Logic l ngn ng hnh thc cho php (gip) biu din thng tin di dng cc kt lun c th cc aa ra.

Logic = Syntax + Semantics - C php (syntax): xc nh cc mnh (sentences) trong mt ngn ng - C php = Ngn ng + L thuyt chng minh ---- +) Ngn ng (Language): Cc k hiu (symbols), biu thc (expressions), thut ng (terms), cng thc (formulas) hp l. E.g: One plus one equal two ---- +) L thuyt chng minh (Proof theory): Tp hp cc lut suy din chho php chng minh (suy lun ra) cc biu thc. Eg: Lut suy din "Any plus zero any" ---- +) Mt nh l (theorem) l mt mnh logic cn chng minh - Ng ngha (semantics): xc nh { ngha" ca cc mnh trong mt ngn ng, tc l xc nh s ng n ca mt mnh . ---- +) Ng ngha = ngha (din gii) ca cc k hiu ---- +) Nu din gii ca mt biu thc l ng (true), chng ta ni rng php din gii ny l mt m hnh (model) ca biu thc ---- +) Mt biu thc ng i vi bt kz php din gii no th c gi l mt biu thc ng n (valid). Eg: A OR NOT A Logic nh : - Vi mt m hnh (model) c th, n s xc nh gi tr ng/sai cho mi k hiu nh . Eg: Vi 3 k hiu S1, S2 v S3 th c th ly v d mt m hnh m1 xc nh nh sau: m1 (S1 =sai, S2 =ng, S3 =sai) - Vi 3 k hiu nh nh v d trn, c th ch ra 8 m hnh c th Biu din Logic bng nh - Gi s chng ta c cc nh sau: ---- +) p Chiu nay tri nng ---- +) q Thi tit lnh hn hm qua ---- +) r Ti s i bi ---- +) s Ti s i bng ---- +) t Ti s v n nh vo bui ti - Biu din cc pht biu trong ngn ng t nhin ---- +) Chiu nay tri khng nng v thi tit lnh hn hm qua: p ^ q ---- +) Ti s i bi nu nh chiu nay tri nng: p r ---- +) Nu ti (s) khng i bi th ti s i bng: r s ---- +) Nu ti (s) i bng th ti s v nh vo bui ti: s t Gii quyt bi ton chngg minh logic - Mc ch: tr li cu hi KB ? - C 3 phng php (chng minh) ph bin:

---- +) S dng bng chn l (Truth-table) ---- +) p dng cc lut suy din (Inference rules) ---- +) Chuyn vbi ton chng minh tha mn (SAT) ---- +) Phng php chng minh bng phn chng (Resolution/Refutation)

Eg. Gi s c tp gi thit KB 1) p ^ q 2) p r 3) (q ^ r) s Cn chng minh nh l s Proof: T 1) v s dng lut And-Elimination, ta c: 4) p T 2), 4) v s dng lut Modus Ponens, ta c: 5) r T 1) v s dng lut And-Elimination, ta c: 6) q T 5), 6) v s dng lut And-Introduction, ta c: 7) (q ^ r) T 7), 3) v s dng lut Modus-Ponens, ta c: 8) s => Vy nh l (biu thc logic) s c chng minh l ng! Cc dng chun - Cc biu thc trong logic nh c th c chuyn i v mt trong cc dng chun (Normal forms)

gip n gin ha qu trnh suy din - Dng chun kt hp (Conjunctive normal form CNF): L kt hp (lin kt V) ca cc mnh (clauses). Mi mnh (clause) l mt lin kt HOC ca cc k hiu nh n. Eg: (p q) ^ (q r s) - Dng chun tuyn (Disjunctive normal form DNF): L lin kt HOC ca cc mnh (clauses). Mi mnh (clause) l mt lin kt V ca cc k hiu nh n. V d: (p ^ q) (p ^ r) (r ^ s) Chuyn i v dng chun CNF: (pq) (rp) 1. Loi b cc lin kt: , (p q) (r p) 2. S dng cc php bin i tng ng (Eg: Lut DeMorgan v php ph nh 2 ln) (p ^ q) (r p) 3. S dng cc lut kt hp (associative rules) v phn b (distributive rules) (p r p) ^ (q r p) (p r) ^ (q r p) Bi ton suy din vs bi ton tha mn c - Bi ton suy din logic: Cn chng minh: biu thc logic (nh l{) c bao hm bi tp cc mnh KB. Ni cch khc, vi mi php din gii m trong KB ng, th c ng? - Bi ton tha mn c (SAT): C tn ti mt php gn gi tr ng/sai cho cc k{ hiu nh (mt php din gii) sao cho biu thc l ng? - Gii php: KB nu v ch nu: (KB ) l khng th tha mn c (unsatisfiable) Lut suy din hp gii (Resolution) p q, q r pr - Lut suy din hp gii p dng c i vi cc biu thc logic dng chun CNF - Lut suy din hp gii c tnh ng n (sound), nhng khng c tnh hon chnh (incomplete) ---- +) Tp gi thit (c s tri thc) KB cha biu thc (p ^ q) ---- +) Cn chng minh: (p q) ? - Lut suy din hp gii khng th suy ra c biu thc cn chng minh! - Phng php chng minh bng phn chng: ---- +) Vic chng minh s mu thun ca (KB ^ ) ---- +) Tng ng vic chng minh s bao hm: KB - Lut suy din hp gii (Resolution rule): Nu cc biu thc trong tp KB v biu thc (cn chng minh) u dng CNF, th p dng lut suy din hp gii s xc nh tnh (khng) tha mn c ca (KB ^ ) - Gii thut hp gii

---- +) Chuyn i tt c cc biu thc trong KB v dng chun CNF ---- +) p dng lin tip lut suy din hp gii (Resolution rule) bt u t: (KB ^ ) -------- +) KB l kt hp ca cc biu thc dng chun CNF. -------- +) Do , (KB ) cng l mt biu thc dng chun CNF! ---- +) Qu trnh p dng lut suy din hp gii dng li khi: -------- +) C mu thun xy ra v sau khi hp gii, thu c (suy ra) biu thc rng (mu thun) l (p, p) v {} -------- +) Khng c biu thc mi no c sinh ra na Eg. Gi s c tp gi thit KB: p^q pr (q ^ r) s Cn chng minh nh l s Proof: Bc 1. Chuyn i KB v dng chun CNF (p r) c chuyn thnh (p r) ((q ^ r) s) c chuyn thnh (q r s) Bc 2. Ph nh biu thc cn chng minh s Bc 3. p dng lin tip lut hp gii i vi (KB ^ ): {{p, q, p r, q r s, s}} Bt u qu trnh hp gii, ta c tp cc mnh : 1) p 2) q 3) p r 4)) q r s 5) s Hp gii 1) v 3), ta thu c 6) r Hp gii 2) v 4), ta thu c 7) r s Hp gii 6) v 7), ta thu c 8) s Hp gii 8) v 5), ta thu c mu thun ({}) Tc l biu thc ban u (s) c chng minh l ng

Suy din tin (forward chainingg) - Vi mt tp cc mnh gi thit (c s tri thc) KB, cn suy ra mnh kt lun Q) - tng: Lp li 2 bc sau cho n khi suy ra c kt lun ---- +) p dng cc lut c mnh githit c tha mn trong KB ---- +) Bsungg kt lun ca cc lut vo KB