tm kim trong mt khng
gian cc v tr tr chi c th. S biu din tr chi ca my tnh thc ra c th chnh sa theo bt
c chi tit thch ng hp l no khng ging nh s miu t ca bi ton v mt cuc chin
tranh.
Nhng nhng g lm cho tr chi thc s khc bit l chng thng qu kh gii quyt.
V d, nh c, c mt h s phn nhnh trung bnh khong 35, v mi bn thng i khong 50
nc trong mt vn c, dn n cy tm kim c khong 35
100
nt (mc d ch c khong 10
40

v tr hp l khc nhau). Tr chi c ca r (Tic-Tac Toe) kh bun t i vi nhng ngi ln
thng minh bi v rt d quyt nh bc i ng. S phc tp ca cc tr chi a ra mt
kiu khng chc chn hon ton mi m chng ta cha c bit; s khng chc chn xut hin
khng phi v c thng tin b mt, m do chng ta khng c thi gian tnh ton mt dy
chnh xc ca bt c nc i no. Thay vo , chng ta phi d on tt nht da trn kinh
nghim ca mnh, v hnh ng trc khi chng ta bit chc c cn phi hnh ng nh th
no. Di vin cnh ny, cc tr chi rt ging vi th gii thc hn so vi cc bi ton tm kim
tiu chun m chng ta xt cho ti nay.

Kt lun
Chng ny p dng cc heuristic lm gim chi ph tm kim. Chng ta xem xt mt
s gii thut s dng cc heuristic, v thy rng s ti u phi tr gi cao di dng chi ph tm
kim, thm ch vi cc heuristic tt.
Php tm kim best-first l php tm kim tng qut khi cc nt c chi ph t nht (da theo
mt s tnh ton) c m rng trc tin.
Nu chng ta ti thiu ho chi ph c tnh i ti mc tiu h(n), chng ta c phng php
tm kim tham lam. Thi gian tm kim thng gim i so vi mt gii thut khng y
thng tin, nhng gii thut ny l khng ti u v khng hon thnh.
Ti thiu ho f(n) = g(n) + h(n) kt hp im mnh ca php tm kim thiu thng tin v
php tm kim hu n. Nu chng ta s dng cc trng thi lp li v m bo rng h(n)
khng bao gi c lng vt qu, chng ta c php tm kim A*.
41
A* l hon thnh, ti u v hiu qu mt cch tt nht trong s tt c cc gii thut tm kim
ti u. phc tp khng gian ca n vn l mt tr ngi ln.
phc tp thi gian ca cc gii thut heuristic ph thuc vo cht lng ca cc hm
heuristic. Cc heuristic tt c th thnh thong c xy dng bng cch kim tra s xc
nh bi ton hoc bng cch tng qut ho t kinh nghim vi cc lp bi ton.
Chng ta c th gim yu cu i vi dung lng b nh cho php tim kim A* vi cc
gii thut c b nh gii hn nh IDA*(A* lp su dn) v SMA*(A* c b nh gii hn
n gin ho).
Cc gii thut ci tin lp ch lu tr mt trng thi n trong b nh, nhng c th b sa
ly nhng cc i a phng. Php tm kim rn luyn ti to a ra mt cch
thot khi cc i a phng, v l phng php hon thnh, ti u khi c cho mt
lch trnh di v gn.

BI TP
2.1 Gi s rng chng ta chy mt gii thut tm kim hu n vi h(n) = - g(n). Php tm kim
hu n s cnh tranh vi kiu tm kim no?
2.2 Hy pht minh ra mt hm heuristic cho tr chi s 8 m thnh thong c lng vt qu,
v ch ra lm th no n c th dn n mt gii php gn ti u i vi mt bi ton c th.
2.3. Hy chng minh rng nu hm heuristic h tunn theo bt ng thc tam gic, th chi ph f dc
theo bt c ng i no trn cy tm kim l khng gim. (Bt ng thc tam gic pht biu rng
tng s cc chi ph t A dn B v t B n C khng c nh hn chi ph i trc tip t A n C).
2.4. Php tm kim A* tin li c th l mt phng php tt khng? N c th p dng c
trong nhng iu kin no?
2.5. Hy miu t mt khng gian tm kim trong php tm kim lp su dn thc hin km hn
nhiu so vi phng php tm kim theo chiu su.
2.6. Hy vit gii thut cho phng php tm kim tin li, bng gi m hoc bng mt ngn ng
lp trnh. Gi s rng mi php tm kim s l mt php tm kim theo chiu rng, v php tm
kim tin v php tm kim li thay nhau m rng mt nt mt thi im




42
CHNG 3: BIU DIN TRI THC V SUY DIN

Trong chng ny chng ta s trnh by cc c trng ca ngn ng biu din tri thc.
Chng ta s nghin cu logic mnh , mt ngn ng biu din tri thc rt n gin, c kh nng
biu din hp, nhng thun li cho ta lm quen vi nhiu khi nim quan trng trong logic, c
bit trong logic v t cp mt s c nghin cu trong cc chng sau.
3.1 Nhp mn
3.2 Tri thc v d liu
3.3 Phn loi tri thc
3.4 Bn cht ca cc tri thc chuyn gia
3.5 Cc phng php biu din tri thc
3.6 C ch suy din
3.7 Cc h c s tri thc v cc h chuyn gia
3.8 Cc ngn ng lp trnh thng minh
3.1 NHP MN
Con ngi sng trong mi trng c th nhn thc c th gii nh cc gic quan (tai,
mt v cc gic quan khc), s dng cc tri thc tch lu c v nh kh nng lp lun, suy din,
con ngi c th a ra cc hnh ng hp l cho cng vic m con ngi ang lm. Mt mc
tiu ca Tr tu nhn to ng dng l thit k cc Agent thng minh (intelligent agent) cng c
kh nng nh con ngi. Chng ta c th hiu Agent thng minh l bt c ci g c th nhn
thc c mi trng thng qua cc b cm nhn (sensors) v a ra hnh ng hp l p ng
li mi trng thng qua b phn hnh ng (effectors). Cc robots, cc softbot (software
robot), cc h chuyn gia,... l cc v d v Agent thng minh. Cc Agent thng minh cn phi c
tri thc v th gii hin thc mi c th a ra cc quyt nh ng n.
3.2 TRI THC V D LIU
Thnh phn trung tm ca agent da trn tri thc (knowledge-based agent), cn gi l h
da trn tri thc (knowledge-based system) hoc n gin l h tri thc trong cha c s tri
thc (Knowledge Base: vit tt ting Anh: KB; vit tt ting Vit: CSTT).
C s tri thc l mt tp hp cc tri thc c biu din di dng no . Mi khi nhn
c cc thng tin a vo, Agent cn c kh nng suy din a ra cc cu tr li, a ra cc
hnh ng hp l. Nhim v ny c thc hin bi b suy din-thnh phn c bn khc ca cc
h tri thc. Nh vy, h tri thc bao hm mt CSTT v c trang b mt th tc suy din. Mi
khi tip nhn cc s kin t mi trng, th tc suy din thc hin qu trnh lin kt cc s kin
vi cc tri thc trong CSTT rt ra cc cu tr li, hoc cc hnh ng hp l m Agent cn
thc hin. Khi thit k mt Agent gii quyt vn no th CSTT s cha cc tri thc v i
tng c th . my tnh c th s dng, x l tri thc, cn biu din tri thc di dng thun
tin. l mc tiu ca biu din tri thc.
Tri thc l mt khi nim tru tng. Chng ta khng c gng a ra mt nh ngha
chnh xc y m mun so snh n vi hai khi nim c lin quan l thng tin v d liu. Karan
Sing pht biu:Chng ta ngp chm trong thng bin thng tin nhng li kht tri thc.
43
Trong ng cnh ca khoa hc my tnh d liu l nguyn liu th x l l cc con s, ch
ci, hnh nh, m thanh Thng tin l tt c nhng g con ngi c th cm nhn qua cc gic
quan (chnh xc, xem khi nim Entropy l o thng thng tin, o v cc tin tc mi i vi
mt ngi no ). Nu so v s lng: d liu nhiu hn thng tin; thng tin nhiu hn tri thc.
Chng ta c th m t chng theo dng hnh chp.
3.3 PHN LOI TRI THC
Ngi ta thng phn loi tri thc thnh cc dng sau:
Tri thc s kin
nh ngha: Tri thc s kin l mt khng ng v mt s kin, hin tng hay mt khi
nim no trong mt hon cng khng gian hoc thi gian nht nh.
V d: khng nh v hin tng: Mt tri ln phng Ty. Khi nim v: tam gic
u: l tam gic c ba gc bng nhau.
Tri thc m t
nh ngha: Tri thc s kin l mt khng ng v mt s kin, hin tng hay mt khi
nim no trong mt hon cng khng gian hoc thi gian nht nh.
V d: khng nh v hin tng: Mt tri ln phng Ty. Khi nim v: tam gic
u: l tam gic c ba gc bng nhau.
Tri thc th tc
nh ngha: Tri thc th tc l tri thc m t cch gii quyt mt vn , quy trnh x l
cc cng vic, lch trnh tin hnh cc thao tc Cc dng ca tri thc th tc thng dng l cc
lut, chin lc, lch trnh
V d: IF xe my khng khi ng c
THEN u tin kim tra bugi
Tri thc heuristic
nh ngha: Tri thc heuristic l tri nng cn do khng m bo han tan chnh xc
hoc ti u theo mt ngha no v cch gii quyt vn . Tri thc heuristic thng c coi
l mt mo nhm dn dt tin trnh lp lun
V d: mt s gii thut tm ng i ngn nht, gii thut A
*
c th c coi l li gi
ca mt vn tt nhng cha hn ti u.
Ngai ra ngi ta cn phn chia ra tri thc mta: tri thc tham chiu n cc tri thc
khc; tri thc c cu trc: tri thc v cc quan h gia cc khi nim, quan h gia cc i
tng

3.4. BN CHT CA CC TRI THC CHUYN GIA
Chuyn gia (Expert).
Ni chung, chuyn gia l l ngi c y k nng, kin thc su (c v lut v cc s
kin) v mt lnh vc no ; ngi c th lm nhng vic m ngi khc t kh nng lm c.
H chuyn gia
H chuyn gia (n gin) l chng trnh my tnh c th thc hin cc cng vic, vn
trong thuc lnh vc hp mc tng t nh m ngi chuyn gia [19].
44
Hu ht cc h chuyn gia l cc h da lut. Hin nay mt s cc h chuyn gia thnh
cng trong cc lnh v: bn hng, k ngh , y hc v a ch (tm kim m), cc h in lc v
khai m. hiu r bn cht tri thc ca chuyn gia, chng ta quan st mt h chuyn gia gm
cc thnh phn no. Ni chung h chuyn gia bao gm cc phn c bn nh sau
3.5. CC PHNG PHP BIU DIN TRI THC
Trong phn ny, chng ta s tp trung nghin cu logic v t cp mt (first-order predicate
logic hoc first-order predicate calculus) - mt ngn ng biu din tri thc, bi v logic v t cp
mt c kh nng biu din tng i tt, v hn na n l c s cho nhiu ngn ng biu din tri
thc khc. Nhng trc ht chng ta s nghin cu logic mnh (propositional logic hoc
propositional calculus). N l ngn ng rt n gin, c kh nng biu din hn ch, song thun
tin cho ta a vo nhiu khi nim quan trng trong logic.
3.5.1 Biu din tri thc bng Logic mnh
nh ngha: Logic mnh l cng c ton logic, trong cc mnh c m ho (gn) cho
mt bin, hoc hng; cn vc biu thc l s lin kt co ngha gia cc bin hng vi mt s ton
t nht nh.
V d: Mnh Nu tri ma (A) th t t (B) c m t: AB
Tri thc c m t di dng cc mnh trong ngn ng biu din tri thc. Mi cu
c th xem nh s m ha mt s hiu bit ca ta v th gii thc. Ngn ng biu din tri thc
(cng nh mi ngn ng hnh thc khc) gm hai thnh phn c bn l c php v ng ngha.
C php ca mt ngn ng bao gm cc k hiu v cc quy tc lin kt cc k hiu (cc lut c
php) to thnh cc cu (cng thc) trong ngn ng. Cc cu y l biu din ngoi, cn
phn bit vi biu din bn trong my tnh. Cc cu s c chuyn thnh cc cu trc d liu
thch hp c ci t trong mt vng nh no ca my tnh, l biu din bn trong. Bn
thn cc cu cha cha ng mt ni dung no c, cha mang mt ngha no c.
Ng ngha ca ngn ng cho php ta xc nh ngha ca cc cu trong mt min no ca
th gii hin thc. Chng hn, trong ngn ng cc biu thc s hc, dy k hiu (x+y)*z l mt
cu vit ng c php. Ng ngha ca ngn ng ny cho php ta hiu rng, nu x, y, z, ng vi
cc s nguyn, k hiu + ng vi php ton cng, cn * ng vi php chia, th biu thc (x+y)*z
biu din qu trnh tnh ton: ly s nguyn x cng vi s nguyn y, kt qu c nhn vi s
nguyn z.
Ngoi hai thnh phn c php v ng ngha, ngn ng biu din tri thc cn c cung cp c
ch suy din. Mt lut suy din (rule of inference) cho php ta suy ra mt cng thc t mt tp
no cc cng thc. Chng hn, trong logic mnh , lut modus ponens cho php t hai cng
thc A v AB suy ra cng thc B. Chng ta s hiu lp lun hoc suy din l mt qu trnh p
dng cc lut suy din t cc tri thc trong c s tri thc v cc s kin ta nhn c cc tri
thc mi. Nh vy chng ta xc nh:

Ngn ng biu din tri thc = C php + Ng ngha + C ch suy din.

Mt ngn ng biu din tri thc tt cn c kh nng biu din rng, tc l m t c mi
iu m chng ta mun. N cn hiu qu i ti cc kt lun; th tc suy din i hi t thi
45
gian tnh ton v khng gian nh. Ngi ta mong mun ngn ng biu din tri thc gn vi ngn
ng t nhin.
3.5.1.1. C php
C php ca logic mnh rt n gin. N cho php xy dng cc cng thc. C php
ca logic mnh gm tp cc k hiu v tp cc lut xy dng cng thc.
Cc k hiu
Hai hng logic: True v False.
Cc k hiu mnh (cn c gi l cc bin mnh ): P, Q,...
Cc php kt ni logic: , , , , .
Cc du m ngoc( v ng ngoc ).
Cc quy tc xy dng cc cng thc
Cc bin mnh l cng thc. Nu A v B l cng thc th:
(AB) (c A hi B hoc A v B)
(AB) (c A tuyn Bhoc A hoc B)
(A) (c ph nh A)
(AB) (c A ko theo Bhoc nu A th B)
(AB) (c A v B ko theo nhau)
l cc cng thc.
ngn gn, ta b i cc cp du ngoc khi khng cn thit. V d, thay cho ((AB)C),
ta vit (AB)C.
Cc cng thc l cc k hiu mnh s c gi l cc cu n hoc cu phn t. Cc
cng thc khng phi l cu n s c gi l cu phc hp. Nu P l k hiu mnh th P v
P c gi l literal, P l literal dng, cn P l literal m. Cu phc hp c dng A
1
...A
m

trong A
i
l cc literal s c gi l cu tuyn (clause).
3.5.1.2 Ng ngha:
Ng ngha ca logic mnh cho php ta xc nh ngha ca cc cng thc trong th
gii hin thc no . iu c thc hin bng cch kt hp mi k hiu mnh vi s kin
no trong th gii hin thc. Chng hn, k hiu mnh P c th ng vi s kin Paris l
th nc Phphoc bt k mt s kin no khc. Bt k mt s kt hp cc k hiu mnh
vi cc s kin trong th gii thc c gi l mt minh ha (interpretation). Chng hn minh
ha ca k hiu mnh P c th l mt s kin (mnh ) Paris l th nc Php . Mt s
kin ch c th ng hoc sai. Chng hn, s kin Paris l th nc Php l ng, cn s
kin S Pi l s hu t l sai.
Mt cch chnh xc hn, ta hiu mt minh ha l mt cch gn cho mi k hiu mnh
mt gi tr chn l True hoc False. Trong mt minh ha, nu k hiu mnh P c gn gi tr
chn l True/False (P: True/ P: False) th ta ni mnh P ng/sai trong minh ha . Trong
mt minh ha, ngha ca cc cu phc hp c xc nh bi ngha ca cc kt ni logic.
Chng ta xc nh ngha ca cc kt ni logic trong cc bng chn l (xem hnh 3.1)
46
P Q lP
PQ
P Q PQ PQ
False False True False False True True
False True True False True True False
True False False False True False False
True True False True True True True
Hnh 3.1 Bng chn l ca cc kt ni logic
ngha ca cc kt ni logic , v l c xc nh nh ngha ca cc t v,hoc
l v ph nh trong ngn ng t nhin. Chng ta cn gii thch thm v ngha ca php ko
theo P Q (P ko theo Q). y: P l gi thit, Q l kt lun. Trc quan cho php ta xem rng,
khi P l ng v Q l ng th cu P ko theo Q l ng, cn khi P l ng Q l sai th cu P
ko theo Ql sai. Nhng nu P sai v Q ng, hoc P sai Q sai th P ko theo Ql ng hay
sai? Nu xut pht t gi thit sai, th khng khng nh g v kt lun. Khng c l do ni
rng nu P sai v Q ng hoc P sai v Q sai th P ko theo Q l sai. Do , trong trng hp P
sai th P ko theo Q l ng d Q l ng hay Q l sai.
Bng chn l cho php ta xc nh ng ngha cc cu phc hp. Chng hn ng ngha ca
cc cu PQ trong minh ha {P True, Q False} l False. Vic xc nh ng ngha ca mt
cu (P Q) S trong minh ha c tin hnh nh sau: u tin ta xc nh gi tr chn l ca
P Q v S, sau ta s dng bng chn l ca xc nh gi tr (P Q) S Mt cng thc
c gi l tho c (satisfiable) nu n ng trong mt minh ha no . Chng hn cng thc
(P Q) S l tho c v n c gi tr True trong minh ha {P True, QFalse, S True}.
Mt cng thc c gi l vng chc (valid) nu n ng trong mi minh ha. Chng hn
cu P P l vng chc (lun bng 1:True).
Mt cng thc c gi l khng tho c, nu n l sai trong mi minh ha. Chng
hn cng thc P P (lun bng 0:False)..
Chng ta s gi mt m hnh (model) ca mt cng thc l mt minh ha sao cho cng
thc l ng trong minh ha ny. Nh vy mt cng thc tho c l cng thc c mt m hnh.
Chng hn, minh ha {P False, Q False, STrue } l mt m hnh ca cng thc (P =>Q)
S.
Bng cch lp bng chn l (phng php bng chn l) ta c th xc nh c mt
cng thc c tho c hay khng. Trong bng ny, mi bin mnh ng u mt ct, cng
thc cn kim tra ng u mt ct, mi dng tng ng vi mt minh ha. Chng hn hnh 3.2
l bng chn l cho cng thc (P=>Q) S. Trong bng chn l ny ta cn a vo cc ct ph
ng vi cc cng thc con ca cc cng thc cn kim tra vic tnh gi tr ca cng thc ny
c d dng. T bng chn l ta thy rng cng thc (P=>Q) S l tho c nhng khng
vng chc.



47
P Q S PQ
(PQ) S
False False False True False
False False True True True
False True False True False
False True True True True
True False False False False
True False True False False
True True False True False
True True True True True
Hnh 3.2 Bng chn l cho cng thc (PQ) S
Cn lu rng, mt cng thc cha n bin, th s cc minh ha ca n l 2
n
, tc l bng
chn l c 2
n
dng. Nh vy vic kim tra mt cng thc c tho c hay khng bng phng
php bng chn l, i hi thi gian m. Cook (1971) chng minh rng, vn kim tra mt
cng thc trong logic mnh c tho c hay khng l vn NP-y .
Chng ta s ni rng mt tp cng thc G = {G
1
,..,G
m
} l vng chc (tho c, khng
tho c) nu hi ca chng G
1
.......G
m
l vng chc (tho c, khng tho c). Mt
m hnh ca tp cng thc G l m hnh ca cng thc G
1
.......G
m.
.
3.5.2 Dng chun tc
Trong mc ny chng ta s xt vic chun ha cc cng thc, a cc cng thc v dng thun li
cho vic lp lun, suy din. Trc ht ta s xt cc php bin i tng ng. S dng cc php
bin i ny, ta c th a mt cng thc bt k v dng chun tc.
3.5.2.1 S tng ng ca cc cng thc
Hai cng thc A v B c xem l tng ng nu chng c cng mt gi tr chn l trong mi
minh ha. ch A tng ng vi B ta vit A B. Bng phng php bng chn l, d dng
chng minh c s tng ng ca cc cng thc sau y:
AB lA B
A B (AB) (BA)
l(lA) A
Lut De Morgan
l(A B) lA lB
l(A B) lA lB
Lut giao hon
A B B A
A B B A
Lut kt hp
48
(A B) C A (B C)
(A B) C A (B C)
Lut phn phi
A (B C) (A B) (A C)
A (B C) (A B) (A C)
3.5.2.2 Dng chun tc
Cc cng thc tng ng c th xem nh cc biu din khc nhau ca cng mt s kin. d
dng vit cc chng trnh my tnh thao tc trn cc cng thc, chng ta s chun ha cc cng
thc, a chng v dng biu din chun c gi l dng chun hi. Mt cng thc dng
chun hi nu n l hi ca cc cu tuyn. Nh li rng, cu tuyn c dng A
1
.... A
m
trong
cc A
i
l literal. Chng ta c th bin i mt cng thc bt k v cng thc dng chun hi
bng cch p dng th tc sau.
B cc du ko theo () bng cch thay (AB) bi (lAvB).
Chuyn cc du ph nh (l) vo st cc k hiu mnh bng cch p dng lut De
Morgan v thay l(lA) bi A.
p dng lut phn phi, thay cc cng thc c dng A(BC) bi (A B) (A B).
V d: Ta chun ha cng thc (P Q) l(R lS):
(P Q) l(R lS) (lP Q) (lR S)
((lP Q)vlR) ((lP Q) S)
(l P Q lR) (lP Q S).
Nh vy cng thc (P Q) l(R lS) c a v dng chun hi (lP Q lR) (lP Q S).
Khi biu din tri thc bi cc cng thc trong logic mnh , c s tri thc l mt tp no cc
cng thc. Bng cch chun ho cc cng thc, c s tri thc l mt tp no cc cu tuyn.
3.5.3. Cc cu Horn:
trn ta ch ra, mi cng thc u c th a v dng chun hi, tc l hi ca cc tuyn, mi
cu tuyn c dng:
lP
1
........ lP
m
Q
1
..... Q
n
trong P
i
, Q
i
l cc k hiu mnh (literal dng) cu ny tng ng vi cu:
P
1
^.......^ lP
m
=> Q
1
..... Q
n
Dng cu ny c gi l cu Kowalski (do nh logic Kowalski a ra nm 1971).
Khi n <=1, tc l cu tuyn ch cha nhiu nht mt literal dng, ta c mt dng cu c
bit quan trng c gi l cu Horn (mang tn nh logic Alfred Horn, nm 1951).
Nu m>0, n=1, cu Horn c dng:
P
1
..... P
m
=> Q
Trong P
i
, Q l cc literal dng. Cc P
i
c gi l cc iu kin (hoc gi thit), cn Q
c gi l kt lun (hoc h qu). Cc cu Horn dng ny cn c gi l cc lut if-then v
c biu din nh sau:
49
If P
1
and....and P
m
then Q.
Khi m=0, n=1 cu Horn tr thnh cu n Q, hay s kin Q. Nu m>0, n=0 cu Horn tr thnh
dng lP
1
v......v lP
m
hay tng ng l(P
1
^...^ P
m)
.
Cn ch rng, khng phi mi cng thc u c th biu din di dng hi ca cc cu Horn.
Tuy nhin trong cc ng dng, c s tri thc thng l mt tp no cc cu Horn (tc l mt
tp no cc lut if-then).
3.5.4. Lut suy din
Mt cng thc H c xem l h qa logic (logical consequence) ca mt tp cng thc
G ={G
1
,.....,G
m
} nu trong bt k minh ha no m {G
1
,.....,G
m
} ng th H cng ng. Ni cch
khc bt k m hnh no ca G cng l m hnh ca H.
Khi c mt c s tri thc, ta mun s dng cc tri thc trong c s ny suy ra tri thc
mi m n l h qu logic ca cc cng thc trong c s tri thc. iu c thc hin bng
cch s dng cc lut suy din (rule of inference). Lut suy din ging nh mt th tc m chng
ta s dng sinh ra mt cng thc mi t cc cng thc c. Mt lut suy din gm hai phn:
mt tp cc iu kin v mt kt lun. Chng ta s biu din cc lut suy din di dng phn s
, trong t s l danh sch cc iu kin, cn mu s l kt lun ca lut, tc l mu s l cng
thc mi c suy ra t cc cng thc t s.
Sau y l mt s lut suy din quan trng trong logic mnh . Trong cc lut ny ,
i,

, l cc cng thc:
Lut Modus Ponens
,

T mt ko theo v gi thit ca ko theo, ta suy ra kt lun ca n.
Lut Modus Tollens
,

T mt ko theo v ph nh kt lun ca n, ta suy ra ph nh gi thit ca ko theo.
Lut bc cu
,

T hai ko theo, m kt lun ca ko theo th nht trng vi gi thit ca ko theo th hai,
ta suy ra ko theo mi m gi thit ca n l gi thit ca ko theo th nht, cn kt lun ca n l
kt lun ca ko theo th hai.
Lut loi b hi

1
.......
i
........
m


i
T mt hi ta suy ra mt nhn t bt k ca hi.
Lut a vo hi
50

1
,.......,
i
,........
m

1
.......
i
.......
m

T mt danh sch cc cng thc, ta suy ra hi ca chng.
Lut a vo tuyn

1
.......
i
. .......
m

T mt cng thc, ta suy ra mt tuyn m mt trong cc hng t ca tuyn l cng thc .
Lut phn gii
,

T hai tuyn, mt tuyn cha mt hng t i lp vi mt hng t trong tuyn kia, ta suy ra tuyn
ca cc hng t cn li trong c hai tuyn.
Mt lut suy din c xem l tin cy (sound) nu bt k mt m hnh no ca gi thit ca lut
cng l m hnh ca kt lun ca lut. Chng ta ch quan tm n cc lut suy din tin cy.
Bng phng php bng chn l, ta c th kim chng c cc lut suy din nu trn u l tin
cy. Bng chn l ca lut phn gii c cho trong hnh 3.3. T bng ny ta thy rng, trong bt
k mt minh ha no m c hai gi thit , ng th kt lun cng ng. Do
lut phn gii l lut suy in tin cy.

l
False False False False True False
False False True False True True
False True False True False False
False True True True True True
True False False True True True
True False True True True True
True True False True False True
True True True True True True
Hnh 3.3 Bng chn l chng minh tnh tin cy ca lut phn gii.

Ta c nhn xt rng, lut phn gii l mt lut suy din tng qut, n bao gm lut Modus
Ponens, lut Modus Tollens, lut bc cu nh cc trng hp ring. (Bn c d dng chng minh
c iu ).
Tin , nh l, chng minh.
Gi s chng ta c mt tp no cc cng thc. Cc lut suy din cho php ta t cc
cng thc c suy ra cng thc mi bng mt dy p dng cc lut suy din. Cc cng thc
51
cho c gi l cc tin . Cc cng thc c suy ra c gi l cc nh l. Dy cc lut c
p dng dn ti nh l c gi l mt chng minh ca nh l. Nu cc lut suy din l tin
cy, th cc nh l l h qu logic ca cc tin .
V d: Gi s ta c cc cng thc sau:
Q S G H (1)
P Q (2)
R S (3)
P (4)
R (5)
Gi s ta cn chng minh cng thc GH. T cng thc (2) v (4), ta suy ra Q (Lut
Modus Ponens). Li p dng lut Modus Ponens, t (3) v (5) ta suy ra S. T Q, S ta suy ra QS
(lut a vo hi). T (1) v QS ta suy ra GH. Cng thc GH c chng minh.
Trong cc h tri thc, chng hn cc h chuyn gia, h lp trnh logic,..., s dng cc lut
suy din ngi ta thit k ln cc th tc suy din (cn c gi l th tc chng minh) t
cc tri thc trong c s tri thc ta suy ra cc tri thc mi p ng nhu cu ca ngi s dng.
Mt h hnh thc (formal system) bao gm mt tp cc tin v mt tp cc lut suy
din no (trong ngn ng biu din tri thc no ).
Mt tp lut suy din c xem l y , nu mi h qu logic ca mt tp cc tin
u chng minh c bng cch ch s dng cc lut ca tp .
Phng php chng minh bc b
Phng php chng minh bc b (refutation proof hoc proof by contradiction) l mt
phng php thng xuyn c s dng trong cc chng minh ton hc. T tng ca phng
php ny l nh sau: chng minh P ng, ta gi s P sai (thm P vo cc gi thit) v dn ti
mt mu thun. Sau y ta s trnh by c s ca phng php chng minh ny.
Gi s chng ta c mt tp cc cng thc G ={G
1
,.....,G
m
} ta cn chng minh cng thc H
l h qu logic ca G. iu tng ng vi chng minh cng thc G
1
^....^G
m
H l vng
chc. Thay cho chng minh G
1
^..... ^G
m
H l vng chc, ta chng minh G
1
^....^G
m
^ H l
khng tha mn c. Tc l ta chng minh tp G= (G
1
,.......,G
m
, H) l khng tha c. G s
khng tho c nu t Gta suy ra hai mnh i lp nhau. Vic chng minh cng thc H l h
qu logic ca tp cc tiu G bng cch chng minh tnh khng tha c ca tp cc tiu
c thm vo ph nh ca cng thc cn chng minh, c gi l chng minh bc b.
3.5.5. Lut phn gii, chng minh bc b bng lut phn gii
thun tin cho vic s dng lut phn gii, chng ta s c th ho lut phn gii trn
cc dng cu c bit quan trng.
Lut phn gii trn cc cu tuyn
A
1
............... A
m
C
C B
1
............... B
n

A
1
........... A
m
B
1
... B
n

trong A
i
, B
j
v C l cc literal.
Lut phn gii trn cc cu Horn:
52
Gi s P
i
, R
j
, Q v S l cc literal. Khi ta c cc lut sau:
P
1
............... P
m
S Q,
R
1
.............. R
n
S
P
1
........ P
m
R
1
...... R
n
Q
Mt trng hp ring hay c s dng ca lut trn l:
P
1
...... P
m
S Q,
S
P
1
.......P
m
Q
Khi ta c th p dng lut phn gii cho hai cu, th hai cu ny c gi l hai cu phn
gii c v kt qu nhn c khi p dng lut phn gii cho hai cu c gi l phn gii
thc ca chng. Phn gii thc ca hai cu A v B c k hiu l res(A,B). Chng hn, hai cu
tuyn phn gii c nu mt cu cha mt literal i lp vi mt literal trong cu kia. Phn gii
thc ca hai literal i lp nhau (P v P) l cu rng, chng ta s k hiu cu rng l [], cu rng
khng tho c.
Gi s G l mt tp cc cu tuyn (bng cch chun ho ta c th a mt tp cc cng
thc v mt tp cc cu tuyn). Ta s k hiu R(G) l tp cu bao gm cc cu thuc G v tt c
cc cu nhn c t G bng mt dy p dng lut phn gii.
Lut phn gii l lut y chng minh mt tp cu l khng tha c. iu ny
c suy t nh l sau:
nh l phn gii:
Mt tp cu tuyn l khng tha c nu v ch nu cu rng [9] R(G).

nh l phn gii c ngha rng, nu t cc cu thuc G, bng cch p dng lut phn gii
ta dn ti cu rng th G l khng tha c, cn nu khng th sinh ra cu rng bng lut phn
gii th G tha c. Lu rng, vic dn ti cu rng c ngha l ta dn ti hai literal i lp
nhau P v P (tc l dn ti mu thun).
T nh l phn gii, ta a ra th tc sau y xc nh mt tp cu tuyn G l tha
c hay khng. Th tc ny c gi l th tc phn gii.
D thy, nu G l tp cc cu hu hn th cc literal c mt trong cc cu ca G l hu
hn. Do , s cc cu tuyn thnh lp c t cc literal l hu hn. V vy, ch c mt s
procedure Resolution;
Input: tp G cc cu tuyn ;
begin
1.Repeat
1.1 Chn hai cu A v B thuc G;
1.2 if A v B phn gii c then tnh Res(A,B);
1.3 if Res(A,B)l cu mi then thm Res(A,B)vo G;
until nhn c [] hoc khng c cu mi xut hin;
2. if nhn c cu rng then thng bo G khng tho c
else thng bo G tho c;
end
53
hu hn cu c sinh ra bng lut phn gii. Th tc phn gii s dng li sau mt s hu hn
bc.
Ch s dng lut phn gii ta khng th suy ra mi cng thc l h qu logic ca mt tp
cng thc cho. Tuy nhin, s dng lut phn gii ta c th chng minh c mt cng thc bt
k c l h qu ca mt tp cng thc cho hay khng bng phng php chng minh bc b. V
vy lut phn gii c xem l lut y cho bc b. Th tc chng minh bc b bng lut
phn gii xem [9, 17]
V d: Gi gi G l tp hp cc cu tuyn sau
A B P (1)
C D P (2)
E C (3)
A (4)
E (5)
D (6)
Gi s ta cn chng minh P. Thm vo G cu sau:
P (7)
p dng lut phn gii cho cu (2) v (7) ta c cu:
C D (8)
T cu (6) v (8) ta nhn c cu:
C (9)
T cu (3) v (9) ta nhn c cu:
E (10)
Ti y xut hin mu thun, v cu (5) v (10) i lp nhau. T cu (5) v (10) ta nhn c
cu rng [9].
Vy P l h qu logic ca cc cu (1) --(6).
Thng thng chng ta c th bng chn l chng minh tnh ng n ca mt biu thc.
Nhng phng php t ra cng knhf v c tnh th cng. Thay vo , chng ta c th s
dng hai thut ton sau y chng minh biu thc l ng hoc sai
Thut ton Havard (1970)
Bc 1: Pht biu li gi thit (GT) v kt lun ca bi ton di dng chun sau:
GT
1
,GT
2
,, GT
n
KL
1
,KL2,, KLm
Trong cc GT
i
, KL
j
c xy dng t cc bin mnh v cc php ni

,,,
Bc 2: Bc b ph nh (nu cn). Khi cn b cc cc ph nh: chuyn v GT
i
sang v kt
lun KL
j
v ngc li (ging nh chuyn du m trong ai s t v phai sang tri v ngc li)
Bc 3: Thay du GT
i
v KL
j
bng cc du ,
Bc 4: Nu GT
i
cn du v KL
j
cn du th tch chng thnh hai dng con
Bc 5: Mt dng c chng minh nu tn ti chung mt mnh c hai v
Bc 6: Bi ton c chng minh khi v chi khi tt c cc dng c chng minh. Ngc li th
bi ton khng c chng minh.
54
Thut ton Robin son (1971)
Robson cai tin thut ton Havard. Cch thc chng minh nh sau:
Bc 1: Pht biu li gi thit (GT) v kt lun ca bi ton di dng chun sau:
GT
1
,GT
2
,, GT
n
KL
1
,KL2,, KLm
Trong cc GT
i
, KL
j
c xy dng t cc bin mnh v cc php ni

,,,
Bc 2: Thay du GT
i
v KL
j
bng cc du ,

Bc 3: Chuyn v KL
j
sang v GT
i
vi du ph nh cn mt v, tc l :
GT
1
,GT
2
,, GT
n
, , KL
1
,, KL2,, KLm
Bc 4: Xy dng mt mnh mi bng cch tuyn mt cp mnh t danh sch cc mnh
. Nu mnh mi c cc bin mnh i ngu th mnh c loi b.
Bc 5: B sung mnh mi ny vo danh sch v lp lai bc 4
Bc 6: Bi ton c chng minh khi v chi khi ch cn hai mnh i ngu. Ngc li th bi
ton khng c chng minh.
Thut ton ny thc cht l chng minh bng phn chng
3.5.6 Biu din tri thc bng Logic v t
Logic mnh cho php ta biu din cc s kin. Mi k hiu trong logic mnh c minh ha
nh l mt s kin trong th gii hin thc, s dng cc kt ni logic ta c th to ra cc cu phc
hp biu din cc s kin mang ngha phc tp hn. Nh vy, kh nng biu din ca logic
mnh ch gii hn trong phm vi th gii cc s kin.
Th gii hin thc bao gm cc i tng. Mi i tng c nhng tnh cht ring phn bit
n vi cc i tng khc. Cc i tng li c quan h vi nhau. Cc mi quan h rt a dng
v phong ph. Chng ta c th lit k rt nhiu v d v i tng, tnh cht, quan h.
i tng: mt ci bn, mt ci nh, mt ci cy, mt con ngi, mt con s....
Tnh cht: Ci bn c th c tnh cht: c bn chn, lm bng g, khng c ngn ko. Con s c
th c tnh cht l s nguyn, s hu t, l s chnh phng...
Quan h: cha con, anh em, b bn (gia con ngi); ln hn, nh hn, bng nhau (gia cc con
s); bn trong, bn ngoi nm trn nm di (gia cc vt)...
Hm: Mt trng hp ring ca quan h l quan h hm. Chng hn, v mi ngi c mt m,
do ta c quan h hm ng mi ngi vi m ca n.

Mc ny dnh cho nghin cu logic v t cp mt vi t cch l mt ngn ng biu din tri thc.
Logic v t cp mt ng vai tr quan trng trong biu din tri thc v kh nng biu din ca n
(n cho php ta biu din tri thc v th gii vi cc i tng, cc thuc tnh ca i tng v
cc quan h ca i tng), hn na, n l c s cho nhiu ngn ng logic khc.
3.5.6.1 C php v ng ngha ca logic v t cp 1
Logic v t cp mt l m rng ca logic mnh . N cho php ta m t th gii vi cc i
tng, cc thuc tnh ca i tng v cc mi quan h gia cc i tng. N s dng cc bin
(bin i tng) ch cc i tng trong mt min i tng no . m t cc thuc tnh
ca i tng, cc quan h gia cc i tng, trong logic v t, ngi ta a vo cc v t
55
(predicate). Ngoi cc kt ni logic nh trong logic mnh , logic v t cp mt cn s dng cc
lng t. Chng hn, lng t (vi mi) cho php ta to ra cc cu ni ti mi i tng trong
mt min i tng no .
3.5.6.1.1 C php.
Cc k hiu.
Logic v t cp mt s dng cc loi k hiu sau y.
Cc k hiu hng: a, b, c, An, Ba, John,...
Cc k hiu bin: x, y, z, u, v, w,...
Cc k hiu v t: P, Q, R, S, Like, Havecolor, Prime,...
Mi v t l v t ca n bin (n0). Chng hn Like l v t ca hai bin, Prime l v t mt bin.
Cc k hiu v t khng bin l cc k hiu mnh .
Cc k hiu hm: f, g, cos, sin, mother, husband, distance,...
Mi hm l hm ca n bin (n1). Chng hn, cos, sin l hm mt bin, distance l hm ca ba
bin.
Cc k hiu kt ni logic: (hi), (tuyn), (ph nh), (ko theo), (ko theo nhau).
Cc k hiu lng t: (vi mi), (tn ti).
Cc k hiu ngn cch: du phy, du m ngoc v du ng ngoc.
Cc hng thc
Cc hng thc (term) l cc biu thc m t cc i tng. Cc hng thc c xc nh quy
nh sau.
Cc k hiu hng v cc k hiu bin l hng thc.
Nu t
1
, t
2
, t
3
,..., t
n
l n hng thc v f l mt k hiu hm n bin th f(t
1
, t
2
,..., t
n
) l hng thc.
Mt hng thc khng cha bin c gi l mt hng thc c th (ground term).
Chng hn, An l k hiu hng, mother l k hiu hm mt bin, th mother(An) l mt hng thc
c th.
Cc cng thc phn t
Chng ta s biu din cc tnh cht ca i tng, hoc cc quan h gia cc i tng bi cc
cng thc phn t (cu n).
Cc cng thc phn t (cu n) c xc nh quy nh sau.
Cc k hiu v t khng bin (cc k hiu mnh ) l cng thc phn t.
Nu t
1
, t
2
,...,t
n
l n hng thc v P l v t ca n bin th P(t
1
,t
2
,...,t
n
) l cng thc phn t.
Chng hn, Hoa l mt k hiu hng, Love l mt v t ca hai bin, husband l hm ca mt
bin, th Love(Hoa, husband(Hoa)) l mt cng thc phn t.
Cc cng thc
T cng thc phn t, s dng cc kt ni logic v cc lng t, ta xy dng nn cc cng thc
(cc cu).
Cc cng thc c xc nh quy nh sau:
Cc cng thc phn t l cng thc.
56
Nu G v H l cc cng thc, th cc biu thc (G H), (G H), ( G), (GH), (GH) l
cng thc.
Nu G l mt cng thc v x l bin th cc biu thc ( x G), ( x G) l cng thc.
Cc cng thc khng phi l cng thc phn t s c gi l cc cu phc hp. Cc cng thc
khng cha bin s c gi l cng thc c th. Khi vit cc cng thc ta s b i cc du ngoc
khng cn thit, chng hn cc du ngoc ngoi cng.
Lng t ph dng cho php m t tnh cht ca c mt lp cc i tng, ch khng phi ca
mt i tng, m khng cn phi lit k ra tt c cc i tng trong lp. Chng hn s dng v
t Elephant(x) (i tng x l con voi) v v t Color(x, Gray) (i tng x c mu xm) th cu
tt c cc con voi u c mu xmc th biu din bi cng thc x (Elephant(x) Color(x,
Gray)).
Lng t tn ti cho php ta to ra cc cu ni n mt i tng no trong mt lp i tng
m n c mt tnh cht hoc tho mn mt quan h no . Chng hn bng cch s dng cc cu
n Student(x) (x l sinh vin) v Inside(x, P301), (x trong phng 301), ta c th biu din cu
C mt sinh vin phng 301bi biu thc x (Student(x) Inside(x,P301).
Mt cng thc l cng thc phn t hoc ph nh ca cng thc phn t c gi l literal.
Chng hn, Play(x, Football), Like(Lan, Rose) l cc literal. Mt cng thc l tuyn ca cc
literal s c gi l cu tuyn. Chng hn, Male(x) Like(x, Foodball) l cu tuyn.
Trong cng thc x G, hoc x G trong G l mt cng thc no , th mi xut hin ca
bin x trong cng thc G c gi l xut hin buc. Mt cng thc m tt c cc bin u l
xut hin buc th c gi l cng thc ng.
V d: Cng thc x P(x, f(a, x)) y Q(y) l cng thc ng, cn cng thc x P(x, f(y, x))
khng phi l cng thc ng, v s xut hin ca bin y trong cng thc ny khng chu rng
buc bi mt lng t no c (S xut hin ca y gi l s xut hin t do).
Sau ny chng ta ch quan tm ti cc cng thc ng.
3.5.6.1.2. Ng ngha.
Cng nh trong logic mnh , ni n ng ngha l chng ta ni n ngha ca cc cng thc
trong mt th gii hin thc no m chng ta s gi l mt minh ha.
xc nh mt minh ho, trc ht ta cn xc nh mt min i tng (n bao gm tt c cc
i tng trong th gii hin thc m ta quan tm).
Trong mt minh ho, cc k hiu hng s c gn vi cc i tng c th trong min i
tng, cc k hiu hm s c gn vi mt hm c th no . Khi , mi hng thc c th s
ch nh mt i tng c th trong min i tng. Chng hn, nu An l mt k hiu hng,
Father l mt k hiu hm, nu trong minh ho An ng vi mt ngi c th no , cn
Father(x) gn vi hm: ng vi mi x l cha ca n, th hng thc Father(An) s ch ngi cha
ca An
.

Ng ngha ca cc cu n.
Trong mt minh ho, cc k hiu v t s c gn vi mt thuc tnh, hoc mt quan h c th
no . Khi mi cng thc phn t (khng cha bin) s ch nh mt s kin c th. ng
nhin s kin ny c th l ng (True) hoc sai (False). Chng hn, nu trong minh ho, k hiu
hng Lan ng vi mt c gi c th no , cn Student(x) ng vi thuc tnh x l sinh vinth
57
cu Student (Lan) c gi tr chn l l True hoc False tu thuc trong thc t Lan c phi l sinh
vin hay khng.
Ng ngha ca cc cu phc hp.
Khi xc nh c ng ngha ca cc cu n, ta c th xc nh c ng ngha ca cc cu
phc hp (c to thnh t cc cu n bng cc lin kt cc cu n bi cc kt ni logic) nh
trong logic mnh .
V d: Cu Student(Lan) Student(An) nhn gi tr True nu c hai cu Student(Lan) v
Student(An) u c gi tr True, tc l c Lan v An u l sinh vin.
Cu Like(Lan, Rose) Like(An, Tulip) l ng nu cu Like(Lan, Rose) l ng hoc cu
Like(An, Tulip) l ng.
Ng ngha ca cc cu cha cc lng t
Ng ngha ca cc cu x G, trong G l mt cng thc no , c xc nh nh l ng
ngha ca cng thc l hi ca tt c cc cng thc nhn c t cng thc G bng cch thay x
bi mt i tng trong min i tng. Chng hn, nu min i tng gm ba ngi {Lan, An,
Hoa} th ng ngha ca cu x Student(x) c xc nh l ng ngha ca cu Student(Lan)
Student(An) Student(Hoa). Cu ny ng khi v ch khi c ba cu thnh phn u ng, tc l
c Lan, An, Hoa u l sinh vin.
Nh vy, cng thc x G l ng nu v ch nu mi cng thc nhn c t G bng cch thay x
bi mt i tng trong min i tng u ng, tc l G ng cho tt c cc i tng x trong
min i tng.
Ng ngha ca cng thc x G c xc nh nh l ng ngha ca cng thc l tuyn ca tt c
cc cng thc nhn c t G bng cch thay x bi mt i tng trong min i tng. Chng
hn, nu ng ngha ca cu Younger(x,20) l x tr hn 20 tui v min i tng gm ba ngi
{Lan, An, Hoa} th ng ngha ca cu x Yourger(x,20) l ng ngha ca cu Yourger(Lan,20)
Yourger(An,20) Yourger(Hoa,20). Cu ny nhn gi tr True nu v ch nu t nht mt trong
ba ngi Lan, An, Hoa tr hn 20 tui.
Nh vy cng thc x G l ng nu v ch nu mt trong cc cng thc nhn c t G
bng cch thay x bng mt i tng trong min i tng l ng.
Bng cc phng php trnh by trn, ta c th xc nh c gi tr chn l (True, False)
ca mt cng thc bt k trong mt minh ho. (Lu rng, ta ch quan tm ti cc cng thc
ng).
Sau khi xc nh khi nim minh ho v gi tr chn l ca mt cng thc trong mt
minh ho, chng ta c th a ra cc khi nim cng thc vng chc (tho c, khng tho
c), m hnh ca cng thc ging nh trong logic mnh .
Cc cng thc tng ng
Cng nh trong logic mnh , ta ni hai cng thc G v H tng ng (vit l G H)
nu chng cng ng hoc cng sai trong mi minh ho. Ngoi cc tng ng bit trong
logic mnh , trong logic v t cp mt cn c cc tng ng khc lin quan ti cc lng t.
Gi s G l mt cng thc, cch vit G(x) ni rng cng thc G c cha cc xut hin ca bin x.
Khi cng thc G(y) l cng thc nhn c t G(x) bng cch thay tt c cc xut hin ca x
58
bi y. Ta ni G(y) l cng thc nhn c t G(x) bngcch t tn li (bin x c i tn li l
y).
Cc cng thc tng ng:
1. x G(x) y G(y)
x G(x) y G(y)
t tn li bin i sau lng t tn ti, nhn c cng thc tng ng.
2. (x G(x)) x ( G(x))
(x G(x)) x ( G(x))
3. x (G(x) H(x)) x G(x) x H(x)
x (G(x) H(x)) x G(x) x H(x)
V d: x Love(x, Husband(x)) y Love(y, Husband(y)).
3.5.6.2. Chun ha v cng thc
T cc cu phn t, bng cch s dng cc kt ni logic v cc lng t, ta c th to ra cc cu
phc hp c cu trc rt phc tp. d dng cho vic lu tr cc cu trong b nh, v thun li
cho vic xy dng cc th tc suy din, chng ta cn chun ho cc cu bng cch a chng v
dng chun tc hi (hi ca cc cu tuyn).
Trong mc ny chng ta s trnh by th tc chuyn mt cu phc hp thnh mt cu
dng chun tc hi tng ng.
Th tc chun ho cc cng thc gm cc bc sau:
Loi b cc ko theo
loi b cc ko theo, ta ch cn thay cng thc P Q bi cng thc tng ng P Q
thay P Q bi ( P Q) ( P Q)
Chuyn cc ph nh ti cc phn t
iu ny c thc hin bng cch thay cng thc v tri bi cng thc v phi trong cc
tng ng sau
( P) P
(P Q) P Q
(P Q) P Q
(x P) x (P)
(x P) x (P)
Loi b cc lng t tn ti
Gi s P(x,y) l cc v t c ngha: y ln hn x trong min cc s. Khi , cng thcx (y
(P(x,y)) c ngha l vi mi s x, tn ti y sao cho s y ln hn x. Ta c th xem y trong cng
thc l hm ca i s x. Chng hn, loi b lng t y, cng thc ang xt tr thnh
x(P(x,f(x))).
59
Mt cch tng qut, gi s y (G) l mt cng thc con ca cng thc ang xt v nm
trong min tc dng ca cc lng t x
1
,...,x
n
. Khi , c th xem y l hm ca n bin x
1
,,x
n.

ca v d f(x
1
...x
n
). Sau , thay cc xut hin ca y trong cng thc G bi hng thc f(x
1
...x
n
) v
loi b cc lng t tn ti. Hm f c a vo loi b cc lng t tn ti c gi l hm
Skolem.
V d: xt cng thc sau:
x (y (P(x,y) u (v (Q(a, v) y R(x,y))) (1)
Cng thc con y P(x,y) nm trong min tc dng ca lng t x, ta xem y l hm ca x: f(x).
Cc cng thc con v (Q(a, v)) v y R(x,y) nm trong min tc dng ca cc lng t x, u
ta xem v l hm g(x,u) v y l hm h(x,u) ca hai bin x,u. Thay cc xut hin ca y v bi cc
hm tng ng, sau loi b cc lng t tn ti, t cng thc (1) ta nhn c cng thc:
x (P(x,f(x)) u (Q(a,g(x,u)) R(x,h(x,u)))) (2)
Loi b cc lng t ph dng
Sau bc 3 trong cng thc ch cn li cc lng t ph dng v mi xut hin ca cc bin u
nm trong min tc dng ca cc lng t ph dng. Ta c th loi b tt c cc lng t ph
dng, cng thc (2) tr thnh cng thc:
P(x,f(x)) (Q(a,g(x,u)) R(x,h(x,u))) (3)
Cn ch rng, sau khi c thc hin bc ny tt c cc bin trong cng thc c xem l chu
tc dng ca cc lng t ph dng.
Chuyn cc tuyn ti cc literal
Bc ny c thc hin bng cch thay cc cng thc dng: P(QR) bi (PQ)(PR) v
thay (PQ)R bi (PQ) (PR). Sau bc ny cng thc tr thnh hi ca cc cu tuyn ngha
l ta nhn c cc cng thc dng chun tc hi.
Chng hn, cu (3) c chuyn thnh cng thc sau
(P(x,f(x)) (Q(a,g(x,u))) (P(x,f(x)) R(x,h(x,u))) (4)
Loi b cc hi
Mt cu hi l ng nu v ch nu tt c cc thnh phn ca n u ng. Do cng thc
dng chun tc hi tng ng vi tp cc thnh phn.
Chng hn, cu (4) tng ng vi tp hai cu tuyn sau
P(f(x)) (Q(a,g(x,u))
P(f(x)) R(x,h(x,u)) (5)
t tn li cc bin
t tn li cc bin sao cho cc bin trong cc cu khc nhau c tn khc nhau, chng hn, hai cu
(5) c hai bin cng tn l x, ta cn i tn bin x trong cu hai thnh z, khi cc cu (5) tng
ng vi cc cu sau
P(f(x)) (Q(a,g(x,u))
P(f(x)) R(x,h(x,u)) (5)
60
Nh vy, khi tri thc l mt tp hp no cc cng thc trong logic v t, bng cch p dng th
tc trn ta nhn c c s tri thc ch gm cc cu tuyn (tc l lun c th xem mi cu trong
c s tri thc l tuyn ca cc literal). Tng t nh logic mnh , mi cu tuyn c th biu
din di dng mt ko theo; v tri ca cc ko theo l hi ca cc cu phn t; v phi l tuyn
ca cc cu phn t. Dng cu ny c gi l cu Kowalski. Mt trng hp quan trng ca cu
Kowalski l cu Horn (lut if - then).
3.5.6.3 Cc lut suy din
Trong cc phn trc chng ta a ra cc lut suy din quan trng trong logic mnh : lut
Modus Ponens, lut Modus Tolens, lut bc cu,... lut phn gii. Chng ta ch ra rng, lut
phn gii l lut y cho bc b. iu c ngha l, bng phng php chng minh bc b,
ch s dng lut phn gii ta c th chng minh c mt cng thc c l h qu logic ca mt
tp cc cng thc cho trc hay khng. Kt qu quan trng ny s c m rng sang lgic v t.
Tt c cc lut suy din c a ra trong logic mnh u ng trong logic v t cp mt.
By gi ta a ra mt lut suy din quan trng trong logic v t lin quan ti lng t ph dng
Lut thay th ph dng:
Gi s G l mt cu, cu x G l ng trong mt minh ho no nu v ch nu G ng i vi
tt c cc i tng nm trong min i tng ca minh ho . Mi hng thc t ng vi mt i
tng v th nu cu x G ng th khi thay tt c cc xut hin ca bin x bi hng thc t ta nhn
c cu ng. Cng thc nhn c t cng thc G bng cch thay tt c cc xut hin ca x bi
t c k hiu l G[x/t]. Lut thay th ph dng (universal instatiation) pht biu rng, t cng
thc xG suy ra cng thc G[x/t].
xG
G[x/t]
Chng hn, t cu x Like(x, Football) (mi ngi u thch bng ), bng cch thay x bi An
ta suy ra cu Like(An,Football) (An thch bng )
Hp nht
Trong lut thay th ph dng, ta cn s dng php th cc bin bi cc hng thc nhn c
cc cng thc mi t cng thc cha cc lng t ph dng. Ta c th s dng php th hp
nht cc cu phn t (tc l cc cu tr thnh ng nht). Chng hn xt hai cu phn t
Like(An, y), Like(x, Football). Cn lu rng hai cu ny l hai cu y Like(An,y) v x
Like(x,Football) m cho n gin ta b i cc lng t ph dng. S dng php th [x/An,
y/Football] hai cu trn tr thnh ng nht Like(An,Football). Trong cc suy din, ta cn s dng
php hp nht cc cu bi cc php th. Chng hn, cho trc hai cu
Friend(x,Ba) Good(x) (Mi bn ca Ba u l ngi tt)
Friend(Lan,y) (Lan l bn ca tt c mi ngi)
Ta c th hp nht hai cu Friend(x,Ba) Good(x) v Friend(Lan,y) bi php thay th
[x/Lan,y/Ba]. p dng lut thay th ph dng vi php thay th ny ta nhn c hai cu:
Friend(Lan,Ba) Good(Lan)
Friend(Lan,Ba)
T hai cu ny, theo lut Modus Ponens, ta suy ra cu Good(Lan) (Lan l ngi tt).
61
Mt cch tng qut, mt php th l mt dy cc cp x
i
/t
i
, = [x
1
/t
1
x
2
/t
2
.... x
n
/t
n
] trong
cc x
i
l cc bin khc nhau, cc t
i
l cc hng thc v cc x
i
khng c mt trong t
i
(i=1,...,n).
p dng php th vo cng thc G, ta nhn c cng thc G

, l cng thc nhn c t

cng thc G bng cch thay mi s xut hin ca cc x
i
bi t
i
. Chng hn, nu G = P(x,y,f(a,x)) v
=[x/b,y/g(z)] th G

=P(b,g(z),f(a,b)).
Vi hai cu phn t G v H m tn ti php th sao cho G

v H

tr thnh ng nht
(G

=H

) th G v H c gi l hp nht c, php th c gi l hp nht t ca G v H.

Chng hn, hai cu Like(An,y)v Like(x,Football) l hp nht c bi hp nht t
[x/An,y/Football]. Vn t ra l, vi hai cu phn t bt k G v H, chng c hp nht c
khng v nu c th lm th no tm c hp nht t ? Vn ny s c nghin cu trong mc
sau. Cn by gi chng ta a ra cc lut suy din quan trng nht, trong c s dng php hp
nht.
Lut Modus Ponens tng qut.
Gi s P
i
,P
i
' (i= 1,..,n) v Q l cc cng thc phn t sao cho tt c cc cp cu P
i
,P
i
' hp nht
c bi php th , tc l P
i
=P
i
(i =1,..,n). Khi ta c lut:
(P
i
P
n
Q),P
i
',..,P
n
'
Q'
Trong Q' =Q

.
V d: Gi s ta c cc cu (Student (x) Male (x) Like (x,Football)) v
Student(Anh), Male(Anh). Vi php th = [x|Anh], cc cp cu Student(x),Student(Anh) v
Male(x), Male(Anh) hp nht c.Do ta suy ra cu Like(Anh,Football).
Lut phn gii tng qut
Lut phn gii trn cc cu tuyn
Gi s ta c hai cu tuyn A
1
A
m
C v B
1
B
n
D, trong A
i
(i =1,..,m) v B
j

(j=1,..,n) l cc literal, cn C v D l cc cu phn t c th hp nht c bi php th , C

=
D

. Khi ta c lut:
A
1
A
m
C,B
1
B
n
D

A
1
' A
m
' B
1
' B
n
'
Trong A
i
'=A
i
(i=1,..,m) v B
j
'=B
j
(j=1,..,n)
Trong lut phn gii ny (v trong cc lut phn gii s trnh by sau ny), hai cu t s (gi
thit) ca lut c gi l hai cu phn gii c, cn cu mu s (kt lun) ca lut c gi
l phn gii thc ca hai cu t s. Ta s k hiu phn gii thc ca hai cu A v B l
Res(A,B).
V d: Gi s ta c hai cu A=Hear(x,Music) Play(x,Tennis) v B=Play(An,y) Study (An).
Hai cu Play(x,Tennis) v Play(An,y) hp nht c bi php th =[x|An,y|Tennis]. Do t
hai cu cho, ta suy ra cu Hear(An,Music) Study (An). Trong v d ny, hai cu
62
A=Hear(x,Music) Play(x,Tennis) v B=Play(An,y) Study (An) l phn gii c v phn
gii thc ca chng l Hear(An,Music) Study(An).
Lut phn gii trn cc cu Horn:
Cu Horn (lut If-Then) l cc cu c dng
P
1
P
m
Q
trong P
i
(i =1,...,m; m 0) v Q l cc cu phn t.
Gi s ta c hai cu Horn P
1
P
m
S Q v R
1
R
n
T, trong hai cu S v T
hp nht c bi php th , S

=T

. Khi ta c lut:
P
1
P
m
S Q,
R
1
R
n
T

P
1
' P
m
' R
1
' R
n
Q
trong P
i
'=P
i
(i=1,..,m), R
j
=R
j
(j=1,..,n), Q'=Q.
Trong thc t,chng ta thng s dng trng hp ring sau y. Gi s S v T l hai cu phn
t, hp nht c bi php th . Khi ta c lut:
P
1
P
m
S Q,
T
P
1
' P
m
' Q'
trong P
i
' = P
i
(i = 1,...,m) v Q' = Q.
V d: Xt hai cu Student(x) Male(x) Play(x,Football) v Male(Ba). Hai cu Male(Ba) v
Male(x) hp nht c vi php th [x|Ba], do t hai cu trn ta suy ra Student (Ba) Play
(Ba, Football).
3.5.6.4. S dng logic v t cp 1 biu din tri thc
Logic v t cp mt cho php chng ta biu din cc i tng trong th gii hin thc vi cc
tnh cht ca chng v cc mi quan h gia chng. biu din tri thc ca chng ta v mt
min i tng no trong logic v t cp mt, trc ht chng ta cn a ra cc k hiu: cc k
hiu hng (hng i tng) ch ra cc i tng c th; cc k hiu bin ch cc i tng
bt k trong min i tng; cc k hiu hm biu din cc quan h hm; cc k hiu v t
biu din cc mi quan h khc nhau gia cc i tng. Cc k hiu c a ra to thnh h
thng t vng v min i tng m chng ta ang quan tm. S dng cc t vng a ra,
chng ta s to ra cc cu trong logic v t cp mt biu din tri thc ca chng ta v min i
tng . Tp hp tt c cc cu c to thnh s lp nn c s tri thc trong h tri thc m
chng ta mong mun xy dng. Vn xy dng c s tri thc s c cp n trong mc sau.
S dng cc k hiu hng, cc k hiu bin v cc k hiu hm, chng ta s to ra cc hng thc
(term) biu din cc i tng. Tuy nhin trong rt nhiu vn , thun li cho biu din,
chng ta cn n mt dng hng thc c bit, l danh sch. Danh sch l mt cu trc d liu
c s dng thng xuyn nht trong cc ngn ng Prolog v Lisp. Trong mc ny chng ta s
63
trnh by s to thnh cc hng thc danh sch v cc php ton trn danh sch. Song trc ht
chng ta cn xc nh v t bng, mt v t thng xuyn c s dng.
3.5.6.4.1. V t bng
V t bng, k hiu truyn thng l =, biu din mi quan h ng nht. Gi s T
1
v T
2
l hai
hng thc bt k, khi cng thc phn t T
1
= T
2
l ng trong mt minh ho nu trong minh
ho T
1
v T
2
ng vi cng mt i tng. Chng hn, cu: Father (An) = Ba l ng trong
mt minh ho, nu ngi ng vi Father(An) v ngi ng vi Ba l mt.
Sau y l mt v d n gin v s dng v t bng nhau. Gi s v t Sister(x,y) c ngha l x
l ch gi ca y, khi cu Tam c t nht hai ch gic th biu din bi cng thc:
x,y (Sister(x,Tam) ^ Sister(y,Tam) ^ (x=y))
Sau ny chng ta thng vit T
1
T
2
thay cho (T
1
=T
2
).
3.5.6.4.2. Danh sch v cc php ton trn danh sch
m t vn , trong rt nhiu trng hp chng ta cn s dng cc danh sch. Danh sch l
cu trc d liu c s dng rng ri nht trong cc ngn ng x l cc thng tin khng phi l
s.
Danh sch l mt dy gm n (n0) i tng bt k, y i tng c th l i tng n hoc
i tng c cu trc, v do danh sch cng l mt dng i tng. Chng ta s biu din danh
sch bi cp du ngoc vung, bn trong lit k cc thnh phn ca danh sch, cc thnh phn
ngn cch nhau bi du phy.
Sau y l mt s v d v danh sch:
[ ] (danh sch rng)
[ spring, summer, autumn, winter ]
[ john, data(23, may, 1964), 8354268]
[ a, [a,c], b, [a,d,e] ]
Mt danh sch khng phi l danh sch rng c th phn tch lm hai phn: thanh phn u tin
ca danh sch c gi l u danh sch, phn cn li ca danh sch c gi l ui danh
sch. Chng hn trong danh sch:
[ blue, red, white, yellow ]
u ca danh sch l blue, v ui ca danh sch l danh sch [red, white, yellow].
Chng ta c th biu din danh sch bi cch vit:
[ u_danh_sch ui_danh_sch ]
Chng hn:
[ blue, red, white, yellow ]=[ blue[ red, white, yellow ] ]
Chng ta cng c th biu din danh sch bng cch lit k ra mt s thnh phn u danh sch,
theo sau l du gch ng , ri n danh sch cc thnh phn cn li. Chng hn, sau y l
mt s cch vit danh sch trn:
[ blue, red, white, yellow ]
=[ blue[ red, white, yellow ] ]
=[ blue, red[ white, yellow ] ]
64
=[blue, red, white[ yellow ] ]
=[blue, red, white, yellow[ ] ]
Chng ta c th biu din danh sch bi cc hng thc trong logic v t cp mt. Trong logic v
t, mt danh sch c nh ngha nh sau:
Danh sch hoc l k hiu hng [ ], hoc l mt hng thc c dng list(X,Y), trong list l k
hiu hm ca hai bin, i s X l mt hng thc bt k v c gi l u danh sch, i s Y l
mt danh sch v c gi l ui danh sch. (Trong ngn ng Prolog, ngi ta s dng k hiu
. thay cho k hiu list; tc l hng thc list(X,Y) trong Prolog c vit l.(X,Y).
Nh vy cc cp biu din sau l tng ng:
Biu din hng thc Biu din du ngoc vung
list(X,Y) [ XY ]
list(X,list(Y,Z)) [ X, YZ ]
list(X,list(Y,list(Z, [ ]))) [ X,Y,Z ]
Trong ngn ng Prolog, ta c th s dng c hai dng biu din danh sch.
Cc php ton c bn trn danh sch:
. Quan h thnh phn
Quan h i tng X l thnh phn ca danh sch Lc biu din bi v t:
Member(X,L)
Quan h ny c xc nh nh sau:
X l thnh phn ca danh sch L nu:
(1) hoc X l u danh sch L
(2) hoc X l thnh phn ca ui danh sch L
Tc l, v t Member(X,L) c xc nh bi cng thc:
Member(X,L) (L = [X | L1]) (L = [Y | L2] Member (X,L2))
Chng hn,
Member(a,[a,b,c])
Member([b,c],[a,[b,c],d])
l cc quan h ng, cn
Member(b,[a,[b,c],d])
l sai.
Kt ni hai danh sch thnh mt danh sch
Php ton kt ni 2 danh sch L
1
v L
2
thnh mt danh sch L c biu din bi v t
Conc(L
1
,L
2
,L)
Quan h ny c xc nh nh sau:
Danh sch L l kt ni ca 2 danh sch L
1
v L
2
nu:
(1) hoc L
1
=[ ] v L= L
2

(2) hoc L
1
[ ] v u ca L l u ca L
1
v ui ca L l kt ni ca ui L
1
v L
2
.
Tc l, quan h Conc(L
1
,L
2
,L) c xc nh bi cng thc:
65
Conc(L
1
,L
2
,L) (L
1
=[] L=L
2
) (L
1
=[XL
3
] L= [XL
4
] Conc (L
3
,L
2
,L
4
)
Chng hn,
Conc([a,b],[1,2,3], [a,b,1,2,3])
Conc([a,[b,c]],[a,[ ],d],[a,[b,c],a,[ ],d)
l cc quan h ng, nhng:
Conc([a,b],[c,d],[a,b,a,c,d])
l sai.
.Loi b mt thnh phn khi danh sch
Vic loi b mt thnh phn X khi danh sch L c xc nh bi quan h:
Delete(X,L,L1)
Quan h ny c xc nh nh sau:
Danh sch L
1
l kt qu loi thnh phn X khi danh sch L, nu
(1) hoc X l u ca L v L
1
l ui ca L
(2) hoc u ca L
1
l u ca L v ui ca L
1
l kt qu vic loi X khi ui ca L.
Tc l,
Delete (X,L,L
1
) (L =[X | L
1
]) (L = [Y| L
2
] Delete (X,L
2
,L
3
) L
3
=[Y,L
3
])
Chng hn, ta c quan h ng sau:
Delete(a,[a,b,a,c],[b,a,c])
Delete(a,[a,b,a,c],[a,b,c])
.Quan h danh sch con
Quan h Sublist(L
1
,L) l ng nu danh sch L
1
l danh sch con ca danh sch L, chng hn:
Sublist([c,d,e],[a,b,c,d,e,f]) quan h ng; cn Sublist([b,d],[a,b,c,d,e,f]) l sai.
ng nhin, nu L
1
l danh sch con ca L, th danh sch L c th phn tch thnh cc
danh sch con. Do ta c th xc nh quan h ny nh sau:
L
1
l danh sch con ca danh sch L, nu:
(1) L l kt ni ca L
2
v L
3
, v
(2) L
3
l kt ni ca L
1
v L
4

tc l, ta c: Sublist(L
1
,L) <= Conc(L
2
,L
3
,L) ^ Conc(L
1
,L
4
,L
3
)
Trn y l mt s php ton c bn trn danh sch, d dng cho x l danh sch, ta
cn xc nh mt s php ton khc.
Tp hp l mt khi nim c bn trong ton hc, ta c th m t rt nhiu vn bng cch s
dng tp hp v cc php ton trn tp hp.Tuy nhin ta c th biu din tp hp bi danh sch,v
cc php ton tp hp c th c xc nh thng qua cc php ton trn danh sch.
3.5.6.5. Xy dng c s tri thc
Nh chng ta bit mt h tri thc bao gm hai thnh phn chnh l c s tri thc
(CSTT)v th tc suy din. Nh vy thit k mt h tri thc, chng ta cn phi xy dng nn
CSTT. CSTT bao gm cc cu (trong mt ngn ng biu din tri thc no , y l logic v t
cp mt). Cc cu ny biu din tri thc ca chng ta v mt lnh vc p dng m chng ta ang
quan tm. Logic v t cp mt l mt cng c mnh biu din tri thc v lp lun. Song mt
66
vn t ra l, ta phi la chn cc i tng no, cc s kin no, cc quan h no, cc tri thc
chung no a vo CSTT, sao cho vi CSTT , th tc suy din c th a ra cc cu tr li
cho cc cu hi ca ngi s dng.
Qu trnh xy dng CSTT c gi l cng ngh tri thc (knowledge engineering).Ngi
k s tri thc (ngi k s lm vic trong lnh vc cng ngh tri thc) c th nm c cc cng
ngh lm ra CSTT, nhng ni chung anh ta khng hiu bit v lnh vc p dng. Ngi k s tri
thc cn phi phng vn cc chuyn gia trong lnh vc khai thc cc tri thc cn thit a
vo CSTT,qu trnh ny c gi l qu trnh thu thp tri thc (knowledge acquisition).Ch nm
c c php v ng ngha ca ngn ng biu din tri thc, chng ta khng th xy dng c
CSTT. Ngi k s cn phi hiu bit cc k thut ca cng ngh tri thc. Trong mc ny chng
ta s trnh by vn tt cc k thut c bn ca cng ngh tri thc.
Phng php lun xy dng mt CSTT bao gm cc bc chnh sau y:
Trc ht cn phi xc nh CSTT m ta xy dng ni ti cc loi i tng no, cc s
kin no, cc thuc tnh no, cc quan h no. Mun vy ngi k s tri thc cn phi tm hiu
cc chuyn gia trong lnh vc p dng c s hiu bit y v lnh vc . Cn nh rng, ch
khi no hiu bit tng tn v lnh vc p dng mi bt u xy dng CSTT.
Xy dng h thng t vng.
H thng t vng bao gm cc hng, cc hm v cc v t. Bc ny thc hin vic chuyn
dch cc khi nim trong lnh vc p dng thnh cc tn hng, tn hm, tn v t. Cc tn hng,
tn hm, tn v t cn c la chn sao cho ngi c CSTT c th hiu c d dng ngha
ca n. Chng hn, ta c th dng v t HasColor (x,y) biu din quan h "i tng x c mu
y", dng v t Small(x) biu din thuc tnh "i tng x c c nh". Cng mt quan h, ta c
th biu din bi hm hoc v t, chng hn, ta c th s dng hm HusbandOf(x) biu din
i tng l chng ca x, hoc c th s dng v t IsHusband(y,x) biu din quan h y l
chng ca x. Mt v d khc, nu chng ta quan tm ti cc i tng vi cc mu khc nhau, ta
c th s dng vi t HasColor(x,y) a ra trn. Song nu ch quan tm ti cc i tng vi
mu hay khng, ta c th dng v t Red(x) (x c mu ).
Nh vy, trong giai on xy dng h thng t vng, ta cn quyt nh biu din mt quan h
bi hm hay v t, cc hm (v t) l cc hm (v t) ca cc i s no. Ta cn chn cc tn hng,
tn hm, tn v t sao cho n ni ln c ni dung m n cn m t.
Biu din tri thc chung v lnh vc:
H thng t vng ch l danh sch cc thut ng. Chng ta cn phi s dng cc thut ng ny
vit ra cc cng thc logic m t cc tri thc chung ca chng ta v lnh vc p dng, v cng
l chnh xc ho cc thut ng m chng ta a ra trong h thng t vng. Chng hn, khi ni
ti cc quan h h hng, ta cn a vo cc v t Sibling(x,y) biu din quan h "x v y l anh
em", v t Parent (u,v) biu din "u l cha m ca v",... Sau ta cn a vo tin sau y:
x,y(Sibling(x,y) (xy)p(Parent(p,y)Parent(p,x)))
Cu ny ni rng, nu x v y l anh em th h phi cng cha m v ngc li.
Mt s lng ln cc tri thc ca con ngi c m t bi cc cu trong ngn ng t
nhin. Do xy dng CSTT chng ta cn bit chuyn cc cu trong ngn ng t nhin thnh
cc cu trong ngn ng v t. Sau y l mt vi v d cho ta bit cch chuyn cc cu trong ngn
ng t nhin thnh cng thc logic (chng ti khuyn c gi hy t mnh vit ra cc cng thc
67
logic trc khi c tip). S dng cc v t Mushroom(x)(x l nm), Purple(y) (y mu tm),
Poisonnous(z) (z c c),chng ta hy chuyn cc cu sau y thnh cc cng thc logic.
Mi cy nm tm u c c
x(Mushroom(x)Purple(x) Poisonnous(x))
Tt c cy nm hoc c mu tm hoc c c
x(Mushroom(x)Purple(x)Poisonnous(x))
Mi cy nm hoc mu tm hoc c c nhng khng l c hai
x(Mushroom(x)(Purple(x)Poisonnous(x))(Purple(x) Poisonnous(x)))
Tt c cc cy nm tm u c c tr mt cy
x(Mushroom(x)Purple(x) Poisonnous(x))y(Mushroom(y)Purple(y)(yx)
Poisonnous(y)))
Ch c hai cy nm tm
x,y(Mushroom(x)Purple(x)Mushroom(y)Purple(y)(xy)
z,x(Mushroom(z)Purple(z)(z=x)(z=y)))
Sau khi chng ta vit ra cc cng thc logic (cc tin ) m t cc tri thc chung v
lnh vc p dng, c th xem nh chng ta xy dng nn mt CSTT. thun li cho vic lu
tr CSTT trong my tnh, v thun li cho th tc suy din hot ng, chng ta c th chun ho
cc cu trong CSTT.
Trong ton hc, ngi ta c gng tm c mt tp cc tin c lp, tc l trong
khng c tin no c th suy ra t cc tin cn li. Tuy nhin, trong cc h tri thc, CSTT
c th cha cc tin "tha", chng khng lm tng thm cc tri thc mi c suy ra, song
chng c th lm cho qu trnh suy din hiu qu hn.
3.5.6.5. Ci t c s tri thc
Trong mc trc, chng ta xt mt s k thut xy dng c s tri thc (CSTT).
CSTT l tp cc mnh (tin ) m t tri thc ca v mt lnh vc no . Gi thit, CSTT
c chun ho, tc gm cc cu tuyn (mi cu l tuyn ca cc literal). Th tc suy din, ni
chung, l th tc chng minh bc b. Trong trng hp CSTT l mt tp cc cu Horn (cc lut
If-Then), ta c th s dng th tc suy din tin (forward chaining) hoc th tc suy din li
(forward chaining) s c trnh by sau lp lun. Trong cc th tc suy din, ta phi thc hin
lp cng vic nh sau: tm ra cc literal c th hp nht c vi mt literal ang xt no ; nu
tm c th p dng lut phn gii cho hai cu cha hai literal hp nht c . Do , cho
th tc suy din thc hin hiu qu, cn ci t CSTT sao cho cng vic lp li trn c thc
hin hiu qu. Trc ht, ta cn biu din cc hng thc v cc cu phn t bng cc cu trc d
liu thch hp.
3.5.6.5.1. Ci t cc hng thc v cc cu phn t:
V mt c php, cc hng thc v cc cu phn t c cu trc ging nhau Do , ta ch xt
vic ci t cc hng thc. Cc hng thc biu din i tng trong th gii hin thc. T cc i
tng n c biu din bi cc k hiu, hng, bin; ta c th to ra cc i tng c cu trc.
Cc i tng c cu trc l cc i tng c mt s thnh phn. Cc thnh phn ny li c th l
cc i tng c cu trc khc. kt hp cc thnh phn to thnh mt i tng mi, s dng
k hiu hm (function). Chng hn, s dng k hiu hm Date, ngy 1 thng 5 nm 2000 c
68
biu din bi hng thc date(1, May, 2000). Mt ngy bt k trong thng 5 nm 2000 c biu
din bi hng thc: date(Day, May, 2000) trong Day l k hiu bin. Hng thc ny gm 3
thnh phn, mt l k hiu bin, hai thnh phn khc l cc k hiu hng. Hng thc ny c biu
din bi cu trc cy trong hnh 3.3






Hnh 3.3. Cy biu din hng thc date(Day, May,2000)

Cc v d sau y cho ta thy cch to ra cc hng thc biu din cc i tng hnh hc
trong mt phng. Mt im trong khng gian hai chiu c xc nh bi hai to ; mt on
thng c xc nh bi hai im; mt tam gic c xc nh bi ba im. Do , nu ta s dng
cc k hiu hm point (im), seg (on thng), triangle (tam gic) th im c to (2,3) c
biu din bi hng thc point (2, 3)



















Hnh 3.4. Cc cy biu din cc hng thc
on thng ni hai im (4, 7) v (9, 3) c biu din bi hng thc:
seg(point (4, 7), point (9, 3))
Tam gic c ba nh l ba im (3, 2), (6, 4), (8, 1) c biu din bi hng thc:
date
2000 May
Day
point
2 3
point
9
7
4
seg
3
point
triangle
3 2
point point point
4 6 8 1
69
Triangle (point(3, 2), point(6, 4), point(8, 1))
Cc hng thc trn c biu din bi cc cu trc cy trong hnh 3.4
Mt cch tng qut, cc hng thc c biu din bi cc cy (chng hn, cc cy trong
hnh 3.4), trong gc ca cy l cc k hiu hm. Nu cc i s ny khng phi l k hiu hng,
hoc k hiu bin th chng l cc cy con ca gc c to thnh theo quy tc trn.
By gi chng ta xem xt cc i tng danh sch c biu din bi cu trc cy nh
th no. Nh li rng, danh sch [spring, summer, autumn, winter]
c biu din bi hng thc: list (spring, list(summer, list (autumn, list (winter,[ ]))))
Hng thc ny c biu din bi cy trong hnh 3.5












Hnh 3.5 Cy biu din danh sch [spring, summer, autumn, winter]
Mt cch tng t, bng cch chuyn sang dng hng thc, ta c th biu din danh sch:
[a,b], c, [ [a, e], d ] ] bi cy trong hnh 3.6














Hnh 3.6 Cy biu din danh sch [ [a,b], c, [[a,e],d] ]
List
List
Spring
List Summer
Autumn
[ ]
Winter
List
[]
List
a
[] b
List List
c
d
e
a
List
[]
List List
List List
70
Trong cy hnh 3.6 nu a, b, c, d, e khng phi l cc i tng n m l cc i tng
c cu trc c biu din bi cc hng thc, th v tr ca cc nh gn nhn a, b, c, d, e s l
cc cy con biu din cc hng thc .
Trn y chng ta ch ra rng, cc hng thc (v cc cu phn t) c th biu din mt
cch t nhin bi cc cu trc cy.
3.5.6.5.2. Ci t c s tri thc
Chng ta bit cch to ra cc cu trc d liu biu din cc hng thc v cc cu phn t.
By gi chng ta nghin cu cc k thut ci t c s tri thc sao cho cc th tc suy din c th
thc hin c hiu qu. Gi s CSTT bao gm cc cu tuyn dng
C =P
1
P
m
Q
1
Q
n

trong , Pi (i = 1,....,m, m 0), Q
k
(k = 1,2,...,n, n 0) l cc cu phn t. Mt cch t nhin, mi
cu C c th c biu din bi bn ghi gm hai trng:
Danh sch cc Literal dng [P
1
,....,P
m
]
Danh sch cc Literal m [Q
1
,..., Q
n
]
Mt cch n gin nht, ta c th ci t CSTT nh mt danh sch cc cu tuyn. Tuy nhin vi
cch ci t ny, th tc suy din km hiu qu, bi mi ln cn xt xem mt cu phn t S c
hp nht vi mt thnh phn no ca mt cu trong CSTT, ta phi i qua danh sch, xem xt
tng thnh phn ca cc cu trong danh sch cho ti khi tm ra hoc i ti ht danh sch.
Mt gii php khc tt hn, ta c th ci t CSTT bi bng bm. Cc kho cho bng bm
ny l cc k hiu v t, tc l bng bm c nh ch s theo cc k hiu v t. Trong bng bm,
ti ch s ng vi mi k hiu v t ta s lu:
Danh sch cc literal dng ca k hiu v t .
Danh sch cc literal m.
Danh sch cc cu m k hiu v t xut hin trong cc literal dng ca cu (Cu dng).
Danh sch cc cu m k hiu v t xut hin trong cc literal m ca cu (Cu m).
V d: Gi s CSTT cha cc cu sau:
Brother (An, Ba)
Brother (Tam, Hoa)
Brother (Lan, Cao)
Brother (x,y) Male(x)
Brother (x,y) Male(y) Brother (y,x)
Male(Cao)
Male(Ba)
Male(Lan)
Khi , ti cc ch s ng vi kho Brother v Male, bng bm s lu gi cc thnh phn
c cho trong bng sau

71
Kho Literal dng Literal m Cu dng Cu m
Brother Brother(An,Ba)
Brother(Tam, Hoa)
Brother
(Lan, Cao)

Brother(x,y)
Male(y)Brother(y,x)
Brother (x,y)Male(y)
Brother(y,x)
Brother (x,y) Male(x)
Male Male(Cao)
Male(Ba)

Male(Lan)

Brother(x,y)
Male(x)
Brother (x,y)Male(y)
Brother (y,x)

Ci t CSTT bi bng bm nh ch s theo cc k hiu v t l phng php rt hiu qu
cho vic tm kim trn CSTT, nu nh CSTT cha nhiu k hiu v t v vi mi k hiu v t ch
c mt s t cc cu cha k hiu v t . Tuy nhin trong mt s p dng, c th c rt nhiu cu
cha cng mt k hiu v t no . Chng hn, C S Tri Thc c th cha hng triu cu ni v
ngi lao ng, mi ngi lao ng c biu din bi cc thng tin v h tn, ngy thng nm
sinh, s th bo him, cng vic (Cng vic c xc nh bi ni lm vic v tin lng). Tc l
mi ngi lao ng c m t bng cu c dng:
Worker (Tom, date (3, may,1965), 012-34-567, job(UNIMEX, 300))
(cu ny ni rng, c ngi lao ng tn l Tom, sinh ngy 3 thng 5 nm 1965, s th bo him
012-34-567, lm vic ti cng ty UNIMEX vi mc lng 300). Trong cc trng hp nh th,
tm kim c hiu qu, ngoi vic xy dng bng bm nh ch s theo cc i s ca cc k
hiu v t, ta cn xy dng cc bng bm nh ch s theo cc i s ca cc v t. Chng hn,
y cc literal dng ng vi kho Worker cn c t chc di dng bng bm nh ch s
theo kha l s bo him y t hoc h tn v ngy thng nm sinh.
3.5.6.5.3 Biu din tri thc bng lut v lp lun
Vi mt CSTT gm cc cu trong logic v t cp mt, ta c th chng minh cng thc c
l h qu logic ca CSTT hay khng bng phng php chng minh bc b v th tc phn gii.
Tuy nhin, th tc chng minh ny c phc tp ln v i hi chin lc gii mt cch thch
hp. V l do ny, cc nh nghin cu c gng tm cc tp con ca logic v t cp mt, sao cho
chng kh nng biu din CSTT trong nhiu lnh vc, v c th a ra cc th tc suy din
hiu qu. Cc tp con ny ca logic v t cp mt s xc nh cc ngn ng biu din tri thc c
bit. Trong phn ny chng ta s nghin cu ngn ng ch bao gm cc cu Horn (cc lut nu -
th). Ch s dng cc lut nu th, ta khng th biu din c mi iu trong logic v t cp
mt. Tuy nhin, vi cc lut nu - th ta c th biu din c mt khi lng ln tri thc trong
nhiu lnh vc khc nhau, v c th thc hin cc th tc suy din hiu qu.
Biu din tri thc bng lut sinh
Ngn ng bao gm cc lut nu - th (if - then), cn gi l cc lut sn xut hay lut sinh
(production rule), l ngn ng ph bin nht biu din tri thc. Nh rng, cc cu Horn c
dng
Q P P
n

1

trong cc P
i
(i = 1, ..., n) v Q l cc cu phn t.
Cc cu Horn cn c vit di dng
72
nu P
1
v P
2
... v P
n
th Q
(if P
1
and ... and P
n
then Q)
cc P
i
(i = 1, ..., n) c gi l cc iu kin, Q c gi l kt lun ca lut.
Cc lut nu - th c cc u im sau y
Mi lut nu - th m t mt phn nh tng i c lp ca tri thc.
C th thm v c s tri thc cc lut mi, hoc loi b mt s lut c m khng nh
hng nhiu ti cc lut khc.
Cc h tri thc vi c s tri thc gm cc lut nu - th c kh nng a ra li gii thch
cho cc quyt nh ca h.
Cc lut nu - th l dng biu din t nhin ca tri thc. Bng cch s dng cc lut nu -
th chng ta c th biu din c mt s lng ln tri thc ca con ngi v t nhin, v x hi,
kinh nghim ca con ngi trong lao ng, sn xut, tri thc ca cc thy thuc, tri thc ca cc
k s, tri thc trong cc ngnh khoa hc: kinh t, sinh hc, ho hc, vt l, ton hc,...
Sau y l mt lut v chn on bnh:
Nu
1. bnh nhn ho lu ngy, v
2. bnh nhn thng st vo bui chiu
Th bnh nhn c kh nng bnh lao
Mt lut v kinh nghim d bo thi tit:
Nu chun chun bay thp
th tri s ma
Nhiu nh l trong ton hc c th biu din bi cc lut. Chng hn,
Nu
1. tam gic c mt gc bng 60
0
, v
2. tam gic c hai cnh bng nhau
th tam gic l tam gic u.
Trn y chng ta ch xt cc lut trong mi phn kt lun ca mt lut xc nh mt
khng nh mi c suy ra khi tt c cc iu kin ca lut c tho mn. Trong nhiu p dng,
c s lut ca h cn c a vo cc lut m phn kt lun ca lut l mt hnh ng h cn
thc hin. Gi cc lut dng ny l lut hnh ng (action). Mt lut hnh ng c dng:
nu
1. <iu kin 1>, v
2. <iu kin 2>, v
....
m. <iu kin m>
th <hnh ng>
Hnh ng trong cc lut hnh ng c th l thm vo mt s kin mi, c th l loi b
mt s kin c trong b nh lm vic; hnh ng cng c th l thc hin mt th tc no .
Trong cc robot c trang b mt h da trn lut, th phn kt lun ca lut c th l mt hnh
ng no m robot cn thc hin.
73
Ngi ta phn bit hai dng h, cc h da trn lut s dng lp lun tin v phn kt lun
ca cc lut xc nh cc khng nh mi c gi l cc h din dch (deduction systems). Cc
h da trn lut m phn kt lun ca cc lut xc nh cc hnh ng cn thc hin c gi l
h hnh ng da trn lut (rule-based reaction systems).
Trong cc h din dch, chng ta xem mi lut u sinh ra cc khng nh mi c gi tr
nh nhau; tc l, ta khng xem khng nh do lut ny sinh ra l tt hn khng nh do lut
khc sinh ra. Do trong cc h din dch, khi m nhiu lut c th chy c (mt lut c gi
l chy c nu tt c cc iu kin ca lut c tho mn) ta c th cho tt c cc lut chy
(mt lut chy sinh ra khng nh mi).
Trong cc h hnh ng, khi c c nhiu hn mt lut c th chy, ni chung, chng ta ch
mun thc hin mt trong cc hnh ng c th. Do , trong cc h hnh ng, chng ta cn c
chin lc gii quyt va chm quyt nh cho lut no chy trong s cc lut c th chy. Sau
y l mt s chin lc gii quyt va chm.
Sp xp cc lut theo th t u tin. Trong cc lut c th chy, lut no c mc u tin
cao nht s c thc hin.
Sp xp d liu. Cc s kin trong b nh lm vic c sp xp theo th t u tin. Lut
no m cc iu kin ca n c lm tho mn bi cc iu kin c mc u tin cao s
c thc hin trc.
Cc lut c phn thnh cc nhm. Trong mi nhm lut, c ch ra cc iu kin p
dng cc lut ca nhm. Cc iu kin ny lin quan n ni dung ca b nh lm vic.
S dng cc siu lut (metarule). l cc lut m phn iu kin ca n lin quan ti
ni dung ca cc lut v ni dung ca b nh lm vic, cn phn kt lun ca n ch ra
cc lut c th c p dng hoc c th bi cm p dng. Cc siu lut s iu khin s
cho php cc lut chy.
ng nhin l, vic s dng chin lc gii quyt va chm no ph thuc vo tng p dng.
Tu theo mc ch thit k ca h m ta la chn chin lc gii quyt va chm cho thch hp.
Biu in tri thc khng chc chn
Trong i sng thc t, c rt nhiu iu m ngay c cc chuyn gia cng khng hon
ton tin tng chng l ng hay sai. c bit l cc kt lun trong chn on y hc, trong d bo
thi tit, trong phng on s hng hc ca my mc, chng ta khng th tin tng 100% cc kt
lun a ra l ng. Chng hn, nu xe my ang chy b cht my v kim tra xng hy cn th
c th tin rng 90% l do c vn bugi. Tuy nhin vn cn 10% phng on l sai, xe b
cht my do cc nguyn nhn khc. Do trong cc h da trn lut, chng ta cn phi a vo
mc chc chn ca cc lut v cc s kin trong c s tri thc. Chng ta s gn cho mi lut
hoc s kin mt mc chc chn no , mc chc chn l mt s nm gia 0 v 1. Cch
vit
C B A A
n
:
1
(1)
c ngha l lut B A A
n

1
c chn chn l C (0 C 1).
Chng ta cn phi a ra phng php xc nh mc chc chn ca cc kt lun c suy ra.
Trc ht chng ta nh gi kt lun suy ra t lut ch c mt iu kin. Gi s ta c lut
C B A : (2)
Theo l thuyt xc sut, ta c
74
Pr(B) = Pr(BA)Pr(A) (3)
trong Pr(B), Pr(A) l xc sut ca s kin B, A tng ng (tc l mc chc chn ca B, A
tng ng), cn Pr(BA) l xc sut c iu kin ca B khi A xy ra, y Pr(BA) l mc
chc chn ca lut A B, tc l bng C.
Trong trng hp lut c n (n > 1) iu kin, tc l cc lut dng (1), ta xem A =
n
A A
1
.
Trong trng hp ny, mc chc chn ca A, Pr(A) c tnh bng cc phng php khc
nhau, tu thuc vo cc s kin A
i
(i = 1, ..., n) l c lp hay ph thuc.
Gi s cc s kin A
i
(i = 1, ..., n) l c lp, khi
Pr(A) = Pr(A
1
) ... Pr(A
n
) (4)
V d. Gi s c s tri thc ca h cha lut sau
IF 1. X c tin n, v
2. X c th on vi nn nhn Y, v
3. X a ra bng chng ngoi phm sai
THEN X l k git Y.
vi mc chc chn 90%.
Gi s ta c cc s kin
Hung c tin n, vi mc chc chn l 1.
Hung c th on vi nn nhn Meo, vi mc chc chn l 0,7.
Hung a ra bng chng ngoi phm sai, vi mc chc chn l 0,8.
T cc s kin v lut trn, ta c
Pr(A) = 1.0,7.0,8 = 0,56
Pr(B) = 0,9.0,56 = 0,504
Nh vy mc chc chn ca kt lun Hung l k git Meo l 50, 4%.
Cng thc (4) ch p dng cho cc s kin A
1
, ..., A
n
l c lp (tc s xut hin ca s kin ny
khng nh hng g n s xut hin ca cc s kin khc). Nu cc s kin A
1
, ..., A
n
l ph
thuc, ta c th tnh mc chc chn ca iu kin ca lut, A =
n
A A
1
, theo cng thc
sau:
Pr(A) = min (Pr(A
1
), ..., Pr(A
n
)) (5)
Chng hn, vi cc thng tin trong v d trn, t cng thc (5) ta c
Pr(A) = min(1, 0,7, 0,8) = 0,7
Do Pr(B) = 0,9. 0,7 = 0,63
Ngoi cng thc (5), ngi ta cn a ra cc phng php khc tnh mc chc chn Pr(A),
khi m A =
n
A A
1
v cc A
1
, ..., A
n
khng c lp.
3.5.6.5.4 Biu din tri thc bng mng ng nghi
Mng ng ngha l mt phng php biu din tri thc d hiu nht. Phng php biu
din da trn th, trong nh l l cc i tng (hay khi nim) cn cc cung l l cc mi
quan h gia cc i tng (hc khi nim) .
V d 1: gia cc i tng v khi nim: chch, chim, t, cnh, htc ccc quan h nh
hnh di y
75

Hnh 3.7. V d n gin v mng ng ngha
V d 2. Cho tp quan h (hm) trong tam gic:
a) a/sin= b/sin
b) c/sin= b/sin
c) ) )( )( ( c p b p a p p S =
d) ++=
e) S= h
c
*c
f) Nu chng ta t cc quan h ny l cc nt vung, cc bin l cc nt trn; cung l
cc ng lin kt gia cc bin c lin quan (nh S, h
c
, c) trong cc quan h ( y l
cng thc e); c); b) ). Hc vin c th dng mng ng ngha m t cc mi quan h
gia bin v hm.
3.5.6.5.5 Biu din tri thc bng khung
Khung l mt phng php biu din tri thc c cu trc d liu cha tt c tri thc lin
quan n mt i tng c th no . Khung (Frame) c lin h cht ch n khi nim hng
i tng. Khung thng c dng biu din nhng tri thc chun hoc nhng tri thc da
trn kinh nghim hoc cc im c hiu bit cn k.
Cu trc ca khung gm hai thnh phn c bn Slot v Facet. Slot l mt thuc tnh
c t i tng v d khung m t xe hi c hai Slot l Trng lng v Loi ng c. Mt Slot
c th ch nhiu Facet. Cc Facet i khi cn c gi l Slot con, V d Facet ca Slot Loi
ng c c th l:Kiu ong c, S xi lanh,Kh nng tng tc .
3.5.6.5.6 Cc phng php biu din tri thc khc
Mt s cch biu din tri thc khc c th lit k nh sau:
M t tri thc bng cp ba i tng-Thuc tnh-Gi tr (Object-Attibute-Value: O-A-V).
y l phng php biu din c in, n gin. Hiu qu ca phng php khng cao
nn hin nay t dng. Mt khc, cp ba i tng-Thuc tnh-Gi tr gn ging vi
phng php mng ng ngha.
Phng php m t tri thc bng kch bn (Script)
Phng php m t tri thc bng mt (Face)
Phng php m t tri thc bng bng en (Blackboard)
Phng php m t tri thc theo th tc
Chch
Chim
Ht
Cnh T
L Bit
C
Lm
76
3.6 C CH SUY DIN
3.6.1 Khi nim v suy din v lp lun
Suy din (inference) v lp lun (reasoning) l hai khi nim c dng chung ch mt tin
trnh a n kt lun t cc gi thit cho dng c s tri thc (s kin, quy lut)
Cc h tri thc m c s tri thc bao gm cc lut s c gi l cc h da trn lut (rule -
based system). Trong cc mc cn li ca chng ny chng ta s nghin cu cc th tc suy din
trong cc h da trn lut.
Mt khi chng ta lu tr mt c s tri thc, chng ta cn c th tc lp lun rt ra cc
kt lun t c s tri thc. Trong cc h da lut, c hai phng php lun lp lun c bn:
Lp lun tin v
lp lun li
Chng ta s phn chia c s tri thc thnh hai b phn: c s lut v c s s kin (hoc b
nh lm vic). C s lut bao gm cc lut c t nht mt iu kin, biu din cc tri thc chung
v lnh vc p dng. Cn c s lut bao gm cc cu phn t (cc lut khng iu kin) m t cc
s kin m chng ta bit v cc i tng trong lnh vc p dng.
3.6.2 Lp lun tin
T tng c bn ca lp lun tin l p dng lut suy din Modus Ponens tng qut).
Trong mi bc ca th tc lp lun tin, ngi ta xt mt lut trong c s lut. i snh mi
iu kin ca lut vi cc s kin trong c s s kin, nu tt c cc iu kin ca lut u c
tho mn th s kin trong phn kt lun ca lut c xem l s kin c suy ra. Nu s kin
ny l s kin mi (khng c trong b nh lm vic), th n c t vo b nh lm vic. Qu
trnh trn c lp li cho ti khi no khng c lut no sinh ra cc s kin mi.
Nh vy qu trnh lp lun tin l qu trnh xem xt cc lut. Vi mi lut, ta i t phn
iu kin ti phn kt lun ca lut, khi m tt c cc iu kin ca lut u c lm tho mn
(bi cc s kin trong c s s kin), th ta suy ra s kin trong phn kt lun ca lut. Chnh v l
m c tn lp lun tin (forward chaining hoc forward reasoning).
Qu trnh lp lun tin khng nh hng ti gii quyt mt vn no c, khng nh
hng ti tm ra cu tr li cho mt cu hi no c. Lp lun tin ch l qu trnh suy ra cc s
kin mi t cc s kin trong b nh lm vic. V vy lp lun tin cn c gi l lp lun iu
khin bi d liu (data - driven reasioning), hoc lp lun nh hng d liu (data - directed
reasioning).
V d lp lun tin. thy c qu trnh lp lun tin din ra nh th no, chng ta xt
v d sau y. (V d ny l ca P. H. Winston xem [17]).
Gi s c s lut (c s lut v cc ng vt trong s th) gm cc lut sau
Lut 1: nu ng vt c lng mao
th ng vt l loi c v
Lut 2: nu ng vt c lng v
th ng vt l chim

Lut 3: nu 1. ng vt bit bay, v
2. ng vt trng
77
th ng vt l chim
Lut 4: nu 1. ng vt l loi c v, v
2. ng vt n tht
th ng vt l th n tht
Lut 5: nu 1. ng vt l loi c v, v
2. ng vt c rng nhn, v
3. ng vt c mng vut
th ng vt l th n tht
Lut 6: nu 1. ng vt l th n tht, v
2. ng vt c mu lng vng hung, v
3. ng vt c m sm
th ng vt l bo Chu Phi
Lut 7: nu 1. ng vt l th n tht, v
2. ng vt c mu lng vng hung, v
3. ng vt c vn en
th ng vt l h
Lut 8: nu 1. ng vt l chim, v
2. ng vt khng bit bay, v
3. ng vt c chn di, v
4. ng vt c c di
th ng vt l iu
Lut 9: nu 1. ng vt l chim, v
2. ng vt khng bit bay, v
3. ng vt bit bi, v
4. ng vt c lng en v trng
th ng vt l chim cnh ct
Gi s mt em b quan st mt con vt c tn l Ki trong s th, em thy n c cc c im sau
Ki c lng mao
Ki n tht
Ki c mu lng vng hung
Ki c m sm
Lc ny c s s kin s bao gm cc s kin trn.
Th tc lp lun tin xem xt lut 1. Khi bin ng vt trong lut ny c thay bi Ki,
iu kin ca lut tr thnh Ki c lng mao, y l mt s kin c trong b nh lm vic, do
ta suy ra Ki l loi c v. y l s kin mi, do n c thm vo b nh lm vic. Xt lut
4, th bin ng vt bi Ki, th hai iu kin ca lut tr thnh:
Ki l loi c v, v
Ki n tht
78
C hai s kin ny u c trong b nh lm vic, do t lut 4 ta suy ra Ki l th n
tht. S kin mi ny li c thm vo b nh lm vic. Ta xt tip lut 6, th bin ng vt
bi Ki, cc iu kin ca lut tr thnh:
Ki l loi th n tht, v
Ki c mu lng vng hung, v
Ki c m sm
Tt c cc iu kin ny u ng, do t lut 6, ta suy ra Ki l bo Chu Phi. Nh
vy t cc s kin bit v Ki, lp lun tin suy ra cc s kin mi sau
Ki l loi c v.
Ki l th n tht.
Ki l bo Chu Phi.
3.6.3 Lp lun li
Trong cc h da trn lut, chng ta cn c th s dng phng php lp lun li
(backward chaining hoc backward reasoning).
Trong lp lun li, ngi ta a ra cc gi thuyt cn c nh gi. S dng lp lun li, gi
thuyt a ra hoc l c chng minh, hoc l b bc b (bi cc s kin trong b nh lm vic).
Cn lu rng, chng ta ni gi thuyt c chng minh, hoc b bc b l mun ni ti n c
chng minh, hoc bc b bi tnh trng hin thi ca b nh lm vic. Khi m b nh lm vic
thay i (chng ta thm vo hoc loi b mt s s kin) th mt gi thuyt c chng minh
c th tr thnh b bc b v ngc li.
Qu trnh lp lun li din ra nh sau: Ta i snh gi thuyt a ra vi cc s kin trong
b nh lm vic. Nu c mt s kin khp vi gi thuyt, ( y khp c hiu l hai cu m
t s kin v gi thuyt trng nhau qua mt php th no ), th ta xem nh gi thuyt l ng.
Nu khng c s kin no khp vi gi thuyt, th ta i snh gi thuyt vi phn kt lun ca cc
lut. Vi mi lut m kt lun ca lut khp vi gi thuyt, ta i li li phn iu kin ca lut.
Cc iu kin ny ca lut c xem nh cc gi thuyt mi. Vi gi thuyt mi, ta lp li qu
trnh trn.
Nu tt c cc gi thuyt c sinh ra trong qu trnh pht trin cc gi thuyt bi cc lut
c chn thch hp u c tho mn (u c trong b nh lm vic) th gi thuyt a ra
c xem l ng. Ngc li, d ta p dng lut no pht trin cc gi thuyt cng dn ti cc
gi thuyt khng c trong b nh lm vic v khng th quy gi thuyt ny v cc gi thuyt mi
khc, th gi thuyt a ra c xem l sai.
V d lp lun li. lm sng t t tng ca lp lun li, xt vi d sau.Gi s b nh
lm vic cha cc s kin sau.
Bibi c lng v
Bibi c chn di
Bibi c c di
Bibi khng bit bay
Ta a ra gi thuyt sau y
Bibi l iu
79
i snh gi thuyt ny vi phn kt lun ca cc lut, ta thy n khp vi kt lun ca
lut 8 nu th bin ng vt bi Bibi. T lut 8, ta suy ra rng, gi thuyt Bibi l iu l
ng, nu cc iu kin sau l ng
1. Bibi l chim
2. Bibi khng bit bay
3. Bibi c chn di
4. Bibi c c di
y l 4 gi thuyt mi. Vic nh gi gi thuyt Bibi l iu c quy v vic nh
gi bn gi thuyt mi ny. Cc gi thuyt 2, 3 v 4 u c trong b nh lm vic, ta ch cn nh
gi gi thuyt Bibi l chim. Li i snh gi thuyt ny vi phn kt lun ca cc lut. Ta thy
n khp vi kt lun ca lut 2 v lut 3. Xt lut 3, i li li phn iu kin ca lut ny, ta nhn
c cc gi thuyt mi l:
Bibi bit bay
Bibi trng
C hai gi thuyt ny u khng c trong b nh lm vic v cng khng khp vi phn
kt lun ca lut no c. Do , ta khng th pht trin tip cc gi thuyt ny c na. Chuyn
sang xt lut 2, Bibi l chim lut ny i hi iu kin Bibi c lng v. iu kin ny c
trong b nh lm vic. Vy gi thuyt a ra Bibi l iu l ng.
Lp lun li nhm chng minh mt gi thuyt. Chnh v th m lp lun li cn c gi
l lp lun nh hng mc ch (goal - ariented reasoning).
3.6.4 Lp lun tng t nh tm kim trn th v/hoc
C th biu din lp lun bi th v/hoc. Mi lut nu - th dng u c dng
nu P
1
v P
2
... v P
m
th Q
C th xy ra nhiu lut khc nhau c cng phn kt lun. Chng hn, c hai lut cho kt
lun Q, mt lut gm ba iu kin P
1
, P
2
, P
3
, mt lut gm hai iu kin S
1
, S
2
. Hon cnh ny
c biu din bi th trong hnh 3.8.

nh "hoc" Q
P
1 P
2
P
3
S
1
S
2

Hnh 3.8 Biu din th ca lut

Bng cch biu din cc lut bi th nh trn. T c s lut, ta xy dng th
v/hoc. Khi lp lun li c th xem nh qu trnh tm kim trn th v/hoc c xy dng
nn t c s lut. Qu trnh tm kim xut pht t nh khp vi gi thuyt cn nh gi.
Vic tm kim xc nh mt gi thuyt l ng hay sai hon ton tng t nh vic tm
kim trn th v/hoc xc nh mt nh ng vi bi ton cho l gii c hay khng gii
80
c. Nu gi thuyt c chng minh l ng th chng ta s tm c cy chng minh ging
nh tm cy nghim cho bi ton cn gii
Th tc lp lun tin
Nh chng ta ni, trong cc h da trn lut, chng ta s tch c s tri thc thnh hai phn
C s lut, k hiu l RB (Rule Base), v
C s s kin (b nh lm vic), k hiu l FB (Fact Base)
Vi mi lut R:
Nu P
1
v P
2
... P
m
th Q
k hiu Conds l danh sch cc iu kin ca lut, Conds = [P
1
, P
2
, ..., P
m
], v k hiu Conc l kt
lun ca lut, Conc = Q. Ta xem mi lut R nh mt cp danh sch cc iu kin v mt kt lun:
R = (Conds(R), Conc(R))
Trong th tc lp lun tin, chng ta s s dng lut suy din sau
' ' ' '
1
'
1
1
,
Q P P P P
S
Q P P P
m i i
m i

trong , P
i
hp nht vi S bi php th , tc:
P
i
= S, v
k k
P P =
'
(k = 1, ..., m; k i), Q

= Q.
Lut suy din trn cho php ta t mt lut c m iu kin, mt trong cc iu kin
khp vi mt s kin suy ra mt lut mi c m - 1 iu kin. Do nu lut c m iu kin, th
bng cch p dng lut suy din tin m ln (nu c th) ta suy ra c mt s kin. S kin ny l
kt qu ca vic p dng php th bin vo kt lun ca lut.
3.6.6 Th tc For_chain
Th tc sau y, th tc For_Chair, thc hin qu trnh p dng lut suy din nu trn
gim bt s iu kin ca mt lut trong c s lut. Khi m ta dn ti mt lut c phn iu kin
rng tc l ta suy ra mt s kin. Trong th tc For_Chain, lut R = (Conds, Conc) l bin a
phng ca th tc, Conds = [P
1
, ..., P
i
, ..., P
m
]

Ch . Trong th tc trn, th tc Add(Conc,FB) thc hin kim tra kt lun conc c l s
kin mi khng (tc l khng c s kin no trong c s s kin FB trng vi Conc hoc nhn
c t Conc bng cch t tn li cc bin), nu Conc l s kin mi th n c t vo FB.
procedure For_Chain (conds, conc);
begin
for mi S trong FB do
if S hp nht vi iu kin P
i
trong Conds bi php th
then {
Conds [P
1
, ..., P
i-1
, P
i+1
, ..., P
m
];
Conc Conc ;
if Conds rng then Add(Conc, FB)
else For_Chain(Conds, Conc);
}
end;
81
Qu trnh lp lun tin l qu trnh p dng th tc trn cho cc lut trong c s lut cho
ti khi no khng c s kin mi no xut hin. Ta c th tc sau:

V d. Gi s c s lut cha lut sau (lut m)
nu
1. x l nga, v
2. x m ca y, v
3. y chy nhanh
th x c gi
C s s kin gm cc s kin sau
Tom l nga
Ken l nga
Kit l nga
Bin l nga
Tom l m ca Bin
Tom l m ca Ken
Bin l m ca Kit.
Kit chy nhanh.
Bin chy nhanh.
Bng cch s dng cc v t House(x) (x l nga), Mother(x, y) (x l m ca y), Fast(y) (y
chy nhanh), Valuable(x) (x c gi), ta c th vit lut trn li thnh cu:
House(x) Mother(x, y) Fast(y) Valuable(x)
C s s kin gm cc cu phn t sau
House(Tom) (1)
House(Ken) (2)
House(Kit) (3)
House(Bin) (4)
Mother(Tom, Bin) (5)
Mother(Tom, Ken) (6)
Mother(Bin, Kit) (7)
Fast(Kit) (8)
Fast(Bin) (9)
Xt qu trnh s din ra nh th no khi ta p dng th tc For_chain cho lut m v FB
gm cc s kin (1) - (9).
procedure Forward_Reasoning (RB, FB);
begin
repeat
for mi lut (conds, conc) trong FB do For_Chain(Conds, Conc);
until khng c lut no sinh ra s kin mi;
end;
82
S kin (1) khp vi iu kin th nht ca lut bi php th [x/Tom], t lut m ta suy ra
Mother(Tom, y) Fast(y) Valuable(Tom)
S kin (5) hp nht vi iu kin Mother(Tom/y) bi php th [y/ Bin], ta suy ra
Fast(Bin) Valuable(Tom)
T s kin (9) v ko theo trn, ta suy ra Valuable(Tom).
S kin (2) cng hp nht vi iu kin th nht ca lut, do ta suy ra
Mother(Ken, y) Fast(y) Valuable(Ken)
Ti y ta khng suy din tip c, v khng c s kin no hp nht c vi iu kin
Mother(Ken, y). iu tng t cng xy ra, khi m bin x trong lut m c th bi Kit.
T s kin (4) v lut m, ta suy ra
Mother(Bin, y) Fast(y) Valuable(Bin)
S kin (7) hp nht vi iu kin Mother(Bin, y), t ta suy ra
Fast(Kit) Valuable(Bin)
T ko theo ny v s kin (8), ta suy ra Valuable(Bin). Nh vy p dng th tc
For_chain cho lut m, chng ta suy ra c hai s kin mi l Tom c gi v Bin c gi.
3.7 CC H C S TRI THC V CC H CHUYN GIA
Tn ti nhiu h c s tri thc nh: cc h chuyn gia, H h tr quyt nh, H hc
(Learning), H logic m; Mng (li) tnh ton, H tch hp c s d liu v c s tri thc
v.v Trong phm vi ti liu ny, chng ta ch c th xem xt mt vi h in hnh nh: H
h tr ra quyt nh, H chun gia Y hc MYCIN, h da lut. Cc h thng khc co th tm
c [11, 8]

3.7.1 H h tr ra quyt nh v h thng thng tin
H h tr ra quyt nh c Michael S. Sc Morton xut vo nhng nm 1070. H
gm mt s phn chnh nh: phn mm my tnh; chc nng h tr ra quyt nh; d liu giao
dch, cc m hnh. C nhng c th ring gia h h tr ra quyt nh v h thng thng tin. C
th nh sau:.
H thng thng tin c cc tnh cht.
Tp trung vo thng tin, hng n cc nh qun l cp iu hnh.
Lm vic vi dng thng tin c cu trc
Cc h h tr quyt nh c cc tnh cht:
Hng n cc quyt nh, cc nh lnh o
Tnh uyn chuyn, thch ng vi hon cnh v phn ng nhanh
Do ngi dng khi ng v kim sot
H tr cc quyt nh cc nhn ca nh lnh o
Bng di y cung cp mt s h h tr ra quyt nh c xy dng v ng dng:




83
Tn L nh v c ng d ng
GADS
Geodata Analysis Display
System
Phn tch v cung c p t i
nguyn a l

PMS
Portfolio Management System
T v n v qu n tr u t
IRIS
Industrial Relations
Information
Phn tch ch t l ng v b tr
nhn l c trong s n xu t
PROJECTOR Ho ch nh k ho ch t i chnh
IFPS
Interactive Financial Planning
System
Phn tch t i chnh, gi th nh,
s n ph m
BRANDAID Phn tch th tr ng, ngn
sch, qu ng co

Hnh 3.9: Mt s h h tr ra quyt nh

3.7.2. Cc thnh phn ca mt h ra h tr quyt nh
Mt cch hnh dung v cc thnh phn ca mt h h tr ra quyt nh (DDS decision
support system) (Hnh 3.10) v quan h gia chng l s dng cc khi nim i thoi (dialog),
d liu (data) m m hnh (model). i vi nhng ngi thit k h thng DDS cng nh nhng
ngi s dng h thng, iu quan trng l hiu c cc thnh phn ny c thit k nh th
no. Ngi s dng cn phi bit c th yu cu ci g DDS. Ngi thit k phi bit c DDS
c th cung cp ci g.














Hnh 3.10. cc thnh phn ca mt h h tr ra quyt nh






D
liu
giao
dch
Ti
chnh

Sn
xut

Tip
th

Nhn
s

Cc
loi khc
D liu
ni
(internal)



D liu da
Trn ti liu
(document -
based)


D liu ngoi
(external)
M hnh
chin lc


M hnh
chin thut

M hnh
hot ng

M hnh cc
th tc
(subroutine)

H
qun
tr
c s
d
liu
H
qun
tr da
trn
m
hnh
Thnh phn i thoi
Ngi ra quyt nh
84
Cc k thut mi c nhiu nh hng n cc thnh phn i thoi, d liu, v m hnh;
v d nh giao din ho hay c s d liu quan h. Ngoi ra tr tu nhn to cng cung cp cc
kh nng biu din v s dng m hnh trong nhng hnh thc mi.
3.7.3 H h chuyn gia H MYCIN
M u
MYCIN l mt h lp lun trong y hc c hon tt vo nm 1970 ti i hc Standford,
Hoa K. y l mt h chuyn gia da trn lut v s kin. MYCIN s dng c ch lp lut gn
ng x l cc lut suy din da trn o chc chn. Tip theo sau MYCIN, h EMYCIN ra
i, EMYCIN l mt h chuyn gia tng qut c to lp bng cch loi phn c s tri thc ra
khi h MYCIN, EMYCIN cung cp mt c ch lp lun v tu theo bi ton c th s b sung tri
thc ring ca bi ton to thnh h chuyn gia.

L thuyt v s chc chn dng cho h chuyn gia
L thuyt v s chc chn da trn s ln quan st. u tin theo l thuyt xc sut c
in th tng s ca s tin tng v s phn bc mt quan h phi l 1. Tuy vy trong thc t cc
chuyn gia li gn cho kt lun ca h nhng mnh i loi nh c v ng. gn ng,
ng khong 70%
L thuyt v s chc chn dng o chn chn lng nh nhng mnh trn v
cung cp mt s lut nhm kt hp cc o chc chn dn n kt lun. Trc khi tm hiu
o chc chn, chng ta xt s tin cy v s phn bc mt quan h.
Gi MB(H/E) l o s tin cy ca gi thuyt khi c chng c E.
MD(H/E) l o s khng tin cy v gi thuyt khi c chng c E.
Th th:
0 < MB(H/E) < 1 khi MD(H/E) = 0
0 < MD(H/E) <1 khi MB(H/E) = 0
o chc chn CF(H/E) c tnh bng cng thc:
CF(H/E) = MB(H/E) MD(H/E)
Khi gi tr ca o chc chn tin dn v 1 th chng c bin minh cho gi thuyt nhiu
hn
Khi gi tr ca o chc chn tin dn v -1 th chng c phn bc gi thuyt nhiu hn.
Khi CF c gi tr 0 c ngha l c rt t chng c bin minh hay phn bc gi thuyt.
Khi cc chuyn gia to ra cc lut suy din, h phi cung cp o chc chn ca lut. T
rong qu trnh lp lun, chng ta s thu nhn c o chc chn ca chng c v da
vo hai o chc chn trn tnh c o chc chn ca gi thuyt ( cn c gi l kt
lun).
Lut n gin
Lut n gin c dng sau:
If(e) then (c)
Gi CF(e) l o chc chn ca chng c.
CF(r) l o chc chn ca lut suy din
Th th CF(c) l o chc chn ca kt lun s c tnh bng cng thc:
CF(c) = CF(e) * CF(r)
Cng thc ny chnh l nn tng cho c ch lp lun ca MYCIN.
Lp lun phc tp
Trong thc t chng ta c th gp cc lut phc tp nh sau:
85
IF (e1 AND e2) then (c)
Ton t AND c dng lin kt chng c e1 v e2. Lc by gi ta c:
CF (e1 END e2) = MIN (CF(e1),CF(e2))
Vi lut c dng OR nh sau:
If (e1 OR e2) then (c)
Th CF (e1 OR e2) = MAX( CF(e1),CF(e2))
Vi lut c dng AND v OR nh sau:
If ((e1 AND e2) OR e3) then (c)
Th CF ((e1 AND e2) OR e3) = MAX (MIN(CF(e1),CF(e2),CF(e3))
Ngoi ra o chc chn c dng NOT c tnh nh sau:
CF (NOT e) = - CF (e)
Sau khi tnh c o chc chn ca chng c lin kt, ta dng cng thc nu trong mc Lut
n gin tnh CF kt lun.
3.7.3 Cc h thng d lut
Trong cc h da trn lut, chng ta cn c th s dng phng php lp lun li. Lp
lun li cho php ta tm ra cc php th bin m gi thuyt a ra tr thnh ng (l h qu logic
ca c s tri thc). Do trong h da trn lut chng ta c th s dng lp lun li tm ra cc
cu tr li cho cc cu hi c t ra bi ngi s dng.
Mt cu hi t ra c th xem nh mt gi thuyt (k hiu l Hyp) cn kim tra. Gi thuyt c th
l mt cu phn t hoc l hi ca cc cu phn t:
Hyp = H
1
H
m

trong H
i
(i = 1, ..., m) l cc cu phn t.
Mc ch ca chng ta l kim chng xem gi thuyt c th tr thnh ng khng, v nu c th
vi cc php th bin no n tr thnh ng.
Chng ta s x l Hyp nh mt danh sch cc gi thuyt H
i
:
Hyp = [H
1
, ..., H
m
]
Chng ta s xt mi lut
Q P P
m

1

nh mt cp (conds, conc); trong Conds l danh sch cc iu kin ca lut.
Conds = [P
1
, ..., P
m
]
v Conc l kt lun ca lut, Conc = Q.
Mt s kin S (cu phn t) c xem nh mt lut khng c iu kin, tc l Conds = [ ] v
Conc = S.
T tng ca phng php lp lun li l nh sau. Vi mi gi thuyt trong danh sch cc gi
thuyt, ta tm nhng lut c phn kt lun hp nht vi gi thuyt . Nu lut ny l mt s kin
th ta loi b gi thuyt ang xt khi danh sch cc gi thuyt. Nu khng th ta xem cc iu
kin ca lut l cc gi thuyt mi xut hin v gi thuyt ang xt c thay bi cc gi thuyt
mi . Khi ta nhn c mt danh sch cc gi thuyt mi. Lp li qu trnh trn cho danh
sch cc gi thuyt mi ny. Trong qu trnh trn ta lu li hp thnh ca cc php th s dng
. Nu ti mt bc no , danh sch cc gi thuyt tr thnh rng, th ta kt lun gi thuyt ban
u l ng vi php th bin .
86
Sau y l th tc suy din li. Trong th tc ny, Hyp v l cc bin a phng trong
th tc. Gi tr ban u ca Hyp l danh sch cc gi thuyt ban u (biu din cu hi c t
ra), cn gi tr ban u ca l php th rng.
procedure Backward_Chaining (Hyp, );
begin
H gi thuyt u tin trong danh sch Hyp;
for mi lut R = (conds, Q) do
if H hp nht vi Q bi php th
1
then
1. Loi H khi danh sch Hyp;
2. Thm cc iu kin ca lut Conds vo danh sch Hyp;
3. p dng php th
1
vo cc gi thuyt trong danh sch Hyp;
4. Ly hp thnh ca cc php th v
1
nhn c php th mi, tc l

1
;
5. if Hyp = [ ] then cho ra
else Backward_Chaining (Hyp, );
end;
Trong th tc lp lun li, mi c cho ra l mt php th bin lm cho gi thuyt ban u tr
thnh ng, tc l (Hyp) = H
1
... H
m
l ng (l h qu logic ca c s tri thc). Do
mi php th bin c cho ra bi th tc l mt cu tr li cho cu hi t ra.
V d. Gi s c s tri thc cha cc s kin sau
House(Tom) (Tom l nga) (1)
House(Ken) (2)
House(Kit) (3)
House(Bin) (4)
Mother(Tom, Bin) (Tom l m Bin) (5)
Mother(Tom, Ken) (6)
Mother(Bin, Kit) (7)
Fast(Kit) (Kit chy nhanh) (8)
Winner(Bin) (Bin thng cuc) (9)
Gi s c s tri thc cha hai lut sau
House(x) Mother(x, y) Fast(y) Valuable(x) (10)
(nu 1. x l nga, v
2. x l m y, v
3. y chy nhanh
th x c gi )
Winner(z) Fast(z) (11)
(nu z thng cuc th x chy nhanh)
Cu hi t ra l: con nga no c gi ?
87
Gi thuyt ban u Hyp = [Valuable(w)] v = [ ]. Gi thuyt Valuable(w) hp nht c vi kt
lun ca lut (10) bi php th
1
= [w/x], do ta nhn c danh sch cc gi thuyt mi
Hyp = [House(x), Mother(x, y), Fast(y)]
v =
1
= [w/x]
Gi thuyt House(x) hp nht c vi s kin (1) bi php th
1
= [x/Tom], ta nhn c danh
sch cc gi thuyt mi
Hyp = [Mother(x, y), Fast(y)]
v = [w/x][x/Tom] = [w/Tom]
Gi thuyt Mother(Tom, y) hp nht c vi s kin (5) bi php th
1
= [y/Bin], ta nhn c
danh sch cc gi thuyt
Hyp = [Fast(y)]
v = [w/Tom][y/Bin] = [w/Tom, y/Bin]
Gi thuyt Fast(Bin) hp nht c vi kt lun ca lut (11) bi php th [z/Bin], do ta c
Hyp = [Winner(Bin)]
v = [w/Tom, y/Bin, z/Bin]
Gi thuyt Winner(Bin) trng vi s kin (9) (hp nht c bi php th
1
= []). Do danh
sch cc gi thuyt tr thnh rng vi php th = [w/Tom, y/Bin, z/Bin]. Nh vy vi php th
ny th gi thuyt Valuable(w) tr thnh ng, hay ni cch khc, Tom l con nga c gi.
T cc lut c s dng trong qu trnh lp lun trn, v t php th thu c, ta c th xy
dng nn cy chng minh cho Valuable(Tom) (xem hnh 3.11).
Valuable(tom)
Horse(tom) Mother(tom, bin) Fast(Bin)
Winner(Bin)

Hnh 3.11 Cy chng minh cho Valuable(Tom)
Chng ta cn tm c mt php th bin khc = [w/Bin, y/Kit] cho Valuable(w) tr
thnh ng. Do , ta tm ra Tom v Bin l cc con nga c gi.
3.8 CC NGN NG LP TRNH THNG MINH
Hin nay c nhiu h lp trnh logic ra i m tiu biu l Prolog. Prolog l vit tt ca cm t
ting Php Programmation en Logique
H Prolog u tin ra i vo nm 1973 do Alain Colmerauer v nhm tr tu nhn to thuc i
hc tng hp Aix-Marseilie, Php xy dng. Mc ch ban u ca h ny l dch cc ngn ng
t nhin. Nm 1977, David Warren thuc i hc tng hp Edinburgh ci t mt phin bn
ca Prolog, mang tn l Prolog-10. Nm 1981, ngi Nht tin b s dng Prolog nh ngn
ng c bn cho my tnh th h th nm. Hin nay c nhiu h Prolog khc nhau v tc ,
88
mi trng lm vic, ..., song phn ln cc h ny tng thch vi Prolog-10, Prolog-10 c
cng nhn nh Prolog chun.
Prolog c s dng nh mt cng c phn mm pht trin cc h thng minh. N c
p dng trong nhiu lnh vc tr tu nhn to: gii quyt vn , cc h chuyn gia, biu din tri
thc, lp k hoch, x l ngn ng t nhin, hc my, ...
Trong cc ngn ng lp trnh truyn thng (chng hn, Pascal, C, ...) mt chng trnh l mt dy
cc lnh m my cn thc hin. Ngi lp trnh vit mt chng trnh trong cc ngn ng
truyn thng, phi da vo thut ton c v cch biu din d liu lp ra mt dy cc lnh
ch dn cho my cn phi thc hin cc hnh ng no.
iu khc nhau cn bn ca lp trnh Prolog so vi lp trnh truyn thng l:
Trong Prolog ngi lp trnh m t vn bng cc cu trong logic.
H s s dng lp lun logic tm ra cc cu tr li cho vn .
Do mt chng trnh Prolog l s c t ca mt vn . V l do ny Prolog l ngn ng lp
trnh khai bo (declarative language). Trong Prolog, ch c php s dng cc cu Horn, tc l
mi cu hoc l cu phn t, hoc l mt lut nu - th m cc iu kin ca lut v kt lun ca
lut u l cu phn t. Mt chng trnh Prolog gm mt dy cc lut c dng:
A :- B
1
, ..., B
m
trong , m 0, A v B
i
(i = 1, ..., m) l cc cu phn t. Lut trn c c l A nu B
1
v ... v
B
m
. N l cch vit trong Prolog ca logic mnh sau:
A B B
m

1

Trong lut trn, A c gi l u, danh sch cc cu B
i
(B
1
, ..., B
m
) c gi l thn ca lut.
Nu m=0, k hiu :- s c b i, khi ta c cu phn t A v n c gi l mt s kin.
V d. Gi s chng ta bit cc thng tin sau y v An v Ba.
An yu thch mi mn th thao m cu chi.
Bng l mn th thao.
Bng bn l mn th thao.
An chi bng .
Ba yu thch mi th m An yu thch.
Cc cu trn c chuyn thnh mt chng trnh Prolog nh sau
likes(an, X) :- sport(X), plays(an, X)
sport(football).
sport(tennis).
plays(an, football).
likes(ba, Y) :- likes(an, Y).
Vi chng trnh Prolog trn (n m t s thch th thao ca An v Ba), ta c th t ra cc cu
hi, chng hn An yu thch ci g ?. Cu hi ny c vit trong Prolog nh sau.
? - likes(an, X).
Khi a vo mt cu hi, h Prolog s thc hin qu trnh suy din logic tm ra cc cu tr li
cho cu hi. Chng hn, vi cu hi trn Prolog s a ra cu tr li:
X = football
89
iu c ngha l An yu thch bng .
Mt cch tng qut, mt cu hi c dng
? - G
1
, ..., G
n
.
trong , mi G
i
(i = 1, ..., n) l mt cng thc phn t, danh sch (G
1
, ..., G
n
) c gi l ch,
cc G
i
(i = 1, ..., n) c gi l ch con. Nu n = 0, ta c ch rng, k hiu l .
n y chng ta mun bit, lm th no m Prolog tm ra cc cu tr li cho cc cu hi? Mt
chng trnh Prolog c th xem nh mt CSTT. Th tc tm cu tr li ca Prolog l mt cch ci
t phng php lp lun li m chng ta trnh by mc 7.4. Trong cch ci t phng php
lp lun li ny, ngi ta s dng k thut tm kim theo chiu su. Cc cu trong Prolog c
xt theo th t t trn xung di. Cc ch con c xem xt tho mn theo th t t tri
sang phi. Ngoi ra, th tc lp lun ca Prolog cn cho php ngi lp trnh s dng v t cut
khi cn thit m bo chng trnh ng n v hiu qu.
Mt c im na ca Prolog l, thay cho vic s dng cc cu l ph nh ca cc cu phn t.
Prolog a vo v t not biu din ph nh nh tht bi (negation as failure). iu c ngha
l not(P) c xem l ng nu ta tht bi trong vic tm mt chng minh P ng. Tc l, vi
CSTT hin c, ta khng tm c mt php thay th bin no P tr thnh h qu logic ca
CSTT. Sau y l mt v d s dng v t not.
likes(an, X) :- animal(X), not(snaker(X)).
Bn c mun tm hiu su hn v cc k thut lp trnh Prolog v cc ng dng trong Tr tu
nhn to, c th tm c cc ti liu [ ] v [ ].
CU HI V BI TP
Bai 1. Cho {(a b)c, (b c)d, (a b)}. Hi d ?
Bai 2. Cho {pq , qr}. Hi pr?
Bai 3. Cho {(a b)c,(b c)d,d}. Cm ab ?
Bai 4 Cho{p q)r , (p r)s , p.q} Hi r ?..
Bai 5 Cm t {(p q) r, ( q r) s, s} Hi p q ?
Bai 6. Cho { p v q , q v r , r v s, u v s} Hi p,u
Bai 7. Cho{pq , qr , rs , p} Hi p s?
Bi 8: Cho tp mnh :
a) ng T n to
b) ng T n cam
c) Cam l thc n
d) Mn n m ngi n khng cht (sng) gi l thc n
e) ng T ang sng
f) Hi to c phi l thc n?
Hy: 1. Dng logic vi t m t cc mnh trn
2. Dng thut ton Havard (hoc Robinson gii.
Bi 9 Cho tp quan h (hm) trong tam gic:
g) a/sin= b/sin
90
h) c/sin= b/sin
i) ) )( )( ( c p b p a p p S =
j) ++=
k) S= h
c
*c
Hy 1. Dng mng ng ngha m t cc mi quan h gia bin v hm
2. Dng thut ton vt du loang tm li gii
91
CHNG 4: X L NGN NG T NHIN
4.1 X L NGN NG T NHIN V TR TU NHN TO
4.1.1 S tin ha ca ngn ng
Vn hiu c li ni hnh ng ging nh vic hiu cc vn khc, tng t nh
vic hiu hnh nh hoc chn on y hc. Chng ta a ra mt tp cc u vo a ngha v t
chng ta lm ngc li quyt nh trng thi no ca th gii c th c to ra u vo. Hiu
c vn ca li ni hnh ng l phn c t ca ngn ng. Mt phn ca hiu vn c th
gii thch bng cc l do logic. Chng ta nhn thy rng cc chui logic lin kt li l cch tt
m t cch m cc t v cc cm t phi hp to ra mt cm t ln. Phn khc ca vic hiu
vn c th ch c gii thch bi cc l do k thut khng r rng. Thng thng c nhiu
trng thi ca th gii m tt c u hng dn n mt li ni hnh ng tng t, v vy ngi
hiu phi quyt nh ci m n d xy ra hn.
4.1.2 C s ca ngn ng
Mt ngn ng hnh thc c nh ngha nh mt tp cc chui k t, trong mi chui
k t l mt chui cc biu tng c ly ra t mt tp hu hn c gi l biu tng terminal.
Mt trong nhng phin toi khi lm vic vi c ngn ng t nhin v ngn ng hnh thc l c
qu nhiu s khc bit hnh thc v k hiu cho vic vit ng php. Tuy nhin, hu ht chng u
tng t nh cch m chng cn c vo tng ca cu trc cm t - cc chui k t c son
tho ca cc chui k t c s c gi l cm t, dn n cc phm tr khc nhau. Cc phm tr
nh cm danh t, cm ng t, cu c gi l biu tng nonterminal. Trong k php BNF quy
lut vit ph hp ca biu tng nonterminal n bn tri v lin kt ca u cui hoc khng
u cui vit bn phi. Quy lut c vit nh trong v d sau:
S NP VP
C ngha l chng ta c th em bt k cm t NP thm vo sau bt k cm t VP v kt
qu l mt cm t dng cu.
Cc bc thnh phn ca giao tip:
Mt on giao tip in hnh, trong ngi ni S mun truyn t li thng bo P n
ngi nghe H s dng t W, c sp xp trong 7 tin trnh. Ba bc i vi ngi ni:
Mc ch : S mun H tin P (trong S c bit tin P)
Pht sinh : S chn t W (bi v chng nhn mnh ngha ca P)
Tng hp : S pht m t W ( thng chuyn thng chng n H)
Bn bc i vi ngi nghe
Nhn thc : H nhn thc W( W=W, nhng mt nhn thc l c th)
Phn tch : H suy lun W c th mang cc ngha P1,Pn (t v cm t c th c
nhiu ngha)
ngha ha : H suy lun rng S c nh truyn t Pi (trong ngha Pi=P, nhng
s mt gii thch l c th)
Hp nht : H quyt nh tin tng vo Pi, (hoc loi b n nu n khng c H
chc chn tin tng)
92
4.1.3 Kh nng pht sinh
Ng php hnh thc c th c phn loi bi kh nng pht sinh ca chng: tp cc ngn
ng m chng c th trnh by. Chomsky (1957) m t bn lp ca ng php hnh thc suy lun.
Cc lp ny c sp xp trong mt trt t th bc, trong mi lp c th c m t bi t nht
mt lp c quyn, ging nh vic c th thm vi ngn ng vo. Di y l danh sch cc lp
theo cp bc t trn xung di:
Ng php quy lit k s dng quy lut khng gii hn: kch thc ca quy lut vit li
c th cha s lng bt k biu tng terminal v khng u cui. Ng php ny l tng ng
vi my Turing.
Ng php nhy ng cnh c gii hn ch bn phi v phi cha t nht mt s biu
tng pha bn tri. Tn nhy ng cnh xut pht t mt thc t l mt quy lut tng t nh
ASBAXB c ngha l mt S c th c vit li nh l mt X trong ng cnh ca mt A c
trc v mt s ko theo B.
Trong ng php phi ng cnh pha bn phi cha mt biu tng nonterminal n. V
vy mi quy lut cho php vit li khng u cui bn phi trong bt k ng cnh no.
Ng php thng thng l lp c gii hn nht. Ng php thng thng l tng
ng trong my c s trng thi hn ch. Chng khng ph hp lm cho ngn ng lp trnh, v
chng khng th xy dng c cch trnh by ging nh s cn bng ca du m v ng ngoc
n.
a ra cho cc bn mt tng ngn ng no c iu khin bi lp no, ngn ng
anbn (mt chui n bn sao ca a ko theo bi mt s lng tng t ca b) c th c pht sinh
bi ng php phi ng cnh, nhng khng phi l ng php thng thng. Ngn ng yu cu
mt ng php nhy ng cnh, trong khi ngn ng a*b* (mt s phi hp ca bt k mt s ca a
theo sau bi mt s bt k ca b) c th c m t bi mt trong 4 lp trn. Mt bng tm tt ca
4 lp:

Lp Quy lut v d Ngn ng v d
Ng php lit k quy ABC Bt k
Nhy ng cnh ABBA anbncn
Ng cnh t do S a S b anbn
Thng thng S a S a*b*


Vn ni v nghe.
Mc ch: Bng cch ny hay cch khc ngi ni quyt nh rng s c mt s ci m n
ng ni vi ngi nghe. iu ny thng bao gm c c tin v mc ch ca ngi nghe v
th khi ni s c s tc dng ao c. Trong v d ca chng ta ngi ni c mc ch cho ngi
nghe bit wumpus khng cn sng na.
S pht sinh: Ngi ni s dng kin thc v ngn ng quyt nh xem ni nh th
no. Trong nhiu cch s kh khn hn vic lt ngc vn ca s hiu bit (v d nh phn
tch v chuyn thnh ngha). S pht sinh ny khng b p nhiu nh s hiu bit trong tr tu
nhn to, ch yu bi v con ngi chng ta hay bn khon khi ni vi my, nhng li khng b
kch ng khi chng ni li. By gi chng ta ch cho rng ngi nghe c th chn t the
wumpus is dead.
93
Tng hp: Hu ht cc ngn ng u cn c vo dng h thng phn tch u ra ca tr tu
nhn to trn mn hnh hoc trn giy. Tng hp li ni ang c pht trin rng ri v mt vi
h thng bt u nghe ting ngi. Chi tit ca k php khng quan trng, iu ny c ngha l
m thanh c phn tch rt khc vi t c nhn vt pht sinh. Mc d cc t phi i lin vi
nhau, y l mt c im ca vic ni nhanh.
Nhn thc. Bnh thng l li ni, bc nhn thc c gi l nhn dng li ni, khi n c
a ra my in, n c gi l nhn dng c im quang hc. C hai u chuyn n ngi quan
tm. Chng hn, chng ta cho rng ngi nghe nhn thc c m thanh v thu li hon ton li
ni.
Phn tch. Chng ta phn tch chng thnh hai phn chnh: cch hiu v c php (hay phn tch
c php) v s gii thch v ng ngha. S gii thch v ng ngha bao gm c vic hiu ngha ca
t v hp nht kin thc ca tnh hung hin ti (cng c gi l s gii thch thc t).
Phn tch c php t. Xut pht t cm t Latin par orationis, hoc part of speech v m ch
s chuyn nhng mt phn ca li ni (danh t, ng t) n mi t trong cu v nhm cc t
trong cm t.
Mt cy phn tch t loi l mt cy m bn trong cc nt tng ng vi cc cm t, lin kt vi
cc ng dng ca quy lut ng php, v cc nt l tng ng vi cc t. Nu chng ta nh ngha
s lng ca mt nt nh l mt danh sch tt c cc l bn di ca nt theo th t t tri
sang phi. Khi , chng ta c th ni rng ngha ca mt cy phn tch t loi l mi nt, vi
nhn X xc nh s lng ca nt l mt cm t ca phm tr X.
Gii thch ng ngha l qu trnh rt ra ngha ca mt li ni ca mt s din t trong mt s
trnh din ngn ng. Chng ta s dng logic nh s trnh din ngn ng, nhng s trnh din ngn
ng khc khng c s dng.
Gii thch thc t l mt phn ca s gii thch v ng ngha m n mang tnh hung hin thi
vo bng m t.
Chuyn thnh ngha. Hu ht cc ngi ni u khng c ni a ngha, nhng hu ht li ni
u c nhiu s gii thch hp l. Giao tip lm vic bi v ngi nghe lm vic nh hnh mt
ngha m ngi nghe hu nh chc chn truyn t. ch rng y l ln u tin chng s dng
t hu nh chc chn v vic chuyn thnh ngha ny l tin trnh u tin m n ph thuc rt
nhiu vo l do khng chc chn. Phn tch s gii thch c th: nu c nhiu hn mt s gii
thch c tm thy, khi vic chuyn thnh ngha s chn ly mt ngha tt nht.
Hp nht.
V tng th, mt nhn vt c th tin vo mi th m anh ta nghe thy, nhng mt ngi thng
minh s xem xt t W v xut pht t s gii thch P
i
nh l mt phn thm vo ca cc bng
chng c cn nhc k lng vi tt c cc bng chng khc chng li P
i
.
Ch rng n ch lm nn cu s dng ngn ng khi cc nhn vt giao tip vi ngi
(a) hiu c ngn ng thng thng, ngi (b) c mt ng cnh m n cn c vo cuc hi thoi
, v ngi (c) t nht c mt phn l tr. Giao tip khng lm vic khi cc nhn vt hon ton
khng hp l,bi v khng c cch no d bo mt nhn vt khng hp l s phn ng li mt
li ni hnh ng.
Hai m hnh ca giao tip
94
Nghin cu ca chng ta v trung tm giao tip l cch m mt nim tin ca nhn vt thay
i vo t v tr li vi nim tin v kin thc c bn ca mt nhn vt khc. C hai cch xem
xt qu trnh ny:
M hnh bn tin m ha
M hnh bn tin m ha ni rng ngi ni xc nh mt nhn nh P trong ngh v m
ha gi ny vo trong t (hoc k hiu) W. Ngi nghe sau s c gng m ha bn tin W
ly li nguyn bn P (v d nh m Morse). Di m hnh ny ngha trong u ngi ni, bn
tin m n c chuyn i m ngi nghe nhn c tt c ngh c s lng tng t. Khi chng
khng ging nhau th nguyn nhn l do ting n trong khi giao tip hoc mt li trong khi m
hay gii m.
M hnh tnh hung giao tip
Hn ch ca bn tin m ha dn n m hnh tnh hung giao tip, l m hnh cho rng
ngha ca mt bn tin ph thuc vo c t ng v c tnh hung m trong cc t c pht m.
Trong m hnh ny, ch cn trong mt php tnh tnh hung, cc hm m v gii m thm vo
mt i s in hnh cho mt tnh hung mi. Bn m t cho s vic m nhng t tng t c th
c rt nhiu ngha cho nhng tnh hung khc nhau.
M hnh tnh hung ngn ng ch ra mt ngun ca giao tip khng thnh cng: nu nh
ngi ni v ngi nghe c nhng tng khc nhau ca tnh hung hin thi c th, khi bn
tin c th khng c thng qua nh nh.

4.1.4 Giao tip s dng ngn ng hnh thc
Hu ht cc i tng giao tip thng qua ngn ng hn l thng qua truy cp trc tip
n kin thc c s. Hnh 4.1 cho mt s giao tip kiu ny. i tng c th thc hin hnh
ng m n sinh ra ngn ng, vi i tng khc c th nhn bit c. Ngn ng giao tip bn
ngoi c th khc so vi ngn ng m t bn trong, mi i tng c th c ngn ng bn trong
khc nhau. Chng khng cn thit phi ng trn bt k mt k hiu bn trong no min l mi
mt i tng c th v mt bn ng tin cy t ngn ng bn ngoi n k hiu bn trong ca
chnh n.








Hnh 4.1 Hai i tng giao tip vi ngn ng

Mt ngn ng giao tip bn ngoi mang theo vn tng hp v giao tip, v nhiu n
lc trong x l ngn ng t nhin dn n vic quyt nh mt thut ton cho hai bc trn.
Nhng vn kh khn nht ca giao tip vi ngn ng vn l vn : s ph hp kin thc c
bn ca nhng i tng khc nhau. i tng A ni nh th no v lm sao i tng B dch
c trng thi ph thuc ch yu trn nhng g m A v B thc s tin tng (bao gm nhng g
m chng tin v nim tin ln nhau ca chng). iu ny c ngha l nhng i tng m chng c
nhn thc Hnh ng

KB
Reasoning
Agent A
Hnh ng nhn thc

KB
Reasoning
Agent B
Ngn ng
95
cng ngn ng bn trong v bn ngoi s c mt thi gian d dng tng hp v phn tch,
nhng chng vn phi tm hiu quyt nh phi ni vi nhau nh th no.
Trong phn ny chng ta xem xt vic pht trin t lnh vc tr chi sang cc h thng
thc c hiu qu trong cc cng vic v ngn ng. Chng ta cng thy mt vi k thut dch
cc cu t mt tp hp ting Anh n gin. c vn l:
Cc ng dng thc t: cc cng vic v ngn ng t nhin c chng minh c hiu qu.
X l bi lun: vn nm bt on vn c nhiu cu.
Hiu qu ca vic phn tch ng php: cc thut ton phn tch c php v dch cc cu
nhanh.
Tng cng v thut ng: quan tm ti cc t khng thng dng hoc khng bit.
Tng cng v ng php: quan tm ti cc ng php phc tp.
Dch theo ngha: mt s vn cn dch theo ngha hn l dch theo cc hm n gin.
Ng ngha: cch chn php dch ng.
Chng ta bt u xem xt cc h thng thnh cng trong vic a ngn ng t nhin
vo ng dng thc t. Cc h thng ny u c chung hai tnh cht: mt l chng u tp chung
vo mt lnh vc nht nh ch khng cho phi l tt c, hai l chng ch tp chung vo mt nhin
v c th ch khng i hi hiu ton b ngn ng.
4.2 X L V HIU VN BN
4.2.1 Truy nhp c s d liu
Lnh vc u tin thnh cng i vi vic x l ngn ng t nhin l truy cp CSDL. Vo
nm 1970, nhiu CSDL trong cc my tnh KHUNG CHNH (mainframe), nhng ch truy cp
c bng cch vit cc chng trnh hon thin bng cc ngn ng kh hiu. Nhn vin phc v
trong cc my mainframe khng th p ng tt c cc i hi ca ngi s dng, cn ngi s
dng khng mun hc cch lp trnh. Giao din ngn ng t nhin c a ra gii quyt vn
ny. u tin l giao din ca h thng LUNAR, mt phng thc c xy dng bi William
Woods (1973) v nhm ca mnh cho trung tm NASA. N cho php, v d, mt nh a cht hi
v d liu ho hc ca cc mu t trn mt trng c mang v t tu Apollo. H thng ny
khng th s dng th gii thc, nhng trong mt kim nghim n thnh cng 78% cc cu hi
nh l:
What is the average model plagioclase concentration for lunar samples that contain
rubidium?
H thng s Fernando Pereiras (Pereira, 1983) l mt h thng tng ng. N tr
li nh sau v cc cu hi v CSDL a l nh:
Q: Which countries are bounded by two seas?
A: Egypt, Iran, Israel, Saudi Arabia and Turkey.
Q: Whats are the counties from which a river flows into Black sea?
A: Romania, Soviet Union.
Thun li ca cc h thng nh vy mang li r rng. Nhng c bt li l ngi s dng
khng bit khi no thnh cng v nhng t no nm ngoi h thng. Vo cui th k trc, mt
vi h thng thng mi xy dng mt s lng ln cc t, ng php p ng din rng cc
vn bn. Cnh bo chnh trong cc h thng hin ti l s tc ng qua li ln nhau. Ngi s
96
dng s hi mt dy cc cu hi m c mt s cu hi li lin quan n cc cu hi hoc tr
li truc . V d:
What countries are north of the equator?
How about south?
Show only the ones outside Australasia?
What is their total area?
Mt s h thng coi vn nh gii hn.
Trong nhng nm 1990, nhiu cng ty nh Natural Language Inc. v Symatec vn bn cc
cng c truy cp d liu s dng ngn ng t nhin, nhng nhng khch hng khng thch mua
sn phm da trn ngn ng t nhin hn l cc giao din ho. Ngn ng t nhin khng phi
l con ng t nhin nht (v d chut v click).
4.2.2 Thu thp thng tin
Thu thp thng tin l ly t mt vn bn ra mt s d liu ph hp vi mt cu hi. Mt
s ti liu c miu t bi i din, nh tiu , danh sch t kho, hoc tm tt. Hin nay c
qu nhiu thng tin trc tuyn, tt nht l s dng ton b vn bn, c th chia thnh cc on,
mi on coi nh mt ti liu ring bit cho vic mc ch thu thp thng tin. Cc cu hi thng
l danh sch cc t kho. Trong cc h thng thu thp thng tin ban u, cc cu hi l s kt hp
logic cc t kho. Khi mt cu hi khng tm thy ti liu, v d, n khng rng tm c
mt vi ti liu. Chuyn mt and thnh mt or l mt kh nng; thm vo mt ngn cch l
mt kh nng na, nhng c khi li tm thy qu nhiu v khng hng dn.
Hu ht cc h thng hin i u chuyn t kiu logic sang kiu khng gian vector, trong
danh sch cc t (c trong ti liu, trong cu hi) u c coi nh mt vettor trong khng
gian n-chiu, n l s du hiu phn bit ca tp hp ti liu. N s c coi nh mt vector.
Khi vic tm cc ti liu chnh l vic so snh vector ny vi tp hp cc vector khc v a ra
nhng vc t gn nht vi n. Kiu vct linh ng hn kiu logic bi v c th sp xp cc ti
liu bi khong cch ti cu hi, v ti liu no gn nht c bo co trc.
Kiu ny c nhiu dng. Mt vi h thng cho php cc cu hi pht biu rng hai t phi
xut hin gn nhau mi c m nh mt ln, mt vi h thng khc s dng t in ng ngha
lm tng thm cc t trong cu hi bng cc t ng ngha vi n. Ch nhng h thng ti nht
mi m tt c cc s hng trong vector tng ng. Nhiu h thng nh gi trng lng cc s
hng khc nhau. Cch tt nht l cho s hng trng lng ln nu n l t c trng: nu n xut
hin trong mt s t cc vn bn hn l trong nhiu vn bn.
4.2.3 Phn loi vn bn
K thut x l ngn ng t nhin (NLP: Natural Language Processing) thnh cng
trong mt cng vic lin quan: sp xp vn bn theo cc ch xc nh. Mt s h thng thng
mi truy cp thng tin ca cc bc in bo theo cch ny. Mt ngi thu bao c th hi tt c
cc thng tin trong cc lnh vc cng nghip, thng mi, hoc a l. Cc nh cung cp s
dng kin thc ca cc chuyn gia xc nh cc lp. Trong vi nm gn y, cc h thng NLP
c chng minh tnh ng n, phn lp chnh xc trn 90% cc thng tin thi s. Chng
cng nhanh hn v thch hp hn, v c s chuyn i t th cng sang cc h thng t ng.
97
Phn loi vn bn tun theo cc k thut NLP khng phi l gi li (IR : Information
Retrieval) bi v s phn lp l c nh, v nhng ngi xy dng cc h thng tp trung
kt hp cc chng trnh ca h vi vn .
4.2.4 Ly d liu vo vn bn
Ly d liu t mt vn bn l ly ra mt vi thng tin yu cu c th a vo mt cu trc d
liu.
Hiu qu phn tch t
Trong phn ny, chng ta xem xt tnh hiu qu ca thut ton phn tch t. mc
broadest, c ba vn chnh lm tng hiu qu:
Khng lm hai ln ci g c th lm mt ln.
Khng lm nu c th trnh c.
Khng trnh by ring l nu khng cn.
c bit, chng ta s thit k mt thut ton phn tch t thc hin nh sau:
Chng ta nhn thy rng the students in section 2 of Computer Science 101 l danh
t NP (Noun Phrase), l mt tng thy rng kt qu trong mt cu trc d liu bit l
mt s . Cc thut ton ny c gi l phn tch t loi theo s . Bi v chng ta ang quan
tm ti cc ng php ng cnh t do (context-free), mi mnh tm thy trong ng cnh ca mt
nhnh trong khng gian tm kim cng c th phi lm vic nh vy trong nhnh khc ca khng
gian tm kim. Ghi nhn cc kt qu trong s l mu cho vic lp trnh trnh vic lp li.
Chng ta thy rng thut ton phn tch s kt hp vic x l trn xung (top-down) v
di ln (bottom-up).
Kt qu ca thut ton l mt rng c ng gi (packed forest) ca cc cy phn tch
hp thnh khng ch l vic m mi kh nng c th.
S l mt cu trc d liu m t cc kt qu thnh phn ca qu trnh phn tch c
dng li. Mt s cho mt cu n t gm n+1 nh v mt s cnh ni vi cc vector. Hnh 4.2
biu din mt s vi 6 nh v 3 cnh. V d, cnh c nhn [0,5, S NP VP*] c ngha l danh
t NP (Noun Phrase) i theo bi ng t VP (Verb Phrase) to ra mt mnh S (S: sentnce)
m tri theo chui t 0 n 5. Du * trong mt cnh tch c tm thy t cc phn cn li. Cc
cnh vi du * cui c gi l cnh hon thin; v d cnh [0, 2 S NP*VP]
Ta ni rng mt NP tri chui t 0 n 2, v nu c th tm mt VP theo sau n, s c mt
S. Cc cnh vi du chm trc du kt thc gi l cnh khng hon thin, v n ang tm mt
VP. Chng ta bit hai cch xem xt qu trnh x l. Trong cch phn tch Bottom Up trong
trang 666, chng ta miu t x l nh mt qu trnh xy dng cc t vo cy, quay lui khi cn
0 1 2 3 4 5
The agent feels a breeze
[0,2 SNP*VP] [0,2 SVerb NP*]
[0,5 SNP VP*]
Hnh 4.2 S phn tch cu The agent feels a breeze
98
thit. Vi ng php mnh nht nh (Definite Clause Grammar), chng ta miu t vic x l
nh mt mu ca suy lun logic trong cc chui (string). Vic quay lui c s dng khi mt
vi qui tc c th iu khin cng mt d on. By gi chng ta s xem cch tip cn th ba.
Di cch nhn ny, qu trnh phn tch mt cu n t gm mt s mu vi n + 1 nh v
thm vo mt s cnh biu din, c gng to ra mt cnh hon thin m tri ra t nh 0 ti
nh n v l s phn lp S. Khng c vic quay lui: tt c mi th c t trong s ny.
Phn tch m rng t s : ng gi
Khi thut ton phn tch s kt thc, n tr v ton b s , nhng chng ta thc s
cn l mt cy (tree) (hoc mt s cy). Ph thuc vic phn tch c s dng, chng ta mun
chn mt hoc ton b cy phn tch m tri ton b u vo, hoc chng ta mun xem xt mt s
cy con m khng tri ra trn ton b u vo. Nu c mt ng php b sung, c th chng ta ch
mun tm m rng ng ngha, b qua cc cu trc c php. Trong mi trng hp, chng ta cn
kh nng phn tch m rng t mt s .
Cch d nht lm vic l sa b han thin (Completer) sao cho khi n kt hp hai
cnh con to thnh cnh cha. N cha trong cnh cha danh sch cc cnh con m cu thnh n.
Sau , khi phn tch ch cn tm trong chart[n] cho mt cnh bt o ti 0, quy ti danh sch
cc cnh con to ra cy phn tch hon thin. Ch php bin chng quyt nh ci g thc hin
phn tch m rng trn.
Chng ta kt thc vn bng vic phn tch phc tp thut ton l O(n
3
) trong
trng hp xu nht ( n l s t u vo). Trng hp tt nht c th t c l ng php
ng cng t do (context-free grammar). Ch , nu thiu rng ng gi, thut ton s bng n
trong trng hp xu nht, bi v n l kh nng c O(2n) cy phn tch khc nhau. Trong thc t,
c th thc hin thut ton phn tch vi yu cu 100 t mt giy, vi s bin i ph thuc
vo phc tp ca ng php v u vo.
Du hiu c php
S thay i nh ng t, gii t sinh ra nhiu s nhp nhng, bi v chng c th dn ti
mt vi s khc bit. V d:
Lee asked Kim to tell Toby to leave on Saturday.
Ph t Saturday c th c hi cho tell hoc leave.
Du hiu t vng
C nhiu t nhp nhng, nhng tt c khng ging nhau. Khi hi ngha ca t pen, hu
ht mi ngi u tr li l mt cng c vit. Mc d n cn cc ngha khc nh hng ro,
nh lao, con thin nga c.
4.3 CC H THNG DCH T NG
Vo nhng nm 60 ca th k trc, ngi ta hi vng my tnh c th dch t mt ngn
ng t nhin ny sang mt ngn ng t nhin khc, n gin nh my Turing dch cc bn vn
m thnh cc bn vn r. Nhng vo nm 1966, ngi ta nhn thy rng vic dch i hi mt s
hiu bit v ngha ca vn bn (v hn na l nhng hiu bit chi tit v th gii), trong khi
vic gii m ch ph thuc vo cc tnh cht ng php ca vn bn.
iu khng lm mt ngh v vic dch my. Thc t c nhiu h thng dch my,
hng ngy tit kim rt nhiu so vi vic x l hon ton th cng. Mt trong h thng thnh
cng nht l h thng TAUM METEO, c pht trin bi trng i hc Montral. N dch
99
cc bo co thi tit t ting Anh sang ting Php. N lm c vic ny bi v ngn ng c s
dng trong cc bo co thi tit ca chnh ph c mu v quy tc cht ch.
Mt lnh vc khc rng hn, m kt qu gy n tng khng km, l h thng
SPANAM (Vascocellos v Leon, 1985). N c th dch mt on vn bn ting Ty Ban Nha
sang ting Anh vi cht lng hu nh hiu c tt c, nhng khng ng ng php v him khi
tri chy. Vic dch my l khng y . Nhng khi ngi dch c c vn bn nh vy, ngi
dch c th dch nhanh gp bn ln. Mt s ngi c th dch thng t vn bn khng cn c
bn gc. Gi phi tr i vi hiu qu ca vic dch my l c cc thng tin rng ri, h thng
dch my phi c lng t vng t 20.000 n 100.000 t v 100 n 10.000 quy tc ng php.
Cc con s ph thuc vo vic chn hnh thc dch.
Vic dch l kh v, trong trng hp tng qut, n i hi hiu bit su sc v vn bn,
v tnh hung trong giao tip. Thc vy, ngay c i vi cc vn bn rt n gin thm ch ch
c mt t. Xt t Open trn ca ra vo ca mt ca hng. N c ngha l ang n khch. Cng
t Open trn mt bin qung co ln ca mt nh hng mi khnh thnh, n c ngha l nh
hng ang trong nhng ngy lm vic, nhng ngi c khng cm thy b la di khi nh hng
ng ca vo ban m m khng tho bin qung co. Mt t c th mang nhiu ngha khc nhau.
Trong mt s ngn ng khc, c mt t hoc cm t nh vy s c s dng trong c hai trng
hp.
Vn cho thy trong cc ngn ng khc nhau s phn loi t l khc nhau. dch
tt, ngi dch (ngi, my) phi c vn bn gc hiu c ngha m n m t, v tm mt vn
bn tng ng trong ngn ng ch c mt ngha tng ng. y c nhiu la chn. Ngi
dch (c my v ngi) i khi kh c mt s la chn.
4.4 X L V HIU TING NI
4.4.1. Tng quan v ting ni
Nhn dng ting ni l mt h thng to kh nng my nhn bit ng ngha ca li ni.
V bn cht, y l qu trnh bin i tn hiu m thanh thu c ca ngi ni qua Micro, ng
dy in thoi hoc cc thit b khc thnh mt chui cc t. Kt qu ca qu trnh nhn dng c
th c ng dng trong iu khin thit b, nhp d liu, son tho vn bn bng li, quay s
in thoi t ng hoc a ti mt qu trnh x l ngn ng mc cao hn.













Hnh 4.2. Cc phn t c bn ca mt h thng nhn dng ting ni
T c
nhn dng
D liu ting ni
M hnh
m thanh
M hnh
t vng
M hnh
ngn ng
M hnh ha,
Phn lp
Tm kim,
i snh
Tn hiu
u vo
Trch chn
c trng
100
Cc h thng nhn dng ting ni c th c phn loi nh sau:
Nhn dng t pht m ri rc/lin tc;
Nhn dng ting ni ph thuc ngi ni/khng ph thuc ngi ni;
H thng nhn dng t in c nh (di 20 t)/t in c ln (hng nghn t);
Nhn dng ting ni trong mi trng c nhiu thp/cao;
Nhn dng ngi ni.
Trong h nhn dng ting ni vi cch pht m ri rc c khong lng gia cc t trong
cu. Trong h nhn dng ting ni lin tc khng i hi iu ny. Ty thuc vo quy m v
phng php nhn dng, ta c cc m hnh nhn dng ting ni khc nhau. Hnh 4.2 l m hnh
tng qut ca mt h nhn dng ting ni in hnh .
Tn hiu ting ni sau khi thu nhn c lng t ha s bin i thnh mt tp cc vector
tham s c trng vi cc phn on c di trong khong 10-30 ms. Cc c trng ny c
dng cho i snh hoc tm kim cc t gn nht vi mt s rng buc v m hc, t vng v ng
php. C s d liu ting ni c s dng trong qu trnh hun luyn (m hnh ha/phn lp)
xc nh cc tham s h thng.
Cc phng php tip cn trong nhn dng ting ni
C ba phng php ph bin c s dng trong nhn dng ting ni hin nay l:
Phng php m hc-Ng m hc;
Phng php nhn dng mu;
Phng php ng dng tr tu nhn to.
Cc phng php c trnh by tm tt nh di y.
Phng php m hc-Ng m hc
Phng php ny da trn l thuyt v m hc-Ng m hc. L thuyt cho bit: tn
ti cc n v ng m xc nh, c tnh phn bit trong li ni v cc n v ng m c c
trng bi mt tp cc tn hiu ting ni. Cc bc nhn dang ca phng php gm:
Bc 1: phn on v gn nhn. Bc ny chia tn hiu ting ni thnh cc on c c
tnh m hc c trng cho mt (hoc mt vi) n v ng m, ng thi gn cho mi on m
thanh mt hay nhiu nhn ng m ph hp.
Bc 2: nhn dng. Bc ny da trn mt s iu kin rng buc v t vng, ng php
v.v xc nh mt hoc mt chui t ng trong cc chui nhn ng m c to ra sau bc
1. S khi ca phng php ny c biu din Hnh 4.2. Nguyn l hot ng ca phng
php c th m t nh sau:
Trch chn c trng. Tn hiu ting sau khi s ha c a ti khi trch chn c
trng nhm xc nh cc ph tn hiu. Cc k thut trch chn c trng ting ni ph bin l s
dng bng lc (filter bank), m ha d on tuyn tnh (LPC)
Tch tn hiu ting ni nhm bin i ph tn hiu thnh mt tp cc c tnh m t cc
tnh cht m hc ca cc n v ng m khc nhau. Cc c tnh c th l: tnh cht cc m
mi, m xt; v tr cc formant; m hu thanh, v thanh; t s mc nng lng tn hiu
Phn on v gn nhn. bc ny h thng nhn dng ting xc nh cc vng m thanh
n nh (vng c c tnh thay i rt t) v gn cho mi vng ny mt nhn ph hp vi c tnh
101
ca n v ng m. y l bc quan trng ca h nhn dng ting ni theo khuynh hng m
hc-Ng m hc v l bc kh m bo tin cy nht.
Nhn dng. Chn la kt hp chnh xc cc khi ng m to thnh cc t nhn dng.
c im ca phng php nhn dng ting ni theo hng tip cn m hc-Ng m hc:
Ngi thit k phi c kin thc kh su rng v m hc-Ng m hc;
Phn tch cc khi ng m mang tnh trc gic, thiu chnh xc;
Phn loi ting ni theo cc khi ng m thng khng ti u do kh s dng cc
cng c ton hc phn tch.













Hnh 4.3. S khi nhn dng ting ni theo m hc-Ng m hc
Phng php nhn dng mu








Hnh 4.3. S khi h nhn dng ting ni theo phng php mu

Phng php nhn dng mu khng cn xc nh c tnh m hc hay phn on ting ni
m s dng trc tip cc mu tn hiu ting ni trong qu trnh nhn dng. Cc h thng nhn
dng ting ni theo phng php ny c pht trin theo hai bc (Hnh 2.3), c th l.
.
.
.
Tn hiu
ting ni


Phn

on

v

gn

nhn
Trch chn
c trng
B tch
c trng
B tch
c trng
Ting ni
c nhn
dng
Chn
la
B tch
c trng
Pha 1
Phn loi
mu
Ting ni
nhn dng
Quyt nh
logic
<Mu tham chiu>
Cc mu
chun/Cc
m hnh
Pha 2
Ting
ni
<Mu th>
Trch chn
c trng
Hun luyn
mu
102
Bc 1: S dng tp mu ting ni (c s d liu mu ting ni) o to cc mu ting
ni c trng (mu tham chiu) hoc cc tham s h thng.
Bc 2: i snh mu ting ni t ngoi vi cc mu c trng ra quyt nh.
Trong phng php ny, nu c s d liu ting ni cho o to c cc phin bn mu
cn nhn dng th qu trnh o to c th xc nh chnh xc cc c tnh m hc ca mu (cc
mu y c th l m v, t, cm t). Hin nay, mt s k thut nhn dng mu c p dng
thnh cng trong nhn dng ting ni l lng t ha vector, so snh thi gian ng (DTW), m
hnh Markov n (HMM), mng nron nhn to (ANN).
H thng bao gm cc hot ng sau:
Trch chn c trung: Tn hiu ting ni c phn tch thnh chui cc s o xc nh
mu nhn dng. Cc s o c trng l kt qu x l ca cc k thut phn tch ph nh: lc
thng di, phn tch m ha d on tuyn tnh (LPC), bin i Fourier ri rc (DFT).
Hun luyn mu: Nhiu mu ting ni ng vi cc n v m thanh cng loi dng o
to cc mu hoc cc m hnh i din, c gi l mu tham chiu hay mu chun.
Nhn dng: Cc mu ting ni c a ti khi phn loi mu. Khi ny i snh mu
u vo vi cc mu tham chiu. Ki nhn dng cn c vo cc tiu chun nh gi quyt nh
mu tham chiu no ging mu u vo.
Mt s c im ca phng php nhn dng mu:
Hiu nng ca h ph thuc vo s mu a vo. Nu s lng mu cng nhiu th
chnh xc ca h cng cao; tuy nhin, dung lng nh v thi gian luyn mu tng.
Cc mu tham chiu ph thuc vo mi trng thu m v mi trng truyn dn.
Khng i hi kin thc su v ngn ng.
Phng php ng dng tr tu nhn to
Phng php ng dng tr tu nhn to kt hp cc phng php trn nhm tn dng ti
a cc u im ca chng, ng thi bt chc cc kh nng ca con ngi trong phn tch v
cm nhn cc s kin bn ngoi p dng vo nhn dng ting ni. S khi ca phng php
tr tu nhn to theo m hnh t di ln (bottom-up) (Hnh 4.4).

c im ca cc h thng nhn dng theo phng php ny l:
S dng h chuyn gia phn on, gn nhn ng m. iu ny lm n gin ha h
thng so vi phng php nhn dng ng m.
S dng mng nron nhn to hc mi quan h gia cc ng m, sau dng n
nhn dng ting ni.
103

















Hnh 4.4. S khi h nhn dng ting ni theo phng php t di ln

Vic s dng h chuyn gia nhm tn dng kin thc con ngi vo h nhn dng:
Kin thc v m hc: phn tch ph v xc nh c tnh m hc ca cc mu ting ni.
Kin thc v t vng: s dng kt hp cc khi ng m thnh cc t cn nhn dng.
Kin thc v c php: nhm kt hp cc t thnh cc cu cn nhn dng.
Kin thc v ng ngha: nhm xc nh tnh logic ca cc cu c nhn dng.
C nhiu cch khc nhau tng hp cc ngun kin thc vo b nhn dng ting ni.
Phng php thng dng nht l x l t di ln. Theo cch ny, tin trnh x l ca h thng
c trin khai tun t t thp ln cao. Trong Hnh 4.4, cc bc x l mc thp (phn tch tn
hiu, tm c tnh, phn on, gn nhn) c trin khai trc khi thc hin cc bc x l mc
cao (phn lp m thanh, xc nh t, xc nh cu). Mi bc x l i hi mt hoc mt s
ngun kin thc nht nh. V d: bc phn on ting ni cn hiu bit su sc v c tnh m
hc-Ng m hc ca cc n v ng m; bc xc nh t i hi kin thc v t vng; bc xc
nh cu i hi kin thc v m hnh ngn ng (nguyn tc ng php).
Phng php ny v ang c p dng thnh cng trong cc ng dng nhn dng
ting ni thc t. ti s s dng phng php nhn dng mu cho bi ton nhn dng mt s t
ting Vit. Bc u tin ca qu trnh nhn dng l trch chn cc tham s tn hiu ting ni.
Phn tip theo s trnh by chi tit v phng php ny.
4.4.2. Phn tch tham s ting ni
Trong nhn dng, tng hp, m ha ting ni u cn phn tch cc tham s. Di y,
m t phng php phn tch cepstral theo thang o mel tnh cc h s MFCC thng qua vic
s dng dy cc bng lc.
Khi nim c bn trong phn tch tn hiu ting ni l phn tch thi gian ngn (Short-
Time Analysis). Trong khong thi gian di, tn hiu ting ni l khng dng, nhng trong
khong thi gian ngn (10-30 ms) ting ni c coi l dng. Do , trong cc ng dng x l
Trch chn c trng




Cc

ngun

kin

thc
Phn on
Gn nhn
Phn lp m thanh
Xc nh t
Xc nh cu
Ting ni
Nguyn tc phn loi
Nguyn tc ng m
Truy cp t in
M hnh ngn ng
m hu thanh/V
thanh/ Khong lng
Phn tch tn hiu
104
ting ni ngi ta thng chia ting ni thnh nhiu on c thi gian bng nhau c gi l
khung (frame), mi khung c di t 10 n 30 ms.
Pht hin ting ni
Pht hin thi im bt u, im kt thc ca ting ni (tch ting ni ra khi khong
lng) l phn cn thit trong chng trnh nhn dng ting ni, c bit trong ch thi gian
thc. Phn ny trnh by ba phng php pht hin ting ni da trn hm nng lng thi gian
ngn SE (Short Energy) v t l vt qu im khng ZCR (Zero Crossing).

a. Pht hin ting ni da trn hm nng lng thi gian ngn

Hm nng lng thi gian ngn ca tn hiu ting ni c tnh bng cch chia tn hiu
ting ni thnh cc khung, mi khung di N mu. Mi khung c nhn vi mt hm ca s
) (n W
. Nu hm ca s bt u xt mu th m th hm nng lng thi gian ngn
m
E
c xc
nh nh sau:
[ ]

+
=
=
1
2
) ( ) (
N m
m n
m
m n W n x E
trong :
n: l bin ri rc;
m: l s mu th th m;
N: l tng s mu ting ni
Hm ca s
) (n W
thng dng l hm ca s ch nht c xc nh nh sau:

=
N n
N n
n W
0
1 0 1
) (
Thut ton xc nh im u v im cui ting ni theo phng php ny:
Bc 1: Vi mi khung ca tn hiu, xc nh hm nng lng thi gian ngn
m
E tnh theo (2-1).
Nu
m
E >
threshold
E (gi tr ngng nng lng cho trc) th nh du l im bt u khung (k
hiu l khung B). Ngc li, xt khung k tip cho n khi xc nh c khung B. Nu khng xc
nh c B, kt lun: khng l tn hiu ting ni.
Bc 2: Tnh
m
E ca khung k tip khung B cho n khi
m
E <
threshold
E th dng v nh du
khung l im kt thc ca mt t (k hiu khung E). Sau khi xc nh im bt u v kt thc,
da vo di thi gian on m thanh thm bc kim tra: tn hiu c chc l ting ni
khng? (mt t ting Vit nu pht m r rng thng di hn 200 ms).


b. Pht hin ting ni da trn hm gi nng lng v t l vt qu im khng

Thut ton ny xc nh im bt u, im kt thc ca tn hiu ting ni da trn hai i
lng tnh ca tn hiu ting ni l: hm gi nng lng E (Pseudo-Energy) v t l vt qu
im khng ZCR (Zero Crossing Rate) .
Trong mt dy gi tr tn hiu ting ni c ri rc ha, im khng l im ti din
ra s i du cng tn hiu v c m t bi:
105
sgn[x(n+1)]

sgn[x(n)]
trong , sgn(.) l hm du
Nng lng l i lng c dng xc nh vng cha m hu thanh, v thanh.
Nhng hm nng lng thng rt nhy cm vi nhiu. Do vy, ngi ta thng s dng hm gi
nng lng trong tnh ton. Hm gi nng lng c xc nh bi:

=
1
0
) ( ) ( ) (
N
m
m n x m w n E
trong ;
) (n E

: l hm gi nng lng,
N : l kch thc khung ca s.
T l vt qu im khng ZCR
Ta thy, khung c nng lng cng cao th t l vt qu im khng cng thp v ngc
li. Nh vy, t l vt qu im khng l i lng c trng cho tn s tn hiu ting ni.
y, chng ta cn xc nh cc tham s ngng cho hm gi nng lng vi hai ngng trn v
di v mt ngng t l vt qu im khng.
K hiu:

Up
E : ngng nng lng trn (cao);

Down
E : ngng nng lng di (thp);
T ZCR _ : ngng t l vt qu im khng.
Thut ton ny c m t nh sau :
Bc 1: Chia chui tn hiu ting ni thnh cc khung. Tnh gi tr hm gi nng lng theo (2-5)
v t l vt qu im khng theo (2-6) tng ng trn mi khung.
Bc 2: Xt t khung u tin. nh du khung th i l im bt u nu ti khung i t l vt
qu im khng ca ZCR vt ngng (ZCR> T ZCR _ ), v gi tr hm gi nng lng vt
ngng di ( ( ) n E

>
Down
E ) theo hng tng ca ca hm gi nng lng.
Bc 3: Xt cc khung k tip. nh du khung k tip thuc t. Nu hm gi nng lng vt
ngng trn ( ( ) n E

>
Up
E ) theo hng tng ca nng lng.
Bc 4: im bt u ca t c xc nh li khi hm gi nng lng trn khung nh hn
ngng di ( ( ) n E

<
Down
E ), v ng thi t l vt qu im khng trn khung ln hn
ngng (ZCR> T ZCR _ ).
Bc 5: im kt thc t c xc nh nu ti ; t l vt qu im khng
nh hn ngng (ZCR< T ZCR _ ), v hm gi nng lng tng ng nh hn
ngng di ( ( ) n E

<
Down
E ) theo xu hng i xung ca hm gi nng lng.
c) Pht hin ting ni da trn nng lng ph ngn hn
tng chnh ca phng php ny l s dng b iu khin d bin ting ni VAD
(Voice Activity Detector) da trn vic xc nh nng lng ph ngn hn
f
E
trn cc khung tn
106
hiu ting ni. VAD dng xc nh mt khung cha tn hiu ting ni hay nhiu. Hm u ra
ca VAD trn khung th m l
v
[m]. Vi khung cha ting ni (c th c nhiu)
v
[m]=1, ngc
li khung ch cha nhiu
v
[m]=0.
Thut ton c m t nh sau:
Bc 1: Tnh nng lng ph ngn hn
f
E
cho mi khung theo:

[ ] [ ]

=
=
NumChan
i
f
i m f m E
1
ln
,
(4-1)
trong ;
NumChan
: s knh ca bng lc tam gic

[ ] i m f ,
ln
: cc phn t u ra ca
NumChan
(chun ho bng hm logarit)
Bc 2: Xc nh nng lng ph trung bnh di hn
m
E
trn mi khung da trn
f
E
.
Nu (
[ ] [ ] < 1 m E m E
m f
)
Th
[ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ]
100
1
1
m

+ =
m E m E
m E m E
f
m m
(4-2)
Cn khng th
[ ] [ ] 1 = m E m E
m m
(4-3)
trong ,

: ngng ca ph trung bnh di hn

Bc 3: Kim tra khung cha ting ni hay khng:
Nu (
[ ] [ ] m E m E
m f
)
Th
[ ] ; 1 = m v

Cn khng th :
[ ] ; 0 = m v

trong

: l tham s xc nh nh thc nghim.

Phng php ny ngn vic phn loi sai ca ph m st v ting ni cui tn hiu ting ni.

4.4.3. Cc phng php trch chn tham s c trng ca tn hiu ting ni
Trch chn cc tham s c trng l bc c ngha quyt nh ti kt qu ca cc
chng trnh nhn dng ting ni. C nhiu phng php trch chn cc tham s c trng nhng
nhn chung cc phng php ny da trn hai c ch:
M phng li qu trnh cm nhn m thanh ca tai ngi.
M phng li qu trnh to m ca c quan pht m.
Phn tch cepstral theo thang o mel
Phng php tnh cc h s MFCC l phng php trch chn tham s ting ni c s dng
rng ri bi tnh hiu qu ca n thng qua phn tch cepstral theo thang o mel.
Phng php c xy dng da trn s cm nhn ca tai ngi i vi cc di tn s khc nhau.
Vi cc tn s thp (di 1000 Hz), cm nhn ca tai ngi l tuyn tnh. i vi cc tn s
cao, bin thin tun theo hm logarit. Cc bng lc tuyn tnh tn s thp v bin thin theo
107
hm logarit tn s cao c s dng trch chn cc c trng m hc quan trng ca ting
ni. M hnh tnh ton cc h s MFCC c m t nh Hnh 4.5.








Hnh 4.5. S tnh ton cc h s MFCC
ngha v phng php xc nh tham s cc khi trong s trn m t nh sau:
Khi 1: B lc hiu chnh (Preemphasis)
Tn hiu ting ni s(n) c a qua b lc s bc thp ph ng u hn, gim nh
hng gy ra cho cc x l tn hiu sau ny. Thng b lc ny c nh bc mt, c dng:
H(z) = 1 az
1
0.9 a 1.0
Quan h gia tn hiu ra vi tn hiu vo tun theo phng trnh

~
s (n) = s(n)-a.s(n-1)
Gi tr a thng c chn l 0.97.
Khi 2: Phn khung (Frame Blocking)
Trong khi ny tn hiu hiu chnh
~
s
(n) c phn thnh cc khung, mi khung c N
mu; hai khung k lch nhau M mu. Khung u tin cha N mu, khung th hai bt u chm
hn khung th nht M mu v chng ln khung th nht N-M mu. Tng t, khung th ba chm
hn khung th nht 2M mu (chm hn khung th hai M mu) v chm ln khung th nht N-2M
mu. Qu trnh ny tip tc cho n khi tt c cc mu ting ni cn phn tch thuc v mt hoc
nhiu khung.

Khi 3: Ly ca s (Windowing)
Bc tip theo l ly ca s cho mi khung ring r nhm gim s gin on ca tn hiu ting
ni ti u v cui mi khung. Nu
w
(n), 0

N-1, sau khi ly ca s c:

1 0 ), ( ) ( ) (
~
= N n n w k x k x
n
n
Thng thng, ca s Hamming c s dng. Ca s ny c dng:
N M
W( )
) (
^
t c i
) (n s
) (
~
t ci
k
m
) (
~
n s
) (n x
t
) (
~
n xt
) (t c
i
Ph
nng
l
W(n)
B lc/Hiu
chnh
o hm
theo thi
Cc bng
lc tam
Ly
ca
Gn
trng s
DTC
FFT
Phn
khung
108
1 0 ,
1
2
cos 46 . 0 54 . 0 ) (

= N n
N
n
n w


Khi 4: Bin i Fourier ri rc (FFT)
Tc dng ca FFT l chuyn i mi khung vi N mu t min thi gian sang min tn
s. FFT l thut ton tnh DFT nhanh. DFT c xc nh

=
1
0
2
) ( ) (
N
k
nk
N
j
e n x k X


Khi 5: Bin i sang thang o Mel trn min tn s
Nh ni trn, tai ngi khng cm nhn s thay i tn s ca ting ni tuyn tnh
m theo thang Mel. Ngi ta chn tn s 1kHz, 40 dB trn ngng nghe l 1000 Mel. Do ,
cng thc gn ng biu din quan h tn s thang mel v thang tuyn tnh nh sau:
)
700
1 ( log * 2595 ) (
10
f
f mel + =








Hnh 4.6. Cc bng lc tam gic theo thang tn s Mel
Mt phng php chuyn i sang thang mel l s dng bng lc (Hnh 4.6), trong
mi b lc c p ng tn s dng tam gic. S bng lc s dng thng trn 20 bng. Thng
thng, ngi ta chn tn s t 0 dn Fs/2 (Fs l tn s ly mu ting ni). Nhng cng c th
mt di tn gii hn t LOFREQ n HIFREQ s c dng lc i cc tn s khng cn thit
cho x l. Chng hn, trong x l ting ni qua ng in thoi c th ly gii hn di tn t
LOFREQ=300 n HIFREQ=3400.
Sau khi tnh FFT ta thu c ph tn hiu ) (
n
f s . Thc cht y l mt dy nng lng
( ) ( )
2
n
f s n W = . Cho ( ) n W i qua mt dy K bng lc dng tam gic, ta c mt dy cc
) (
~
n W . Tnh tng ca cc dy ) (
~
n W trong tng bng lc, ta thu c mt dy cc h s
) ,..., 2 , 1 ( K k m
k
= .
Khi 6: Bin i Cosine ri rc (DCT)
Trong bc ny ta s chuyn log ca cc gi tr
k
m
v min thi gian bng cch bin i
Cosine ri rc (DCT). Kt qu ca php bin i ny ta thu c cc h s MFCC.
; ,..., 2 , 1 ; ) 5 . 0 ( cos ) ln(
2
1
K i j
K
i
m
K
c
K
j
j i
=

=

=

Tn s mel
Nng lng trn
mi di tn s
tn s
1
m
j
m
1



0
109
Thng thng, ch c mt s gi tr u tin ca
i
c
c s dng. Trong cc ng dng
nhn dng ting ni, ngi ta thng ly 12 h s MFCC v thm 1 h s nng lng ca khung
sau khi c chun ha lm tham s c trng cho tn hiu ting ni (nh vy tng cng c
Q=13 h s).

Khi 7: Cepstral c trng s
V nhy ca cc h s cepstral bc thp lm cho ph ton b b dc, nhy ca cc
cepstral bc cao gy ra nhiu nn ngi ta thng s dng ca s cepstral cc tiu ha nhy
ny. Cng thc biu din cc h s cepstral c trng s:
; 1 ; sin
2
1
^
Q i c
Q
i Q
c
i
i

+ =


Khi 8: Ly o hm cc h s MFCC theo thi gian
nng cao cht lng nhn dng, ngi ta a thm cc gi tr o hm theo thi gian ca cc
gi tr h s MFCC vo vector h s ting ni. Cc gi tr c tnh theo:
; 1 ;
2
) (
1
2
1
^ ^
^
Q i
c c
c
t t
i

=
+

trong ; : l di ca s tnh delta (thng chn l 2 hoc 3).
Kt thc cc bc trn vi mi khung ta thu c mt vector c 2Q thnh phn biu din
tham s c trng ca ting ni.
b. Phng php m d on tuyn tnh LPC
M hnh LPC c s dng trch lc cc tham s c trng ca tn hiu ting ni. Kt
qu ca qu trnh phn tch tn hiu thu c mt chui gm cc khung ting ni. Cc khung ny
c bin i nhm s dng cho vic phn tch m hc.
Ni dung phn tch d bo tuyn tnh l: mt mu ting ni c xp x bi t hp tuyn
tnh ca cc mu trc . Thng qua vic ti thiu ha tng bnh phng sai s gia cc mu
hin ti vi cc mu d on c th xc nh c mt tp duy nht cc h s d bo. Cc h s
d bo ny l cc trng s c s dng trong t hp tuyn tnh. Vi dy tn hiu ting ni
( ) n s
,
gi tr d bo c xc nh bi:

=
=
p
k
k
k n s n s
1
~
) ( ) (
trong ;
k
: l cc h s c trng cho h thng.






110










Hnh 4.7. S b x l LPC dng trch chn c trng ting ni
S khi b phn tch LPC dng cho trch chn cc tham s c trng ca tn hiu ting
ni (Hnh 4.7). Hm sai s d bo c tnh theo cng thc:

=
= =
p
k
k
k n s n s n s n s n e
1
~
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
cc tiu ha li cn tm tp gi tr {
k
} ph hp nht.
Do tn hiu ting ni thay i theo thi gian nn cc h s d bo phi c c lng t
cc on tn hiu ngn. Vn t ra l tm mt tp cc h s d bo ti thiu ha sai s trung
bnh trn mt on ngn.
Hm li d bo trong mt thi gian ngn xc nh bi:

= =
= m
p
k
n k n
m
n n
k m s m s n e E
2
1
2
) ( ) ( ) (

= =
= = m m
p
k
n k
m
p
k
n k n n
k m s k m s m s m s
2
1 1
2
) ( ) ( ) ( 2 ) (

= =
= m
p
k
n k n
m
n
k m s m s n e
2
1
2
) ( ) ( ) (
trong ; ) (m s
n
: l mt on tn hiu ting ni ln cn mu th n;
Tm tp gi tr
k
ti thiu ha
n
E bng cch t 0 / =
i n
E vi: ; ,..., 2 , 1 p i =

+ = =

= m
n
p
k
n k
m
n n
i
i m s k m s i m s m s
E
) ( ) ( 2 ) ( ) ( 2 0
1

t nhn c phng trnh:
; 1 ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
1
p i k m s i m s m s i m s
m
n n
p
k
k
m
n n
=

=

t:
) (t cm

t
trng s
) (t cm

) (t a
m

) (t c
m
Chuyn i
tham s LPC
Ly
o hm
) (t r
m

) (
~
n s

) (n x
t
) .(
~
n x
Ly
ca s
Phn on
khung
Phn tch
t tng quan
) (n s
Lm r
tn hiu
Phn tch
LPC
111

=
m
n n n
k m s i m s k i ) ( ) ( ) , (
Phng trnh trn c th vit:
; ,..., 2 , 1 ) , ( ) 0 . (
1
p i k i i
p
k
n k n
= =

=

Gii h p phng trnh ny tm c p n cu {
k
}. Tp cc h s {
k
} s ti thiu
sai s trung bnh bnh phng d on cho on tn hiu ) (m s
n
. Sai s d on c xc
nh:

) ( ) ( ) (
1
2
k m m m E
s s s n
m
n
p
k
k
m
n
n
=

=

S dng php th ta c:

=
=
p
k
n k n n
k E
1
) , 0 ( ) 0 , 0 (
Theo nguyn tc, phn tch d don tuyn tnh rt n gin nhng vic tnh ton ) , ( k i
n

v tm nghim ca h phng trnh rt phc tp. Phng php khc phc l s dng hm t tng
quan gii cc phng trnh ny.
Gi s on tn hiu 0 ) ( = m s
n
nu chng nm ngoi khong 1 0 N m . iu
c ngha l c th biu din on tn hiu di dng: ) ( ) ( ) ( m w m n s m s
n
+ = , trong :
) (m w l ca s c chiu di hu hn (thng dng ca s Hamming). Sai s d on ) (m E
m
:
) (
1
0
2
m E
p N
m
n
n e

+
=
=
khi (2-24) tr thnh:
p k
p i
k m i m k i
p N
m
n n
n s s


=

+
=
0
1
) ( ) ( ) , (
1
0

p k
p i
k i m m k i
k i N
m
n n
n s s


+ =


=
0
1
) ( ) ( ) , (
) ( 1
0

Gi ) (k R
n
l hm t tng quan dng:

=
+ =
k N
m
n n
n
k m m k R
s s
1
0
) ( ) ( ) (
d thy: ) ( ) , ( k i R k i
n n
=
Do ) (k R
n
l hm chn nn:
p k p i k i R k i
n n
,... 2 , 1 , 0 ; ,..., 2 , 1 ) ( ) , ( = = =
do
) ( ) (
1
i R k i r
n
p
k
n k
=

=

112
H phng trnh ny c th vit di dng ma trn:

= r R
1

trong :

...
2
1

) 0 ( ... ) 2 ( ) 1 (
... ... ... ...
) 2 ( ... ) 0 ( ) 1 (
) 1 ( ... ) 1 ( ) 0 (
r p r p r
p r r r
p r r r
R ;

) (
...
) 2 (
) 1 (
p r
r
r
r
Ch : R l ma trn i xng. Tt c cc phn t thuc ng cho ca ma trn ny u c
gi tr bng nhau, iu c ngha l nghch o ca n lun tn ti v c nghim
c. Phng php PLP
Phng php ny l s kt hp ca hai phng php trnh by trn. Hnh 2.8 m
t cc bc xc nh h s PLP.







Hnh 4.8. S cc bc xc nh h s PLP
Cc khi x l
Khi 1: Bin i Fourier nhanh (FFT)
Tng t nh phng php MFCC, tn hiu ting ni c chia thnh cc khung v
c chuyn sang min tn s bng thut ton FFT.
Khi 2: Lc theo thang tn s Bark
Tn hiu ting ni c lc qua cc b lc phn b theo thang tn s phi tuyn, trong
trng hp ny l thang tn s Bark:
[ ]

+ + = 2
1
2
1 )
1200
(
1200
ln 6 ) (
f f
f Bark
Khi 3: Nhn mnh tn hiu dng hm cn bng n (equal-loudnes)
Bc ny tng t bc nhn mnh (preemphais) ca phng php MFCC. Hm ny
m phng ng cong cn bng n (Equal-Loudnes Curve).
FFT
Tnh cc gi tr
Thut ton Durbin Bin i Fourier ngc
Lut cng nghe
Nhn mnh tn hiu Lc tn s Bark
H s PLP
Ting ni
113

) 10 * 58 . 9 )( 10 * 3 . 6 (
) 10 * 8 , 56 (
) (
26 6 6 2
4 6 2
+ +
+
=


E
Khi 4: Dng lut cng nghe (Power Law of Hearing)
Bc x l ny ging nh bc ly gi tr logarit trong phng php MFCC. Hm cn lp
phng c dng c dng:

33 . 0
) ( ) ( f f =
Khi 5: Bin i Fourier ngc (Inverse DFT)
Cc h s t tng quan c bin i Fourier ngc l gi tr u vo cho LPC.
Khi 6: Thut ton Durbin
Thut ton Durbin c s dng tnh cc h s d bo tuyn tnh nh phng php LPC
Khi 7: Tnh cc gi tr delta
Phng php tnh tng t nh phng php h s MFCC.
Phng php ng dng tr tu nhn to cho x l v nhn dng ting ni c th tham kho thm
cc tai liu trch dn trong ti liu..
4.5 CC H THNG HI THOI
Chng ta quan tm n nhng g xy ra bn trong ca mt i tng - t khi n nhn
c mt kt qu ca tri thc n khi i tng ny quyt nh mt hnh ng. Trong phn ny
chng ta tp trung vo giao din gia i tng v mi trng. Kt qu chng ta c c s nhn
thc: th gic, thnh gic v c th nhiu gic quan khc, mt kt qu khc chng ta c hnh
ng: s c ng ca mt cnh tay robot chng hn.
Mc d bao trm ln phn ny l i thoi. Mt nhm i tng c th thnh cng hn, c
th hay tp th nu h i thoi vi nhau v mc tiu v s hiu bit ca mnh. Chng ta s xem
xt mt cch cht ch ngn ng nhn loi v ngn ng ny c s dng nh l mt cng c i
thoi.
Con ngi s dng mt s hu hn cc k hiu quy c (mm ci, bt tay) giao tip
tng t nh hu ht cc ng vt khc. Con ngi cng c th pht trin mt h thng cc k
hiu c kin trc phc tp c bit nh l ngn ng m c th s dng chng i thoi trong
hu ht nhng g m h bit v th gii.
Trong cc h c s tri thc, c bit h chuyn gia, cc h thng i thoai gia ngi v my
c thit lp v l mt khu rt cn thit x l thng tin, Hc vin c th tham kho thm
phn ny cc ti liu trch dn km theo
4.6 T IN IN T
Bc u tin trong vic nh ngha ng php l nh ngha mt t in ngn ng, hoc
danh sch cc t vng c th cho php. Cc t c nhm li vo nhng phm tr hoc nhng
phn ca li ni quen thuc n t in ngi dng: danh t, i t, v tn biu th chng,
ng t biu th mt s kin, tnh t b ngha cho danh t, trng t b ngha cho ng t.
Hnh 4.9 cho mt t in ngn ng nh.



114
Noun stench| breeze| glitter| nothing
| wumpus| pit| pits| gold| east|
Verb is| see| smell| shoot| feel| stinks
| go| grab| carry| kill| turn|
Adjective right| left| east| sound| back| smelly|
Adverb here| there| nearby| ahead
Right| left| sound| back|
Pronoun me| you| I| it|
Name John| Mary| Boston| Aristotle|
Article the| a| an|
Preposition to| in| on| near|
Conjunction and| or| but|
Digit 0| 1|2| 3| 4| 5| 6| 7| 8| 9
Hnh 4.9. T in ngn ng


Mi mt phm tr u kt thc biu th rng c nhng t khc trong phm tr ny.
Tuy nhin ch rng c hai l do khc bit cho vic mt t. i vi danh t, ng t, tnh t v
trng t, n l nguyn tc c bn bt kh thi hin th tt c chng. Khng nhng c hng ngn
hoc hng chc ngn thnh vin trong mi lp, m mi mt loi mi lun lun c b sung
thm vo. V d, ngy nay fax l mt danh t v ng t ph bin nhng n ch c t ra
trong vi nnm trc. C bn phm tr c gi l lp m. Nhng phm tr khc (i t, qun t,
gii t, v lin t) c gi l lp ng. Chng thng c mt s lng nh cc t (mt vi t
n mt vi nhm t) m n c th c lit k theo quy tc. s thay i lp ng din ra trong
hng th k , khng phi hng thng. V d thee v thou thng c s dng lm i t
trong th k XVII, b suy tn vo th k XIX, v ngy nay n ch c thy trong th ca v ngn
ng a phung.
Ng php
Bc tip theo l phi hp cc t trong cm t. chng ta vn s dng nm biu tng
nonterminal nh ngha s khc nhau ca cm t: cu (S), cm danh t (NP), cm ng t
(VP), cm gii t (PP), v mnh quan h (Rel Clause)(4). Hnh 4.10 xt mt ng php cho 0
vi mt v d cho mi mt quy lut vit li.
S
|
NP,VP
S Conjuntion S
I +feel a breeze
I feel a breeze+and+ I smell the
wumpus
NP
|
|
|
|
|
Pronoun
Noun
Article Noun
Digit Digit
NP PP
NP Rel Clause
I
Pits
The + wumpus
3 4
the wumpus+ to the east
the wumpus+ that is smell
VP
|
|
|
|
Verb
VP NP
VP adjective
VP PP
VP Adverb
Stinks
Feel+ a breeze
Is+ smelly
Turn+ to the east
Go+ ahead
PP Priposition NP To+ the east
RelClause That VP That+ is smelly
Hnh 4.10. Ng php cho tin, vi cm t v d cho mi quy lut


115
CU HI V BI TP

1. Khng xem li bi tr li cc cu hi sau: bn lp c nhc n ca ng php hnh
thc?
2. Thc hin mt phin bn ca gii thut biu phn tch c php m kt qu l mt
cy cho tt c cnh m m rng cho ton b u vo.
3. Trnh by phng php pht hin ting ni da trn nng lng ph ngn hn
4. Trnh by phng php tnh cc h s MFCC: phng php trch chn tham s ting
ni c s dng rng ri bi tnh hiu qu ca n thng qua phn tch cepstral theo thang o
mel.
5.Trnh by phng php m d on tuyn tnh LPC

116
CHNG 5: CC K THUT TR TU NHN TO
HIN I
5.1. NHP MN
Mng n ron nhn to, logic m, gii thut di truyn v cc h thng lai l cc lnh vc
ca tr tu nhn to hin i - mt trong nhng lnh vc rt c quan tm ca Cng ngh thng
tin. Cc my tnh v cng ngh vi in t hin i ang hy vng cc phng php ny nh cha
kho m ra th h my tnh mi: th h my tnh th nm. Khng ch trong nghin cu, cc
chuyn mn hc ca chng trnh o to i hc Cng ngh thng tin cng chn nhng
mn ny vo chng trnh ging dy. Nhiu ti, lun vn tin s, thc s n, kha lun tt
nghip i hc ly cc cng c logic m v mng n ron nhn to lm phng tin x l v
tnh ton mi thay cho cc phng php kinh in hin nay.
Chng ny gii thiu nm phn:
mng n ron vi cc kh nng ng dng ca chng
nghin cu logic m vi cc kh nng ng dng
gii thut di truyn
cc phng php v thut ton lai mng n ron v logic m; gii thut di truyn
cc agent thng minh.
Nhng vn k trn l rt ln. Hc vin c th tm c thm [2, 3, 4, 5, 11, 16, 20, 25]
5.2. MNG N RON NHN TAO
5.2.1 Qu trnh pht trin
Theo Wiener: tr no, thng tin v iu khin l ba lnh vc di ngn c chung l iu
khin hc (Cybernetics) [16]. Nghin cu v m phng tr no, c th l m t bo thn kinh
(nron) l mt c mun t lu ca nhn loi. T m c nhiu nh khoa hc khng ngng
nghin cu tm hiu v mng nron. Vi khong 15 t n ron no ngi, mi n ron c th
nhn hng vn tn hiu t cc khp thn kinh v c coi l mt c ch sinh vt phc tp nht.
No ngi c kh nng gii quyt nhng vn nh: nghe, nhn, ni, hi c thng tin, phn bit
cc mu mc d s kin c b mo m, thiu ht. No thc hin nhng nhim v nh vy nh cc
phn t tnh ton (n ron). No phn b vic x l cho hng t n ron c lin quan, iu khin cc
mi lin h gia cc n ron . N ron khng ngng nhn v truyn thng tin ln nhau. C ch
hot ng n ron bao gm: lin kt (association), tng qut ho (generation), v t t chc (Self-
organization). Cc n ron t lin kt vi nhau thnh mng trong x l. Mi mng gm hng vn
cc phn t n ron khc nhau. M phn t n ron c kh nng lin kt vi hng nghn cc n ron
khc. L thuyt v mng n ron hnh thnh v ang pht trin, c bit l nghin cu ng dng
chng [2, 4]. C th chia qu trnh pht trin v nghin cu mng n ron trong th k qua thnh
bn giai on:
Giai on mt c th tnh t nhng nghin cu ca William t nhng nm 1890 v tm l
hc vi s lin kt cc n ron thn kinh. Nm 1940, McCulloch v Pitts cho bit, n ron c th
c m hnh ho nh thit b ngng gii hn thc hin cc php tnh logic. Cng thi gian
, Wiener xt mi lin quan gia nguyn l phn hi trong iu khin v chc nng cu b
no; Ashly xut m hnh chc nng b no v nguyn l n nh cu n.
117
Giai on hai c th tnh t sau th chin th hai. c bit, vo nhng nm cu thp nin
60 gn nh ng thi xut hin mt lot m hnh mng n ron hon ho hn c a ra nh:
Perceptron cu Rosenblatt, phn t n ron tuyn tnh Adaline (ADAptive LINear Element) cu
Windrow, Ma trn hc cu Steinbuck. Perceptron rt c ch trng v nguyn l gin n,
nhng n cng hn ch v nh Minsky v Papert chng minh n khng dng c cho cc hm
logic phc. Bn cht cu Adaline l tuyn tnh, t chnh v c dng rng ri cho nhng bi ton
t thch nghi, tch nhiu v vn pht trin cho n ngy nay.
Giai on th ba c th tnh t u nhng nm 80 n nay. Nhng ng gp to ln cho
mng n ron giai on ny phi k n Grossberg, Kohonen, Rumelhart v Hopfield. ng gp
chnh cu Hopfield l hai m hnh mng phn hi: mng ri rc nm 1982 v mng lin tc nm
1984. c bit, ng d kin nhiu kh nng tnh ton ln cu mng m mt n ron n khng th
c c.
Giai on th t, t nm 1990 n nay. Cc Hi ngh, Tp ch khoa hc v chuyn c
bit v mng n ron lin tc c t chc v d nh IJCNN (International Joint Conference on
Neural Networks). Hng lot cc lnh vc khc nhau nh: k thut tnh ton, tnh ton ti u, ng
dng mng n ron trong tin hc, vin thng, sinh-y-hc, d bo, thng k... i vo p dng v
em li nhiu kt qu ng khch l.
5.2.2 C s ca mng nron nhn to v mt s khi nim
u tin, chng ta tm hiu ngun gc ca mng n ron, bt u t mt phn t n ron
n gin. M hnh nron nhn to c ngun gc t m hnh t bo thn kinh (hay cn gi l
nron) sinh vt. Mc ch ca phn ny khng m t v nghin cu n ron sinh hc (vic c
chuyn ngnh n ron sinh vt nghin cu) m mun ch ra rng: t nhng nguyn l c bn nht
ca n ron sinh hc, ngi ta bt chc m hnh cho n ron nhn to [20].
a) M hnh nron sinh vt
Cc nron sinh vt c nhiu dng khc nhau nh dng hnh thp i no, dng t ong
tiu no, dng r cy ct sng. Tuy nhin, chng c cu trc v nguyn l hot ng chung. T
m hnh chung nht, ngi ta c th m t chng nh mt nron chun. Mt t bo nron chun
gm bn phn c bn l [20]:
+ Cc nhnh v r: l cc b phn nhn thng tin. Cc u nhy hoc cc u ra ca cc
n ron khc bm vo r hoc nhnh ca mt n ron. Khi cc u vo t ngoi ny c s chnh
lch v nng K+, Na+ hay Cl- so vi nng bn trong ca ca n ron th xy ra hin tng
thm (hoc hin tng bm) t ngoi vo trong thng qua mt c ch mng thm c bit. Hin
tng thm thu nh vy to nn mt c ch truyn t thng tin vi hng nghn hng vn li vo
trn mt n ron sinh vt, ng vi hng nghn hng vn lin kt khc nhau. Mc thm thu
c c trng bi c ch mng tng trng bng mt t l. T l c gi l t trng hay n
gin gi l trng (weight)
+ Thn thn kinh (soma) cha cc nhn v c quan tng hp prtin. Cc ion vo c
tng hp v bin i. Khi nng cc ion t n mt gi tr nht nh, xy ra qu trnh pht
xung (hay kch thch). Xung c pht cc u ra ca n ron. Dy dn u ra xung c gi
l dy thn kinh (axon).



118

















+ Dy thn kinh (axon) l u ra. l phng tin truyn dn tn hiu. Dy thn kinh
c cu to gm cc t v c th di t vi micro mt n vi mt ty tng kt cu c th. u
ra ny c th truyn tn hiu n cc n ron khc.
+ Khp thn kinh (synape) l b phn tip xc ca cc u ra n ron vi r, nhnh ca cc
n ron khc. Chng c cu trc mng c bit tip nhn cc tn hiu (Hnh 1.a) khi c s chnh
lch v nng ion gia bn trong v bn ngoi. Nu lch v nng cng ln th vic truyn
cc ion cng nhiu v ngc li. Mc thm ca cc ion c th coi l mt i lng thay i ty
thuc vo nng nh mt gi tr o thay i v c gi l trng.
Hot ng ca nron sinh v
+ Truyn xung tn hiu: Mi nron nhn tn hiu vo t cc t bo thn kinh khc. Chng
tch hp cc tn hiu vo. Khi tng cc tn hiu vt mt gi tr no gi l gi tr ngng (hay
n gin gi l ngng) chng pht tn hiu ra. Tn hiu ra ca nron c chuyn ti cc nron
hoc ti cc c quan chp hnh khc nh cc c, cc tuyn (glands). Vic truyn tn hiu thc
hin thng qua dy thn kinh v t nron ny ti nron khc theo c ch truyn tin c bit l
khp thn kinh. Mi mt nron c th nhn hng nghn, vn tn hiu v cng c th gi tn hiu
n hng vn cc nron khc. Mi nron c coi l mt thit b in ho, cha cc ni nng lin
tc, c gi l th nng mng (rnembrance potential). Khi th nng mng vt ngng, nron c
th truyn th nng tc ng i xa theo cc dy thn kinh.
+ Qu trnh hc: Khi c xung kch thch t bn ngoi ti, cc khp hoc cho i qua hoc
khng v kch thch hay c ch cc nron tip theo. Hc l mt qu trnh lm cho cch cp nht
ny lp li nhiu ln n mt gi tr n nh, cn bng in ho gia cc nron. (Trong mng
nron nhn to, trng s wij biu din ga tr cn bng ng thi to mi lin kt gia cc
nron).
Hnh 5.1: a, Nron sinh vt; b, Nron nhn to

b,
b
1
b
2
b
m

I

w

H(.)

g(.)

v(t) x(t)

y(t)

u
1
u
2

a,
119
Nhng nron khng c ngha khi x l n l m cn thit lin kt vi nhau to thnh
mng. c tnh ca h thn kinh c xc nh bng cu trc v bn ca nhng lin kt . C
th thay i bn vng lin kt (weight) bng cc thut hc khc nhau.
Theo nghin cu ca cc nh n ron sinh vt, mt noron x l vi tc ch bng 1/6 n
1/7 tc ca cng logic. Cc nron sinh hc thng c lin kt hng nghn, hng vn cc
phn t vi nhau theo nhiu cch t chc khc nhau rt phc tp. Tuy nhin, mt s cch kt hp
cc phn t nron thnh mng theo lp (layer) c c kt nh sau:
+ Mng mt lp: l tp hp cc nron c u vo v u ra trn mi mt phn t.
+ Mng hai lp: gm mt lp u vo v mt lp u ra ring bit trn mi mt phn t.
+ Mng nhiu lp: gm nhiu lp trong lp u vo v lp u ra ring bit. Cc lp
nm gia lp vo v lp ra gi l cc lp n (Hidden layers).
+ Mng truyn thng: l mng nhiu lp m qu trnh truyn tn hiu t u ra lp ny n
u vo lp kia theo mt hng xc nh.
+ Mng truyn ngc: l mng m trong mt hoc nhiu u ra ca cc phn t lp sau
truyn ngc ti u vo cc lp trc .
+ Mng t t chc: l mng c kh nng s dng nhng kinh nghim qu kh thch
ng vi nhng bin i ca mi trng (khng d bo trc).
b) M hnh nron nhn to
Mng nron sinh hc c cu trc phc tp. M hnh mt nron nhn to c xy dng t
ba thnh phn chnh: tng cc lin kt u vo, ng hc tuyn tnh, phi tuyn khng ng hc
(Hnh 1.1b)
* B tng lin kt. B tng lin kt u vo phn t nron c th m t nh sau:

v t wy t b u t I
k k
k
m
( ) ( ) ( ) = + +
=

1
(5.1)
trong : v(t) l tng tt c cc u vo; uk(t) l cc u vo ngoi, k=1,...,m; y(t) l u ra
nron; bk l trng lin kt cc u vo ngoi; w l trng lin kt cc u vo trong; I l ngng.
* Phn ng hc tuyn tnh
C nhiu hm m t phn ng hc tuyn tnh. y l phn m t cc x l bn trong
ca nron. Di y l mt phng php dng ton t Laplace m t (Bng 1.1) phn ng hc
tuyn tnh nh mt hm truyn t:
X(s) = H(s) V(s) (5.2)
Bng 5.1: Mt s hm H(s) thng dng cho nron nhn to
H(s) 1
s
1

sT 1
1

Exp(-sT)
Quan h
vo ra
x(t) = v(t)
) t ( v
dt
) t ( dx
=

) t ( v ) t ( x
dt
) t ( dx
T = +

x(t) = v(t-T)

* Phn phi tuyn.
Cc u ra ca n ron sinh vt l cc xung, c gii hn chn. Trong m phng, m
bo h n nh u ra, ngi ta thng gn hm chn li ra cho cc tn hiu. c trng cho
120
iu , li ra ca mi n ron phi t mt hm chn, thng dng phi tuyn vi hm g(.).
Nh vy u ra y c c trng l mt hm:
y = g(x(t)) (5.3)
C nhiu hm phi tuyn c th s dng trong phn phi tuyn. Mt s hm phi tuyn
thng dng c cho Bng 5.2. Mt s dng khc cng c s dng. (Cc nron chuyn
ng vng th gic trong n ron sinh hc c c tnh ca hm Sigmoid, nron khu vc quan
st c dng hm Gauss, nn vic m hnh ho cc u ra cc dng k trn l ph hp v tng
ng vi cc n ron sinh hc)

Tn hm Cng thc c tnh
Bc nhy
n v g x
x
x
( ) =

<

1 0
0 0
nu
nu


Hard limiter
(sgn) g x
x
x
( ) =

<

1 0
1 0
nu
nu



Hm tuyn tnh

g(x) = x


Hm tuyn tnh
bo ho


g x x
x
x
x
( ) =

>

<
1
0
1
0 1
0
nu
nu
nu
Hm tuyn tnh
bo ho i xng
1 x
1 x 1
1 x
1
x
1
) x ( g
<

>

=
nu
nu
nu


Hm Sigmoid
n cc
(Unipolar
Sigmoid)


x
e 1
1
) x ( g

+
=


Hm Sigmoid
lng cc
(Bipolar
Sigmoid)

g x
e
x
( ) =
+

2
1
1

Bng 5.2: Mt s hm phi tuyn thng dng trong cc m hnh nron
121
*Mt kiu phn loi in hnh c biu din trn Hnh 5.2

Mt s dng hm m, logarit
cng c s dng trong khu u ra
phi tuyn mc d c s sinh vt ca
nhng hm cha c t ra. u ra
y(t) trong trng hp tng qut c th l
lin tc hoc ri rc.
Cng nh nron sinh vt, cc
nron nhn to c th lin kt vi nhau
to thnh mng. C nhiu cch kt
hp cc nron nhn to thnh mng,
mi cch kt hp to thnh mt loi lp
mng khc nhau.

5.2.3. Cc cu trc mng in hnh
Mng nron truyn thng mt lp
L mng m cc nron to thnh mt lp, trong mi mt tn hiu vo c th c a
vo cho tt c cc nron ca lp v mi nron c nhiu cc u vo v mt u ra trn mi n ron
(Hnh 5.3). Xt trng hp cc nron khng phi l ng hc (tc H(s) =1) khi xi(t) = vi(t).
Phng trnh mng c m t nh sau:

x t b u t I
i ik k
k
m
i
( ) ( ) = +
=

1

y
i
= g(x
i
(t)), (5.4)
Hnh 5.3 Mng nron truyn thng mt lp
g(.)
y
1
b
11 x
1
u
1
g(.)
y
2
x
2
u
2
g(.)
y
n
b
nm
x
n
u
m

I
1
I
2
I
n
Back
Propa-
ration
MNG NRON NHN TO
Truyn thng T t chc Phn hi
Nhiu
lp
Mt
lp
Brain
State-in
Box
My
Boltz-
mann
Hop-
field
nh x
c trng

ART
Mc
Culloch
Pitts
Cohen
Gross-
berg
Perce
ptron
Ada-
line
Hnh 5.2: Mt cch Phn loi mng nron nhn to
122
trong : x
i
(t) l cc trng thi ca n ron, i =1,..., n; u
i
(t) l cc u vo ngoi; bik l trng lin
kt, k = 1,..., m; yi(t) l u ra; n l s nron; m l s tn hiu ngoi a vo.
C th m t phng trnh (1.4) di dng phng trnh ma trn vc t:
x(t) = Bu(t) + I
y(t) = g(x(t)) (5.5)
trong : x = [x
1
, x
2
,..., x
n
]
T
l vc t trng thi; i = 1,...,n; y = [y
1
, y
2
,..., y
n
]
T
l vc t u
ra; B=[b
ik
] l ma trn trng nm chiu; I = [I
1
,

I
2
,..., I
n
]
T
l vc t hng.
Nu mi nron c c tnh ng hc bc nht H(s)=1/(Ts+1) th tp hp ca cc nron c
th c vit di dng phng trnh trng thi:

I t Bu t x
dt
dx
T + = + ) ( ) (

y(t) = g(x(t)) (5.6)
H phng trnh (1.6) c th cho dng ri rc:
Tx(t + 1) + (1-T)x(t) = Bu(t) + I
y(t) = g(x(t)) (5.7)
c tnh mng ph thuc vo ma trn lin kt B v dng ng hc H(s).

Mng truyn thng nhiu lp
Lin kt mt lp cho kh
nng nh x phi tuyn gia cc
u vo v cc u ra. Mng hai
lp c kh nng nh x cc hm
trong vng li. Mng mt hoc
hai lp ni chung d phn tch.
Mng ba lp hoc nhiu lp c
kh nng m t c mi hm
phi tuyn. Theo Cybenco th bt
k hm phi tuyn no cng c th
xp x tu trn mt tp compact
bng mng nron truyn thng
gm hai lp n vi phi tuyn
c nh. Nh vy, khi xy dng mng n ron trong x l, mng hai lp n kh nng xp x mt
hm ty chn m c th khng dng nhiu lp hn phc tp cho tnh ton.
Xt mng tnh (H(s)=1) truyn thng nhiu lp c phng trnh m t nh sau:

q
i
m
1 k
k ik
n
1 j
1 q
j
q
ij
q
i
I ) t ( u b ) t ( y w ) t ( x
q
+ + =

= =

)) t ( x ( g y
q
i
q q
i
= (5.8)
Hnh 5.4: Mng truyn thng nhiu lp
u
1
u
2
u
m
1
1
y
Lp vo

Lp n

Lp ra

1
2
y
1
m
y
Q
1
y
Q
2
y
Q
m
y

123
trong : ) t ( x
q
i
l cc u vo lp q; i=1,...,n; q=1,...,Q; u
k
(t) l cc u vo ngoi; bik l
trng ngoi, k=1,...,m;
q
i
y l u ra lp q;
q
ij
w l trng lp q, t nron th j ti nron th i,
i,j = 1,...,n;
q
i
I l ngng ca nron th i, lp q; n
q
l s phn t nron lp q; m l s
tn hiu ngoi a vo.
C th m t phng trnh (5.8) di dng phng trnh ma trn-vc t:
x(t) = Wy(t) + Bu(t) + I
y(t) = g(x(t)) (5.9)
trong , W, B, I l cc ma trn; x, u, g l cc vc t hm. T cc mng truyn thng tng
qut mt s tc gi chn cc dng c th, nghin cu p dng cho chng cc thut hc ph
hp, hnh thnh cc mng c th nh: mng Adaline, mng Percetron, mng truyn ngc. Di
y l mt s mng in hnh.
Mng percetron mt lp n
Cu trc: Vi cc vc t ra mong mun d
(k)
=[d
1
(k)
,

d
2
(k)
,...,d
n
(k)
] v vc t vo X
(k
)
=[X
1
(k)
, X
2
(k)
,..., X
m
(k)
], k=1,2,...,p, trong m l s u vo, n l s u ra, p l s cp mu
vo-ra dng hun luyn mng. u ra thc t theo cu trc chung:
y
i
(k)
= f(W
i
T
x
i
(k)
) = f(W
ij
x
j
(k)
) = d
i
(k)
; i=1,...,n; k=1,...,p (5.10)
i vi cu trc perceptron (5.10) c th vit thnh:
y
i
(k)
= Sign(W
i
T
x
i
(k)
) = d
i
(k)
(5.11)
Lut hc tng qut: hc i vi mng nron l cp nht trng trn c s cc mu. Theo ngha
tng qut, hc c th c chia lm hai loi: Hc tham s v hc cu trc. Trong nhng nm gn
y, cc cng trnh tp trung cho nghin cu cc lut hc khc nhau. Cc lut hc c th khi
qut thnh dng chung sau:
W
i j
r X(t) (5.12)
trong : l hng s hc (dng) xc nh tc hc; r l tn hiu hc. Tn hiu hc tng qut
l mt hm ca W, X, di, tc l r = fr(wi, xi, di). i vi cc trng bin i lin tc c th s dng
dng sau:

) (
) (
t rx
dt
t dw
i
=
(5.13)
Lut Hebb l mt v d in hnh. Nh sinh hc Hebb (1949) nu tin : trng c
hiu chnh ph hp vi quan h trc-sau [20] v sau ny c m hnh ho thnh mt trong
[ ]

= =
nm 2 n
T
n
m 2 22
T
2
m 1 12 11
T
n
T
2
T
1
T
i
w ... w w
......... ..........
w ... w w
w ... w w
w
...
w
w
w W
124
nhng lut hc quan trng nht ca mng nron nhn to. Trong lut hc ca Hebb, tn hiu hc
thay i theo:
r f(W
i
T
X) = f(y
i
)

;
W
i
= f(W
i
T
X) X
j
= y
i
X
j
; i=1,2..,n ; j=1,2..,m; r d
i
- y
i

Trong mt mng c th no , lut Hebb c dng:
W
ij
= [d
i
- Sign(W
i
T
X)]X
j .
(5.14)

Mng Adaline mt lp (Windrov, 1960)
Adaline (Adaplive Linear Element): l mt nron vi c th hm tch hp (tng cc u vo)
tuyn tnh v hm kch hot (hm u ra) dc. Phng trnh m t cu trc nh sau:

=
=
m
1 j
j j
d x w y hoc d X W y
T
= (5.15)
Lut hc: Lut hc Adaline s dng phng php bnh phng cc tiu truy hi.
Windrow v Hoff ra lut hc da trn phng php gradient dng mt Adaline xp x mt
hm tuyn tnh (m-1) bin nh mt tp hp gm p mu. u tin chn tu vct trng ban u
W(1), sau ta tng bc hiu chnh li W(k) theo cc mu {x(k) , d(k)}, k=1,...,p, sao cho tng
bnh phng sai s t cc tiu:



= =
= =
=
= =
p
1 k
m
1 j
2
j j
) k (
p
1 k
p
1 k
2 ) k ( T ) k ( 2 ) k ( ) k (
) x w d (
2
1
) x w d (
2
1
) y d (
2
1
) w ( E
(5.16)

=
=

=
p
1 k
j
) k ( ) k ( T ) k (
j
j
x ) x W d (
W
E
W (5.17)
Hc c tin hnh ln lt theo cc mu, nn Wj c th tnh tun t:

) k (
j
) k ( T ) k (
j
x ) x W d ( W = (5.18)
E(W) c dng bnh phng, l mt siu Parabol trong khng gian cc trng Rm, c mt
im cc tiu duy nht. Do , nu chn nh theo phng php gradient trn th c th tm
c vc t trng ti u sau s ln lp ln.
Mng nron RBF (Radial Basis Function)
Mng RBF c Moody v Darker xut nm 1989 da trn s tng ng gia khai
trin RBF vi mng nron mt lp n. Kh nng xp x ca cc hm phi tuyn ca mng c th
tha nhn t hai l do. Mt l, n l mt kiu khai trin RBF. Hai l, n tng ng vi h
thng m v l mt cng c xp x vn nng. c bit mng RBF Gauss s l mt kiu mng c
mt s ngi thng, nn c th p dng lut hc khng gim st ca Kohonen m rng. iu ny
c th gii thch t cch suy din kiu NU-TH ca h thng m tng ng.
Cu trc mng nron RBF
125
C m u vo, Wqj = 1 (nn c ngi gi l mng hai lp) trong lp n: hm kch hot
dng Gauss chun:
] 2 / m x exp[
] 2 / m x exp[
Z
2
k
2
l
1 k
k
2
q
2
k
q
|| ||
|| ||
=

=
(5.19)
y, vct u vo X=[x1,...,xm]; mk l vct tm
(gi tr trung bnh), k (Scalar) l chiu rng
(phng sai), ||.|| l k hiu chun clit.
Lp ra: vi n u ra:
Z w Z W y
T
i
l
1 q
q iq i
= =

=

vi i=1,...,n, k=1,..p s mu (5.20)

Cc mng n ron phn hi
a phn hi ngc vo cu trc mng nron to mt mng ng (dynamic) vi mt s
im n nh. Trong trng hp tng qut, m hnh mng ng m t nh sau:
x(t) = F(x(t), u(t), ),
y(t) = G(x(t), ) (5.21)
trong : x(t) l trng thi; u(t) l cc u vo ngoi; l tham s; F(.) l hm m t cu trc; G(.)
l hm m t quan h gia bin trng thi v u ra.
Mng phn hi (recurrent) u tin c Kohonen, Anderson v Nakano ra t nhng
nm 1972. Hopfield hiu chnh s hc ca n, trong cc thng tin v trng m bo cc
trng thi nh, ng vi cc im cc tiu. Cc im cc tiu dng lm b nh a ch theo ni
dung (CAM: Content Address Memory) nhm gii quyt bi ton nhn mu (nhn dng tnh). Cc
mu chc chn c dng lm cc im cn bng. Cc sai s gia u vo so vi mu phi nm
trong vng hp dn. Theo quan im ca vt l v spin glass h ng hc nh vy c to ra,
trong h mng gn lin vi tp cc mu c a vo t trc. Nu ton b khng gian lm
vic c phn vng theo CAM th iu kin ban u ng vi cc mu chun l nghim trng thi
dng ng vi cc mu. Tip theo chng ta xem xt hai mng Hopfield l loi mng mt lp phn
hi c s dng rt nhiu trong thc t.

Mng Hopfield ri rc
Hopfield l mt nh vt l xut hai loi mng ni ting. Mng Hopfield u tin l mng n
ron phn hi mt lp dng ri rc vi hm kch hot (1982) [4] phi tuyn dng bc nhy :

x t w y t I
i ij j
j
n
i
( ) ( ) =
=

1
i,j = 1,...,n (5.22)

=
=
= +
x nu
x nu
i
i
p i , 0 ) t ( ), t ( y
p i , 0 ) t ( , )) t ( x ( g
) 1 t ( y
i
i
i
(5.23)
Hnh 5.5: Mng phn hi mt lp
u
1
u
2
u
m
1
y
2
y
n
y

b
nm
b
11
w

126
vi p l phn t chn ngu nhin c tnh, p = 1,...,n, v hm quan h vo ra:

<

=
0 ) ( 0
0 ) ( 1
)) ( (
t
t
t x g
i
i
i
x nu
x nu
(5.24)
Lut Hebb c dng m ho P mu; yk, k=1,...,P l cc im cn bng ca h c m t t
(1-22) n (1-24) bng cch chn cc trng s theo lut sau:

=

=

=
j i u
j i nu
n 0
) 1 y 2 )( 1 y 2 (
W
j , p
h
1 p
i , p
ij
(5.25)

I w
i ij
j
n
=
=

1
2
1
(5.26)
y, h l s mu. xc nh tnh n nh ca mng, Hopfield nu hm nng lng mng (hay
hm th nng):

E y a y y I y
ij i j
j
n
i
n
i i
i
n
( ) = +
= = =

1
2
1 1 1
(5.27)
Nu Wii=0 v Wij =Wji th mi thay i khng ng b ca yp nng lng s gim ph
hp theo:
[ ]
E y t y t a y w
p p pj j p
j
n
= +

( ) ( ) 1
1
(5.28)
suy gim ca hm nng lng tin v 0, mng n nh.
Mng phn hi tng qut
Cohen v Grossberg nu m hnh tng qut v mng phn hi v chng minh tnh n
nh ca n. Cohen v Grossberg xt mt h bt k:

=

=
) ( ) ( ) (
1
i
n
k
k ik i i i i
i
x d c x b x a
dt
dx
(5.29)
trong
0 ) x ( a
i i
>
, bi(xi) l cc hm lin tc, dk(xi) kh vi, n iu khng gim. Cc h s
0 c
ik

, i xng v tho mn mt s gi thit th tn ti hm Liapunov:

= =
+ =
n
1 i
x
0
n
1 k , j
k k j j jk i i i
i
) x ( d ) x ( d c
2
1
d ) ( d ) ( b ) x ( V
(5.30)
xc nh dng v o hm ca n
127

2
n
1 k
n
1 k
k k ik i i i i i i
) x ( d c ) x ( b ) x ( d ) x ( a ) x ( V
dt
d

= =

=

0
) (

dt
x dV
: (5.31)
i vi cc h k thut, cc iu kin ca nh l ny kh thc hin. Bi vy, m hnh t c
tho mn trong thc t. Loi m hnh khc, m hnh Hopfield lin tc, c thc hin bng cc
mch in dng hoc cc vi mch tch hp mt cao VLSI v c nhiu ng dng.
Mng Hopfield lin tc
Nm 1984 trn c s m hnh ri rc, Hopfield nu m hnh nron phn hi lin tc
c m t lut tc ng bng tp cc phng trnh vi phn sau:
i
n
j
j ij
i
i i
i
I y w
R
x
dt
dx
C + + =

=1
(5.32)
y
i
= g
i
(x
i
); v x
i
= g
i
-1
(y
i
). (5.33)
trong : Ci, Ri, Ii l cc hng s, i = 1,..., n; wij
l trng lin kt phn t nron th j ti nron
th i; xi l trng thi th i ca mng; gi(.) l
hm sigmoid, tc l kh vi, b chn v n iu
tng. Hopfield nu hm Liapunov hay hm
nng lng mng:
V w y y R g d I y
ij i
j
n
j
i
n
i
i
n
i
y
i i
i
n
i
= +
= = =

=



1
2
1
1 1 1
1
0
1
( / ) ( )
(5.34)
v chng minh tnh n nh ca mng theo
tiu chun n nh ca Liapunov:
dV/dt 0 (5.35)
T (5.35) cho thy h lun n nh, sau mt khong thi gian chuyn ng trong khng
gian trng thi, t cc tiu trong min V v dng im vi
0 dt / dV =
,
0 dt / dy
i
=
tc
yi=const vi mi i. Vi h ny tn ti nhiu im cn bng ng vi mc nng lng cc tiu (hay
l y nng lng) trn mt siu phng nng lng ca siu din n chiu. Gi s cc mu vo
(input patterns) tu c a vo h nh trng thi ban u, h s t n im cn bng gn
nht ng vi im n nh. Hnh 5.6 cho thy mt phc ho ngn gn v nng lng ca h E(x).
Nu E(x) l mt hm v hng ca x vi cc cc tiu a phng, cc im cc tiu a phng
ny c gn vo mng lm cc c trng x l thng tin. Nu h thng xut pht trng thi
ban u x(0), th theo thi gian h trt xung y nng lng ca im cc tiu gn nht.
Vi c trng nh vy, mng Hopfield c kh nng dng lm mt b nh cc mu lnh,
sau c th gi li. Da trn nguyn l , mng Hopfield cng c th dng trong h nhn
dng cc tham s, lm cc b suy din m (fuzzy interference) trong iu khin thng minh, gii
cc bi ton ti u. Trong nhng mng thuc nhm phn hi cn c cc m hnh mng khc nh:
my Bolzmann, Mc.Culloch-Pitts...
Mng nron t t chc: (Self-Organizing Feature Maps)

Hnh 5.6: Nng lng mng E(x)
128
Con ngi c kh nng s dng nhng kinh nghim qu kh thch nghi vi nhng thay
i ca mi trng. S thch nghi khng cn ngi hng dn hoc ch o t bn ngoi.
Mng nron nhn to thc hin theo nguyn l gi l mng t t chc. Kohonen nu ln
loi mng vi tn gi c trng l t t chc. Trong mng t t chc, ti mt thi im ch c mt
t bo nron hoc mt nhm nron cc b cho p ng i vi u vo ti thi im . Mng c
mt lp n nh l mt lp u vo. Cc trng ca mng c m ho tng ng vi cc mu
u vo. Cc nh x c trng c s dng nhiu trong nhn mu, iu khin r bt v iu
khin qu trnh. Mc tc ng ca mi nron c tnh theo tch ca vc t vo v vc t trng
x
i
= UW
i
(5.36)
trong : xi l trng thi (mc tc ng) ca nron th i; Wi l vc t trng ca phn t nron th
i; U l vc t vo.
Gn y, vi m hnh mi nh Fourier, Gabor ng vi cc dng hm phi tuyn cng c
s dng. Nhng mng ny thng l t hp ca cc loi mng khc nhau hoc l pht trin trn
cc loi mng c sn.
5.2.4 Kh nng ng dung ca mng n ron
Kh khn nht trong ng dng mng n ron nhn to trong my chc thp k qua l hn
ch v mt cng ngh v tc tnh ton. Cu trc mng nron i hi hng nghn, hng vn lin
kt v s lng tnh ton ln cho nn phc tp c v mt cu trc (phn cng) c v mt phn
mm. Ngy nay, vi cc chip vi siu tch hp, tc cao m ra nhiu kh nng ng dng
thc t.
5.2.4.1 Cc ng dng trong tin hc
Trong vi chc thp nin tr li y, nhiu b x l trn c s nguyn l mng n ron c
hnh thnh. Nhng ch th u tin ca Hopfield trn c s cc mch tng t hnh thnh t
nhng nm 1982. Ngy nay nhiu IC trn c s nguyn l ca mng n ron c sn xut.
in hnh hin nay c nhng hng sn xut cc vi mch vi tch hp cao c gi l B x
l-nron thay cho cc b vi x l (kinh in c dng trong my tnh) cha n hng trm vn
phn t tnh ton-nron v c kh nng ghp ni hng chc b khc nhau. Cc lin kt trong tnh
ton theo kiu nron t n hng t trong mt thi im. Nhiu b chng trnh pht trin x
l theo kiu n ron c bn ra th trng gii cc bi ton ti u, x l tn hiu, nhn dng
ting ni, ch vit, nhn mu, d bo, c bit l d bo ti chnh. Nhng c trng chnh ca ng
dng ny ch yu da trn cc nguyn l x l n ron theo tp mu thay v x l tng bc ca
my tnh kinh in. Ni cch khc cc x l mang tnh song song.
+ Nhn dng. Nhiu kin trc v thut ton theo kiu nron c dng nhn dng cu
trc v tham s, c bit l cc mng n ron truyn ngc. Chang, Zhang v Sami cho bit mng
Hopfield cng c th kt hp vi mng Gabor nhn dng h phi tuyn c nhng kt qu kh
quan. Trong trng hp ny, mng bao gm ba lp. Lp th nht gi l b to hm s dng mng
Gabor to hm phi tuyn. Lp th hai dng mng Hopfield ti u cc h s trng cha bit.
Lp th ba c gi l mng iu khin tnh sai s c lng v iu khin hot ng ca cc
lp mng th nht v lp th hai. H khng yu cu phi n nh tim cn m ch cn cc u
vo-ra gii hn v n nh i vi cc kt qu c coi l hp l theo min vo-ra ln. Thnh
cng ca phng php ch t c l lun ca phng php v cho kt qu m phng. Cc
ng dng ny ang m ra mt tng lai pht trin ca cc my tnh th h th nm: th h my
129
tnh cc qu trnh vo ra d liu khng th cng bng tay m bng ngn ng, hnh nh vi
kh nng nhn dng t chnh xc chp nhn c
+ Mng nron nhn to c th s dng lm b bin i A/D. Ta c th xy dng mng
Hopfield mt lp c bn nron vi cc u vo ngoi x=[x0, x1, x2, x3], cc u ra y=[y0, y1, y2,
y3] cho b bin i A/D bn bit. Thnh cng ny ca Hopfield t 1984 chng minh mt cch
tip cn mi trong vic bin i cc gi tr tng t sang s theo nguyn l no ngi thay cho
cc phn cng hoc phn mm kinh in.
+ Nhn mu k t. Cc mng nron c nhiu tc gi nghin cu ng dng trong x
l ch vit, nh: nhn dng k t, nhn dng ch vit, nhn dng ting ni v nh. Vin CNTT
trong khun kh d n kt hp vi Cng ty Fuzisju (Nht) cng bt u ng dng cng ngh
ny cho nhn mu ch ting Vit vit tay. Phn 3 v 4 trong nghin cu ny s trnh by ng dng
mng Nh lin kt hai chiu: BAM) nhn dng k t ting Vit.
+ Nhn dng nh. Trong cc lnh vc nghin cu v hnh nh cng c cc tc gi s
dng mng nron x l hnh nh nh nhn dng, x l.
+ Thc hin cc thut ton ti u. Ngay sau khi xut cc kin trc v thut hc, nm
1986 Hopfield cng vi Tank ng dng mng gii bi ton ti u tm ng i ngn nht thay
cho thut ton Tin hc kinh in Ngi bn hng. Vi phng tin gii quyt bng phn cng
trn cc chip nron hoc phn mm theo thut hc mng nron, phng php ny bc vo k
nguyn ng dng mng nron cho nhng bi ton khc tng t nh bi ton nh tuyn ti u
(s trnh by phn sau)
5.2.4.2 Cc ng dng trong vin thng
+ Nhn dng, m hnh ho knh phi tuyn. Mng nron dn c mt s tc gi nh
Mohamed Ibnkahia ng dng vo cc lnh vc truyn thng: nhn dng knh, m hnh ho knh,
m ho v gii m, hiu chnh knh, phn tch ph, lng t ho vc t... y cc mng nron
truyn thng, phn hi, mng t t chc c ng dng trong cc lnh vc ph hp. V d mng
Perceptron nhiu lp vi thut hc lan truyn ngc c s dng nhn dng v iu khin
h thng t ng dn ng bay cho ngnh hng khng...
+ ng dng trong ATM (s trnh by phn 3 v 4). Atsush xut b iu khin
mng vin thng ATM trn c s mng n ron truyn ngc hc mi quan h gia lu lng
thc t v cht lng dch v. Phng php hc bng mu c xut hc cc mi quan h
.
5.2.4.3 ng dng mng n ron trong x l tn hiu
Mng BAM c s dng x l tn hiu iu khin [6]. Mng c hai lp (Hnh 5.7),
lp vo c n phn t x1, x2,...,xn; lp ra c m phn t y1, y2,...,ym. Ma trn trng c kch thc
mn. Phng trnh trng thi phn t th i lp y c th m t nh sau (i=1,...,n, k: bc lp):
130

< +
= +
> +
= +
0 ) 1 k ( 0
0 ) 1 k ( ) k ( y
0 ) 1 k ( 1
) 1 k ( y
i
*
i
*
i
*
i
y nu
y nu
y nu
;

=
=
n
1 j
j ij
*
i
x w ) k ( y (5.37)
Phng trnh trng thi phn t th i lp x:

< +
= +
> +
= +
0 ) 1 k ( 0
0 ) 1 k ( ) k ( x
0 ) 1 k ( 1
) 1 k ( x
i i
*
i
*
i
*
i
x nu
x nu
x nu
;

=
=
m
1 j
ji j
*
i
w y ) k ( x (5.38)
Qu trnh iu chnh c tin hnh ng b khi tt c cc nron xut hin cng mt
chu k tnh, hoc cp nht khng ng b khi tng tp con cp nht tng thi im. Hm nng
lng c s dng (T l k hiu chuyn v), mng n nh sau mt thi gian

T
YWX E = (5.39)
Lut cp nht l lut Hebb hay lut tch ngoi m ho lin kt {Xi,Yi} trong mng
BAM bng cch i m t vc t nh phn thnh m t lng cc 0 n 1. Gi s cc vc t ct
Ai v Bi c gi tr lng cc th ma trn trng W c cho:

q
T
q 2
T
2 1
T
1
A B ... A B A B W + + + = (5.40)
Bi ton tch li vi mng BAM c dng nh mt nh x t khng gian u vo n khng
gian u ra. Chng ta nh ngha ba vc t vo v ra theo bng:

m ho vi vic s dng lut Hebb th cc vc t cn c i thnh dng c gi tr nh phn
i du (xem bng trn bn phi).
Tng cc tch ngoi ca cc vc t ny cho ma trn trng W

= + + =
3 1 1 1 1
1 3 3 3 3
1 3 3 3 3
3 1 1 1 1
' C ' N ' B ' M ' A ' L W
T T T

Vc t vo Vc t ra
A=(1 0 1 0 1)
B= (1 0 1 0 0)
C= (0 1 0 1 1)
L = (1 1 1 1)
M = (0 1 1 0)
N = (1 0 0 1)
Vc t vo Vc t ra
A=( 1 -1 1 -1 1)
B=(1 -1 1 -1 -1)
C=(-1 1 -1 1 1)
L = (1 1 1 1)
M= (-1 1 1 -1)
N = (1 -1 -1 1)
x
1 x
2
x
n
y
1 y
2
y
m
Lp 1
Lp 2
Hnh 5.7: Mng BAM 2 lp
...
...
131
T (5.39) v (5.40) nu a vo vc t A th c L, ngc li a L th c A
L ) 1 1 1 1 ( ) 1 5 5 1 ( AW
T
= =
A ) 1 0 1 0 1 ( ) 4 4 4 4 4 ( LW = =
iu chng t nu c mt mu vo nh l mt vc t A mng BAM x l v gi ra
mu nh l mt vc t L. Mng BAM lc nh l mt b nh lin kt W, nh cc tnh hung
theo phng trnh (1.38) v cc gi tr ca n th hin trn ma trn bng s nh tnh trn.
th hin kh nng chnh li cho vc t vo
+ A
trong
) 0 0 0 1 0 ( =
li mt
bit th vc t ra s vn l:

L ) 1 1 1 1 ( ) 2 2 2 2 ( W ) A (
T
= = +

V d ny cho bit mng n ron kh thng minh c kh nng nhn mu vi sai s trong
min nh cho php.
KT LUN
Phn ny trnh by cc m hnh noron sinh vt lm c s cu trc cho m hnh n ron nhn to.
i vi m hnh n ron nhn to c bn vn ln cn c quan tm:
Cc kiu lin kt u vo (tuyn tnh, phi tuyn)
Cc loi hm truyn c chn
Cc hm tng tc u ra cn xc nh
Cc cch lin kt (truyn thng, phn hi, mt hoc nhiu lp)
T cch chn , hng lot cc cu trc mng nhn to c nghin cu v sng to nhm gii
quyt cc bi ton khoa hc v k thut. Cc thit b cng, cc chng trnh, b cng c pht trin
mm c sn xut.
Khng th khng ni n cc lut hc ca mng n ron. Nhng lut hc s cp n
phn ba. Cc chng trnh m phng s cp n phn bn.
5.3. LOGIC M
Ngnh khoa hc ca logic m, h m v m hnh m c s thnh cng vt bc v c
nhiu ng dng thc t. Qu trnh x l thng tin da trn l thuyt logic m i hi khi lng
tnh ton ln v do thi gian tnh ton tr nn quan trng. Cc cng trnh khoa hc gn y
ghi nhn nhng n lc nghin cu ca cc t chc v logic m nhm mc ch pht trin phn
cng hin i cho vic thc hin logic m nhanh hn. Ngoi ra, nhiu nh cung cp a ra cc
gii php kt hp phn cng v phn mm li pht
trin h m. Nhng ng dng cho tin hc v vin thng l
tng i kh khn i vi h m song mt s c gng
nh trnh by di y c p dng.
5.3.1. Cc khi nim c bn
a. Khi nim tp m
Trong l thuyt v tp hp kinh in nu ln
cc nh ngha v tp hp, v cc php tnh ca cc tp
hp nh php b, hp, giao, hiu. Trong lgic m cng c
Hnh 5.8: Hm lin thuc ca tp
kinh in

A
(x)
x
0
1
132
nhng khi nim v php tnh tng t. Trc tin, ta xem xt s khc nhau gia tp m v tp
hp kinh in thng qua khi nim hm lin thuc. Hm lin thuc A ca tp hp kinh in A
c nh ngha l:

( )

=
A x nu 0
A x nu 1
x
A

Nh vy, hm lin thuc ch c hai gi tr chnh xc l 0 v 1 nh Hnh 5.8. Do vy nu ta
bit tp hp A th cng xc nh c hm lin thuc A(x) ca n v ngc li.
Trong lgic m, vn ny li khc. Hm lin thuc ca tp m khng ch nhn 2 gi tr
l 0 v 1 m l ton b cc gi tr t 0 n 1 tc l
1 ) x ( 0
B

. Trn Hnh 5.9 l hai hm lin
thuc ca hai tp m B v C. Nh vy lgic m khng c s suy lun thun ngc nh vi tp
hp kinh in. V vy, trong nh ngha tp m phi nu thm v hm lin thuc ny do vai tr
ca n l lm r ra chnh tp m .
b. nh ngha tp m
Tp m F xc nh trn tp kinh in M l mt tp m mi phn t ca n l mt cp cc
gi tr (x, f (x)), trong xM v f l nh x
] 1 , 0 [ M :
f

. nh x f c gi l hm lin
thuc (ph thuc) ca tp m F. Tp
kinh in M c gi l c s ca tp
m F.
Cc hm lin thuc
f
(x) c
dng trn nh Hnh bn gi l hm lin
thuc kiu S. i vi cc hm lin
thuc kiu S, do cc cng thc biu
din
) x (
f

c phc tp ln, nn
thi gian tnh ph thuc cho mt phn t lu. V vy, trong k thut thng thng cc hm lin
thuc kiu S c thay bng cc on thng (tuyn tnh tng on).
Mt hm lin thuc c dng tuyn tnh tng on c gi l hm lin thuc c mc
chuyn i tuyn tnh (Hnh 5.10. Vi hm lin thuc nh Hnh2.2b nu m1 = m2 v
4 3
m m =

th n chnh l hm lin thuc ca tp kinh in.
x

f
(x)
1
0,5
0
3 9 4 5 6 8
Hnh 5.10: Hm lin thuc c mc chuyn i tuyn tnh
Hnh 5.9: Hm lin thuc ca tp m.
a,
b,

B
(x)
x
0
1

C
()
x
0
1
m
1
m
2
m
3
m
4
133
V d: tp m F bao gm cc s thc ln hn 3 v nh hn 9 c hm lin thuc gn ng l hnh
thang nh Hnh 5.3.3 T hm lin thuc ta xc nh c ph thuc (lin thuc) ca cc s
trong tp ny:
5 , 0 ) 4 (
f
=
;
75 , 0 ) 5 , 4 (
f
=
;
1 ) 5 (
f
=
;
1 ) 6 (
f
=
;
5 , 0 ) 8 (
f
=
.
c. cao, min xc nh v min tin cy
Tuy nhin, khng phi bt buc cc hm lin thuc phi c gi tr ln nht bng 1. ng
vi iu th khng phi mi hm lin thuc u c cao bng 1.
cao ca tp m F (nh ngha trn
c s M) l gi tr:
H = sup f(x), xM
nu tp m c H=1 gi l chnh tc, H
lun <1 l khng chnh tc.
Min xc nh ca tp m F (nh
ngha trn c s M) k hiu bng S, l
tp con ca M tho mn
S={xM;
f
(x) >0}
Min tin cy ca tp m F (nh ngha
trn c s M), k hiu bng T, l tp
con ca M tho mn
T = {x M;
f
(x) = 1}
5.3.2. Cc php ton trn tp m
Tp m cng c 3 php ton c bn l php hp (tng ng php OR), php giao
(tng ng php AND) v php b (tng ng php NOT).
a. Php hp hai tp m:
Hp ca hai tp m A v B c cng c s
M l mt tp m cng xc nh trn c s M vi
hm lin thuc:

AB
(x) = MAX{
A
(x),
B
(x)}
Php hp ca hai tp m th hin trn Hnh5.12
Ngoi cng thc trn cn c mt s cng thc khc
tnh hm lin thuc ca php hp hai tp m nh: Php
hp Lukasiewier, tng Einstein, tng trc tip ...
+ Php hp Lukasiewier: A B(x)=min{1, A(x) + B(x)
+ Tng Einstein:
) x ( ) x ( 1
) x ( ) x (
) x (
B A
B A
B A
+ +
+
=



+ Tng trc tip: A B(x) = A(x) + B(x) - A(x) B(x)

x

A
(x)
B
(x)
Hnh 5:12 Php hp ca hai tp m
Min tin cy
Min xc nh
Hnh 5.11: Min xc nh v min tin cy ca tp m
x

f
(x)
1
0
134

=
=

{ min nu 1
{ min nu
0 )} x ( ), x (
0 )} x ( ), x ( )} x ( ), x ( max{
) x (
B A
B A B A
B A

Nu hai tp m khng cng c s, tp m A vi hm lin thuc A(x) nh ngha trn c
s M v tp m B vi hm lin thuc B(x) nh ngha trn c s N th ta a chng v cng mt
c s bng cch ly tch ca hai c s c l (MN). Ta k hiu tp m A l tp m nh ngha
trn c s MN v tp m B l tp m nh ngha trn c s MN. Nh vy, hp ca hai tp m A
v B tng ng vi hp ca hai tp m A v B kt qu l mt tp m xc nh trn c s MN vi
hm lin thuc:
)} y , x ( ), y , x ( { MAX ) y , x (
B A B A
=


trong :
v N y mi Vi = ) x ( ) y , x (
A A

M x mi Vi = ) y ( ) y , x (
B B

b. Php giao hai tp m:
Giao ca hai tp m A v B c cng c s
M l mt tp m cng xc nh trn c s M vi
hm lin thuc.
A B(x) = MIN{A(x), B(x)}
Php giao ca hai tp m c th hin trn Hnh 5.13. Ngoi cng thc trn cn c mt s
cng thc tnh khc tnh hm lin thuc ca giao hai tp m nh: Php giao Lukasiewier, tch
Einstein, tch i s ...
+ Php giao Lukasiewier: A B(x) = max{0, A(x)
+ B(x)-1}
+ Tch Einstein:
) x ( ) x ( )) x ( ) x ( ( 2
) x ( ) x (
) x (
B A B A
B A
B A
+
+
=


+ Tch i s: A B(x) = A(x)B(x)

=
=

{ max nu 0
{ max nu
1 )} x ( ), x (
1 )} x ( ), x ( )} x ( ), x ( min{
) x (
B A
B A B A
B A

* Nu hai tp m khng cng c s, tp m A vi hm lin thuc A(x) nh ngha trn c s M
v tp m B vi hm lin thuc B(x) nh ngha trn c s N th ta a chng v cng mt c s
bng cch ly tch ca hai c s c l (MN). Ta k hiu tp m A l tp m nh ngha trn c
s MN v tp m B l tp m nh ngha trn c s MN. Nh vy giao ca hai tp m A v B
tng ng vi giao ca hai tp m A v B kt qu l tp m xc nh trn c s MN vi hm lin
thuc:
Hnh 5.13: Php giao ca hai tp m

x

B
(x)
A
(x)

x

A
(x)
Hnh 5.14.Php b ca mt tp m.
) x (
C
A

135
)} y , x ( ), y , x ( { MIN ) y , x (
B A B A
=


trong :
v N y mi Vi = ) x ( ) y , x (
A A
M x mi Vi = ) y ( ) y , x (
B B

c. Php b ca mt tp m:
B ca tp m A c c s M v hm lin thuc A(x) l mt tp m AC xc nh trn
cng c s M vi hm lin thuc c th hin trn Hnh 5.14 trong :

) x ( 1 ) x (
A
A
C
=

5.3.3. Bin ngn ng
Bin ngn ng l mt bin c th gn cc t trong ngn ng cho gi tr ca n. y cc
t c c trng bi nh ngha tp m trong min xc nh m bin c nh ngha.
Cc bin ngn ng chun ho thng dng l: m ln NB (negative big), m trung bnh
NM (negative medium), m nh NS (negative small), khng Z (zero), dng nh PS (positive
small), dng trung bnh PM (positive medium), dng ln PB (positive big). Vi trng hp ti
gin c th bin ngn ng ch gm: m N, khng Z v dng P.
Bin ngn ng ch cn thit trc tin l cho qu trnh m ho (Fuzzifiezs) cc gi tr r
ca u vo cc b iu khin m, sau l chun ho cc hm lin thuc khc nhau.
5.3.4 Cc kh nng ng dng ca Logic m
5.3.4.1 Cc ng dng trong iu khin
Gasos v cc cng s xut mt h thng m cho cc robot di ng t hnh. Trong h thng ny
cc bin iu khin (vn tc, gc quay ca tay li) u c tnh ton nhanh bi ba module da
trn logic m. H thng cho php t tc v gia tc cc i l: 0,6m/s v 0,4m/s2 mc d gc
quay tay li nm trong phm vi: 280280. Tc chuyn tay li cc i l 80/s v thi gian ly
mu cc i l: 0,25s.
Akahoshi gii thiu b iu khin logic m (FLC), iu khin thnh cng qu trnh t ng phng
to hay thu nh tiu c ca camera thu knh phn x (SLR). Thit b hp thnh m thc hin vic
hp thnh sau vi mili giy vi hai u vo, nm nhn v hai lut iu khin m v hm lin
thuc c m t nh l mt bng dng 8 bit xp loi v 16 bit kt hp, thit b hp thnh m
chim khong 500byte trong chng trnh.
Zimmermann nghin cu v kh nng ca ng c khi n tc 80km/h da trn c s nhng
hiu bit c xy dng. iu ny cho thy, n hon ton c lp vi bt k thng tin bn
ngoi no. ng c dng b transputer to ra kh nng tnh ton tng ng 40 MIPS/6
nhm lm cho thit b hp thnh m nhanh hn v thi gian tng tc di 10ms.
Marrtinez v Iamshidi xut h thng m cho vic iu khin tc chy khng ti ca xe t.
iu ny to ra s ci tin ng k lin quan n h thng vng m v t c thi gian n nh
l 1,4s, qu ti 12%. H lu rng, trong khi h m tn dng u ra v pht sinh t vng m
hi tip th trong m hnh h thng iu khin Crisp PD, khi thi gian n nh v thc hin vt
qu gii hn th h thng m vi ch mt u ra s em li thi gian n nh tt hn nhng ch
lm vic qu ti xu hn.
5.3.4.2. Logic m trong mng vin thng
136
H m c m hnh ho bng cng c ton hc m t kh nng bn vng trong
vic gii quyt nhng vn khng chnh xc v khng xc nh trong th gii thc. Cc bin
ngn ng cho php biu din mt min cc gi tr s di dng thut ng miu t n gin ca h
m. Thc t hin nay cho thy cc mng thng tin tr nn phc tp v ng hn nhiu, cha ng
mt bt nh ln trong mi quan h gia lu lng thng tin u vo v cc tham s mi
trng khc, ny sinh t cc s c li, nhiu v qu ti khng mong mun. N i ngc li m
hnh phn tch chnh xc, Fuzzy Logic (logic m) ra i m ra mt hng mi cho php gii
quyt nhiu bi ton quan trng ca mng. Kh nng m hnh ho mng bng cc cng thc ton
hc ca h m th cao hn cc gi tr ri rc thng thng, cng vi vic m phng h m to ra
s phi hp nhp nhng gia kiu phn tch kinh in
Bonde v Ghosh dng bin h thng ngn ng mm m hnh ho vic sp xp cc b m
trong trng thi chuyn mch CELL. H a ra khi nim ngng m trc n nh, qun l b
m thch nghi kha cnh tng phn vi ngng thng thng, ri rc v khng ng rng: c
s chuyn giao mm dn dn gia FULL hon ton v FULL khng hon ton (ring). Cc gi tr
lin thuc c nh ngha thng qua mt hm dng sigmoid khng i ng. Boude v Ghost
nghin cu mt nguyn l c bn l: nguyn l underlying; hoc t chi, hoc l chp nhn
(cho php) thm nhp vo cc CELL v d nh: t cc b chuyn i khc hay n cc b m
chuyn i, t vic kt hp m hnh logic m v ngng m.
H m t rng, ngng m l nguyn nhn gy ra vic sp xp b m trnh by cc
hnh vi mm v d nh kh nng thch nghi iu kin ng v khng n nh tt hn, kh nng
phc hi mau l vi nhng thay i nhanh ca lu lng mng v ch nh hng ti vic loi b
t bo.
Schefer v Knuicki gii thiu k thut m hnh ho dng cho mng d liu gi. Phm vi phn tch
ca h bao gm k thut gii tch, khng gii tch v tham s nh mng Nron, logic m, v h
thng Fractal. N c dng nh chnh xc tr v tnh nng khng n nh ca qu
trnh thc hin.
Tanaka v Hosaka: xem xt nhng kh khn ca cc hm lin thuc c cho vic iu khin
mng c hiu qu trong vic qun l cuc gi v nh tuyn thng qua vic iu hng gi tr u
vo v gi tr t c ca mng v gi tr ti u c chn ra t cc gi tr ny v cui cng a
vo cc b lu.
5.3.4.3. xut nhng nghin cu v logic m trong mng tc cao
a. Cu trc phn cng mi cho vic tnh ton m nhanh
Mc d logic m c trin khai thnh cng trong iu khin my mc cng nghip, n
cng c mt s kt qu trong mng vin thng, nhng cng t ra mt s th thch. Mng hin
ti v tng lai s pht trin rt nhanh vi vic chuyn mch cc gi c kch thc nh tc
hng Gb/s. i vi tc chuyn mch ATM nhanh v mng tc cao khc (cn dng phn
cng song song) v phm vi chuyn mch ca cc my tnh l rt nh nn cn thc hin hp thnh
m trc khi x l cc gi tin.
Catania v cc cng s d tnh rng kin trc VLSI m ng xut c th p ng cc yu
cu ca lu lng thoi mt cch d dng. N kh nng vt qua yu cu ca lu lng video,
ti tc 1 Mbps. Vi cc kt qu nghin cu c trnh by [ ] th t ra thnh cng trong cc
mng ang hot ng. N bt buc qu trnh hp thnh m phi c thc hin nhanh bi cc nt
tnh ton ng b vi qu trnh x l gi. Mc d chi tit v mng c xut bao gm nhng
137
yu cu thc hin vn cha c xc nh, song mt h thng hp l yu cu mi nt phi thc
hin nh qu trnh hp thnh m, vi cc thng s c tnh nh sau:
Bn u vo, nm u ra, nm ngn ng cho mi u vo v mi u ra, phm vi t m
ln, m khng n dng v dng ln,... tng cng c 20 hoc nhiu hn 20 lut v mt hm
lin thuc hnh thang i xng. Hin ti, c mt c ch trong vic la chn hai nguyn l:
Tch hp m hnh hp thnh m vo phn cng chuyn mch
Thit k v pht trin mt h thng cng/ mm ng x l lm vic trong cu trc chuyn
mch c s.
+ Yu cu: nghin cu v u t t pha cc cng ty sn xut mng tc cao.
+ Bn thn n c bn s la chn ph: dng b x l chun c sn, dng b iu khin
m c hiu qu thng mi, thit k b x l m VLSI hoc dng b ng x l m tc cao.
Tamakawa kt lun rng: nhng nghin cu v cc kin trc mi thc hin vic hp
thnh m tc cao v thp th vn c tip tc. Nhn ra hn ch v mt tc ca h thng
phn cng m hin thi, Watanabe xut vic pht trin b ng x l hp thnh m c s
vi ba yu cu ct gim ch yu:
Gim phn ch dn kin trc ca h m t vic x l thng tin m.
S lng s miu t h m.
Phn cng logic m c t chc nh mt n v vec t.

5.3. GII THUT DI TRUYN
Phn ny trnh by nhng nghin cu v kh nng ng dng gii thut di truyn ti
u cu hnh mng nron nhn to nhm tng hiu qu nhn dng ting ni ca mng.
5.3.1. Gii thut di truyn
5.3.1.1. Nhim sc th
Cc thut gii di truyn (GAs: Genetic Algorithms) cng nh cc thut ton tin ho
khc hnh thnh da trn quan nim cho rng qu trnh tin ho t nhin l qu trnh hp l,
hon ho. T n mang tnh ti u [12]. Quan im trn nh mt tin , khng chng
minh, nhng ph hp vi thc t khch quan.
Mc tiu nghin cu ca GAs c th c khi qut nh sau:
Tru tng ho v m phng qu trnh thch nghi trong h thng t nhin.
Thit k phn mm, chng trnh m phng, nhm duy tr cc c ch quan trng ca h
thng t nhin.
Gii thut di truyn s dng mt s thut ng ca ngnh di truyn hc [12] nh:
nhim sc th, qun th (Population), Gen.... Nhim sc th c to thnh t cc Gen (c
biu din ca mt chui tuyn tnh). Mi Gen mang mt s c trng v c v tr nht nh
trong nhim sc th. Mi nhim sc th s biu din mt li gii ca bi ton.
5.3.1.2. Cc ton t di truyn
a. Ton t sinh sn
138
Ton t sinh sn gm hai qu trnh: qu trnh sinh sn (php ti sinh), qu trnh chn lc
(php chn).
a.1. Php ti sinh
Php ti sinh l qu trnh cc nhim sc th c sao chp trn c s thch nghi.
thch nghi l mt hm c gn gi tr thc, tng ng vi mi nhim sc th trong qun th.
Qu trnh ny, c m t nh sau:
Xc nh thch nghi ca tng nhim sc th trong qun th th h th t, lp bng
cng dn cc gi tr thch nghi (theo th t gn cho tng nhim sc th). Gi s, qun th c n
c th. Gi thch nghi ca nhim sc th i tng ng l
i
f , tng cng dn th i l
ti
f c
xc nh bi:

=
=
i
j
j ti
f f
1

Gi
n
F l tng thch nghi ca ton qun th. Chn mt s ngu nhin f trong
khong t 0 ti
n
F . Chn c th th k u tin tho mn
tk
f f a vo qun th mi.
a.2. Php chn
Php chn l qu trnh loi b cc nhim sc th km thch nghi trong qun th. Qu
trnh ny c m t nh sau:
Sp xp qun th theo th t mc thch nghi gim dn.
Loi b cc nhim sc th cui dy. Gi li n c th tt nht.
b. Ton t ghp cho
Ghp cho l qu trnh to nhim sc th mi trn c s cc nhim sc th cha-m bng
cch ghp mt on trn nhim sc th cha-m vi nhau. Ton t ghp cho c gn vi mt
xc sut
c
p . Qu trnh c m t nh sau:
Chn ngu nhin mt cp nhim sc th (cha-m) trong qun th. Gi s, nhim sc th
cha-m c cng di m.
To mt s ngu nhin trong khong t 1 ti m-1 (gi l im ghp cho). im ghp
cho chia nhim sc th cha-m thnh hai chui con c di m
1,
m
2
. Hai chui con
mi c to thnh l: m
11
+ m
22
v m
21
+m
12.

a hai nhim sc th mi vo qun th.
c. Ton t t bin
t bin l hin tng nhim sc th con mang mt s c tnh khng c trong m di
truyn ca cha-m. Php t bin c gn xc sut
m
p (nh hn nhiu so vi xc sut ghp
cho
c
p ). iu ny c suy din bi trong t nhin, t bin Gen thng rt t xy ra. Php
t bin c m t nh sau:
Chn ngu nhin mt nhim sc th trong qun th;
To mt s ngu nhin k trong khong t 1 ti m, m k 1 ;
139
Thay i bit th k. a nhim sc th ny vo qun th tham gia qu trnh tin ho
th h tip theo.
5.3.1.3. Cc bc c bn ca gii thut di truyn
Mt gii thut di truyn n gin bao gm cc bc sau:
Bc 1: Khi to mt qun th ban u gm cc chui nhim sc th.
Bc 2: Xc nh gi tr mc tiu cho tng nhim sc th tng ng.
Bc 3: To cc nhim sc th mi da trn cc ton t di truyn.
Bc 5: Xc nh hm mc tiu cho cc nhim sc th mi v a vo qun th.
Bc 4: Loi bt cc nhim sc th c thch nghi thp.
Bc 6: Kim tra tha mn iu kin dng. Nu iu kin ng, ly ra nhim
sc th tt nht, gii thut dng li; ngc li, quay v bc 3.
5.3.2. C s ton hc ca gii thut di truyn
C s l thuyt ca gii thut di truyn da trn biu din chui nh phn v l thuyt s
[12]. Mt s l mt chui, c chiu di bng chui nhim sc th. Cc thnh phn ca
n c th nhn mt trong cc gi tr trong tp k t biu din Gen hoc mt k t i din
*. S biu din khng gian con trong khng gian tm kim. Khng gian con ny l tp tt
c cc chui trong khng gian tm kim m vi mi v tr trong chui, gi tr ca Gen trng
vi gi tr ca s ; k t i din * c th trng khp vi bt k k t biu din no.
V d: s (* 1 0 1 0) s khp vi 2 chui: (1 1 0 1 0) v (0 1 0 1 0)
Nh vy, s (1 1 0 1 0) v (0 1 0 1 0) ch khp vi chui chnh n, cn s (* * * * *)
khp vi tt c cc s c di l 5.
Vi s c th c tng ng 2
r
chui, r: l s k t i din * c trong s ; ngc
li, mt chui c chiu di m s khp vi 2
m
s .
Mt chui c chiu di m, s c ti a 3
m
s . Trong mt qun th dn s kch thc
n, c th c tng ng t 2
m
n nx2
m
s khc nhau.
5.3.3. Thuc tnh ca s
Cc s khc nhau c c trng khc nhau. Cc c trng ny th hin qua hai thuc
tnh quan trng: bc v chiu di xc nh.
Bc ca s S (k hiu o(S)) l tng s v tr 0, 1 c trong s . y l cc v tr c
nh (khng phi v tr ca cc k t i din) trong s . Bc c th xc nh bng cch ly
chiu di ca chui tr i s k t i din.
V d: trong s S = (* * 1 0 * 1 *) c bc o(S) = 7 - 4 = 3;
Chiu di xc nh ca s S (k hiu l ) (S ) l khong cch gia 2 v tr c nh
u v cui. Chiu di ca s xc nh nn thng tin cha trong s . Trong v d
trn ) (S = 6-3 =3. Nh vy, nu s ch c mt v tr c nh th chiu di xc nh ca s
s bng 0.
Chiu di ca s gip ta tnh xc sut tn ti ca s do nh hng ca ghp cho.
140
5.3.4. Tc ng ca cc ton t di truyn trn mt s
a. Ton t sinh sn
Xt mt qun th c kch thc n. Gi ) , ( t S l s nhim sc th trong qun th th
h t, ph hp vi s S. Gi ) , ( t S Eval l thch nghi ca s S th h t. Gii s c n
nhim sc th {
1 i
C ,,
in
C } trong qun th ph hp vi s S thi im t. Th:

n
C Eval
t S Eval
n
j
ij
=
=
1
) (
) , (
Trong qu trnh sinh sn, xc sut nhim sc th
i
C c xc sut c chn p
i
:

) (
) (
) (
t Fit
C Eval
i p
i
=
trong , ) (t Fit l tc thch nghi ca qun th th h t; c xc nh bi:

=
=
n
i
i
C Eval t Fit
1
) ( ) (
th h t+1, s chui ph hp vi s S( ) 1 , ( + t S ) c tnh bi:

) (
) , (
* * ) , ( ) 1 , (
t Fit
t S Eval
n t S t S = +
Gi
n
t Fit
t Fit
) (
) ( = l thch nghi trung bnh ca qun th. Vit li cng thc (5-5a):

) (
) , (
* ) , ( ) 1 , (
t Fit
t S Eval
t S t S = +
T cho thy, s lng nhim sc th tng bng t l thch nghi ca s vi
thch nghi trung bnh ca qun th. iu c ngha l s trn trung bnh nhn thm s
nhim sc th th h sau; s di trung bnh s nhim sc th s gim; s trung
bnh vn gi nguyn. Cng thc trn gi l phng trnh tng trng sinh sn ca s S.
Gi s s S vn trn mc trung bnh k % ngha l:
) ( * ) ( ) , ( t Fit k t Fit t S Eval + =
khi :

t
k S t S ) 1 ( * ) 0 , ( ) , ( + =
trong ;
k > 0 : vi s trn trung bnh;
k < 0 : vi s di trung bnh
Theo (5-7), s nhim sc th ph hp vi s S tng theo lu tha th h k tip.
b. Ton t ghp cho
Nh m t trn v ton t ghp cho, gi s c mt s c chn ghp cho
141
S = (***111*******) c chiu di xc nh 2 4 6 ) ( = = S . Tn ti hai kh nng:
Nu im ghp cho trong khong [4; 6] th s b ph v th h tip theo. Ngc
li, s nhim sc th ph hp vi s s tng. Gi chiu di nhim sc th l L, cc v tr
ghp cho c th chn trong on t 1 ti L-1 vi ng xc sut. iu c ngha l xc sut
S b ph v. Xc sut xc nh bi:

1
) (
) (

=
L
s
s p
del


t , xc sut tn ti:

1
) (
1 ) (

=
L
s
S p
re


Trong trng hp ny ch c mt nhim sc th c ghp cho vi xc sut ghp cho l
c
p , ngha l xc sut tn ti ca mt s thc:

1
) (
1 ) (

=
L
s
p S P
c re


Khi chn mt v tr ghp cho trong cc v tr c nh s vn c th tn ti.
V d: nhim sc th S trn c th ghp cho ti v tr 3. Nh vy, s S rt d b ph
v. S ch tn ti khi nhim sc th ghp cho vi n c dng ***111 v kt thc l
10. Xc sut tn ti s s rt nh.
T , c th vit:

1
) (
1 ) (

L
s
p S p
c re


Kt hp qu trnh sinh sn vi ghp cho ta c phng trnh tng trng ca s sinh sn:

= +
1
) (
1
) (
) , (
* ) , ( ) 1 , (
L
S
p
t Fit
t S Eval
t S t S
c


Phng trnh (5-12) cho bit k vng s nhim sc th ph hp s S trong th h k tip.
c. Ton t t bin
Php t bin, nh m t trn, thay i mt v tr trong nhim sc th ngu nhin
vi xc sut nh
m
p . Php t bin c th khi phc li hoc ph v mt s .
V d: cho s S = ***111******10. Qu trnh sinh sn to ra nhim sc th con S1 =
***110******10. Nu t bin v tr 4, 5, 6 hoc 13, 14 trn S th s b ph v. Nu
t bin v tr 6 trn s S1 th s S c phc hi. Nh vy, v tr t bin nh hng
n s l cc bit c nh. Cc bit ny chnh l bc ca s (o(S)).
Gi xc sut thay i mt bit l
m
p th xc sut tn ti bit l 1-
m
p . Do vy, xc sut
tn ti mt s sau t bin:

) (
) 1 ( ) (
S o
m re
p S p =
142
Do 1 <<
m
p , nn cng thc trn c xp x:

m re
p S o S p * ) ( 1 ) (
Kt hp ba ton t sinh sn, ghp cho, t bin cho ta phng trnh tng trng:

= +
m c
p S o
L
S
p
t Fit
t S Eval
t S t S ) (
1
) (
1
) (
) , (
) , ( ) 1 , (


Phng trnh trn cho bit k vng s nhim sc th ph hp vi s S trong th h
tip theo. Cc s trn trung bnh vi chiu di ngn, bc thp s c s nhim sc th ph
hp v tng theo lu tha.
5.3.5. c im hi t ca gii thut di truyn
Khi p dng gii thut GAs cho cc vn thc t thng rt kh khn. L do:
Cch biu din nhim sc th c th to ra khng tm kim khc vi khng
gian thc ca bi ton;
S bc lp, khi ci t thng khng xc nh trc;
Kch thc qun th thng c gii hn.
Trong mt s trng hp, GAs khng th tm c li gii ti u. L do, GAs hi t
sm v li gii ti u cc b. Hi t sm l vn ca gii thut di truyn cng nh cc gii
thut ti u khc. Nu hi t xy ra qu nhanh th cc thng tin ng tin cy ang pht trin
trong qun th thng b b qua. Nguyn nhn ca s hi t sm lin quan ti hai vn :
Quy m v loi sai s do c ch to mu;
Bn cht ca hm mc tiu.
a. C ch to mu
C hai vn quan trng trong tin trnh tin ho ca gii thut di truyn l: tnh a
dng ca qun th v p lc chn lc [12]. Hai yu t ny lin quan mt thit vi nhau: khi
tng p lc chn lc th tnh a dng ca qun th s gim v ngc li. Ni cch khc, p lc
hi t mnh s dn ti s hi t sm ca gii thut. Nhng nu p lc chn lc yu c th lm
cho tm kim thnh v hiu. Nh vy, cn tho hip hai vn . Hin nay, cc phng php
a ra u c khuynh hng d t ti mc ch ny.
Nm 1975 DeJong xem xt mt s bin th ca chn lc n gin bng cch a ra:
m hnh pht trin u t, m hnh gi tr mong i v m hnh nhn t tp trung.
Nm 1981 Brindle xem xt mt s bin th khc nh: to mu tt nh, to mu hn
lon, to mu hn lon phn d khng thay th, u tranh hn lon, to mu hn lon phn d
c thay th.
Nm 1987 Baker nghin cu phng php to mu khng gian hn lon. Phng php
ny dng cch quay bnh xe nh t l trc thc hin chn lc. Bnh xe ny c thit
k theo chun, quay vi s khong chia u theo kch thc qun th.
Xt mt qun th gm 4 nhim sc th. S liu cho trong Bng sau
143
Bng m t cc chui nhim sc th v thch nghi tng ng
S th
t
Nhi m
s c
th

thch
nghi
T l
(%)
1 01101 169 14.4
2 11000 576 49.2
3 01000 64 5.5
4 10011 316 30.9
T ng 1170 100
Bnh xe Roulette (Hnh 5.15) c nh trng s ph hp.









Hnh 5.15. T l thch nghi ca cc nhim sc th trn bnh xe Roulette
Ngi ta thc hin vic sinh sn bng cch quay bnh xe Roulette vi s ln bng s
nhim sc th trn bnh xe Roulette. i vi bi ton ny s ln quay bnh xe Roulette l 4.
Nhim sc th 1 c gi tr thch nghi l 169, tng ng 14,4 % tng thch nghi. Nh vy,
nhim sc th 1 chim 14.4% trn bnh xe Roulette. Mi ln quay nhim sc th 1 s chim
khe vi gi tr 0,144.
Khi yu cu sinh ra 1 th h mi, mt vng quay ca bnh xe Roulette c nh
trng s ph hp s chn ra mt c th sinh sn. Bng cch ny, nhng nhim sc th c
thch nghi cao s c c hi c chn ln. Nh vy, s c 1 s lng con chu ln trong
cc th h k tip.
b. Hm mc tiu
C sau mi th h c hnh thnh, chng ta cn tnh li thch nghi cho tng c th
chun b cho mt th h mi. Do s lng cc c th tng ln, thch nghi gia cc c th
30,9%
5,5%
42,9%
14,4%
144
khng c s chch lch ng k. Do , cc c th c thch nghi cao cha hn chim u
th trong th h tip theo. V vy, cn n nh t l i vi hm thch nghi nhm tng kh
nng cho cc nhim sc th t thch nghi cao. C 3 c ch nh t l nh sau.
b.1. nh t l tuyn tnh
thch nghi c xc nh theo cng thc:
b f a f
i i
+ = *
'

Cn chn cc tham s a, b sao cho thch nghi trung bnh c nh x vo chnh n.
Tng thch nghi tt nht bng cch nhn n vi thch nghi trung bnh. C ch ny c th
to ra cc gi tr m cn x l ring. Ngoi ra, cc tham s a, b thng gn vi i sng qun
th v khng ph thuc vo bi ton.
b.2. Php ct Sigma
Phng php ny c thit k va ci tin phng php nh t l tuyn tnh va
x l cc gi tr m, va kt hp thng tin m bi ton ph thuc. y, thch nghi mi
c tnh theo cng thc:
) * (
'
c f f f
i i
+ =
trong c l mt s nguyn nh (thng ly gi tr t 1 ti 5); l lch chun ca qun
th. Vi gi tr m th
'
f c thit lp bng 0.
b.3. nh t l cho lut dng lu tha
Trong phng php ny, thch nghi lc khi to c nng lc c bit:

k
i i
f f =
'

vi k gn bng 1. Tham s k nh t l hm f . Tuy nhin, mt s nh nghin cu cho rng
nn chn k c lp vi bi ton. Bng thc nghim cho thy nn chn k =1.005.
c. iu kin dng ca gii thut
Chng ta s kho st iu kin n gin nht dng khi s th h vt qu mt
ngng cho trc. Trong mt s phin bn v chng trnh tin ho khng phi mi c th
u tin ho li. Vi c th trong c kh nng vt t th h ny sang th h khc m
khng thay i g c. Trong nhng trng hp nh vy, chng ta m s ln lng hm. Nu
s ln lng hm vt qu mt hng xc nh trc th dng vic tm kim.
Chng ta nhn thy, cc iu kin dng trn gi thit rng ngi s dng bit c
trng ca hm, c nh hng nh th no ti chiu di tm kim. Trong mt s trng hp
kh c th xc nh s lng th h (hay lng gi hm) phi l bao nhiu. Gii thut c th
kt thc khi c hi cho mt ci thin quan trng cha bt u.
C hai loi iu kin dng c bn. Cc iu kin ny dng cc c trng tm kim
quyt nh ngng qu trnh tm kim .
Da trn cu trc nhim sc th: do s hi t ca qun th bng cch kim sot s alen
c hi t, y alen c coi nh hi t nu mt s phn trm qun th nh
145
trc c cng (hoc tng ng i vi cc biu din khng nh phn) gi tr trong
alen ny. Nu s alen hi t vt qu s phn trm no ca tng s alen, vic tm
kim s kt thc.
Da trn ngha c bit ca mt nhim sc th: o tin b ca gii thut trong mt s
th h cho trc. Nu tin b ny nh hn mt hng s xc nh, kt thc tm kim.
5.4. CC H THNG THNG MINH LAI
Mi mt h thng thng minh c nhng u im v hn ch ring ca n. Chng ta c
rh nhn nhn cc h thng kt hp nhiu phng php tr tu hin i theo cc nhm nh sau
5.4.1. H thng N ron -M
Cc h thng n ron m l s kt hp ca hai phng php m v n ron. Trong mng
n ron: mt s lp c chn lm chc nng ca hm thuc. Chc nng kt hp kh nng
phn lp i tng ca hai cng c. Sn phm c xayy dng c th l phn cng v phn
mm
Vic kt hp (hay lai) ny xut pht t u im ca mng n ron l thng minh ho trn
cc phn t, cn logic m lm nhim v khi qut, suy din.
5.4.2. H thng N ron Gii thut di truyn
Nh ta bit mng n ron c kh nng cao trong x l song somg, phi tuyn v c kh nng
gii nhiu bi ton ti u cc b. gii cc bi ton ti u ton cc, ngi ta thng dng gii
thut di truyn ti u ton cc sau dng mng n ron nhn to ti u mn (cc b). Gii
php ny mang li hiu qu cao, hon thin hn. Tuy nhin, gi phi tr l tng phc tp
5.4.3. Cc h thng lai khc
Mt s phng php khc l kt hp c mng n ron gii thut di truyn v logic m. V
mt khoa hc, vn mang tnh khch quan. Trong thc t phc tp ngy cng cao.
Kt hp phng php thng k hin i (nh phng php Bayes trong suy din m)
5.5. CC AGENT THNG MINH
Phn ny tho lun agent thng minh l g, n c quan h vi mi trng nh th
no, n c nh gi nh th no, v chng ta c th xy dng n nh th no?
5.5.1. Gii thiu

Hnh 5.16 Cc agent tng tc vi mi trng thng qua sensor v cc effector

146
Mt agent l bt k vt g m n c th nhn bit (perceiving) mi trng
(environment) quanh n thng qua cc cm bin (sensor) v tc ng li mi trng thng qua
cc b phn phn ng li kch thch (effector). Mt c th ngi c i mt, i tai v cc b phn
khc l cc cm bin; i bn tay, i chn v cc phn c th khc l cc c quan phn ng li
kch thch. Mt robot camera v tia hng ngoi nhn thy c l cc sensor; cc motor khc nhau
l cc cc b phn phn ng li kch thch. Mt phn mm m ho cc xu bit xem nh l cc
i tng tri gic v cc hnh ng ca n. Mt agent ni chung c m t:
Mc ch ca chng ta trong cun sch ny l thit k cc agent sao cho chng lm vic
tt trong mi trng ca chng. Trc tin, chng ta s lm r rng hn mt cht v ci vic
tt va ni trn. Sau , chng ta s ni v cc cch khc nhau thit k cc agent hon thin (
chnh l cu tr li cho du ? trong hnh 5.15). Chng ta tho lun mt vi nguyn l chung c
s dng thit k cc agent trnh by trong cun sch ny. Quan trng nht l nguyn l thit
cc agent phi hiu bit cc s vic. Cui cng, chng ta ch ra s gn lin gia mt agent v mt
mi trng nh th no, v ch ra mt vi loi mi trng.
5.5.2. Hot ng ca cc Agent
Mt agent c l tr (rational agent) l agent lm cc vic theo l phi. Hin nhin, iu
tt hn l lm vic sai tri, vy iu c c ngha l g. Nh l mt s nh gi khng c
chnh xc lm, chng ta ni rng hnh ng ng l l do agent thnh cng hn. iu dn n
vn chng ta phi nh gi s thnh cng ca agent nh th no (how) v khi no (when).
Tiu chun nh gi s thc hin (Performance Measure)
Chng ta s dng thut ng tiu chun nh gi s thc hin cho tiu chun how tiu
chun xc nh xem nh th no l mt agent l thnh cng. Hin nhin khng c mt tiu chun
nh gi c nh no thch hp cho tt c cc agent. Chng ta c th hi agent theo quan im ch
quan n hnh phc nh th no vi s thc hin ca chnh n, nhng mt vi agent khng th tr
li, v mt vi agent khc la di chnh chng. (Con ngi ai cng bit cu chuyn con co v
chm nho xanh cc con co ni rng chng khng thc s mun iu sau khi h khng
thnh cng trong vic dnh ly n). V vy, chng ta i hi mt tiu chun nh gi s thc hin
khch quan p t bi mt s chuyn gia. Ni cch khc, chng ta nh l ngi quan st thit lp
mt chun cho n thnh cng trong mt mi trng v s dng n nh gi s thc hin ca
cc agent.
Cho mt v d, xem xt trng hp mt agent c h tr ht bi bn sn nh. Mt
tiu chun nh gi hiu sut ng tin cy c th l s lng bi bn lm sch trong mt ca lm
vic 8 gi. Mt nh gi hiu sut phc tp hn c th l s lng in tiu th v mc ting
n pht ra. nh gi hiu sut th ba c th a ra im s cao hn cho mt agent khng ch lm
sch sn nh mt cch yn tnh v hiu qu m cn nhn ra thi gian ngh cui tun.1
Tiu chun when nh gi s thc hin cng quan trng. Nu chng ta nh gi xem
c bao nhiu bi bn agent lm sch trong gi u tin trong ngy, chng ta c th tho mn vi
cc agent khi ng nhanh (thm ch chng lm t hoc khng lm sau thi im ), v khng
hi lng vi nhng agent lm vic hp l. V vy, chng ta mun nh gi s thc hin trn ton
thi gian hot ng, l mt ca lm vic 8 gi hoc thi gian tn ti ca agent.

1
y c mt nguy c cho nhng ngi thit lp cc tiu chun nh gi : bn thng phi a ci iu bn
yu cu. l, nu bn nh gi s thnh cng bi s lng bi bn lm sch, th mt vi agent khn ngoan
s b bt buc phi thu gom mt vt bn to nng trong bui sng, nhanh chng dn sch s, v c cho im tt
cho ca s thc hin.
147
S thng thi (Omniscience)
Chng ta cn lu phn bit gia s hp l (rationality) v s thng thi (omniscience).
Mt agent thng thi bit kt qu ca cc hnh vi ca n ngay hin thi v c th hnh ng sao
cho ph hp, nhng thng thi khng c trong thc t. Xem xt v d: Mt ngy ti ang i dc
theo ng Champs Elyses v ti nhn thy mt ngi bn c bn kia ng. Khng c xe c
no xung quanh v ti khng bn vic khc, v vy theo l thng, ti bt u bng qua ng.
Trong lc , cao 33.000 feet mt cnh ca khoang hng ho ri xung t mt my bay dn
dng va bay qua2, v trc khi ti n c bn kia ng ti ng sng soi. Ti bng qua
ng l khng hp l? iu khng mun xy ra l co ph ca ti c th vit Thng ngc c
gng bng qua ng. ng hn, iu ch ra rng, s hp l c quan tm vi s thnh cng
mong mun mang li ci c nhn bit. Bng qua ng l hp l bi v a phn nhng ln
bng qua l thnh cng, v khng c cch no ti c th lng trc vic cnh ca ri. Lu rng
mt agent khc c trang b radar pht hin nhm trnh cc cnh ca ri xung hoc mt khung
thp nng s thnh cng hn, nhng n c th khng cn hp l.
Ni cch khc, chng ta khng th li cho mt agent v khng tnh n mt s iu xy
ra m n khng nhn thc c, hoc v khng a ra mt hnh vi (v d nh trnh cnh ca hnh
ho) m n khng c kh nng a ra. Nhng vic gim bt yu cu ca s hon ho khng phi
l vn ca vic hp l ho agent. Nhn xt rng, nu chng ta xc nh mt agent thng minh
phi lun lun lm nhng ci thc s chnh xc, th s khng th thit k mt agent p ng y
yu cu - tr khi chng ta li dng c s lm ca cc tinh th hnh cu.
Tm li, tnh c l tr c a ra da trn 4 ni dung sau:
Tiu chun nh gi s thc hin nh r mc thnh cng.
Nhng g m agent nhn bit c t xa (theo ngha thi gian). Chng ta gi tin s gic
quan mt cch y ny l chui kt qu tri gic (percept sequence).
Nhng g agent hiu bit v mi trng.
Nhng hnh ng m agent c th thc hin.
iu dn ti mt nh ngha v mt agent c l tr l tng: Vi mt chui kt qu tri
gic c th, mt agent c l tr l tng phi a ra hnh ng no c mong i t ti cc
i theo tiu chun nh gi s thc hin da trn du hiu nhn bit c bn quy nh bi chui
kt qu tri gic v s hiu bit c sn no m agent c.
Chng ta cn xem xt cn thn nh ngha ny. Thot nhn, n c th xut hin kh nng
mt agent t cho php mnh mt s hot ng r rng km thng minh. V d, nu mt agent
khng nhn c hai li i trc ng t mt con ng no nhit, th chui kt qu tri gic ca n s
khng ch cho n bit rng c mt xe ti ln tin n gn vi tc cao. S xc nh dng
nh ch ra rng n c th c chp nhn bng qua ng. Trn thc t, s gii thch l sai
trn c hai phng din. Th nht, n c th khng c l tr khi bng qua ng: ng t ang nhn
l qu ln. Th hai, mt agent c l tr l tng s c la chn hnh vi nhn trc khi bc tng
bc trn ng, bi v hnh vi nhn tr gip ln nht cho s thc hin mong mun. Cc hnh
ng ang lm theo trnh t thu c thng tin hu ch l mt phn quan trng ca s hp l
v c xem xt su hn trong chng 16.

2
Theo N.Henderson. Cc cht ca mi c xut cho cc my bay phn lc ln Boeing 747. Washington
Post 24/8/1989
148
Khi nim v mt agent c ngha nh l mt cng c phn tch cc h thng, v l s
m t cc c tnh khng tuyt i phn chia th gii thnh cc agent v khng phi agent.
Xem xt mt ci ng h. N c th c ngh ch l mt i tng v tri v gic, hoc n c th
c xem nh mt agent n gin. Nh mt agent v a s ng h lun lun thc hin cc hnh
ng ng: s chuyn ng ca cc kim (hoc hin th cc con s i vi ng h in t) theo
ng quy tc cu to nn. Cc ng h l loi agent thoi ho trong chui kt qu tri gic ca
chng l rng; khng c s kin no xy ra bn ngoi nh hng n cc hnh ng ca ng h.
May mn, iu l khng hon ton ng. Nu ci ng h v ch nhn ca n i trn
con tu t California n Australia, mt thc t l ng h t quay ngc tr li 6 gi. Chng
ta khng lm o ln cc ng h ca chng ta do chng ta khng lm ci vic ; chng ta thy
r rng chng ang hot ng hp l, nguyn nhn l do chng ta c cm gic cc thit b ca cc
ng h chy nhanh3.
Php nh x l tng t cc chui kt qu tri gic thnh cc hnh vi
i khi chng thy rng cch hnh ng ca mt agent ch da trn chui kt qu tri gic
xc nh thi im, trong khi chng ta c th m t agent ring bit no bng cch xy
dng bng cc hnh vi n thi hnh p li chui kt qu tri gic c th. (Vi nhiu agent, bng
l mt danh sch rt di trong thc t s l v hn, tr khi chng ta t mt gii hn chiu di
ca chui kt qu tri gic m chng ta mun xem xt). Mt danh sch nh vy c gi l mt
php nh x t chui kt qu tri gic thnh cc hnh vi. V nguyn tc, chng ta c th tm ra mt
php nh x ph hp m t mt agent bng vic th tt c cc kh nng chp nhn c ca
chui kt qu tri gic v ghi li hnh vi m agent p li. (Nu agent s dng mt vi php ngu
nhin trong vic tnh ton, th chng ta s th mt vi chui kt qu tri gic, mi chui dm ba ln
a ra hiu bit ng v cch hnh ng theo mc thng thng ca agent). V nu s dng
cc php nh x m t cc agent, th cc php nh x l tng c s dng m t cc agent l
tng. Theo , hnh vi mt agent phi p li chui kt qu tri gic no s cho ta mt phc
tho v mt agent l tng.
D nhin, iu khng c ngha l chng ta phi to ra mt bng r rng cho mi chui
kt qu tri gic c kh nng xy ra. iu cho php xc nh mt c t php nh x m khng
phi lit k y n. Mt agent n gin c cho l rt hay: Hm cn bc hai gn ng ca
my tnh. Chui kt qu tri gic cho agent ny l mt chui cc s kin bm phm biu din cc
con s trn bn phm, hnh vi l hin th con s trn mn hnh hin th. Php nh x l tng: kt
qu tri gic l mt s thc x, hnh vi ng l hin th mt s thc z sao cho z2 x, ly chnh xc
n 15 ch s. S c t ca php nh x khng mang li cho ngi thit k cu trc thc ca
bng cc cn bc hai gn ng. V cng khng mang li cho hm cn bc hai gn ng s dng
bng c cch hnh ng chnh xc: Bng 5.3 ch ra mt phn ca php nh x l tng v mt
chng trnh n gin tnh ton php nh x s dng phng php tnh gn ng Newton.
V d cn bc hai gn ng trn minh ho quan h gia php nh x l tng v mt
thit k agent l tng cho rt nhiu nhim v l hu hn. Trong khi bng c kch thc rt ln,
th agent li l mt chng trnh hay sc tch. iu cho thy c th thit k cc agent sc tch
thc hin php nh x l tng vo cc tnh hung tng qut hn rt nhiu: cc agent m c th
gii quyt v s cc nhim v khc nhau trong v s cc mi trng khc nhau. Trc khi chng

3
Mt trong s cc tc gi vn cn c mt s bi ri nh khi ci my tnh ca anh ta t reset li thnh cng ti
mt thi im ghi nh trong ngy.
149
ta tho lun xem iu c thc hin nh th no, chng ta cn xem xt thm mt yu cu na
m mt agent thng minh cn tho mn.
150

Kt qu tri gic x Hnh vi z
1.0 1.000000000000000
1.1 1.048808848170152
1.2 1.095445115010332
1.3 1.140175425099138
1.4 1.183215956619923
1.5 1.224744871391589
1.6 1.264911064067352
1.7 1.303840481040530
1.8 1.341640786499847
1.9 1.378404875209022



function SQRT(x)
Begin
z 1.0 /* initial guess*/
repeat until z
2
x <10
-15

z z (z
2
- x)/(2z)
end
return z
Bng 5.3 Mt phn ca php nh x l tng ca bi ton cn bc hai gn ng (ly xp x
n 15 ch s), v mt chng trnh tng ng thc hin php nh x l tng.

S t tr (Autonomy)
C mt iu na cn quan tm trong vic nh ngha mt agent c l tr l tng: phn
S hiu bit c sn (built-in knowledge). Nu cc hnh vi ca agent c b tr hon ton
trong s hiu bit c sn, th d rng n khng cn ch ti cc kt qu tri gic ca n, th
chng ta ni rng agent thiu s t tr. Cho v d, nu nh sn xut ng h c th thy trc rng
ch nhn ca chic ng h s n Australia vo mt ngy no , th mt c ch c th c ci
t sn iu chnh cc kim mt cch t ng 6 gi cho ng. D nhin iu c th thc hin
thnh cng, nhng s thng minh dng nh l vic ca ngi thit k ng h hn l ca chnh
chic ng h.
Cch hnh ng ca agent c th c b tr vo trong c kinh nghim ca chnh n v
s hiu bit c sn trong khi xy dng cu trc ca agent, agent hot ng trong mt mi
trng c th. Mt h thng l t tr - autonomous4 ti mt mc nht nh l h thng m
cch hnh ng c quyt nh bi chnh kinh nghim ca n. Mc d n c th l qu kh khn
t c s t tr hon ton: khi agent c t hoc khng c kinh nghim, n phi hnh ng
ngu nhin tr khi ngi thit k a ra mt vi s gip . V vy, khi m s tin ho cung cp
cho ng vt vi y cc phn x t nhin th chng c th tn ti t hc tp, n c l
cung cp mt agent thng minh nhn to vi mt vi s hiu bit ban u ging nh nng lc
hc tp.
S t tr khng ch ph hp vi trc gic ca chng ta m n cn l mt v d ca thc
tin c s khoa hc. Mt agent hot ng trn c s ca cc gi nh s ch hot ng thnh cng
khi hiu r cc gi nh, v nh vy thiu i s linh hot. Gi s, cho v d con b hung. Sau khi
tm ra t v trng, n em v cc vin phn t mt ng phn gn bt li vo; nu vin
phn b ri trn ng i, con b hung s tip tc lm v bt li vo t vi nhng vin phn khc

4
Thut ng t tr - autonomous cng con c ngha no ging nh khng phi di s iu khin trc
tip ca mt ngi, v d s hot ng ca ln xe trn ng l t tr.
151
theo kch bn, m khng bao gi n nhng vin phn n nh ri. S tin ho gn vo
gi nh ca con b hung, v khi n b vi phm, kt qu ca hnh vi khng thnh cng (v
khng nht li cc vin phn b ri). Mt agent thng minh t tr thc s phi c kh nng hnh
ng thnh cng trong cc mi trng rng ln khc nhau cho thi gian thch nghi.

5.5.3. Cu trc ca cc agent thng minh
Cho n gi chng ta ni n cc agent qua s m t cch hnh x ca chng hnh vi
c thc hin sau khi a ra chui kt qu tri gic. By gi chng ta s c gng ch i v
tho lun xem bn trong n lm vic nh th no. Cng vic ca AI (Artificial Intelligence Tr
tu nhn to) l thit k agent chng trnh: mt chc nng thc hin agent nh x t cc kt qu
tri gic ti hnh vi. Chng ta gi s chng trnh ny s chy trn vi loi thit b tnh ton - gi l
kiu kin trc. Hin nhin, chng trnh chng ta la chn l chng trnh m kiu kin trc chp
nhn v chy. Kiu kin trc c th l mt my tnh n gin, hoc n c th bao gm thit b cho
mc ch c bit dnh cho cc nhim v no , nh camera ghi li cc hnh nh hoc b lc m
thanh u vo. N cng c th bao gm phn mm a ra s phn bit trnh gia my tnh v
agent chng trnh, v vy chng ta c th lp chng trnh mc cao hn. Ni chung, kiu kin
trc thu cc kt qu tri gic t cc sensor sn sng cho chng trnh, chy chng trnh, v cho
hot ng ca chng trnh la chn cc b phn phn ng li kch thch c sinh ra. Mi quan
h gia cc agent, cc kiu kin trc, v cc chng trnh c th tm tt nh sau:
agent = kiu kin trc + chng trnh
(agent = architecture + program)
Phn ln trong cun sch ny ni v vic thit k cc chng trnh agent.
Trc khi thit k mt chng trnh agent, chng ta phi c tng hay v cc tri gic v
hnh vi kh thi, agent c h tr ginh c cc mc tiu hoc phm vi thc hin l g, v cc
loi mi trng m n hot ng l g5. Bng 5.4 ch ra cc thnh phn c bn cho s la chn
cc kiu agent.
C th l ngc nhin vi mt vi c gi v chng ta bao gm trong danh sch cc kiu
agent mt vi chng trnh dng nh hot ng trong mi trng nhn to hon ton c nh
ngha bi bn phm cho u vo v cc k t u ra trn mn hnh. Khng nghi ng g c th ni
khng phi l mi trng thc, vy n l g?. Trong thc t, khng c s khc bit gia mi
trng thc v mi trng nhn to, nhng mi quan h gia cch hnh x ca agent, chui
kt qu tri gic c sinh ra bi mi trng, v mc tiu cn t c ca agent c h tr li
phc tp. Mt vi mi trng thc l ht sc n gin. Cho v d, robot c thit k kim
tra nhng phn m chng i qua trn mt bng truyn c th dng mt s gi nh n gin: cc
phn ca bng truyn lun lun c chiu sng, cc phn cng thuc mt loi, v robot ch c
hai hnh vi chp thun nu phn bng truyn c chiu sng hoc nh du nu phn bng
truyn khng c chiu sng.
Tri li, cc agent phn mm (hoc cc robot phn mm) li phong ph, phm vi ng
dng rt ln. Hy hnh dung mt h thng c thit k m phng li my bay 747. S m
phng c rt nhiu chi tit, mi trng phc tp, v tc nhn phn mm phi chn la t rt nhiu
hnh ng a dng trong thi gian thc. Hoc hnh dung mt h thng c thit k duyt cc
ngun tin tc trc tuyn v hin th cc mc th v cho khch hng. lm vic tt, n s cn n

5
cho tin chng ta dng t vit tt PAGE (Percepts, Actions, Goals, Environment)
152
mt vi ngn ng t nhin c kh nng x l, cn phi bit c ci m khch hng cho l th v,
v n cn phi nng ng trong vic thay i k hoch v d khi vic kt ni vo mt ngun tin
tc b gin on hoc khi c mt ci g mi hn trn ng truyn.
Kiu Agent Cc tri gic Cc hnh vi Cc mc tiu Mi trng
H thng chun
on bnh
cc triu chng,
cc pht hin,
cc cu tr li
ca bnh nhn
Cc cu hi, cc
trc nghim,
cch iu tr
Sc kho
ngi bnh,
chi ph thp
nht
Bnh nhn,
bnh vin
H thng phn
tch hnh nh v
tinh
Cng , mu
sc khc nhau
ca cc im nh
Xut ra mt s
phn loi quanh
cnh n quan st
phn loi
chnh xc
Cc hnh nh
t v tinh
Part-picking
robot
cng khc
nhau ca cc
im nh
nht ln cc b
phn (ca mt
loi my mc)
v a vo cc
ci thng
V tr chnh
xc ca cc b
phn trong cc
thng
Bng ti vi
cc b phn
my mc
iu khin nh
my tinh ch
du hoc ng
(Refinery
controller)
Nhit , p sut M, ng van;
iu chnh nhit

s tinh khit,
sn lng v
s an ton cao
nht
Nh my tinh
ch
Chng trnh
dy ting Anh
cc t loi a ra cc bi
tp, cc gi ,
ch ra ch ng
Kt qu kim
tra sinh vin
cao
Lp sinh vin
Bng 5.4 Mt s v d v mt s kiu agent

Mt s mi trng l khng r rng gia thc v nhn to. Trong mi trng ALIVE,
agent phn mm c a n cc kt qu tri gic l hnh nh camera k thut s ca mt phng
ni c mt ngi i do trong . Agent ny x l hnh nh camera v la chn mt hnh ng.
Mi trng cng hin th hnh nh camera trn mt mn hnh ln, v thm vo hnh nh m
agent phn mm biu din thng qua ho my tnh. Hnh nh c th l mt con ch hot
hnh, n c lp trnh chuyn ng hng n mt ngi (tr trng hp ng ta ui con ch
i) v vy chic chn trc hoc nhy ln mt cch mng r khi ngi ngi ra hiu.
Mi trng nhn to ni ting nht l Turing Test, trong ch ra rng cc agent
thc v nhn to c quan h bnh ng, nhng mi trng li c s thch thc kh ln l n
rt kh cho agent phn mm lm vic nh mt con ngi.
Cc agent chng trnh
Trong ton b cun sch ny, chng ta s xy dng cc agent thng minh. Tt c c
xy dng ging nh b xng, chng nhn cc kt qu tri gic t mt mi trng v sinh ra cc
hnh vi. Cc phin bn ban u ca cc agent chng trnh c dng rt n gin (hnh 5.16).
Chng s s dng mt vi cu trc d liu ni ti m n c cp nht khi cc kt qu tri gic
153
c a n. Cc cu trc d liu c em li bi s quyt nh ca agent cc th tc
sinh ra mt s la chn hnh vi, sau hnh vi c chuyn qua kiu kin trc thc hin.
C hai iu cn ch v chng trnh khung xng (chng trnh v) ny. Th nht, cho
d chng ta nh ngha agent nh l mt chc nng nh x t cc chui kt qu tri gic n cc
hnh vi, th agent chng trnh cng ch nhn mt kt qu tri gic n l nh l u vo. N
cho agent xy dng dn chui kt qu tri gic trong b nh, khi c yu cu. Trong mt vi mi
trng, n c th thc hin ht sc thnh cng m khng c s lu tr chui kt qu tri gic, v
trong nhng lnh vc phc tp n khng th lu tr chui y . Th hai, mc tiu v thc o
hiu sut khng phi l nhim v ca chng trnh khung xng. Bi v, thc o hiu sut c
a ra nh gi cch hot ng ca agent, v n thng c th t c hiu sut cao mc d
khng bit r rng v thc hiu hiu sut.

function SKELETON-AGENT(percept) return action
static: memory, the agents memory of the world

memory UPDATE-MEMORY(memory,percept)
action CHOOSE-BEST-ACTION(memory)
memory UPDATE-MEMORY(memory,action)
return action
Hnh 5.16 Mt agent khung.

Ti sao khng tm thy cc cu tr li?
Hy bt u vi cch n gin nht c th, chng ta vit mt agent chng trnh - bng tra
cu (hnh 5.17). N hot ng da trn vic lu tr trn b nh ton b chui kt qu tri gic, v
s dng n a vo bng, bao gm hnh vi thch hp cho tt c cc chui kt qu tri gic c
th.
function TABLE-DRIVEN-AGENT(percept) return action
static: percept, a sequence, intially empty
table, a table, index by percept sequence, intially fully specified
append percept to the end of percept
action LOOKUP(percept,table)
return action
Hnh 5.17 Mt agent da trn l thuyt bng tra cu.

N cung cp ti liu xem xt ti sao nhng ngh sau b tht bi:
1. Bng cn cho mt iu g , n gin nh mt agent ch c th chi c vi khong
35100 nc i.
2. N s cn mt khong thi gian khng nhiu lm ngi thit k xy dng bng.
3. Agent ny khng t gii quyt tt c, bi v kt qu tnh ton cho cc hnh vi hay nht
u c xy dng sn. Cho nn nu mi trng thay i mt cch t ngt, th agent ny s b
tht bi.
154
4. Thm ch nu chng ta trao cho agent mt c ch t hc tt nht, n c th c kh
nng t gii quyt, th n vn cn phi hc mi mi.
Mc cho tt c cc iu , TABLE-DRIVEN-AGENT vn lm ci iu chng ta mun:
n thc hin y php nh x agent theo yu cu. Do khng chc chn khng nh: N
khng thng minh.
Mt v d
Phn ny gip xem xt mt mi trng ring, vi mc ch s tho lun ca chng ta tr
nn c th hn. Nguyn nhn chnh ca s hiu bit ca n, v nguyn nhn n yu cu mt phm
vi rng nhng k nng. Chng ta s xem xt cng vic thit k t ng ho li taxi. Cn lu
rng h thng hin thi c phn vt ra ngoi nhng phm vi kh nng cng ngh cho php, mc
d hu ht nhng phn hp thnh l sn c theo mt vi mu6. Nhim v li xe l cc k phc
tp, t hp cc tnh hung mi c th xy ra l khng c gii hn.
u tin chng ta phi ngh ra cc i tng tri gic, cc hnh vi, cc mc tiu v mi
trng cho taxi (xem hnh 5.18).

Kiu
Agent
i tng tri gic
(Percepts)
Hnh vi
(Actions)
Mc tiu
(Goals)
Mi trng
Environment
Li taxi Cc camera, cng t
mt, h thng GPS,
microphone
nh hng, tng gim
tc, phanh, thng bo
vi hnh khch
An ton, nhanh, ng
lut, hnh trnh thoi
mi, kinh t nht
cc con ng,
Hnh 5.18 Kiu agent Li xe Taxi

Taxi cn s bit n u, trn con ng no v ang chy nhanh chm ra sao. Nhng
thng tin ny c th thu c t cc percept. l mt hoc nhiu camera (Controllable TV
camera), cng t mt o tc (Speedometer), v ng h o on ng i (Odometer). iu
khin xe c mt cch chnh xc, nht l trn on ng cong, cn phi c mt b iu khin tng
gim tc (accelerometer). Cng cn bit trng thi my mc ca xe c, v vy cn phi c mt h
thng cc cm bin c hc v in t (engine and electrical sensor). C th c cc thit b khng
c gi tr vi ngi iu khin thng thng nh: h thng v tinh nh v ton cu GPS, cung
cp thng tin chnh xc v tr trn bn in t, hoc cm bin hng ngoi (infrared sensor)
hoc cm bin m (sonar snesor) pht hin khong cch vi cc t v cc chng ngi vt
khc. Cui cng, cn c mt microphone hoc mt bn phm (keyboard) cho cc hnh khch
ni vi ni ni n ca h.
Cc hnh vi c th i vi agent Li taxi s t nhiu tng t nh i vi mt con ngi
iu khin taxi: iu khin ng c thng qua bn p gas, iu khin hng, iu khin phanh.
Ngoi ra, s cn a ra u ra trn mn hnh hoc thit b m thanh giao tip vi hnh khch;
v mt vi cch c th truyn thng vi cc xe c khc.
Kh nng phm vi thc hin (performance measure) m chng ta mun h thng li xe t
ng t c l g? Cc nng lc mong mun bao gm: n ch chnh xc, s tiu th nng
lng l t nht, hao mn t nht, t hng hc nht, thi gian hnh trnh ngn nht hoc chi ph t
nht hoc c thi gian v chi ph t nht, t vi phm lut giao thng nht, lm nh hng n cc

6
Xem trang 26, m t mt agent li xe hin nay
155
li xe khc l t nht, an ton nht, hnh khch thoi mi nht, thu li cao nht. R rng, mt vi
mc tiu l mu thun, v vy s cn phi c s tho hip.
Cui cng, vi d n thc t, chng ta phi quyt nh mi trng li xe taxi s i din.
N phi hot ng trn cc con ng a phng, hoc l trn cc xa l? l Nam California,
ni t khi c tuyt ri, hoc Alaska ni tuyt thng xuyn ri? Lun lun li xe bn phi hoc c
th chng ta mun linh hot c th i bn tri trong trng hp taxi hot ng nc Anh
hoc Nht Bn. R rng, mi trng b hn ch hn, vn thit k d dng hn.
By gi, chng ta phi quyt nh nh th no xy dng chng trnh thc thc hin
php nh x t cc i tng tri gic n cc hnh vi. Chng ta thy rng cc kha cnh iu khin
khc nhau s xut cc kiu agent chng trnh khc nhau. C 4 kiu agent c ch ra:
- Cc agent phn x n gin simple reflex agents
- Cc agent theo di (cc vt cc s kin lin quan)
- Cc agent mc tiu c bn Goal-based agents
- Cc agent li ch c bn Utility-based agents
Simple reflex agents
La chn xy dng mt bng tra cu hin l mt vn kh. u vo th gic t mt
camera n a vo vi tc 50 Mb/giy (25 frame/giy, 10001000 pixel vi 8 bit mu v 8
bit cng ). V vy, bng tra cu cho mt gi s l 2
60 60 50M
trng thi.
Tuy nhin, chng ta c th tm tt tng phn ca bng bng cch ghi nh cc s kt hp
vo ra thng xuyn xut hin mt cch chc chn. Cho v d, nu chic xe pha trc phanh li,
v n phanh ca n sng ln, th ngi li xe phi ch v bt u phanh. Ni cch khc, mt
vi s x l c thc hin trc u vo th gic s thit lp iu kin m chng ta gi l t
pha trc ang phanh The car in front is braking, th gy ra mt vi s thit lp kt ni ti
agent chng trnh hnh ng bt u phanh initiate braking. Chng ta gi l mt s kt
ni mt qui tc condition action
7
(phn x c iu kin), vit nh sau:
if car-in-front-is-bracking then intiate-bracking
Con ngi cng c nhiu kt ni, mt vi trong s hc c t s phn ng li - phn
x c iu kin (v nh vic li xe) v mt vi trong s l phn x t nhin (v nh vic chp
mt khi mt vt g bay vo mt). Theo cch ny, trong cun sch, chng ta s thy mt s
phng php khc nhau, s kt ni c th t hc v t thc thi.






7
Cn c gi l cc quy tc situation-action hoc production hoc if-then
156

Hnh 5.19 a ra cu trc ca mt simple reflex agent di dng gin , ch ra qui tc
condition action cho php agent thc hin kt ni t tri gic n hnh ng nh th no. Chng
ta s dng hnh ch nht biu th trng thi hin ti bn trong tin trnh gii quyt ca agent,
hnh oval biu din thng tin c s c s dng trong tin trnh. Agent chng trnh cng rt
n gin, c ch ra hnh 5.20. Chc nng INTERPRET-INPUT sinh ra mt s din t tru
tng ca trng thi hin ti t s tri gic, RULE-MATCH tr v qui tc u tin trong tp cc
qui tc m n ph hp vi s m t trng thi c a n. mc d cc agent c th c thc
hin rt hiu qu , nhng phm vi ng dng li rt hp.

function SIMPLE-REFLEX-AGENT(percept) return action
static: rules, a set of condition-action rules
state INTERPRET-INPUT(percept)
rule RULE-MATCH(state,rules)
action RULE-ACTION[rule]
return action
Hnh 2.20 Kiu agent Li xe

Agent theo di (Agents that keep track of the world)
Simple reflex agent m t phn trc s ch lm vic nu s gii quyt chnh xc c th
c da trn tri gic hin thi. Nu chic t pha trc l mt m hnh xut hin trc y
khng lu, v by gi c nh sng n phanh c mang li t trung tm kt qu nc M, th
t mt hnh nh n s c th n rng n ang phanh. Khng may, cc m hnh c c s khc bit
v hnh dng n hu, n phanh, n xi nhan, v khng phi bao gi cng c kh nng tr li
rng chic t pha trc ang phanh. V vy, d l vic phanh n gin, thit b li ca chng ta
vn phi duy tr mt vi phn no tnh trng bn trong theo trnh t la chn hnh ng.
y tnh trng bn trong khng qu ln n ch cn frame trc t camera d tm khi hai
n ra xe c cng sng hoc tt ng thi.
M

I

T
R

N
G

Th gii xung
quanh hin nay nh

Hnh ng phi
lm by gi l g
c quan phn ng li kich
thch
cm bin
sensors
qui tc
condition - action
Hnh 2.19 S biu din simple reflex agent
157
Hy xem r rng hn trng hp sau: thnh thong, ngi li xe nhn vo gng chiu
hu kim sot cc xe c pha sau. Khi li xe ang khng quan st gng, khng quan st thy
xe c ln ng bn cnh (tc l khng th phn bit c cc trng thi, chng xut hin
v khng xut hin); v vy quyt nh chuyn ln xe mt cch kho lo thn trng, ngi li
xe cn phi bit d l chng c hay khng.
Vn ny sinh, bi v cc sensor khng cung cp mt cch y trng thi. Trong cc
trng hp , agent c th duy tr mt vi thng tin trng thi bn trong nhn bit c cc
trng thi pht sinh ging nh gic quan em li, nhng d sao cng khc nhau mt cch ng k.
y, khc nhau mt cch ng k c ngha rng cc hnh ng khc nhau thch hp cho hai
trng thi.
Vic cp nht thng tin trng thi bn trong ny thc hin bng cch yu cu hai loi kin
thc c m ho trong agent chng trnh. Th nht, chng cn mt vi thng tin th gii xung
quanh tin trin khng ph thuc vo agent nh th no how the world evolves cho v d,
mt chic t ang vt qua nhn chung s l tin dn n pha sau hn l ngay tc th. Th hai,
chng ta cn mt vi thng tin Cc hnh ng ca agent phn ng li th gii xung quanh nh
th no What my actions do cho v d, khi agent r sang ng nh bn phi, c mt ci rnh
ct ngang trc mt n s tin v pha trc hoc li li v pha sau theo con ng ln ni c
con ng nh khc.
Hnh 5.20 a ra cu trc ca agent phn x, cho bit tri gic hin ti c kt hp vi
trng thi bn trong c sinh ra s m t cp nht ca trng thi hin thi. Agent chng trnh
c ch ra hnh 5.21. Mt nhim v th v l chc nng UPDATE-STATE, n p ng cho vic
to ra s m t trng thi bn trong mi. Ging nh cng vic phin dch tri gic mi di nh
sng ca kin thc c sn v trng thi, n s dng thng tin how the world evolves theo di
cc phn khng thy c ca th gii xung quanh, v cng phi bit cc hnh ng ca agent
lm g vi trng thi ca th gii.
Agent mc tiu (Goal-based agent)

Cn bit rng trng thi hin thi ca mi trng lun lun khng quyt nh lm
vic vic g. Cho v d, ti ni gp nhau ca cc con ng, taxi c th r tri, r phi, hoc i
M

I

T
R

N
G

E
i
Th gii xung quanh
hin nay nh th no
Hnh ng phi lm
by gi l g
c quan phn ng li kich thch
effectors
cm bin
sensors
Hnh 5.21 Agent chng trnh
qui tc
condition - action
What my actions do
How the world evolves
state
158
thng. Quyt nh ng n trn c s taxi ang c gng i n u. Ni cch khc, ging nh
s m t trng thi hin thi, agent cng cn mt s thng tin v mc tiu, n din t trng thi
ang mong mun v d, l im cn n ca hnh khch. Agent chng trnh c th kt hp
iu ny vi thng tin v kt qu ca cc hnh ng c th xy ra (ging nh thng tin c s
dng cp nht trng thi trong ca agent phn x) la chn cc hnh ng t c mc
tiu. i khi, iu s l n gin, khi s tho man mc tiu l kt qu trc tip t mt hnh
ng n gin; i khi, n i hi phi kho lo hn, khi agent xem nh cc chui xon di v
lun qun tm cch t c mc tiu.
Ch rng quyt nh a ra ca loi agent ny v c bn khc vi cc quy tc condition-
action c m t phn trc, bi v n cn phi xem xt trong tng lai c hai vn iu g s
xy ra nu ti lm g ? What will happen if I do such-and-such? v iu s mang li cho
ti hnh phc? Will that make me happy. Trong thit k agent phn x, thng tin ny khng
c s dng mt cch r rng, bi v ngi thit k tnh trc hnh ng chnh xc cho cc
trng hp khc nhau. Agent phn x phanh xe khi n nhn thy n phanh ca xe pha trc.
Mt agent mc tiu, theo nguyn tc, c th lp lun rng nu n phanh ca chic t pha trc
sng n s i chm li. Theo cch din tin thng thng ca th gii xung quanh, hnh ng ch
t c mc tiu l khng ng cc xe khc khi phanh xe. Mc d agent mc tiu xem ra km
hiu qu hn, n kh thuyt phc. Nhng nu tri bt u ma, agent c th cp nht hiu bit
ca n v vic phanh xe s hot ng hiu qu nh th no, iu s l l do t ng a ra
tt c cc cch hnh ng c lin quan sa i sao cho ph hp vi iu kin mi. Mt khc,
vi agent phn x, chng ta s phi vit li mt s lng ln cc qui tc condition-action. D
nhin, agent mc tiu linh hot hn nhiu i vi vic i n cc ch khc nhau. Mt cch n
gin xc nh mt ci ch mi, chng ta c th a ra agent mc tiu theo kp vi cch
hnh ng mi. Cc qui tc ca agent phn x li xe khi r v khi i thng s ch lm vic vi mt
ch n l, v cc qui tc s phi thay i tt c khi cn i n cc ni mi.
5.5.4. Mi trng (Environments)
u tin, chng ta s m t cc kiu khc nhau ca mi trng v chng nh hng n
vic thit k cc agent nh th no. Sau , chng ta s m t cc chng trnh mi trng m n
c s dng nh l ni kim tra cc agent chng trnh.
Cc thuc tnh ca mi trng (Properties of Environments)
Mi trng c nhng trng ring. Cc c trng chnh c ch ra nh sau:
C th c v Khng th c (Accessible vs. Inaccessible)
Nu c cu gic quan ca agent em n cho n mt trng thi y ca mi trng th
chng ta ni rng mi trng l c th i vi agent. Mt mi trng l thc s c th nu cc
sensor pht hin ra tt c cc kha cnh lin quan n s la chn hnh ng. Mt mi trng c
th cn thun tin bi v agent mong mun khng phi duy tr mt s trng thi bn trong theo
di th gii xung quanh.
Tin nh v khng tin nh (Deterministic vs. Nondeterministic)
Nu trng thi tip theo ca mi trng l hon ton xc nh c thng qua trng thi
hin thi v hnh ng m agent la chn, th chng ta ni mi trng l tin nh. Theo
nguyn tc, agent mong mun khng phi lo ngh v mt mi trng c th khng chc chn tin
nh. Tuy nhin, nu mt mi trng l khng th th n c th c xem nh khng tin nh.
iu c bit ng, nu mi trng phc tp gy ra s kh khn cho vic theo di tt c cc
159
mt khng th ca n. V vy, mi trng tin nh hoc mi trng khng tin nh i vi im
nhn ca agent thng c cho l tt nht.
Phn on v khng phn on (Episodic vs. Nonepisodic)
Trong mi trng phn on, kinh nghim ca agent b phn ra thnh tng on. Trong
mi on gm c s nhn bit ca agent v hnh khi c c nhn bit . c tnh ca hnh
ng ph thuc vo chnh on , bi v cc on tip theo khng ph vo cc hnh ng trong
on trc . Mi trng phn on l rt n gin v agent khng mun ngh xa.
Tnh v ng (Static vs. Dynamic)
Nu mi trng c th thay i trong khi agent ang cn nhc, th chng ta ni rng mi
trng l ng i vi agent, ngc li mi trng l tnh. Mi trng tnh rt d giao tip bi v
agent mong mun khng phi theo di th gii xung quanh trong khi ang quyt nh la chn
hnh ng v cng mong mun khng phi lo ngh thi gian tri qua. Nu mi trng khng
thay i theo thi gian nhng s thc hin ca agent thnh cng, th chng ta ni rng mi trng
phn no l ng.
Ri rc v Lin tc (Discrete vs. Continuous)
Nu c mt s lng gii hn nht nh cc tri gic v hnh ng r rng th ta ni rng
mi trng l ri rc. Mi trng Chi c l ri rc c mt s lng c nh nc i c kh
nng trong mi ln i. Mi trng Li taxi l lin tc - tc , v tr ca taxi v cc xe c khc
nhn gi tr trong mt khong gi tr lin tc
8
.
Chng ta s xem xt xem cc kiu mi trng khc nhau yu cu cc agent chng trnh
khc nhau nh th no x l chng hiu qu. N s c a ra nh bn mong i, l
trng hp kh nht: mi trng khng th, mi trng khng phn on, mi trng ng v
mi trng lin tc. N cng c th c a ra trong nhiu hon cnh thc t l rt phc tp, n
mc phi tho lun xem trn thc t chng c thc s tin nh hay chng c xem nh khng
tin nh.
Mi trng C th Tin nh Phn on Tnh Ri rc
Chess with a clock Yes Yes No Semi Yes
Chess without a clock Yes Yes No Yes Yes
Poker No No No Yes Yes
Backgammon Yes No No Yes Yes
Taxi driving No No No No No
Medical diagnosis system No No No No No
Image-analysis system Yes Yes Yes Semi No
Part-picking robot No No Yes No No
Refinery controller No No No No No
Interactive English tutor No No No No Yes


8

160
Bng 5.5 lit k cc thuc tnh ca mt s h mi trng. Ch rng cc cu tr li c th
thay i ph thuc vo vic bn da trn cc mi trng v cc agent nh th no. V d, Poker l
tin nh nu agent c th theo di trt t ca cc qun bi trong c bi, nhng n l khng tin
nh nu n khng th. Cng nh vy, nhiu mi trng l phn on mc hn cho tng hnh
ng ring l ca agent. V d, mt vng thi u c gm c mt lot cc trn thi u, mi trn thi
u l mt phn on, bi v tt c cc nc i ca mt trn u trong ton b s thc hin ca
agent khng b nh hng bi cc nc i ca trn u tip theo. Mt khc, cc nc i trong
phm vi mt trn u n l d nhin l nh hng ln nhau, n mc agent cn phi ngh trc
vi ba nc i.
Cc chng trnh mi trng (Environment programs)
Chng trnh mi trng trong hnh 5.21 minh ho mi quan h c bn gia cc agent v
cc mi trng. Chng ta s thy n thun tin cho nhiu v d v nhiu bi tp s dng mi
trng m phng sinh ra cu trc chng trnh . Vic m phng mt hoc nhiu agent c
thc hin ging nh l a vo v sp xp lp i lp li sinh ra trong mi agent cc tri gic
ng v nhn li hnh ng. Vic m phng sau cp nht mi trng trn c s cc hnh ng,
v cc tin trnh ng khc c th trong mi trng m cc tin trnh khng c quyt nh
bi agent (v d tri ma). V vy, mi trng c xc nh bi trng thi ban u v hm cp
nht. Mt vn hin nhin, mt agent lm vic trong mi trng m phng cng phi lm vic
ging nh trong mi trng thc m n m phng l: cc loi tri gic, cc hnh ng.
Th tc RUN-ENVIRONMENT (Hnh 5.21) rn luyn cc agent trong mt mi trng mt
cch ng n. i vi mt vi loi agent, v d nh cc agent tham gia vo cuc i thoi bng
ngn ng t nhin, n c th d dng theo di hnh vi ca chng. Hm RUN-EVAL-ENVIRONMENT
(Hnh 5.22) p t mt phm vi thc hin i vi mi agent v tr v danh sch cc im s kt
qu. Cc bin score theo di im ca mi agent.
Ni chung, phm vi thc hin c th c quyt nh bi ton b chui trng thi sinh ra
trong qu trnh chng trnh hot ng.

procedure RUN-ENVIRONMENT(state, UPDATE-FN, agents, termination)
inputs: state,the initial state off the environment
Update-Fn, function on modify the environment
agents, a set of agents
termination, a predicate to test when we are done
repeat
for each agent in agents do
Percept[agent] Get-Percept(agent,state)
end
for each agent in agents do
Action[agent] Program[agent](Percept[agent])
end
state Update-Fn(actions,agents,state)
until termination(state)
Hnh 5.21 Chng trnh m phng agent c bn. N sinh ra cho mi agent
cc tri gic ca chng, a ra mt hnh ng t mi agent, v sau cp nht
mi trng.
161

function Run-Eval-Environment(state, Update-Fn, agents, termination,
Performance-Fn) returns scores
local variable: scores, a vector thw same size as agents, all 0
repeat
for each agent in agents do
Percept[agent] Get-Percept(agent,state)
end
for each agent in agents do
Action[agent] Program[agent](Percept[agent])
end
state Update-Fn(actions,agents,state)
scores Performance-Fn(scores,agents,state)
until termination(state)
return scores
Hnh 5.22 Mt chng trnh m phng mi trng m n theo di phm
vi thc hin cho mi agent.

TM TT
Chng ny chng ta gii thiu tng quan mt s vn ca Tr tu nhn to, chng ta
hnh dung c vic thit k agent. Nhng im ch yu l:
Agent l mt ci g m n c th nhn bit v tc ng li mi trng. Chng ta
phn bit agent vi kiu kin trc v agent chng trnh.
Agent l tng lun lun thc hin hnh ng c mong i t c phm vi thc
hin cc i, em li chui kt qu tri gic n thy.
Agent l t tr phm vi m cc hnh ng ca n la chn c quyt nh bi
chnh kinh nghim ca n, mt phn no s hiu bit ca mi trng c xy
dng bi ngi thit k.
Chng trnh agent nh x t mt tri gic n mt hnh ng, khi cp nht mt trng
thi trong.
C nhiu chng trnh agent c bn khc nhau c thit k, c quyt nh bi loi
thng tin v vic s dng trong qu trnh ra quyt nh. Cc thit k dn n s khc
nhau v hiu qu, tnh sc tch v tnh linh ng. Cc thit k chng trnh agent thch
hp quyt nh bi cc tri gic, cc hnh ng, cc mc tiu v mi trng.
Cc agent phn x (reflex agents) phn ng li ngay tc th cc tri gic, cc agent mc
tiu c bn (goal-based agents) hnh ng vi mc ch l chng s ginh c c
cc mc tiu ca chng, v cc agent li ch (utility-based agent) c gng t c
s hnh phc ln nht.
162
Qu trnh ra quyt nh bng vic s dng s hiu bit l trng tm ca Tr tu nhn
to v thit k thnh cng agent. iu ny c ngha l vic biu din s hiu bit l rt
quan trng.
Mt vi mi trng i hi kht khe hn rt nhiu. Cc mi trng l khng th
c, khng tin nh, khng phn on, ng v lin tc l nhng thch
thc ln.
CU HI V BI TP
1. Trinh by m hnh: mng n ron sinh vt v mng n ron nhn tao. Nu r cc thnh phn
c bn ca chng.
2. Trnh by thut ton lan truyn ngc
3. ng dng mng n ron trong x l tn hiu. Trnh by v d chng t mang BAM c kh
nng nh v kh nng tch li.
4. Trnh by cc hm thuc (hm thnh vin) thng s dng trong logic m
5. Trnh by cc php logic thng s dng trong logic m
6. Trnh by cc ton t sau y trong gii thut di truyn
a) ton t sinh sn
b) ton t ghp cho
c) ton t t bin
7. Trnh by cu trc ca Agent thng minh

163
GII THCH T V THUT NG VIT TT
AI : Artificial Intelligent: Tr tu nhn to
ANN : Artificial Neural Network
ADALINE (Adalines) :ADAptive LINear Element mng do Widrow nu nm 1960
ART : Adaptive Resonance Networks
(knowledgeBase: vit tt ting Anh: KB,vit tt ting Vit: CSTT)
BP : Back Propagation Network
CPU : Center Processing Unit
GPS : General Problem Solver
EP : Evolutionary Programming: Lp trnh tin ha
HMM : Hidden Markov Model
FIR : Finite Impulsse Response : B lc p ng xung hu hn
GA : Genetic Algorithm: Gii thut di truyn,
PC : Personal Computer: My tnh c nhn.
CSDL .C s d liu
NLP: Natural Language Processing
IR : Information Retrieval
NP Noun Phrase : danh t
VP :Verb Phrase : ng t
164
TI LIU THAM KHO

[1] Lng Chi Mai, Nguyn Hu Ho. p dng mng n ron m trong nhn dng ch
s, ch vit tay ting Vit. Bo co khoa hc k nim 25 nm thnh lp Vin
Cng ngh Thng tin, tr.623-631. 2001
[2] Nguyn Quang Hoan. Recurrent High-Order Neural Networks Stability. Japan-USA-
Vietnam Workshop, May, 13-15, 1998..
[3] Nguyen Quang Hoan. Using Neural Networks for Vietnam Character Recognition.
The 4
rd
Telecommunication & Information Techno- Econmics Seminar between
PTIT & ETRI June, 2000. Hanoi.
[4] Nguyn Quang Hoan. M rng cu trc v hm Liapunop cho mng nron. Tp ch
Tin Hc v iu Khin Hc, 1996
[5]
Nguyn Quang Hoan. Nghin cu cc phng php v thut ton thng minh trn c s
mng n ron v logc m trong cng ngh thng tin v vin thng. ti cp Tng Cng
Ty BCVT,.M s 082-2000-TCT-R-T-83
[6] Hong Kim, inh nguyn Anh Dng. Gio trnh: Tr tu nhn to. Nh xut bn
i hc Quc gia TP. H Ch Minh, 2005
[7] Nguyn c Dn. Nhp mn Logic hnh thc. Nh xut bn i hc Quc gia TP. H
Ch Minh, 2005
[8] Hong Kim. Cc h c s tri thc. Nh xut bn i hc Quc gia TP. H Ch
Minh, 2005
[9] inh Mnh Tng, Tr tu nhn to. Nh xut bn Gio dc.H ni, 2002
[10] Trung Tun. Tr tu nhn to. Nh xut bn Gio dc. H ni, 1998
[11] Trung Tun. H chuyn gia. Nh xut bn Gio dc. H ni, 1999
[12] Nguyn Hong Phng. Tr tu nhn to. Nh xut bn Khoa hc K thut. H ni,
2006
[13] Phan trng Dn. Llp trnh Turbo PrologNh xut bn Khoa hc K thut. H ni
[14] J. P. Beneke v J. S. Kunicki. Prediction of Telephone Traffic Load Using Fuzzy
Systems. Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng. Petersburg. Teletraffic Seminar: New
Telecomm Services Developing Networks, St. Petersburg, Russia. pp. 270-
280. July, 2, 1995
165
[15] A. Celmins. Distributed fuzzy control of communications. Proc. ISUMA-NAFIPS95
3
rd
Int. Symp. Uncertainty Modeling Annu. Conf. North Amer. Fuzzy Inform.
Processing Soc. pp. 258-262, 1995.
[16] Chin Teng Lin, C. S. George Lee. Neural Fuzzy Systems, Prentice-Hall International
Editions. 1996
[17] Stat Rusell, Peter Novig. Artificial Intelligence. Prentice-Hall International Editions.
1995
[18] Kumpati S. Narendra fellow, IEEE and Kannan Parthasarathy. Identification and
Control of Dynamical Systems Using Neural Networks. IEEE Tran. on Neural
Networks, vol. 1(1), pp.4-26. Mar. 1990.
[19] Micheal. Artificial Intelligence. Prentice-Hall International Editions. 2000
[20] Li Min Fu. Neural Networks in Computer Intelligence, Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc.
International Edittions. 1994.
[21] Behnam Bavarian. Introduction to Neural Networks for Intelligent Control. IEEE
Control Systems Manazine, pp. 3-7.1988.
[22] Mohamed Ibnkahla. Application of Neural Networks to Digital Communications - a
Survey. Signal Proccessing. vol. 80(7), pp. 1185-1215. 2000.
[23] Y. Tanaka v S. Hosaka. Fuzzy Control of Telecommunications Networks Using
Learning Technique, Electron. Commun. Japan, vol. 76, pt. I, N
o
. 12, pp. 41-
51, Dec,1993.
[24] Timothy J. Ross. Fuzzy Logic with Engineering Applications, Mc.Graw-Hill, Inc,
1995.
[25] Chu S. R., Shoureshi R., and Tenorio M. Neural Networks for System Identification.
IEEE Control Systems Magazine(10), pp. 31-34. 1990
[26] ti (m s 082-2000-TCT-R-T-83)


166
MC LC
LI NI U.......................................................................................................................... 1
CHNG 1: KHOA HC TR TU NHN TO: TNG QUAN.................................. 3
1.1 LCH S HNH THNH V PHT TRIN ......................................................................................... 3
1.1.1. T duy nh con ngi: phng php nhn thc .................................................................................. 3
1.1.2. Cc qui tc t duy................................................................................................................................. 4
1.1.3. Khi ngun ca AI (1943 - 1956) ........................................................................................................ 4
1.2. CC TIN C BN CA TTNT...................................................................................................... 5
1.3. CC KHI NIM C BN..................................................................................................................... 6
1.3.1. Tr tu nhn to(AI) l g?.................................................................................................................... 6
1.3.2. Tri thc l g? ...................................................................................................................................... 8
1.3.3. C s tri thc (Knowledge Base: KB) ................................................................................................. 8
1.3.4. H c s tri thc................................................................................................................................... 8
1.4 CC LNH VC NGHIN CU V NG DNG C BN............................................................... 9
1.4.1 L thuyt gii bi ton v suy din thng minh .................................................................................... 9
1.4.2 L thuyt tm kim may ri................................................................................................................... 9
1.4.3 Cc ngn ng v Tr Tu Nhn To...................................................................................................... 9
1.4.4 L thuyt th hin tri thc v h chuyn gia ......................................................................................... 9
1.4.5 L thuyt nhn dng v x l ting ni ................................................................................................. 9
1.4.6 Ngi my.......................................................................................................................................... 10
1.4.7 Tm l hc x l thng tin.................................................................................................................. 10
1.5 NHNG VN CHA C GII QUYT TRONG TR TU NHN TO.......................... 12
TNG KT..................................................................................................................................................... 12
BI TP V CU HI ................................................................................................................................. 13
CHNG 2: CC PHNG PHP GII QUYT VN ......................................... 15
2.1. GII QUYT VN KHOA HC V TR TU NHN TO...................................................... 15
2.2. GII QUYT VN CA CON NGI......................................................................................... 15
2.3. PHN LOI VN . CC C TRNG C BN CA VN ............................................... 16
2.4 CC PHNG PHP BIU DIN VN ....................................................................................... 21
2.5. CC PHNG PHP GII QUYT VN C BN................................................................... 22
2.6. GII QUYT VN V CC K THUT HEURISTIC............................................................... 28
2.7. CC PHNG PHP GII QUYT VN KHC..................................................................... 35
BI TP .......................................................................................................................................................... 41
CHNG 3: BIU DIN TRI THC V SUY DIN .................................................... 42
3.1 NHP MN.............................................................................................................................................. 42
3.2 TRI THC V D LIU........................................................................................................................ 42
3.3 PHN LOI TRI THC......................................................................................................................... 43
3.5. CC PHNG PHP BIU DIN TRI THC.................................................................................. 44
3.5.1 Biu din tri thc bng Logic mnh ............................................................................................... 44
3.5.2 Dng chun tc................................................................................................................................... 47
3.5.3. Cc cu Horn:..................................................................................................................................... 48
167
3.5.4. Lut suy din...................................................................................................................................... 49
3.5.5. Lut phn gii, chng minh bc b bng lut phn gii.................................................................... 51
3.5.6 Biu din tri thc bng Logic v t ..................................................................................................... 54
3.6 C CH SUY DIN................................................................................................................................ 76
3.6.1 Khi nim v suy din v lp lun ...................................................................................................... 76
3.6.2 Lp lun tin ....................................................................................................................................... 76
3.6.3 Lp lun li ......................................................................................................................................... 78
3.6.4 Lp lun tng t nh tm kim trn th v/hoc........................................................................... 79
3.6.6 Th tc For_chain............................................................................................................................... 80
3.7 CC H C S TRI THC V CC H CHUYN GIA................................................................. 82
3.7.1 H h tr ra quyt nh v h thng thng tin.................................................................................... 82
3.7.2. Cc thnh phn ca mt h ra h tr quyt nh................................................................................ 83
3.7.3 H h chuyn gia H MYCIN............................................................................................................ 84
3.7.3 Cc h thng d lut .......................................................................................................................... 85
3.8 CC NGN NG LP TRNH THNG MINH.................................................................................. 87
CU HI V BI TP................................................................................................................................. 89
CHNG 4: X L NGN NG T NHIN.................................................................. 91
4.1 X L NGN NG T NHIN V TR TU NHN TO.............................................................. 91
4.1.1 S tin ha ca ngn ng.................................................................................................................... 91
4.1.2 C s ca ngn ng ............................................................................................................................ 91
4.1.3 Kh nng pht sinh.............................................................................................................................. 92
4.2 X L V HIU VN BN................................................................................................................... 95
4.2.1 Truy nhp c s d liu ...................................................................................................................... 95
4.2.2 Thu thp thng tin............................................................................................................................... 96
4.2.3 Phn loi vn bn................................................................................................................................ 96
4.2.4 Ly d liu vo vn bn...................................................................................................................... 97
4.3 CC H THNG DCH T NG...................................................................................................... 98
4.4 X L V HIU TING NI ............................................................................................................... 99
4.4.1. Tng quan v ting ni ...................................................................................................................... 99
4.4.2. Phn tch tham s ting ni .............................................................................................................. 103
4.4.3. Cc phng php trch chn tham s c trng ca tn hiu ting ni ............................................ 106
4.5 CC H THNG HI THOI ............................................................................................................ 113
4.6 T IN IN T................................................................................................................................ 113
CU HI V BI TP............................................................................................................................... 115
5.1. NHP MN........................................................................................................................................... 116
5.2. MNG N RON NHN TAO ............................................................................................................. 116
5.2.1 Qu trnh pht trin........................................................................................................................... 116
5.2.2 C s ca mng nron nhn to v mt s khi nim....................................................................... 117
5.2.3. Cc cu trc mng in hnh............................................................................................................ 121
5.2.4 Kh nng ng dung ca mng n ron ............................................................................................... 128
5.3. LOGIC M............................................................................................................................................ 131
5.3.1. Cc khi nim c bn....................................................................................................................... 131
5.3.2. Cc php ton trn tp m ............................................................................................................... 133
168
5.3.3. Bin ngn ng.................................................................................................................................. 135
5.3.4 Cc kh nng ng dng ca Logic m.............................................................................................. 135
5.3. GII THUT DI TRUYN.................................................................................................................. 137
5.3.1. Gii thut di truyn.......................................................................................................................... 137
5.3.2. C s ton hc ca gii thut di truyn............................................................................................ 139
5.3.3. Thuc tnh ca s ........................................................................................................................ 139
5.3.4. Tc ng ca cc ton t di truyn trn mt s ........................................................................... 140
5.3.5. c im hi t ca gii thut di truyn.......................................................................................... 142
5.4. CC H THNG THNG MINH LAI .............................................................................................. 145
5.4.1. H thng N ron -M....................................................................................................................... 145
5.4.2. H thng N ron Gii thut di truyn............................................................................................ 145
5.4.3. Cc h thng lai khc ....................................................................................................................... 145
5.5. CC AGENT THNG MINH.............................................................................................................. 145
5.5.1. Gii thiu ......................................................................................................................................... 145
5.5.2. Hot ng ca cc Agent ................................................................................................................. 146
5.5.3. Cu trc ca cc agent thng minh .................................................................................................. 151
5.5.4. Mi trng (Environments) ............................................................................................................. 158
TM TT...................................................................................................................................................... 161
CU HI V BI TP............................................................................................................................... 162
GII THCH T V THUT NG VIT TT............................................................. 163
TI LIU THAM KHO................................................................................................... 164
MC LC............................................................................................................................. 166











NHP MN
TR TU NHN TO
M s: 412TTN340

Chu trch nhim bn tho
TRUNG TM O TO BU CHNH VIN THNG 1