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C h a p t e r 3
H o w t o s i l e n c e a u n i v e r s a l m a c h i n e
A s f u r t h e r a p p l i c a t i o n s o f d i a g o n a l i z a t i o n , w e n o w t u r n t o a f a s c i n a t i n g
v a r i e t y o f p r o b l e m s t h a t g e n e r a l i z e s o m e r e s u l t s i n r e c u r s i o n t h e o r y k n o w n
a s h a l t i n g p r o b l e m s . T h a t t h e y r e a l l y d o g e n e r a l i z e t h e o r e m s i n r e c u r s i o n
t h e o r y w i l l b e s e e n i n a l a t e r c h a p t e r . T h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s c h a p t e r a r e a l s o
r e l a t e d t o i n c o m p l e t e n e s s t h e o r e m s , a s w i l l b e s e e n i n t h e n e x t c h a p t e r .
P a r t I S i l e n c i n g a u n i v e r s a l m a c h i n e
1 A u n i v e r s a l m a c h i n e
W e c o n s i d e r a d e n u m e r a b l e s e q u e n c e M l , M 2 , . . . , M , , , , . . . ( a l l o w i n g r e p -
e t i t i o n s ) o f m a t h e m a t i c a l m a c h i n e s , o r c o m p u t e r s , t h a t b e h a v e i n t h e f o l -
l o w i n g m a n n e r . F i r s t o f a l l t h e y o p e r a t e o n p o s i t i v e i n t e g e r s . T h e w o r d
n u m b e r i n t h i s c h a p t e r w i l l m e a n p o s i t i v e i n t e g e r . E a c h m a c h i n e i s , s o t o
s p e a k , i n c h a r g e o f a c e r t a i n p r o p e r t y o f n u m b e r s , a n d i t s f u n c t i o n i s t o
t r y a n d d e t e r m i n e w h i c h n u m b e r s h a v e t h e p r o p e r t y a n d w h i c h o n e s d o n ' t .
O n e f e e d s i n a n u m b e r ( p o s i t i v e i n t e g e r . ) x a s i n p u t t o a m a c h i n e M a n d
t h e m a c h i n e g o e s i n t o o p e r a t i o n a n d o n e o f t h r e e t h i n g s h a p p e n s .
( 1 ) T h e m a c h i n e e v e n t u a l l y h a l t s a n d f l a s h e s a s i g n a l ( s a y a g r e e n l i g h t )
s i g n i f y i n g t h a t t h e n u m b e r x d o e s h a v e t h e p r o p e r t y i n q u e s t i o n . I f
t h i s h a p p e n s , w e s a y t h a t t h e m a c h i n e a f f i r m s x .
( 2 ) T h e m a c h i n e e v e n t u a l l y h a l t s a n d f l a s h e s a d i f f e r e n t s i g n a l ( s a y a r e d
l i g h t ) s i g n i f y i n g t h a t x d o e s n o t h a v e t h e p r o p e r t y . I f t h i s h a p p e n s ,
w e s a y t h a t t h e m a c h i n e d e n i e s x .
( 3 ) T h e m a c h i n e c a n n e v e r d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r o r n o t x h a s t h e p r o p e r t y ,
a n d s o r u n s o n f o r e v e r . I n t h a t c a s e w e s a y t h a t t h e m a c h i n e i s
Chapter 3
How to silence a universal machine
As further applications of diagonalization, we now turn to a fascinating
variety of problems that generalize some results in recursion theory known
as halting problems. That they really do generalize theorems in recursion
theory will be seen in a later chapter. The results of this chapter are also
related to incompleteness theorems, as will be seen in the next chapter.
Part I Silencing a universal machine
1 A universal machine
We consider a denumerable sequence M
1
, M
2
, ... , Mn, ... (allowing rep-
etitions) of mathematical machines, or computers, that behave in the fol-
lowing manner. First of all they operate on positive integers. The word
number in this chapter will mean positive integer. Each machine is, so to
speak, in charge of a certain property of numbers, and its function is to
try and determine which numbers have the property and which ones don't.
One feeds in a number (positive integer) x as input to a machine M and
the machine goes into operation and one of three things happens.
(1) The machine eventually halts and flashes a signal (say a green light)
signifying that the number x does have the property in question. If
this happens, we say that the machine affirms x.
(2) The machine eventually halts and flashes a different signal (say a red
light) signifying that x does not have the property. If this happens,
we say that the machine denies x.
(3) The machine can never determine whether or not x has the property,
and so runs on forever. In that case we say that the machine is