NKOSI) es a MECEMISION [PRACHICE) airs) sre) CU) cr Servicing | Second Edition) = aHCopyright © 2002, New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers First Edition : 1991 Second Edition : 2002 Reprint : 2005 NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS 4835/24, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi - 110 002 Visit us at : www.newagepublishers.com Offices at : Bangalore, Chennai, Cochin, Guwahati, Hyderabad, Jalandhar, Kolkata, Lucknow, Mumbai and Ranchi This book or any part thereof may not be reproduced in any form without the written permission of the publisher. This book cannot be sold outside the country to which it is consigned by the publisher without the prior permission of the publisher. Rs, 275.00 ISBN : 81-224-1360-9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Published by New Ago International (P) Ltd., 4835/24, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi-110 002 and printed in India at V.K. Printers, New Delhi-110 020.CONTENTS Preface to the Second Edition Preface to the First Edition Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION TO TELEVISION Introduction 1 1.1___Picture Transmission __1 1.2___Television Transmitter 5 1.3 Television Receiver 6 1.4 Synchronization 8 1.5 Receiver Controls 9 Chapter 2. TELEVISION PICTURES Introduction 10 2.1 Geometric Form and Aspect Ratio 10 2.2 Image Continuity 10 2.3 Number of Scanning Lines 13 2.4 Interlaced Scanning 14 2.5 Picture Resolution 19 2.6 Brightness Gradation and Colour Characteristics 20 Chapter 3. TELEVISION CAMERAS Introduction 23 3.1 Camera Tube Types 23 9.2___Vidicon Camera Tube _26 3.3. Silicon Diode Array Vidicon 29 3.4 Camera Optics 30 3.5 Monochrome TV Camera 31] 3.6 Colour Cameras 32 3.7 Camera Control Equipment 35 3.8 Film Chain or Telecine 36 Chapter 4. PICTURE TUBES Introduction 38 4.1. Monochrome Picture Tube 38 4.2 Electrostatic focussing 39 4.3 Beam Deflection 42 wEvill CONTENTS 4.4 Picture Tube Screen 44 4.5 Raster Centering Adjustments 46 4.6 Picture Tube Characteristics and Control 46 4.7 Picture Tube Specifications 50 4.8 Monochrome Picture Tube Troubles _51 4.9 Colour Picture Tubes 52 4.10 _Common Faults in Colour Picture Tubes _58 Chapter 5. COMPOSITE VIDEO SIGNAL Introduction 60 5.1 Video Signal Dimensions _60 5.2 Horizontal Sync Composition 63 5.3 Vertical Syne Details 65 5.4 Functions of Vertical Pulse Train 71 5.5 Scanning Sequence Details 71 Chapter 6. COLOUR SIGNAL-GENERATION AND ENCODING 74 Introduction 74 6.1 Perception of Brightness and Colours 74 6.2 Additive Colour Mixing 75 6.3 Video Signals for Colours 76 6.4___Luminance Signal (Y)_78 6.5 Compatibility 81 6.6 Colour-Difference Signals 81 6.7 Encoding of Colour-Difference Signals 83 6.8 Formation of Chrominance Signals 85 6.9 PAL Encoder 86 6.10 _Chrominance Signal for Colour Bar Pattern 89 Chapter 7. TELEVISION SIGNAL-TRANSMISSION AND PROPAGATION 92 Introduction 92 7 Picture Signal Transmission 92 7.2 Positive and Negative Modulation 93 7.3 Vestigial Sideband Transmission 96 7.4 Sound Signal Transmission 99 7.5 Standard Channel Bandwidth 102 7.6 Television Transmitter 104 7.7 TV Signal Propagation 108 7.8 Interference Suffered by TV Signals 111 7.9 Television Broadcast Channels 113 7.10 Television Transmission Antennas 116CONTENTS ix Chapter 8. TELEVISION SYSTEMS AND STANDARDS 120 Introduction 120 8.1 American 525 Line B&W TV System 120 8.2 NTSC Colour System 121 8.3 625 Line Monochrome System 125 8.4 PAL Colour System 126 8.5 French B&W and Colour TV Systems 130 8.6 Television Standards 135 Chapter 9, MONOCHROME TELEVISION RECEIVER 139 Introduction 139 9.1 Input from Antenna 139 9.2 RFTuner 140 9.3 IF Subsystem 143 9.4 Video Amplifier 150 9.5 Sound Section 151 9.6 Sync Separation and Processing 153 9.7 Deflection Circuits 153 9.8 Scanning Currents in the Yoke 155 9.9 DC Power Supplies 156 9.10 Summary of Functions of Receiver Stages 161 Chapter 10. PAL-D COLOUR RECEIVER 162 Introduction 162 10.1. Electronic Tuners 162 10.2 IF Subsystem 167 10.3. ¥ Signal Channel 169 10.4__Chroma Decoder 173 10.5 Separation of U and V Colour Phasors _173 10.6 Synchronous Demodulators 175 10.7__Subcarrier Generation and Control 179 10.8 _Matrixing for Drive Circuits _180 10.9 Raster Circuits 183 10.10 Summary of Receiver Operation 187 Chapter 11. TELEVISION RECEIVER TUNERS 188 Introduction 188 11.1 Tuner Operation 189 11.2 VHF Tuners 191 11.3 UHF Tuners 197 11.4 Digital Tuning Techniques 198 1.5 Remote Control of Receiver Functions _202x CONTENTS 11.6 Automatic Frequency Tuning (AFT) 205 11.7 Common Faults in Tuner Circuits 208 Chapter 12. VISION IF SUBSYSTEM 211 Introduction 211 12.1 Vision IF Section 211 12.2 Automatic Gain Control (AGC) 215 12.3 Noise Cancellation 222 12.4 Video and Intercarrier Sound Signal Detection 222 12.5 Vision IF Subsystem of Black & White Receivers 223 12.6 Colour Receiver IF Subsystem 229 12.7 __IF Subsystem for Small Screen B&W Receivers 235 12.8 Common Faults in the IF Subsystem 235 Chapter 13. RECEIVER SOUND SYSTEM 238 Introduction 238 13.1 FM Detection 239 13.2 FM Sound Detectors 242 13.3 Sound Subsystem with BEL IC CA 3065 251 13.4 Sound Channel employing Two ICs 255 13.5 TBA 120U + TDA 2611A Combination Sound System 255 13.6 Sound Channel IC CA1190 257 13.7 Typical Application Circuit of CA1190 261 13.8 Common Faults in the Sound Channel 261 Chapter 14. VIDEO AMPLIFIERS AND LUMINANCE CHANNEL 265 Introduction 265 14.1 Reproduction of B&W Pictures 265 14.2 Desired Composition of Video Signal 266 14.3 Video Amplifier Requirements 269 14.4 Video Amplifier Configurations 273 14.5 Problems of DC Coupling 276 14.6 Consequences of AC Coupling 279 14.7 DC Reinsertion 282 14.8 Contrast and Brightness Control Methods 284 14.9 Video Amplifier Circuits 288 14.10 Luminance or ‘Y Channel 290 14.11 Screen Size and Video Amplifier Bandwidth 296 14.12 Trouble Shooting Video Amplifier Circuits 296 Chapter 15. COLOUR SIGNAL DECODING AND MATRIXING 299 Introduction 299CONTENTS xi 15.1__PAL-D Decoder 299 15.2 Chroma Signal Amplifiers 303 15.3 aration of U and V Signals 306 15.4 Colour Burst Separation 307 15.5 Burst Phase Discriminator 309 15.6 ACC Amplifier 311 15.7_Reference Oscillator 311 18.8 Ident and Colour Killer Circuits 312 15.9 RO Phase Shift and 180° PAL-SWITCH Circuitry 316 15.10_U and V Demodulators 318 15.11 Colour Signal Matrixing 319 15.12_ PAL Colour Decoder IC TDA 3561A 321 15.13 R, G, B Drive Amplifiers 323 15.14 Functions of Stages in Chroma, Luminance and Drive Sections 323 15.15 Trouble Shooting Colour Receivers 323 Chapter 16. SYNC SEPARATION, AFC AND DEFLECTION OSCILLATORS 332 Introduction 332 16.1 Sync Separation 332 16.2 Noise in Sync Pulses 334 16.3 _ Separation of Frame (Vertical) and Line (Horizontal) Syne Pulses 338 16.4 Automatic Frequency Control (AFC) 338 16.5 _AFC Circuit with Push-Pull Discriminator 340 16.6 Single-Ended AFC Circuit 346 16.7 Typical Sync Processing Circuit 346 16.8 Deflection Current Waveforms 347 16.9 Deflection Oscillators 352 16.10 Deflection Drive ICs 360 16.11 Common Faults in Sync Separator Circuits 365 16.12 Trouble Shooting Deflection Oscillators and Drive ICs 366 Chapter 17. FRAME DEFLECTION CIRCUITS 369 Introduction 369 17.1 Requirements of Vertical Deflection Circuits 369 17.2 Discrete Vertical Deflection Circuit 377 17.3 Vertical Deflection IC-BEL 1044 379 17.4 Vertical Deflection IC-TDA 1170S 381 17.5 Vertical Output IC-TDA 3651A 381 17.6 Common Faults in Frame Scan Circuits 385xil_ CONTENTS Chapter 18. LINE DEFLECTION CIRCUITS 387 Introduction 387 18.1 Line Drive Stage 387 18.2 Line Output Stage 388 18.3 Basic Line Deflection Circuit 292 18.4 Typical Line Scan Circuit for Small Screen B&W Receivers 394 18.5 18.6 Chapter 19. 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 19.6 19.7 19.8 Line Scan Circuit with Drive from IC CA920 397 Common Faults in Line Output Circuits 398 TELEVISION RECEIVER POWER SUPPLIER 400 Introduction 400 Basic Power Supply Circuits 401 Shunt and Series Pass Voltage Regulators 402 Regulated Power Supply for Small Screen B&W Receivers 404 Power Supply for 51 cm B&W Receivers 405 Switched Mode Power Supply (SMPS) 408 Mains Supply Filters 410 Merits and Demerits of SMPS_ 411 Typical Flyback SMPS Circuit 412 19.9 _EHT Generation 415 19.10 Fault Finding in Power Supplies 418 Chapter 20. 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 20.6 20.7 20.8 20.9 20.10 20.11 20.12 20.14 20.15 Chapter 21. RECEIVER ANTENNAS AND TRANSMISSION LINES 421 Introduction 421 The Half-Wave Dipole 421 Antenna Parameters 423 Dipole Antenna with Reflector and Direction 424 YAGI-UDA Antenna 426 Antennas for Higher VHF Channels 430 U.H.F. Antennas 433 Colour Television Antennas 435 Antenna Mounting 438 Indoor Antennas 438 ‘Transmission Lines 439 Booster Amplifiers 444 Attenuation Pads 447 Signal Combining and Splitting 449 ‘Trouble Shooting Antenna Set-ups 451 RECEIVER CIRCUITS COMPONENTS AND TROUBLE SHOOTING aa Introduction 453CONTENTS xiii 21.1 Resistors 453 21.2 Colour Coding of Resistors 455 21.3. Potentiometers and Non-Linear Resistors 458 21.4 Capacitors-Fixed and Variable 460 21.5 Inductors and Transformers 464 21.6 Printed Circuit Boards 466 21.7 Trouble Shooting Procedure 468 21.8 Isolation and Servicing of Faulty Circuits 470 21.9 Trouble Shooting Circuits employing ICs 474 21.10 Safety Precautions in Television Servicing 477 Chapter 22. RECEIVER ALIGNMENT AND SERVICING INSTRUMENTS 479 Introduction 479 22.1 Multimeters 479 22.2 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) 482 22.9 Video Pattern Generator 493 22.4 Sweep Generator 494 22.5 Marker Generator 497 22.6 Colour-Bar Generator _501 22.7__Colour-Bar Pattern Generator _504 22.8 Colour TV Pattern Generator 506 22.9 Vectroscope 508 22.10 High Voltage Probes 511 Chapter 23. B&W RECEIVER CIRCUITS AND ALIGNMENT 513 Introduction 513 23.1 Portable Small Screen B&W Receiver 513 23.2 51cm B&W Receiver 515 23.3 Receiver Construction 516 23.4 Monochrome Receiver Alignment 518 23.5 Television Test Charts 526 Chapter 24. MONOCHROME RECEIVER SERVICING 530 Introduction 530 24.1 Trouble Shooting Chart 530 24.2 Signal Flow Diagrams 538 24.3 Servicing Receiver Sub-Systems (Sections) 543 Chapter 25. COLOUR RECEIVER CIRCUITS, ALIGNMENT AND SERVICING 551 Introduction 551 25.1 Economy Colour Receivers 551xiv CONTENTS: 25.2 25.3 25.4 25.5 Chapter 26. 26.1 26.2 26.3 26.4 26.5 26.6 Chapter 27. 27.1 27.2 27.3 27.4 27.5 27.6 Chapter 28. 28.1 28.2 28.3 28.4 28.5 28.6 28.7 28.8 28.9 28.10 Chapter 29. 29.1 29.2 29.3 Middle Range Colour Receivers 552 Colour Receiver Alignment 559 Servicing Colour Receivers 564 Modern Colour Receivers 567 SATELLITE TELEVISION TECHNOLOGY 574 Introduction 574 Geostationary Satellites 574 Satellite Communication Systems 575 Satellite Electronics 577 International and Regional Direct Broadcasting Satellites 580 Indian Domestic Satellites 581 Domestic Broadcast System 582 CABLE TELEVISION 588 Introduction 588 Cable Signal Sources 588 Cable Signal Processing 591 Cable Signal Distribution 597 Bi-Directional Networks 599 Scrambling of TV Signals 600 Cable Signal Converters 601 VCR AND VIDEO DISC—RECORDING AND PLAYBACK 603 Introduction 603 Video Recording Problems 603 Video Tape Recording 607 Video Recording Systems 610 Home Video Formats-VHS, Betamax and Video 2000 611 VCR Input-Output Connections 613 VCR Electronics 614 Operation and Control of Modern VCRs 622 Camcorders 624 Video Disc Systems 625 DVDS and DVD Players 629 TELETEXT BROADCAST SERVICE AND TV GAMES 634 Introduction 634 The Teletext Picture 635 Teletext Signal Coding 637 Teletext TV Receiver 63729.4 29.5 29.6 Chapter 30, 31.1 31.2 31.3 31.4 31.5 31.6 31.7 31.8 Intext (India’s Teletext) 641 Video Data 642 TVGames 643 DIGITAL TELEVISION—TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION Introduction 652 Digital System Hardware 652 Signal Quantisation and Encoding 656 Digital Satellite Television 659 Direct-to-Home Satellite Television 663 Digital TV Receiver 664 Merits of Digital TV Receivers 667 Digital Terrestrial Television (DTT) 667 ADVANCED TELEVISION SYSTEMS AND DIGITAL STUDIO EQUIPMENTS Introduction 670 Stereo Sound Systems 670 Projection Television 673 Flat Panel Display TV Receivers 674 Three Dimensional (3-D) Television Picture 676 Extended Definition Television (EDTV) 679 High Definition Television (HDTV) 680 Digital Equipment for Television Studios 682 Colour Receivers of New Generation 688 CONTENTS xv1 INTRODUCTION TO TELEVISION Introduction The aim of atelevision system is toextend the sense of sight beyond its natural limits and to transmit sound associated with the scene. The picture signal is generated by a TV camera and sound signal by amicrophone. Inthe 625 line CCIR monochrome and PAL-B colour TV systems adopted by India, the picture signal is amplitude modulated and sound signal frequency modulated before transmission. The two carrier frequencies are suitably spaced and their modulation products radiated through a common antenna. As in radio communication, each television station is allotted different carrier frequencies to enable sclection of desired station at the receiving end. The TV receiver has tuned circuits in its input section called ‘tuner’. It selects desired channel signal out of the many picked up by the antenna. The selected RF band is converted to a common fixed IF band for convenience of providing large amplification to it. The amplified IF signals are detected to obtain video (picture) and audio (sound) signals. The video signal after large amplification drives the picture tube to reconstruct the televised picture on the receiver screen. Similarly, the audio signal is amplified and fed tothe loudspeaker to produce sound output associated with the scene. 1.1 Picture Transmission The picture information is optical in character and may be thought of as an assemblage of a large number of tiny areas representing picture details. These elementary areas into which picture details may be broken up are known as ‘picture elements’ or ‘pixals’, which when viewed together represent visual information of the scene. Thus, at any instant there are almost an infinite number of pieces of information that need to be picked up simultaneously for transmitting picture details. However, simultaneous pick-up is not practicable because it is not feasible to provide a separate signal path (channel) for the signal obtained from each picture element. In practice, this problem is solved by a method known as ‘scanning’ where convertion of optical information to electrical form 1s carried out element by element, one at a time and in a sequential manner to cover the entire picture. Besides, scanning is done at avery fast rate and repeated a large number of times per second to create an illusion (impression at the eye) of simultaneous reception from all the elements, though using only one signal path.2 MODERN TELEVISION PRACTICE Black and White Pictures In a monochrome (black and white) picture, each element is either bright, some shade of grey or dark. ATV camera, the heart of which is a camera tube, is used to convert this optical information into corresponding electrical signal, the amplitude of which varies in accordance with variations of brightness. Fig. 1.1 shows very elementary details of one type of camera tube (vidicon) and associated components toillustrate the principle. An optical image of the scene to be transmitted is focused by a lens assembly on the rectangular glass face-plate of the camera tube, The inner side of the glass face-plate has a transparent conductive coating on which is laid a very thin layer of photoconductive material. The photolayer has very high resistance when na light falls on it, but decreases depending on the intensity of light falling on it. Thus depending on light intensity variations in the focused optical image, the conductivity of each clement of photolayer changes accordingly. An electron beam is used to pick-up picture information now available on the target plate in terms of varying resistance at each point. Gloss-plate Conductive coating Focusing tens object to be televised Video signal output magnetic dettection and i. focusing coits Power supply Fig. 1.1 Simplified cross-sectional view of a Vidieon, camera tube and associated components. The beam is formed by an electron gun in the TV camera tube. On its way to the inner side of glass face-plate, it is deflected by a pair of deflecting coils mounted onthe glass envelope and kept mutually perpendicular to each other to achieve scanning of the entire target area. Scanning 1s done in the same way as one reads a written page to cover all the words in one line and all the lines on the page (see Fig.1.2). To achieve this, the deflecting coils are fed separately from two sweep oscillators which continuously generate suitable waveform voltages , each operating at a different desired frequency. Magnetic deflection caused by the current inINTRODUCTION TO TELEVISION 3 one coll gives horizontal motion to the beam from left toright at uniform rate and then brings it quickly to the left side to commence trace of the next line. The other coil tsused to deflect the beam from topto bottom at a uniformrate and for its quick retrace ‘baclsto the top of the plate to start this process over again. Two simultaneous motions are thus given to the beam, one from left to right across the target plate and the other TOP pet width Height BOTIOM Fig. 1.2 Path of scanning beam In covering picture area, from top to bottom thereby covering entire area on which electrical image of the picture is available. As the beam moves from element to element, it encounters a different resistance across the target-plate, depending on the resistance of photoconductive coating. The result isa flow of current which varies in magnitude as the elements are scanned. This current passes through a load resistance R,, connected to the conductive coating on one side and toa dc supply source on the other. Depending on. the magnitude of current, a varying voltage appears across resistance R, and this corresponds to optical informaiton of the picture. If the scanning beam moves at such arate that any portion of the scene content does not have time to change perceptibly in the time required for one complete scan of the image, the resultant electrical signal contains true information existing in the picture during the time of scan. The desired information 1s now in the form of a signal varying with time and scanning may thus be identified asa particular process which permits conversion of information existing in space and time co- ordinates into time variations only. The electrical information thus obtained from the TV camera tubes generally referred to as video signal (video is Latin for'see}). Colour Pictures Itispossible to create any colour including white by additive mixing of red. green.4 MODERN TELEVISION PRACTICE and blue colour lights in suitable proportions. For example. yellow can be obtained by mixing red and green colour lights in intensity ratio of 30: 59. Similarly, light reflected from any colour picture element can be synthesised (broken up) into red, green and bluc colour light constituents. This forms the basis of colour television where Red (R), Green (G) and Blue (B) colours are called primary colours and those formed by mixing any two of the three primaries as complementary colours. A colour camera, the elements of which are shown in Fig. 1.3, is used to develop signal voltages proportional to the intensity of each primary colour light. fhe Partially ' silvers mee f}- 7 i ve i : Light from \ kesh capac i egg Nn A the Seane L] sve [> ve optical fitters Taking or focus lens Fig. 1.3 Simplified block diagram of a colour camera. Itcontains three camera tubes (vidicons) where each pick-up tube receives light of only one primary colour. Light from the scene falls on the focus lens and through that on ‘special mirrors. Colour filters that receive reflected light via relay lenses split it into R, G and B colour lights. Thus, each vidicon receives a single colour light and develops a voltage proportional to the intensity of one of the primary colours. If any primary colour is not present in any part of the picture, the corresponding vidicon does not develop any output when that picture area is scanned. The electron beams of all the three camera tubes are kept in step (synchronizm) by deflecting them horizontally and vertically from common driving sources. Any colour light has a certain intensity of brightness. Therefore, light reflected from any colour element of a picture also carries information about its brightness called luminance. A signal voltage [Y) proportional to luminance at various partsof the picture is obtained by adding definite proportions of V,, V, and V, (30 : 59: 11). This then Is the same as would be developed by a monochroma (black and white) camera when made to scan the same colour scene. This i.e. the luminance (¥) signal is also transmitted alongwith colour information and used at picture tube in the receiver for reconstructing the colour picture with brightness levels as in the televised picture.INTRODUCTION TO TELEVISION 5 1.2 Television Transmitter An oversimplified block diagram ofa monochrome TV transmitter is shown in Fig, 1.4. ‘The luminance signal from the camera {s amplified and synchronizing pulses added before feeding it to the modulating amplifter. Synchronising pulses are transmitted to. keep the camera and picture tube beams in step. The allotted picture carrier frequency is generated by a crystal controlled oscillator. The continuous wave (CW) sine wave output is given large amplification before feeding to the power amplifier where its amplitude is made to vary (AM) in accordance with the modulating signal received from the modulating amplifier. The modulated output 1s combined (see Fig. 1.4) with the AM picture signal crystal RF Power Z oscillator amplifier [—"l amplitier Transmitter antenna Scanning and synchronizing cireuits Light — Television Video AM modulating) Combining aaa camera amplifier amplifier network Microphone Audio FM modulating FM sound amplifier omplifier transmitter Xt FM sound signal Fig. 1.4 Elementary block diagram of a monochrome television transmitter. frequency modulated (FM) sound signal in the combining network and then fed to the transmitting antenna for radiation. Colour Transmitter Acolour TV transmitter is essentially the same as the monochrome transmitter except for the additional need that colour (chroma) information is also to be transmitted. Any colour system is made compatible with the corresponding mono- chrome system. Compatibility means that the colour TV signal must produce a normal black and white picture on a monochrome receiver and a colour receiver must be ableaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.14 MODERN TELEVISION PRACTICE 1s not very significant with line numbers greater than 500 while viewing pictures having motion, Also, the channel bandwidth increases with increase in number of Hines and this not only adds to the cost of the system but also reduces the number of television channels that can be provided in a given VHF or UHF transmission band. ‘Thus, as a compromise between quality and cost. the total number of lines inclusive of those lost during vertical retrace have been chosen to be 625 in the CIR television system. In the 525 line American system, the total number of lines has been fixed at 525 because of a somewhat higher scanning rate employed in this system. 2.4 Interlaced Scanning Although the rate of 24 pictures per second in motion pictures and that of scanning 25 frames per second in television pictures is enough to cause an illusion of continuity, they are not rapid enough to allow the brightness of one picture or frame to blend smoothly inio the next through the time when the screen is blanked between successive frames. This results in definite flicker of light that is very anncying to the observer when the screen becomes alternately bright and dark. ‘This problem is solved in motion pictures by showing each picture twice, so that 48 views of the scene are shown per second although there are still the same 24 picture frames per second. As a result of the increased blanking rate, flicker is eliminated. Interlaced Scanning In television pictures an effective rate of 50 vertical scans per second is utilized to reduce Micker. This is accomplished by increasing the downward rate of travel of the scanning electron beam, so that every alternate line gets scanned instead of every successive line. Then, when the beam reaches the bottom of picture frame, it quickly returns to the top to scan those lines that were missed in the previous scanning. Thus the total number of lnes are divided into two groups called ‘eids’. Each field 1s scanned alternately. This method of scanning is known as ‘interlaced scanning’ and is illustrated in Fig. 2.3. It reduces flicker to an acceptable level since the area of screen is covered at twice the rate. This is like reading alternate lines of a page from top to bottom once and then going back to read the remaining lines down to the bottom. Inthe 625 line TV system, for successful interlaced scanning, the 625 lines of each frame or picture are divided into sets of 312.5 lines and each set is scanned alternately tocover the entire picture area. To achieve this, the horizontal sweep oscillator is made to work at a frequency of 15625 Hz. (312.5 X 50 =15625) to scan the same number of Ines per frame (15625/25 = 625 lines), but the vertical sweep circuit is run at a frequency of 50 instead of 25 Hz. Note that since the beam is now deflected from top to bottom in half the time and the horizontal oscillator ts still operating at 15625 Hz. only half the total lines, ie. 312.5 (625/2 = 312.5) get scanned during each vertical sweep. Sincethe first field ends ina half line and the second field commences at middle of the line on top of the target plate or screen (see Fig. 2.3), the beam is able to scan the remaining 312.5 alternate lines duringits downward journey. In all then, the beam scans 625 lines (312.5 X 2 = 625) per frame at the same rate of 15625 lines (312.5% 50 = 15625) per second. Therefore, with interlaced scanning the flicker effect 1s eliminated without increasing the speed of scanning, which In turn does not need any increase in the channel bandwidth.TELEVISION PICTURES 15, Beginning of 2nd field Beginning of Beginning of 1st field 33 Ears 315 38 End of 1st field End of 2nd field Fig. 2.3 Prinefple of interlaced seanning. Note that the vertical retrace time has been assumed to be zero. The retrace lines are also omitted for clarity. It may be noted that the frame repetition rate of 25 (rather than 24 as used in motion pictures) was choosen to make the field frequency equal to the power line frequency of 50 Hz. This helps in reducing the undesired effects of hum due to any pick-up from the mains, because then such effects in the picture stay still, instead of drifting up or down on the screen. In the American TV system, a field frequency of 60 was adopted because the supply frequency 1s 60 Hz in USA. This brings the total number of lines scanned per second equal to (525/2) X 60 =15750 lines which is practically the same as in the 625 line system. Scanning Periods ‘The wave shapes of both horizontal and vertical sweep currents are shown in Fig. 2.4. As shown there, the retrace times involved (both horizontal and vertical) are due to physical limitations of practical scanning systems and are not utilized for transmitting or receiving any video signal. The nominal duration of one horizontal line as shown in Fig. 2.4(a) is 64 is (108/ 15625 = 64 ps), out of which the active line period 1s 52 us and remaining 12 us is the line blanking period. The beam returns during this short interval to the extreme left side of the frame to start tracing the next line. Similarly with field frequency set at 50 Hz, the nominal duration of one vertical trace (see Fig. 2.4{b)) is 20 ms (1/50 = 20 ms.). Out of this period of 20 ms, 18.720 ms are spent in bringing the beam from top to bottom and the remaining 1.280 ms istaken by the beam to return back to the top to commence the next cycle. Since horizontal16 MODERN TELEVISION PRACTICE fsass2sne barecurl vps (a) Fig. 2.4(a) Horizontal deflection current. (©) Vertical deflection current. and vertical sweep oscillators operate continuously to achieve the fast sequence of interlaced scanning, 20 horizontal lines (1280 1s/64 Hs = 20 line) get traced during each vertical retrace interval. Thus 40 scanning lines are lost per frame as blanked lines during retrace interval of two fields. This leaves active number of lines, (Na) for scanning the picture details equal to 625 ~ 40 = 585, instead of the 625 lines actually scanned per frame. Scanning Sequence The complete geometry of the standard interlaced scanning pattem is illustrated inFig. 2.5. Note that the lines are numbered in the sequence inwhich these areactually scanned. During the first vertical trace actually 292.5 lines are scanned. The beam starts at A, and sweeps across the frame with uniform velocity to cover all the picture elements in one horizontal line. At the end of this trace the beam retraces rapidly to the left side of the frame, as shown by dashed line in the illustration, to begin the nextaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.TELEVISION CAMERAS 25 be resolved. Any movement of electric charge isa flow of current and thus the electron beam constitutes a very small current which leaves the cathode in the electron gun and scans the target plate. ‘The scanning is done by deflecting the beam with the help of magnetic fields produced by horizontal and vertical coils in the deflection yoke put around the tubes. ‘The beam scans 312.5 lines per field and 50 such fields are scanned per second. Video Signat In tubes employing photoemissive target plates the electron beam deposits some charge on the target plate, which 1s proportional to light intensity variations in the scene being televised. The beam motion ts socontrolled by electric and magnetic fields, that it 1s decelerated before it reaches the target and lands on it with almost zero velocity to avoid any secondary emission. Because of negative acceleration the beam tsmade to move back from the target and on its return journey, which isvery accurately controlled by the focusing and deflection coils, it strikes an electrode which is located very close to the cathode from where it started. The number of electrons in the returning beam will thus vary in accordance with the charge deposited on the target plate. This in turn implies that the current which enters the collecting electrode varies inamplitude and represents brightness variations of the picture. This current is finally made to flow through a resistance and the varying voltage developed across this resistance constitutes the video signal. Fig. 3.1(a) illustrates the essentials of this technique of developing video signal. rai tanist Faceptate Light image Scanning Camera lens, Fig. 2.1fa) Production of video signal Fig. 3.1(b) Production of vides by photocmission. signal by photoconduction. Acamera tube called Image Orthican, that operates on this i.e. photo-emission Principle was developed in 1945 and remained in use for a long time. However, it has now been replaced by vidicon and other similar tubes because these are more efficient, less complex and smaller in size. In camera tubes employing photoconductive cathodes the scanning electron beam causes a flow of current through the photoconductive material. The amplitude26 MODERN TELEVISION PRACTICE of this current varies in accordance with the resistance offered by the surface at different points. Since conductivity of the material varies in accordance with the light, falling on it, the magnitude of current represents brightness variations of the scene. This varying current completes its path under the influence of an applied de voltage through a load resistance connected in serles with the path of current. The instanta- neous voltage developed across the load resistance is the video signal. Figure 3. 1{b) shows a simplified illustration of this method of developing video signal. 3.2 Vidicon Camera Tube The vidicon came into general use in early 50's and gained immediate popularity because of its small size and ease of operation. It functions on the principle of photoconductivity, where the resistance of target material shows a marked decrease when exposed to light. Figure 3.2 illustrates the structural configuration of a typical vidicon, and Fig. 3.3 shows the circuit arrangement for developing camera signal output. As shown, there, the target consists of a thin photo-conductive layer of either selenium or antimony compounds. This is deposited on a transparent conducting film, coated on the inner surface of the faceplate. This conductive coating is knownas signal electrode or plate. Image side of the photolayer, which is in contact with the signal electrode, is connected to de supply through the load resistance R, . The beam that emerges from the clectron gun is focused on the surface of photo conductive layer by combined action of uniform magnetic field of an external coil and electrostatic field of Grid No. 3. Grid No. 4 provides a uniform decelerating field between itself and the photo-conductive layer, so that the electron beam approaches the layer with a low velocity to prevent any secondary emission. Deflection of the beam for scanning the target is obtained by vertical and horizontal deflecting coils, placed around the tube. Charge Image ‘The photolayer has a thickness of about 0.0001 cm, and behaves like an insulator with a resistance of approximately 20M Q when in dark. With light focused on it, the photon energy enables more electrons to go to the conduction band and this reduces its resistivity. When bright light falls on any area of the photo-conductive coating, resistance across the thickness of that portion gets reduced to about 2 MQ. Thus, with an image on the target. each point on the gun side of the photolayer assumes a certain potential with respect to the de supply, depending on its resistance to the signal plate. For example, with a B+ source of 40 V (see Fig. 3.3), an area with high illumination may attain a potential of about + 39 Von the beam side. Similarly dark areas, on account of high resistance of the photolayer may rise to only about + 35 volts. Thus, a pattern of positive potentials appears, on the gun side of the photolayer, producing a charge image, that corresponds to the incident optical image. Storage Action ‘Though light from the scene falls continuously on the target, each element of the photocoating is scanned at intervals equal to the frame time. This results in storage action and the net change in resistance, at any point or element on the photoconduc- tive layer, depends on the time, which elapses between two successive scannings and the intensity of incident light. Since storage time for all points on the target plate isTELEVISION CAMERAS 27 Target connection pelea Alignment coil Grid ne.2 (accel 300 ZZ grid not ULI LLL 0 to 100V Taree SONS iy Y i acre TN Light image. Sloss Tathode,ov tace plate UZZA Beta ne. 2 beam focus) if 275 te 300V Grid nog Focusing coit { decelerator? Horizonte! ond vertical 2759 deflecting coils Fig. 3.2 Vidieon camera tube cross-section Signat plate T=03HA Se =~ beac signal output White REM Black RE70M ‘Scanning beam Electron gun Fig, 3.3. Cireutt for output signal from a Vidicon camera tube same, the net change in resistance of all elementary areas 1s proportional to light intensity variations in the scene being televised.28 MODERN TELEVISION PRACTICE Signal Current ‘As the beam scans the target plate, it encounters different positive potentials on the side of the photolayer that faces the gun. Sufficient number of electrons from the beam are then deposited on the photolayer surface to reduce the potential of each element towards the zero cathode potential. The remaining electrons, not deposited on the target, return back and are not utilized in the vidicon. However, the sudden change inpotentialoneach element, while the beam scans, causes acurrent flowin the signal electrode circuit producing a varying voltage across the load resistance R,. Obviously, the amplitude of current and the consequent output voltage across R, are directly Proportional to light intensity variations on the scene. Note that, since, a large current would cause a higher voltage drop across R,, the output voltage is most negative for white areas. The video signal thus developed across the load resistance 1s very small in amplitude. It is therefore amplified by conventional amplifiers before it leaves the camera unit. Light Transfer Characteristics Vidicon output characteristics are shown in Fig. 3.4. Each curve is for a specific value of ‘dark current’ which is the output with no light. The ‘dark’ current is set by adjusting the target voltage. Sensitivity and dark current both increase as the target voltage is increased. Typical output for the vidicon is 0.4 nA for bright light with a dark current of 0.02 a. Dark current 0.2pA o.01 Signal output —™ .001 oor 8140 10 100 +1000 IMumination on tube face (tt. candies) Fig 3.4. Light transfer characteristics of vidicon, The photoconductive layer has a time lag, which can cause smear witha trail following fast moving objects. The photoconductive lag increases at high target voltages, where the vidicon has its highest sensitivity.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.40 MODERN TELEVISION PRACTICE External conductive coating Inner aquadag ‘conductive’ coating Deflection Deflection yoke Glass envelope Electrost focusing Control grid FS Aluminized Accelerating anode Focusing anode Centering magnets (two) Pincushion error magnets (two) EXT (t8kv) Fig. 4.2. Elements of monochrome picture tube employing electrostatic focussing and electromagnetic defection. draws electrons from the crossover point and brings them to a focus at the viewing screen, The focus anodeis larger in diameter and is operated at a higher potential than the first anode. The resulting ficld configuration between the two anodes is such that the electrons leaving the crossover point at various angles are subjected to both convergent and divergent forces as they move along the axis of the tube. This in turn alters the path of electrons in such a way that they meet at another point on the axis. The electrode voltages are so chosen or the electric field is so varied that the second point where all the electrons get focused is the screen of the picture tube. Beam Velocity Inorder to give the electron stream suflicient velocity toreach thescreen materialPICTURE TUBES 41 with proper energy to cause it tofluoresce, another anode called final anode ts included within the tube. This is a conductive coating with colloidal graphite on the inside of wide bell of the tube. This coating, called aquadag, usually extends from almost half- way into the narrow neck to within 3 cm of the fluorescent screen as shown in Fig. 4.2. It 4 connected through a specially provided pin at the top or side of the glass bell to avery high potential of over 15 kV. The exact voltage depends on the tube size and is about 16 kV for a 51 cm monochrome tube. The electrons that get accelerated under the influence of this high voltage anode area, attain very high velocities before hitting the screen. Most of these electrons go straight and are not collected by the positive coating because its circular structure provides a symmetrical acceleratingfield around all sides of the beam. The kinetic energy gained by the electrons while in motion is delivered to the atoms of phosphor coating when the beam hits the screen. This energy is actually gained by the outer valence electrons of the atoms and they move to higher energy levels. While returning to their original levels they give out energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation, the frequency of which lies in the spectral region and is thus perceived by the eye as spots of light of varying intensity depending on the strength of electron beam bombarding the screen. Because of very high velocities of the electrons which hit the screen, secondary emission takes place. If these secondary emitted electrons are not collected, a negative space charge gets formed near the screen which prevents the primary beam from arriving at the screen. The conductive coating being at a very high positive potential collects the secondary emitted electrons and thus serves the dual purpose of increasing the beam velocity and removing unwanted secondary electrons. The path of electron current flow is thus from cathode to screen, to the conductive coating through the secondary emitted electrons and back to the cathode through the high voltage supply. A typical value of beam current is about 100A with 16 kV applied at the aquadag coating. High Voltage Focusing In some picture tube designs another grid (G,) is provided beyond G, and is connected to the high voltage (EHT) coating that extends on the inside of tube neck. For proper focusing, G, is then applied a higher voltage, close to one-fifth of that at G, The focus control i.e. voltage at G, is set for the sharpest scanning lines in the raster and small details in the picture. Such a focusing configuration is called high voltage focusing and preferred in some colour picture tube designs. Low Voltage Focusing The focusing method shown in Fig. 4.3 is called ‘low voltage focusing’ because it needs much less voltages at the focusing electrodes. Here, the focus grid (G,) is a large cylinder set between two identical smaller cylinders which are connected together and maintained at the final anode potential ic. EHT. These cylinders are usually referred to as G, as labelled in the figure. The screen grid (G,) is maintained at a low fixed potential of the order of 100 to 150 volts. The focus grid (G,) voltage is also kept low and made varlable between 0 to 400 volts. As a result the electron beam enters a decelerating field as it approaches G,, which converges all the electrons to the central axis. This focus system is called ‘unipotential lens’ and used in all present day black and white picture tubes.42 MODERN TELEVISION PRACTICE Fig. 4.3 Low voltage focus method for second electron Jens using unipotential lens technique. Electronics focusing is preferred over magnetic focusing in picture tubes because it is not effected much by changes in line voltage and needs no ton-spot correction. 4.3 Beam Deflection The electron beam is givena very high velocity by the EHT to deliver enough energy to atoms of the phosphor coating. For electrostatic deflection it would then be necessary to generate very high voltage because the beam electrons remain under the influence of deflecting field for a very short time. It is very difficult to génerate high voltage at the deflectiori frequencies. On the other hand with magnetic deflection, it isa large current that would be necessary to achieve the same deflection to cover the entire sereen. Since it is more convenient to generate large sawtooth currents than high sawtooth voltages at higher frequencies, all picture tubes employ electromagnetic deflection. Deflection Yoke ‘The physical placement of two pairs of coils around the neck of picture tube is illustrated in Fig. 4.4(a). In combination the vertical and horizontal deflection coils are called the* Yoke’. This yoke is fixed outside and close to the neck of the tube just before it begins to flare out (see Fig. 4.5(a)). ‘The magnetic field of the coils reacts with the electron beam to cause its deflection. The horizontal deflection coll which sweeps the beam across the face of the tube from left to right is split into two sections and mounted above and below the beam. axls. The vertical deflection coil is also split into two sections and placed left and right, on the neck in order to pull the beam gradually downwards the horizontal coils sweepaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.PICTURE TUBES 49 ma Peak white 16 12 Cut-off bias (black) YGyk mo =80 -60 -40 -20 0 ' bep.c. bias-r Video signal Fig 4.7. Transfer characteristics of a picture tube. Note the alignment of blanking level with cut-off bias. 4+ Nee Imer conductive coating Video signal Contrast control +600 trom line eutput stage Fig. 4.8, Control circuitry around a black and white picture tube.50 MODERN TELEVISION PRACTICE anode (inner conductive coating) is also obtained from the line output circuit by Tectifying and filtering 15625 Hz retrace pulses induced inthe high voltage winding on the line-output transformer. It is usually 16 kV for 51 cm and 12 kV for 36 cm tubes. 4.7 Picture Tube Specifications The size of a picture tube ranges from the smallest with about 2.5 cm (1") screen measured diagonally to large direct view witha diagonal screen of 76cm (30") or more. ‘The 2.5 cm tubeis for the viewfinder on portable TV cameras. The most commonly used tubes for B & W TV sets are of 51 cm and 36 cm screen sizes. The type designation of the picture tube starts with a number specifying screen diagonal in millimeters (mm). For example, the tube 340-AMP, has a diagonal screen measurement of 34 mm (14”). At the end of type designationis a ‘P’ number that specifies screen phosphor. The phosphor number Is P, for B & W picture tubes. Typical application data for the two commonly used monochrome picture tubes is as under : ‘Type designation 340 AMP, (14") 500 AMP,(20") Filament veltage 12v 63 Filament current 75 mA 230 mA Screen Grid (G,) voltage 100V 150 Focus grid (G,) voltage 0-400 v 0-400 V EHT & (C,) voltage 12 le kv Cut-off voltage 35-55 V 36-65 V Gun type unipotential unipotential Cathode current 100 Wa 100 pA Deflection angle 90° nae Emission build-up time 3-5 sec 3-6 sec. ‘Spark Gap Protection On account of close spacing between various electrodes and the use of very high voltages, arcing or flashover can occur in the electron gun especially at the control grid. This arcing causes voltage surges. which result in damage to associated circuit components. Therefore, for protection of the receiver circuit, dueto any arcing, spark- aps are provided as shunt paths for the surge currents. In older tubes metallic spark gaps were used. Later, neon bulbs came into use in some tubes. However, in recent tube designs spark-gaps are moulded into the tube base socket. In another type it is an integral part of adisc capacitor. Yet another type consists of two electrodes moulded into a ceramic moulding. Spark-gaps are provided for all the tube elements except heaters. Instant-on Operation All receivers having been converted to solid-state, the picture tube remains the only vacuum tube and is hence, the major cause of waiting for warm-up to see the picture. Therefore, all present day tubes have quick heating cathodes. Special materialsare used to provide good heat conduction from the heater to the cathode yet. maintaining required electric insulation. The picture appears in about 3-5 seconds on switching on the receiver.PICTURE TUBES 51 Picture Tube Handling The very high vacuum in a modern picture tube means that there is a danger of implosion if the tube is struck with a hard object or if it is made to rest on its neck. Because of the large volume of the tube, there is avery high pressure on the glassshell. In case it breaks the resulting implosion will often cause tube fragments to fly in all directions at high speed. This may cause severe injury to the persons hit by the tube fragments, Manufacturers recommend the use of protective goggles and gloves whenever picture tubes are handled and such precautions should be observed. The tube neck is particularly fragile and therefore it must be handled with care. 4.8 Monochrome Picture Tube Troubles Picture tubes rarely need attention but the associated control circuitry can cause many faults. Trouble shooting of common causes of faults associated with the picture tube are discussed. () No Brightness There are a number of things that can cause complete loss of brightness. The EHT circuit can be defective or focus and screen grid voltages may be absent due to associated component faults. Voltage measurements (indirect for EHT) and continuity checks of circuit components will enable tracing the source of fault. The picture tube cathode or grid circuit can also be defective. A burnt out filament is rare in modern tubes. A cathode to grid short or a cathode to heater short can also cause loss of brightness. An open brightness potentiometer and incorrect dc voltage at G, can also be the causes of no brightness. (2) Low Brightness ‘While checking for low brightness ensure that the screen grid voltage Is not low because even at maximum settings of brightness and contrast controls average brightness remains low if the screen grid (G,) voltage Is low. Locate the fault and restore G, voltage at the recommended value. If the picture is very slow to appear and is weak with poor contrast, the picture tube may be gassy or Its cathode emission low. If heater voltage is normal try boosting it a bit with an external filament step-up transformer. A gassy tube has to be replaced. (3) Excessive Brightness If the raster is full bright at all times and variation of brightness control has no effect, there is a short in the cathode to control grid bias circuit. It could be a shorted control grid which is normally maintained at a de potential to provide negative bias with respect tocathode. Excessive brightness can also be due to excessive screen grid voltage. (4) Poor Focus It can be due to low cathode current and incorrect electrode voltages. Voltage measurements will enable trace the cause of poor focus. (5) Dark Centre Low EHT voltagecan result ina relatively darkarea in the centre of raster. Ensure that EHT is above the minimum specified voltage.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.54 MODERN TELEVISION PRACTICE The P.LL. tube is more efficient. i.e. has higher electron transparency andneeds fewer convergence adjustments on account of the in-line gun structure, It is manufactured with minor variations under different trade names in several countries and is the most used tube in present day colour receivers. Colour picture tube Fig. 4.10 A typical circuit around a PLL. colour picture tube. Purity and Static Convergence Modem P.I.L. tubes are manufactured with such precision that hardly any purity and static convergence adjustments are necessary. However, to correct forsmall errors due to mounting tolerances and stray magnetic Nelds multipole permanentPICTURE TUBES 55 magnet units are provided. Such a unit is mounted on the neck of the tube next to the deflection yoke as shown in Fig. 4.9(c). The various magnets are suitably oriented toachteve colour purity, static convergence and straightness of horizontal raster lines. Application Circuit All colour receivers manufactured in India employ P.1.L. picture tube. This tube uses high voltage focusing technique and thus needs about 500 volts at the screen grid and over 5 kV at the focusing anode. A typical application circuit with a P.I.L. tube 1s shown in Fig. 4.10. The heater voltage (6.3 V ac] is connected to one of the heater pins through current limiting resistance R, from a part of the winding on the line output transformer. The control grid is grounded and similarly the other heater pin is earthed to enable flow of heater current. Since the cathodes receive about 120 V de from the collectors of corresponding video amplifiers, the control grids remain negatively biased as necessary. Thescreen grid is givena positive voltage of over 500 V through a voltage divider formed by resistors R, to R,. The screen voltage 1s adjusted by potentiometer R, to obtain optimum brightness. Similarly, the focusing anode receives nearly 5 kV potential though the focussing pack consisting of resistors R,, pot R,, and R,,. The pot R,, isadjusted to obtain sharp overall focus. The final anode is fed nearly 25 kV through a special socket that fits over the pin located on the glass bulb. Both the screen and final anode voltages are obtained by rectifying and filtering 15625 Hz pulses that occur in the line-output transformer, Cathode drive of the guns is now a standard practice to modulate the electron beams. As such, amplified R, G, and B video signals are fed at the three cathodes via beam current limiting resistors R,, R, and R,. Six spark-gaps are provided between cathodes, G,, G,, focussing anode and ground. If any arcing due to accumulation of charge occurs between the tube electrodes, the spark gaps provide ground return path to the spark energy thus preventing any damage to transistors in the associated cireuitry. (3) Trintron Cathodes-in-line Tube ‘The trintron colour picture tube was developed by SONY Corporation of Japan. It is stmilar to the P.LL. tube but employs a single gun having three-in-line cathodes. The three phosphor triads are arranged in vertical stripes as in the PIL. tube and so are the slots in the mask. The gun structure and focusing details oftrintron are shown in Fig. 4.11. The three beams are bent by a untpotential electrostatic lens system to provide a very sharply focused spot on the screen. Since the beams have a common focus plane, a sharper image is obtained. This simplifies convergence problems and hardly any adjustments are necessary. The newer version of trintron provides a high quality picture with very good resolution over large screen display tubes. Since the tube employs low voltage focusing as explained in section 4.2. relatively very low voltages are needed on the screen grid and focusing anode. These are fed from a 200 V de-line. The EHT of about 23 kV for the final anode is obtained from the line output stage as for other types of picture tubes *' Trintron’ iscovered by SONY patents. and till now used only in SONY television receivers. 2 very Tange number of SONY colour TV sets imported by Individuals are In use in India56 MODERN TELEVISION PRACTICE Tube neck NX fa) —— 7 Prxeapnor | convergence plates sgreea te) Fig. 4.11. Gun structure and focusing detalls of a trintron colour picture tube. Grey scale Tracking It may be recalled that red, green and blue lights must combine in definite Proportions to produce white light. The three phosphors have different efficiencies. ‘Also the three guns may not have identical Ip /Vgk characteristics and cut-off points. Therefore, it becomes necessary to incorporate suitable adjustments such that monochrome information is reproduced correctly (with no colour tint) for all settings of the contrast control. In practice, this amounts to two distinct steps : () To bring cut-off points of the guns in coincidence, the three cut-off controlaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.58 MODERN TELEVISION PRACTICE 4.10 Common Faults in Colour Picture Tubes Some common faultsin colour picture tubes and associated circuitry and their causes are as under : (2) NoBrightness : There are a number of things ina television recetver that can cause complete loss of brightness. For example, the EHT section can be defective or focus and screen voltages may be absent due to defective feed potentiometers. The picture tube grid or cathode circuit can also be defective. A burnt out filament is rare in modern tubes. A cathode to grid short or a cathode to heater short can also cause loss of brightness, (2) Low Brightness, Contrast Control Not Effective : If the picture is very slow to appear and is weak with very poor contrast. the picture tube may be gassy or its cathode emission very low. The emission can be increased by using a step-up filament transformer commonly called a ‘booster’. If it is confirmed that the tube is gassy, its replacement is the only remedy. (3) Excesstve Brightness : If the raster is full bright at all times and variation of brightness control has no effect, there is a short in the cathode to control grid bias circuit. It could be a shortened control grid which is normally maintained at a negative potential with respect to cathode. It can also be due to too much increase in screen grid voltage or an open control grid. (4) Broad Dark Horizontal Bars on the Picture: This indicates short between the picture tube heater and cathodes. The hum bars are due to the 50 Hz filament supply. An isolation transformer in the heater circuit can remedy the trouble. (5) Large Fixed Patches of colour on the Raster : This is usually an indication that the picture tube or its mounting components have become magnetized. The ADG cireuit can be defective or if it happens to be a stiff case of magnetizing, an external degaussing coil should be used to demagnetize the effected mountings and parts. (6) Only Two Colours are Avattable : This can be due to third gun being defective or failure of corresponding colour drive amplifier on the colour video drive board. (71 Only one Colour ts Weak : This could be due to poor emission from corresponding cathode or defect in the associated gun. This fault is rare, and weak colour could be due to mal-functioning of the colour drive amplifier. (8) Colour-tint in the Picture as Brightness Control is Varied : The reason could be poor grey scale tracking. Readjusting colour cut-off controls and drive controls associated with the colour driver amplifiers will remedy this fault.10. PICTURE TUBES 59 Explain with a suitable sketch how electrons emitted at the cathode of a monochrome picture tube are focused, accelerated and deflected to producea rasteron the screen. How/s unipotential focusing different from the high voltage focusing technique ? Why ts a medium persistence phosphor preferred for picture tube screens? Why ts an aluminized coating provided on the phosphor screen ? What doyou understand by a 51 cm picture tube ? Why isit necessary to employ implosion protection in picture tubes ? ‘What is meant by deflection angle of the pleture tube ? What is the advantage of providing a large deflection angle yoke ? Explain the use of ring magnets mounted at the back of yoke. Draw the etreutt of picture tube stage of a B & W receiver and explain all adjustments that may be necessary to obiain a well defined and centered picture on the screen. What {a the function of contrast control ? List common faults that can occur in the B & W picture tube and the discrete efreuttry around it. Give remedies for each fault. Deseribe constructional, focusing and beam landing techniques employed in a P.I.L. colour picture tube. Explain the need for pincushion distortion correction and the method employed to obtain 2 distortion free raster. What fs the function of purity magnets ? What doyou understand by degaussing and why is it necessary ? Describe with a typical circult how degaussing is affected each time the receiver is switched on. What is meant by grey scale tracking ? Explain its need and method of obtaining a tint free picture while receiving B & W_ tansmission. Enumerate common faults that can occur in a colour picture duc to picture tube and associated external cireuttry. In each case list possible causes and methods of rectifying the fault.5 COMPOSITE VIDEO SIGNAL INTRODUCTION In monochrome television the composite video signal consists of camera signal corresponding to light variations in the picture, blanking pulses to make the retrace invisible and synchronizing (sync) pulses to keep scanning at the receiver in step with that in the camera at the transmitting end. A horizontal synchronizing (sync) pulse is needed at the end of each active line period whereas a vertical sync pulse is required after each field of scanning. The amplitude of both horizontal and vertical sync pulses is kept the same to obtain higher efficiency of picture signal transmission but their duration (width) ts chosen to be different for separating them at the receiver. Since syne pulses are needed consecutively and not simultaneously with the picture signal, these are sent on a time division basis and thus form a part of the composite video signal. In colour TV the video signal has additional information about colours in the scene and colour sync (burst) to synchronize colour reproduction in the received picture. Both, the colour (chroma) signal and colour burst are contained within the same channel width. 8.1 Video Signal Dimensions Figure 5.1 shows composite video signal details of three different lines each corre- sponding to a different brightness level of the black and white scene. As illustrated there, the video signal is constrained to vary between certain amplitude limits. The level of video signal when the picture detail being transmitted corresponds to maximum whiteness to be handled, is referred to as peak white level. This is fixed at 10to 12.5 percent of the maximumvalue of the signal while the black level corresponds to approximately 72 percent. The sync pulses are added at 75 percent level called the blanking level. The difference between the black level and blanking level 1s known as ‘pedestal’. However, in actual practice, these two levels, being very close, tend to merge with each other as shownin the figure. Thus the picture information may vary between 10 percent to about 75 percent of the composite video signal depending on relative brightness of the picture at any instant. The darker the picture the higher will be the voltage within those limits. In order to minimize noise effects, the lowest 10 percent of voltage range (whiter than white range) is not used. This also ensures enough margin for excessive bright spots to be accommodated without causing amplitude distortion at the modulator. At the receiver the picture tube is so biased that a received video voltage corresponding to about 10 percent modulation yields complete whiteness at thataa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.(06 MODERN TELEVISION PRACTICE pulses and they do not appear one above the other but occur at half-line intervals with respect to each other. However, a detailed examination of the pulse trains in the two fields would show that horizontal syne pulses continue to occur exactly at 64 us intervals (except during the vertical sync pulse periods) throughout the scanning period from frame to frame and the apparent shift of 32 ys is only due to the alignment of vertical sync instances tn the figure. 623 624 625 Lines},2and3rd ie tata aie ke 392 abe rs apes Vertical pulse t-— interval + Vertical blanking interval (a) End of first tield Beginning of second field | aia] 31) 3 os bw Woh Hoty, 135,214, 35 —rf— 316 te 380 25H L 2Line perjod=l 20x64p5 = 1280HS) __ (18042) (b) 1 idem Fig. 5.4 Composite video waveforms showing horizontal and basic vertical syne pulses at the end of fal second (even! field, (b) first (odd) field. Note the width of horvontal blanking intervals and syne pulses are exaggerated. The horizontal sync information is extracted from the sync pulse train by differ- entiation {.e. by passing the pulse train through a high-pass filter. Indeed pulses corresponding to the difierentiated leading edges of sync pulses are used to synchro- nise the horizontal scanning oscillator. This brings out an obvious shortcoming of the waveforms shown in Fig. 5.4. The horizontal sync pulses are available both during the active and blanked line periods but there are no sync pulses (leading edges) available during the 2.5 line vertical sync period. Thus the horizontal sweep oscillator that operates at 15625 Hz, would tend to step out of synchronizm during each vertical sync period. The situation after an odd field is even worse. As shown in Fig. 5.4, the vertical blanking period at the end of an odd field begins midway through a horizontal line. Consequently, looking further along this waveform, we see that leading edge of the vertical sync pulse comes at the wrong time to provide synchronization for theCOMPOSITE VIDEO SIGNAL 67 horizontal oscillator. Therefore, it becomes necessary to cut slots in the vertical sync pulse at half-line-intervals to provide horizontal sync pulses at the correct instances both after evenand odd fields. The technique is to take the video signal amplitude back to the blanking level 4.7 jis before the line pulses are needed. The waveform is then returned back to the maximum level at the moment the line sweep circuit needs syn- chronization. Thus five narrow slots of 4.7 us width get formed tn each vertical sync pulse at intervals of 32 us. The trailing but rising edges of these pulses are actually used to trigger the horizontal oscillator. The resulting waveforms together with ine numbers and the differentiated output of both the fleld trains is illustrated in Fig. 5.5. This insertion of short pulses is known as notching or serration of the broad field pulses. End of 2nd tietd fF 623 626 pains wpe alle el 2, 623 614 625 1 “ 5 8 (a) End of 1st field atte 312 he 313 316 he 115 -ole- ate of 31 a2 33 Ne 315 316 a7 3B (b) Fig 5.5 _Diflerentiating waveforms (a) pulses at the end of even (2nd) field and the corresponding ‘output of the differentiator (H.P.F.) (b] pulses at the end of odd (Ist) field and the corresponding output of the differentiator (H.P.F.) Note, the differentiated pulses Iine numbers are the only ones needed at the end of cach field.68 MODERN TELEVISION PRACTICE Note that though the vertical pulse has been broken to yield horizontal syne pulses, the effect on the vertical pulse is substantially unchanged. It still remains above the blanking voltage level all of the time it is acting. The pulse width is still much wider than the horizontal pulse width and thuscan be easily separated at the receiver. Returning to Fig. 5.5, it is seen that each horizontal sync pulse yields a positive spiked output from its leading edge and a negative spiked pulse from its trailing edge. Time- constant of the differentiating circuit is so chosen, that by the time a trailing edge arrives, the pulse due to the leading edge has just about decayed. The negattve-going triggering pulses may be removed with a diode since only the positive going pulses are effective in locking the horizontal oscillator. However, the pulses actually utilized are the ones that occur sequentially at 64 us intervals. Such pulses are marked with ine numbers for both the fields. Note that during the intervals of serrated vertical pulse trains, alternate vertical spikes are utilized. The pulses not used in one field are the ones utilized during the second field. ‘This happens because of the half-time difference at the commencement of each field and the fact that notched vertical sync pulses occur at intervals of 32 ys anti not 64 us required by the horizontal sweep oscillator. The pulses that come at a time when they cannot trigger the oscillator are ignored. Thus, the requirement of keeping the horizontal sweep circuit locked despite insertion of vertical sync pulses is realized. In order to separate vertical sync pulses, the pulse train is also passed through an integrating circuit to develop composite pulses for synchronizing the vertical sweep (deflection) oscillator in the receiver. The integrating circuit s essentially a low-pass RC. filter, the time-constant of which ts so chosen that the short horz sync pulses produce very little output while the broad vertical pulse though serrated builds a relatively large voltage across the output of integrating capacitor. However, the built up voltage differs for each field. The reason is not difficult to find. At the beginning offirst field (odd field) the last horz sync pulse corresponding to the beginning of 625th Ine fs separated from the 1st vertical pulse by full one line and any voltage developed across the filter capacitor will have enough time to return to zero before the arrival of the first vertical pulse, and thus the filter output voltage builds up from zero in response to the five successive broad vertical sync pulses. The voltage builds up because the capacitor has more time to charge and only 4.7 ps to discharge. The situation, however, is not the same for the beginning of the 2nd (even) field. Here the last horizontal pulse corresponding to the beginning of 313th line is separated from the first vertical pulse by only half-a-line. The voltage developed across the vertical filter will thus not have enough time to reach zero before the arrival of the first vertical pulse, which means that the voltage build-up does not start from zero, as in the case of the first eld. The residual voltage on account of the half-line discrepancy gets added to the voltage developed on account of the broad veitical pulses and thus the voltage developed across the filter capacitor is somewhat higher at each instant as compared to the voltage developed at the beginning of firsi-feld. The result of this would be that in case of second field, the oscillator will get triggered a fraction of a second too soon as compared to the first field. While the actual time difference between two consecutive triggerings will be quite short but it 1s sufficient to upset the very important requirement of interlaced scanning.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.78 MODERN TELEVISION PRACTICE in the form of stripes or strips as chosen above for explaining colour signal generation. As the colour area decreases, the colour video frequency increases and can be quite high for very fine colour details in the picture. However, the frequency range beyond about 1.5 MHz ts of noconsequence because of the limitation of human eye to perceive very fine colour details while viewing the scene from a normal distance. Thus at the transmitting end the bandwidth of colour signals is restricted to 1.5 MHz. in compari- son with the luminance signal which ts allowed a frequency range upto 5 MHz. 6.4 Luminance Signal (¥) As defined in section 2.6, luminance or brightness Is a measure of light intensity as perceived by the eye. However, different colours look more or less bright even when equally illuminated. This 1s due to difference in the response of eye to different colours as depicted in Fig. 6.4 by the relative luminosity curve. Notice that sensitivity of the ivity of the eye 025 Relative sensi am 350 400 450. S00 $50. G00 SD 7OG780 Violet Indigo Blue Green yellow Orange Red Wavelength in nanometers §=———a» Fig. 6.4 Approximate relative luminosity (brightness) response of the human eye to various colours. human eye Is greatest for green and decreases towards red and blue ends of the visible spectrum of light. Thus the luminance response indicates how any colour would look ina black and white reproduction. For example, a dark red colour willappear a deep grey, yellow as very bright and blue as grey when reproduced on a black and white receiver. Colour plate 2 shows how a colour bar pattern appears on both colour and monochrome receivers. "Y Signal Matrix In a colour camera, the luminance or 'Y" signal is formed by adding V,. V, and V,, in the following proportions :COLOUR SIGNAL GENERATION AND ENCODING 79 Vy = 0.30V, + 0.59 V, + 0.11 V, Dropping ‘V' as is usually done - Y = 0.30 R + 0.59G + 0.118 volts. Note that these percentages correspond to relative brightness sensitivity of the eye(see Fig. 6.4) to the three primary colours. The matrix for obtaining Y Is shown in Fig. 6.5. ‘The values of R,. R,, R,and R, are so chosen that the three colour voltages add up in the ratios of 0.3R : 0.59G : 0.11B to yield Y = 1. Fig. 6.5. Resistance matrix for obtaining Y and circuit blocks for deriving colour-diflerence signals. When R=G =B= IV i.e. for bright white, ¥ = 0.30 (1) + 0.59 (1) + 0.11 (1) =IV. Similarly when R= OV Le. for darkness, Y = 0.3 (0) + 0.59 (0) + 0.11 (0) = OV. Thus the magnitude of ¥ varies from 100% (IV) to zero as light intensity changes from maximum bright to darkness. At reduced light levels the amplitude of Y decreases accordingly. For example, at 50% brightness i.e. at R = G = B = 0.5V, ¥ will become 0.3 (0.5) + 0.59 (0.5) +0.11 (0.5) =0.5V. Amonochrome camera will also develop the same magnitudes of Y under these levels of Jlumination. Next consider a coloured object, say a bar that is painted red and ts fully illuminated. For this, the camera on scanning it will develop the luminance signal Y =0.30 (1) + 0.59 (0) +0.11 (0) = 0.3V. This is so because for red, there is no output from green and blue pick-up tubes. A monochrome camera on scanning the bar will also develop the same output voltage because red appears 30 percent as bright when compared with white. As illumination on the bar is varied from maximum bright to darkness, the magnitude of R varies from1V to OV, thus changing Y from 0.3V to OV.(99 MODERN TELEVISION PRACTICE SCANNING —> Fig. 6.6. Y signal and colour-difference signals formation for the colour ‘bar pattem having white, primary and complementary colours.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.‘COLOUR SIGNAL GENERATION AND ENCODING 89 Thus (R-Y) = 0 and (B-Y) = 0 Itisthen obvious that colour-difference signals disappear for whites in the picture and the only signal that gets transmitted is the Y signal. Hence, there is no interference from colour-difference signals in the reproduction of black and white parts of the picture. (i) The colour-difference signals are smaller in amplitude as compared to both colour (R, G, B) and luminance (¥) signals. This makes their transmission and later processing at the receiver much easier. (i) The colour-difference signals do not need a large bandwidth as necessary for the Y signal, This simplifies the design of chroma section in the receiver. 6.7 Encoding of Colour-Difference Signals The problem of transmitting colour-difference signals within the same channel width tomeet compatibility requirements has been solved by combining colour information into a single variable by quadrature modulation and by employing what is known as frequency interleaving. Quadrature Modulation ; The combining of (B-Y) and (R-Y) into a single function is accomplished by creating two carrier frequencies from the same colour subcarrier frequency without any change in its numerical value. As shown in Fig. 6.7 (a), two separate modulators are used, one for (B-Y) and the other for (R-Y). The carrier (Rey) Balanced modulator (RY) Signat fseug0" Phase shifting network ‘Sub-carri oscillator lel = Jt avi crvi? =1 (R-¥) (B-Y) Signal 6 ston! oy (a) (b) Fig 6.7 Encoding of colour-difference s{gnals (a) block diagram of the quadrature modulator () vectorial addition of the two modulation products to obtain chrominance ‘C’ signal. frequency ts generated by a crystal oscillator and fed to the (B-Y) modulator, However, before feeding it to the (R-¥) modulator, it is given a relative phase shift of 90°. Thus. the colour subcarrier fed to (B-¥) modulator can be termed as f, 70° and that to (R-Y) modulator as f,490°. The two carrier frequencies thus cbtained are said to be84 MODERN TELEVISION PRACTICE -Ja}17= punos Jo wopeD9] at antasq0 os|y “esa, sub ef reudhs 4 Jo opraydure ayy asoym UogTat & UF PoyeOO} 5} [wUsIS Buyawsyay fousnbary g'9 “Ty ‘BUIOIYD SY) FEY) AON “speUT}s .D, puw x, jo‘COLOUR SIGNAL GENERATION AND ENCODING 85 in quadrature (90° out of phase) and the method of modulation termed as quadrature modulation. Balanced modulators are used to suppress the two carrier components. It is necessary to do so because their amplitudes are large compared with side-band products and if not suppressed will cause severe interference to the Y signal when combined with it. The two carrier suppressed modulation products are combined to obtain a resultant phasor 'C’(see Fig. 6.7(b)) called the chrominance or chroma signal. It is then frequency interleaved with the Y signal to obtain composite colour signal. Prequeney Interleaving The camera beam scans the picture at the line frequency rate of 15625 Hz. Because of this, the video frequencies generated on scanning any scene are multiples of this frequency. Therefore, the Y signal energy that is allowed a band width of 5 MHz 1s located in bundles or clusters with gaps in-between them as illustrated in Fig. 6. This suggests that the available vacant space can be occupied by another signal without any mutual interference. It is here where the chrominance signal is_accom- modated. The colour subcarrier frequency is so chosen that its sideband frequencies fall exactly mid-way between harmonics of the line frequency. This requires that the colour subcarrier must be an odd multiple of half-the-line frequency. With this and other considerations like (i) locating the chroma signal near higher end of the Y signal, (i) dot pattern suppression and (iii) effect of line-by-line switching of the (R-Y) signal: the frequency of subcarrier in the PAL colour system has been fixed at f= F, x (284 — 1/4) + F,/2 = 4.43361875 MHz where F, = 15625 Hz and F, = 50 Hz. This technique of combining two distinct signals within the same band width (see Fig. 6.8) is called frequency interleaving. The combined signal is modulated with the station picture carrier and transmitted. At the receiver, after demodulation, the two signals are separated and processed to obtain Y and colour-difference signals. Colour Burst Since the two carrier components are suppressed in the balanced quadrature modulator (sce Fig. 6.7 (a)) it is necessary to regenerate them at the receiver for demodulation (detection). It is absolutely essential that the colour subcarrier gener- ated in the receiver has exattly the same frequency and phase as that employed at the transmitting end. For this, 8 to 10 cycles of the colour subcarrier oscillator output at the encoder are transmitted along with other sync pulses. This sample of the colour subcarrier called ‘colour burst’, is placed at the back porch ofeach horizontal blanking pulse pedestal. It is separated at the receiver and used to lock the subcarrier oscillator with that at the transmitting end. The colour burst does not interfere with horizontal syne pulses because it follows them and ts of lower amplitude. 6.8 Formation of Chrominance Signal As shown in Fig, 6.7 (b), the amplitude of ‘C’ and its location depends on magnitude and polarity of the two colour-difference signals. The value of ‘C’ at any instant represents colour saturation. Maximum amplitude corresponds to greatest saturation and zero amplitude means no saturation i.e. white. Similarly ‘6 ‘the phase angle of phasor ‘C’ can have any angle between 0° and 360° depending on the magnitude and polarity of (B-Y) and (R-Y) phasors and thus determines hue of the colour. As obvious the chrominance signal contains full information about hue and saturation of theaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.COLOUR SIGNAL GENERATION AND ENCODING &7 Weighting Factors To prevent over modulation and hence distortion on certain hues, the colour- difference signals are reduced in magnitude before applying them to the quadrature modulator. The scaling factors chosen for this purpose are 0.493 for (B-Y) and 0.877 for (R-Y). This process of reducing their amplitudes is called application of ‘weighting factors’. The scaled down signals are termed U and V in the PAL colour system. Thus U = 0.493 (B-Y) and V = 0.877 (R-Y). The table drawn next ( Table 6.1) gives values of Y, U, VICI and ¢ for the primary and complementary colours. In addition, the location of phasor'C’ as it would appear on the colour circle ts shown in Fig. 6.9. Notice that the complementary colours occupy a location that is just opposite their respec- tive primary hues. TABLE - 6.1 COLOUR Y vu v Tel ‘ White 1 ° ° 0 o Yellow 0.89 - 0.4385, + 0.0965 0.44 167° 0.70 + 0.148 = 0.614 0.63 283" Green 0.59 = 029 = 0.5174 0.88 2an Magenta 0.41 +029 + 0.5174 0.89 61 Red 0.31 = 0.148 + 0614 0.63 103° Blue oat + 0.4385 - 0.0065, 044 ar Black ° ° ° ° o At the receiver after demodulation a matrix having inverse scaling factors 1s employed to restore U and V to their original i.e. (B-Y) and (R-Y) values for correct reproduction of colours. " NOTES ve0.877(R-¥) us0,693(8-Y) MAGENTA, C61") Fig. 69 Location of chrominance signal phasor Con the colour cirele for primary and complementary colours alter application of weighting factors. The relative amplitudes are those of 100% saturated and 100% amplitude slgnala (fullbrightness), Allanglea are measured with reference to +U axis.188 MODERN TELEVISION PRACTICE Cancellation of Phase Errors As explained above the angle of ‘C’ with reference to + (B-Y) determines hue and any shift in it will mean reproduction of a different colour. The ‘C’ signal can suffer a phase shift both at the transmitting end and during transmission path (propagation) causing phase shift errors. The error actually results from the phase shift of colour sideband frequencies with respect to the colour burst phase. The PAL system has a built-in protection against such errors. The quadrature modulator circuitry is so designed that the polarity of (R-Y) modulation product gets reversed (1.e. shifted by 180°) on alternate Ines of scanning. This amounts to inverting the error on alternate Ines. Since the lines are scanned at a very fast rate, the eye on seeing the picture perceives an average value thus cancelling the effect of any phase error. This shifting of (R-Y) phasor on alternate lines is a unique feature of PAL and infact the system derives its name (Phase Alternation by Line] i.e. PAL, from (his mode of transmission. Encoding Cireutt ‘Asimplified block diagram of the PAL encoder is shown in Fig. 6.10. The gamma corrected R, G and B signals obtained from the camera are fed to the matrix circuit, Line ond field blanking and syne pulses Le, sramitter c Harmonic filter From colour camera Vv balances modulator Burst, Gate pulses Subcorrier Fig. 6.10 Simplified diagram of the PAL encoder. (a) block schematic, (b) associated phasor diagram. the output of which is Y, U and V signals, The U and V signals are fed to the quadrature modulator as shown in the figure. The subcarrier oscillator output (f,, 0° } is fedCOLOUR SIGNAL GENERATION AND ENCODING 69 directly to the U modulator but given a phase shift of + 90° on alternate line intervals before feeding to the V modulator. This amounts to reversal of V modulation products by 180° on alternate lines with respect to U modulation products. The phasor locations for two consecutive lines is shown tn Fig. 6,11. V axis Vaxis Burst Vaxis reference Colour U Uaxis -s0° © rst reference Linen Linenot Fig. 6.11 Sequence of modulation |. e. phase reversal of V signal on alternate lines at the encoder. Asan illustration as to how any phase shift error gets cancelled due to reversal of 'V' on alternate lines, observe the location of phasor ‘C’ in Fig. 6.11 on lines N and N+l1. It is +45° for line N and - 45° for line N+1. Assume that a phase error of +5° occurs during transmission. Then C, will move to + (45°+5°) = 50°, while C,,, will assume a location at (- 45° + 5°)=— 40°, both with reference to +U axis. At the receiver another reversal restors the location of V and thus phasor C,,, takes a position that is +40° with respect to +U axis, Such a sequence repeats line after line at a very fast rate. The _ colour seen by the eye is the average of the two and it perceives the location of Cat Seat 45°. Thus any hue change caused by phase error ts cancelled. Referring back to the encoder circuit (Fig. 6.10) the colour burst signal is also fed to the matrix and placed at the back porch of horizontal blanking pulses by a tuning circuit (not shown). The U and V modulation products are fed into the adder, the output of which is the chrominance signal. It is further passed through a harmonic filter to limit the bandwidth of ‘C’ signal to + 1.5 MHz. Y signal obtained at the output of matrix circuit is combined with line and frame pulses and fed to a delay line to maintain time coincidence of Y and C signals. The delayed Y signal is later combined with C signal in an adder circuit to form colourplexed composite video signal. This completes the encoding process. The composite colour signal thus obtained is fed to the transmitter through a video amplifier for modulation with the station channel picture carrier and then radiation via the transmitter antenna network, 6.10 Chrominance Signal For Colour Bar Pattern The formation of chroma signal for transmission of colour-bar pattern is illustrated in Fig. 6.12. The amplitudes of colour-difference signals are as obtained on application of weighting factors. The values shown are for 100% saturated, and 100% magnitude (brightness) colours. As shown in Fig. 6.9 and Table 6.1, the new amplitudes ofaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable 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for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.134 MODERN TELEVISION PRACTICE “Fapeoed Ill WVOas & Jo weIep yor ee Ta yams 21u0342213, 4o,Dujust 13810 soyouw13510 jouyuo> WINS 2AM sseapuEg ‘ouieay> pud sioyduiesp 3H xo) pup sayiduy sasind plaid sognd aur eqn, aumi3id on wubs ATELEVISION SYSTEMS AND STANDARCS 125 8.6 Television Standards As described in previous sections there are three monochrome'TV system in useallover theworld, The 625 line system has a variant that isin use in U.K. Similarly the French system has a variant that is used in Russia. The main characteristics of these system are given next in Table 8.1 TABLE 8.1 Western North & -Eurepe, Middle- South America Particulars East, India & including US, England USSR France most Asian Canada, Mexico countries & Japan Lines per frame 625 525 625 625 “625 Frames per second 25 30 25 25 25 Field frequency (Hz) 50 60 50 50 50 Line frequency (H2) 15,625 15,750 15,625 15,625 15,625 Video bandwidth (MHz) 5or6 4 55 6 6 Channel bandwidth (Mitz) Tors 6 8 8 8 Video modulation Negative Negative Negative Negative Positive Picture modulation aM AM aM AM ™ Sound modulation ™M FM PM FM AM Colour system, PAL NTSC PAL SECAM — SECAM * Recently raised to 4.2 MHz. Colour TV Standards The NTSC colour system has two CCIR designations, M and N, However, the most commonly used is the M version as described in this chapter. The N standards are 625 line 50 field operation while retaining all other characteristics of the 525 line M system. Similarly, SECAM III or SECAM L-CCIR is in use in France and Russia with some variations. ‘The CCIR PAL colour designations that need mention are B, G and I. The B & G standards are most common in Continental Europe, Middle-East and Asian countries, India also adopted B-PAL for transmission of VHF channels. The I-PALthat is compatible to 8 MHz channel bandwidth monochrome standards {s used in UK, Hong-Kong, Ireland and South America. The main features of PALB, G and1 are listed in Table 8.2.190 MODERN TELEVISION PRACTICE TABLE 8.2 CCIR PAL-Colour Designation Characteristics PAL B o 1 Channel bandwidth (MHz) 7 8 8 Luminance (video) bandwidth (MHz) 5 5 55 Frequency difference between video and audio (MHz) +85, 45.5 +60 Vestigial sideband (MHz) 075 0.75 1.25 ‘Scanning lines es 25 625 Line Frequency (Hz) 1s025 15625 15625 Fleld Frequency (H2) 50 50 50 ‘Video Modulation Method AM AM aM (Weg) (Neg) (Neg) ‘Audio Modulation method FM ™M ™ Chrominance subcarrier (f,.) (MHz) 4.433618 4.433618 4.433618 Intermediate frequencies (MHz) O Viston 38.9 38.9 38.9 (i) Sound 33.4 93.4 320 () Chroma 34.47 34.47 34.47 * Note that the only difference between B (PAL) and G (PAL) is channel bandwidth. InG standards a gap of 1 MHz ts provided between adjacent channels to prevent any mutual interference more soin the UNF range. Many countries like West-Germany, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Union of Arab and Singapore use B (PAL) for channel allocations in the VHF band and G (PAL) for UHF channels. India too may decide to opt for G standards while allocating UHF channels, Characteristics of 625-B Monochrome TV System The main characteristics of the 625-B monochrome system adopted by India as recommended by the International Radio consultative committee (CCIR) are as, under : Number of lines per picture {frame} Fleld frequency (fields/sce) Interlace ratio (no. of flelds/plcture) Frame frequency (pletures/sec) Line frequency Aspect ratio. Nominal video bandwidth (Mltz) ‘Channel bandwidth (MHz) ‘Sound carrier relative to vision (picture) carrier (MItz} ‘Sound carrier relative to nearest edge of channel (MIlz) Nearest edge of channel relative to pleture carrier (M112) Fully radiated sidcbandaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.144 MODERN TELEVISION PRACTICE Lower adjacent channel-2 Required channel-3 Higher adjacent channel-4 fep=48.25MHz (Band-1) fep =62.25 MHz oF (56-61 MHz) se tes = eS 383.75 MH fep= 55.25 MHZ fog = 87.75MHz tes #80.75MHz Local ose. frequency =94.5MHz Vestigiat a es sideband \ (correction i 1 e -W2 ! 3 \ Z ' £ \ 3 1. e Sound signal { attenuation Picture IF | 38.9MHz | =26 ee 726 -30 Sound 1F i I Il 1 Unwanted strong 33.6MHz I adjacent channel 1 beat signal Hl 94.15-62.25 36 1 =31,9MHz | -40 a ft 3300«3402C«O3S5 9637 3B 8 t a Trap circuit Trap circuit Fig. 9.5 Overall pictureIF responsecurve ofa receiver tuned to channel 3 (Band-1).The diagram shows disposition of IF frequencies, vestigial sideband correction, sound signal attenuation and locations of unwanted adjacent channel interfer: ‘ing beat frequencies. would lie close to the upper skirt of desired IF response. Similarly, the picture carrier of upper adjacent channel 4, will also beat with the local oscillator to produce another unwanted difference frequency signal of 31.9 MHz (94.15 - 62.25). This is close to the lower skirt of IF response. The trap circuits are designed to attenuate these two adjacent channel interfering frequencies by about 40 db as shown in the figure. It is understood that such interference would occur only if transmitters operating at channels 2 and 4 are located close to the transmitter operating at channel 3. Choice of Frequencies Since the picture and sound carriers in any channel are spaced by 5.5 MHz. itMONOCHROME TELEVISION RECEIVER 145, is natural that corresponding IF frequencies are also located at the same difference. Accordingly, ifthe picture IF is fixed at a certain frequency the sound IF automatically gets fixed ata frequency 5.5 MHz less than the picture IF frequency. Therefore, we shall refer mostly to picture IF frequency. The factors which influence the choice of intermediate frequencies in TV receivers are: (@ Image Rejection Ratio For a desired input signal at 100 MHz the local oscillator frequency is set at 110 MHz if the IF frequency is fixed at 10 MHz. However, for the same input signal frequency, if the IF frequency is chosen to be 40 MHz, the local oscillator must be set to give an output at 140 MHz. This is shown in Fig. 9.6 (a) and (b). In the first case, if another station is operating at 120 MHz, it will also be received with equal strength because the incoming signal will beat with the local oscillator frequency of 110 MHz to develop output at 10 MHz. Similarly, in the second case, a station operating at 180 MHz.will be recetved equally weil because the output circuit of mixer is tuned {o deliver output at 40 MHz, Note that in each case the undesired signal which gets received ts spaced at a gap of twice the IF frequency. and is known as ‘Image Signal’. The image rejection ratio is defined as the output due to desired station divided by output due to image signal. Without the use of an RF amplifier prior to the mixer, there is nothing that can stop the reception of image signal if that 1s present. With RF amplifier, the output due to image signal can be very much reduced or completely eliminated. With lower IF frequency. say 10 MHz, the image frequency at 120 MHz is not very far away from desired frequency of 100 MHz and might pass through the pass-band of RF amplifier though somewhat attenuated. But if the IF frequency ts kept high. as shown in Fig. 9.6(b), image signal frequency is 80 MHz away from the desired signal and has no chance of passing through the RF amplifier. Thus the use of RF amplifier helps in reducing interference due to image signals and a higher IF frequency results in a very high image rejection ratio. Desired signat Desired signal Image signal frequencys 120MHz Input IF out Input 1OMHz te=10MHz fg S140MHZ Lo 71 oe (a) (b) (c) Fig. 9.6 (a) & (6) Tlustration of image signal interference. (c} local oscillator radiation.146, MODERN TELEVISION PRAGTICE By choosing IF to be greater than half the entire band to be covered it ts possible toeliminate image interference. For the lower VHF band (41 to68 MHz) the IF frequency comes to 13 MHz. In the upper VHF band (174 to 230 MHz) desired IF frequency is 28 MHz. In the UHF band (470 to 582 MHz), where the image problem Is most serious, half of the difference of entire band results in the choice of an IF frequency of 56 MH. But thisis higher than the lowest frequency used in the lower VHF band and because of direct pick-up problems in that band, it cannot be used. Therefore, the IF frequency must be less than 41MHz. (Pick-up due to Local Oscillator Radiation from TV Receivers Ifthe output from the local oscillator of a TV receiver gets coupled to the antenna it will get radiated and may cause interference in another receiver, This Is shown in Fig. 9.6(c). Here again advantage lies with higher IF frequency, because with higher IF there is agreater separation between the resonant circuits of local oscillator and RF amplifier circuits. Thus lesser signal is coupled from the local oscillator through the RF amplifier to the antenna circuit and interference due to local oscillator radiation is reduced, (tt Image Frequencies should not lie in the FM Band The FM band fs from 88 MHz to 110 MHz. With IF frequency chosen close to 40 MHz, the image frequencies of the lower VHF band fall between 121 to 148 MHz and thus cannot cause any interference in the FM band. Higher TV channels are much above the FM band. (tv) Interference or Direct Pick-up from Bands Assigned for other Services Amateur and Industrial applications frequency band les between 21 to27 MHz. Ifthe IF frequency ts chosen above 40 MHz. even the second harmonics of this band will not cause any serious direct pick-up problems. (v) Gain Its easter to build amplifiers with large gain at relatively low frequencies. The TV sets manufactured some 40 years back used IF frequency as low as 12 MHz. This was mostly due to limitations of active devices available, and the poor quality of compo- nents marketed at that time. With the rapid strides made by electronics industry during the past four decades, active devices and ICs which can perform very well at high frequencies are now easily available. The quality of components and other techniques have also considerably improved. Thus the gain criterta ts no longer a constraint in choosing higher IF frequencies. The merits of having high IF frequency are thus obvious and this has lead to the choice of IF frequencies close to 40 MHz. In the 625-B system adopted by India and ‘several other countries the recommended IF frequencies are : Picture IF = 38.9 MHz and Sound II 33.4 MHz. It will be of interest to note that sets manufactured in USA have picture IF = 45.75 MHzand sound IF = 41.25 MHz. Inthe British 625 line system, because of channel bandwidth difference, the picture IF = 39.5 MHz and sound IF = 33.5 MHz, IF Amplifiers The block diagram of a modern IF amplifier section is shown in Fig. 9.7. Asaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.148, MODERN TELEVISION PRACTICE ta) (b) Fig. 9.8. SAW filter for IF bandpass characteristics of a ‘TV receiver (a) simplified diagram (b) symbol. transducer is weighted i.e. designed to obtain necessary selectivity for IF bandpass. The output transducer is designed to obtain a broad-band response as Its major functton{s to convert the signal from surface acoustic wave energy back toitselectrical form. Referring back to Fig. 9.7, a short length of coaxial cable feeds tuner output into a wide-band pre-amplifier that preceds the SAW filter. It is necessary to provide this amplifier tocompensate for the large uniform attention of the signal that occurs in the SAW filter. Practically all the gain and selectivity of the recetver is provided by the IF section. The use of SAW filter along with it has very much simplified tedious tuning of several trap circuits that formed part of earlier IF subsystems. Automatic Gain Control (AGC) AGC ctreuit controls gain of RF and IF stage to enable almost constant signal voltage at the output of video detector, despite changes in the signal picked up by the antenna. The change in gain is achieved by shifting the operating point of transistors used in the amplifiers, The operating point is changed by a bias voltage that Is developed in the AGC circuit. Any shift in the operating point changes power gain of the transistor amplifier circuit which in tum results in change of stage gain. Sync level in the composite video signal is fixed irrespective of picture signal details. Hence, sync pulse tops represent truly the signal strength. A peak rectifier 1s used in the AGC circuit to develop a control voltage which 1s proportional to the syne level. The composite video signal fed to the peak rectifier is obtained either from the output of video detector or after one stage of video amplification. The output Is fillered and the de voltage thus obtained fed to the input (bias) circuits of the RF and IF amplifiers to control their gain. Decoupling circuits are used to avoid inter-action between different amplifier stages. AGC is normally not applied to the last IF stageMONOCHROME TELEVISION RECEIVER 149 because at that level the signal strength is quite large and any shift in the initially chosen operating point can cause distortion because of partial operation on the non- Inear portion of the device's characteristics. Since AGC voltage is proportional to the signal strength, even weak RF signals will also develop some control voltage. This when applied to the RF amplifier will tend to reduce its gain, though the stage’should deliver maximum possible gain for weak signals tomaintain high signal to noise ratio. Therefore, the RF amplifier is not fed any AGC voltage till the signal strength attains a certain predetermined level. This 1s achieved by providing a voltage delay circuit in the AGC line. Sucha provision ts known as delayed AGC, The AGC control, as explained above is illustrated in Fig. 9.9 by a block schematic cireuit arrangement. Composite video signal input) 1 IF amplifiers Decoupling network Rectified output ‘acc filter Fig. 9.9 Block diagram of AGC system Video Detector ‘Modulated IF signals after due amplification in the IF section are fed to the video detector. The detector is designed to recover composite video signal and to transform the sound signal to another lower carrier frequency. This is done by rectifying the input signal and filtering out unwanted frequency components. A diode is used, which is suitably polarized to rectily either positive or negative peaks of the input signal. Fig. 9.10 shows a simplified circuit arrangement of a video detector. Note the use of a C filter instead of the usual R-C configuration employed in radio receiver detectors. This ts to avold undue attenuation of the video signal while filtering out carrier components. The circuit bandwidth must extend from 0 Hz to 6 MHz to include sound intercarrier frequency of 5.5 MHz and Its FM sidebands besides the video signal. For this, the detector load includes an inductor to obtain low and nearly constant attenuation over the entire frequency range upto 6 MHz. Zero Hz means direct current which in other words means that detector output must include de level of the demodulated signal. The detector diode polarity is chosen to fit the needs of video amplifier driving the picture tube. Cathode drive at the picture tube is now almost universal, Therefore, polarity of the video signal output from the video amplifier is positive sync. The video amplifier itself is usually an inverting amplifier (emitter flower).150 MODERN TELEVISION PRACTICE 5.5MNZ intercarrier FM sound signal Diode (a) (b) Fig. 9.10 Video detector (a) Last IF amplifier output (modulated IF signal) (b] video detector and sound signal separation circu. Its input then must be of negative sync polarity asshown in Fig. 9.10(b) .Anadvantage of this polarity is that noise pulses that exceed syne peak level can be clipped off by suitably adjusting cut-off level of the amplifier. 9.4 Video Amplifier ‘The primary function of video amplifier is to provide enough gain such that the output video signal attains an amplitude that can drive the picture tube from cut-off for blanking to practically zero grid-cathode voltage for peak white. In peak-to-peak {p-p) values the signal swing may vary from about 30 V for small picture tubes to over 150V for large screen tubes. The de supply voltage to the amplifier must be more than the peak-to-peak swing. For this in large screen receivers a separate rectifier filter circuit fs usually provided where the rectifier is fed 15625 Hz pulses generated in the horizontal (line) output stage instead of ac from the mains transformer. The block diagram of a video amplifier is shown in Fig. 9.11. The video detector output feeds into the emitter follower (buffer stage) through a 38.9 MHz stop filter to prevent entry of IF signal in the video amplifier. The emitter follower that does not invert the signal polarity is usually included to provide isolation and impedance match on either side. It has high input impedance. which allows the video detector to work into a high impedance load. The buffer stage also provides a low source impedance at its output for feeding. AGC and sync separator circuits. This arrangement reduces amplitude distortion that can be caused by heavy load current drain during sync peaks. Amplifier Requirements The relative amplitude and phase relations of frequency components of the video signal must be preserved for producing a high resolution picture. For this, the video amplifier should ideally have a frequency response linear from de {0 Hz.) to the highestMONOCHROME TELEVISION RECEIVER 181 To 5.5MHz sound IF amplifier To Age To syne circuit separator Fig. 9.11 Block diagram of a video. amplifier in a B&W revetver. modulating frequency of 5 MHz, Thisis only possible if the amplifier is dc coupled and provided with both low frequency and high frequency compensating networks. In practice, hawever, a bandwidth close to 4 MHz.is considered quite adequate in black and white receivers. In many small screen receivers ac coupling ts provided to affect economy in amplifier circuit components. The consequent loss of de component results in somewhat incorrect brightness in the reproduced picture but this can be tolerated in B & W pictures. 9.5 Sound Section ‘The sound associated with the picture 1s transmitted as an FM signal with a centre frequency 5.5 MHz above the station picture carrier frequency. The sound signal bandwidth is only about 150 KHz as compared to the large bandwidth of 5 MHz for the picture signal. In very early receivers, this meant very critical tuning of the local oscillator. However, this problem was solved long back in 1947 when the intercarrier sound system came into use. Interearrier Sound Signal As shown in the block diagram of the receiver (see Fig. 9.1) the sound signal is, amplified in the IF section along with the picture signal and then detected as 5.5 MHz beat output between the picture carrier and FM sound signal. This amounts to another heterodyning but with the advantage that this output does not drift from its centre frequency of 5.5 MHz even when local oscillator frequency of the tuner changes to become more or less. The reason for this is that when the local oscillator frequency, drifts, both picture and sound IF frequencies vary by the same value thus maintaining their difference equal to 5.5 MHz (38.9-33.4). Thus. the intercarrier (double hetero- dyned) sound IF signal that now lies around 5.5 MHz ts independent of local oscillator frequency and if the picture appears the sound fs there also.182 MODERN TELEVISION PRACTICE It 4s pertinent to note that the sound IF signal at 33.4 MHz is allowed much less amplification (see Fig. 9.5) as compared to picture IF signal. As a result, the picture carrier serves as a local oscillator to heterodyne with the sound signal. The 5.5 MHz difference between the two carrier frequencies (38.9 MHz- 33.4 Miz =5.5 MHz) is still an FM signal with the original sound modulation but around a much smaller carrier frequency. The tuning with intercarrier sound system can be so far-off that even if the picture isnot good enough to watch, the sound output comesout to be normal. Another interesting aspect of inlercarrier sound system that needs mention Is that loss of picture carrier at the transmitter also results in loss of sound at the receiver because when there is no carrier to beat with the FM sound signal, there can be no intercarrier sound IF signal. This explains why the modulated output at the transmitter is not allowed to become less than about 10% of its maximum amplitude during negative swings of the picture carrier (see Fig. 5.1). The block diagram of the intercarrier sound section of a monochrome receiver is shown in Fig. 9.12 and also earlier in Fig. 9.1. The video detector has the bandwidth needed to includethe 5.5 MHzFM sound signal. The signal s separated by a 5.5 MHz 5.SMHz 5.SMH? 1 Loudspeaker FM detector limiter Inter carrier ‘Volume sound IF control Trap cirewit Video detector Amplified To IF signal video amplitier Fig. 9.12 Block diagram of the sound section of a monochrome receiver. trap circuit that is located in the video detector or emitter follower output circuit (see Fig. 9.11). In colour receivers, a separate detector is used to take-off the sound signal toprevent any objectionable beat output between the 5.5 MHz sound carried and 4.43 MHz chroma subcarrier. Generally, one IF amplifier stage is enough for amplifying the sound IF signal. This tuned amplifieris known as sound IF amplifier. The FM detector isnormally a ratio detector or a discriminator preceded bya limiter. The characteristics of a typical FM detector are shown in Fig. 9.13. As shown, the audio output is proportional to deviations from the carrier frequency. The frequency of audio signal depends on the rate of frequency deviation. At the output of FM detector, a de- emphasis circuit is provided that has the same time constant (501s) as that of the pre- emphasis circuit employed at the sound transmitter. This restores the amplitude ofaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.PAL-D COLOUR RECENER 171 and becomes -vd. This and original video signal (v) (after some attenuation) are applied to adder (1). As explained with reference to Fig. 10.6(a), the luminance signal in the range of 3 to 5 MHz will cancel leaving chroma and lower range (up to 3 MHz) of the Y signal at the output of adder. This is applied to the chroma section input circuits which are tuned to select only chroma and colour burst signals. Thus luminance component present in the input is ignored. It may be noted that luminance signal in the range of 3 to 5 MHz is removed earlier and it Is only the chrominance signal that enters chroma section of the receiver. For obtaining luminance signal for the ¥ channel, output of adder (1) ts first fed toa bandpass amplifier designed to have a bandwidth from 3to 5 MHz. The (+) chroma signal at its output ts phase inverted (hrough an inverter circuit to obtain (-) chroma signal, This then becomes one of the inputs to the second adder. The second input to this adder fs the ‘v’ signal after passing through a compensating delay network. This delay ts introduced to compensate for the delay suffered by the chrominance signal in the bandpass amplifier. The chroma signal contained in the v’ signal cancels with the inverted chroma signal leaving complete luminance signal as output of adder (2). This feeds into the Y channel and is processed accordingly. Thus this method of separating the two components of composite video signal, though complex, enables to retain full bandwidths of both luminance and chrominance signals. Effect of DC Component on Colour The effect of loss of de component in the video signal is not too serious on a black and white picture. However, ina colour receiver such a loss changes net magnitudes of R, G and B voltages which in turn disturb the balance of red, green and blue colours inthe reproduced picture. Thus in order to preserve the de component, directcoupling isgenerully used for the Y amplifier stages between the video detector and picture tube. In circuit designs where de component is lost due to R-C coupling, de restorer or clamping circuits are provided at the last stage to re-insert the de component. Luminance Delay Line The luminance and chrominance signals take separate paths after the video detector (or buffer amplifier) and later rejoin in the matrixing section as shown in Fig. 10,1. Since the ¥ signal path is wideband that extends atleast upto 4 MHz. and that of the chroma signal is narrow-band restricted to nearly 1.5 MHz, a relative time delay ‘occurs while (he two signals pass through their respective amplifiers. The colour signal is delayed or say the Y signal arrives a bit too soon with respect to R, G and B signals. ‘Therefore, the Y signal needs tobe delayed so that brightness and colour informations are reproduced at the same time for any element of the picture. Based on the bandwidths of the two channels, the necessary time delay ‘s approximately 0.60 us. This is provided by a delay line that 1sinserted in-between the two video amplifiers (see Fig. 10.1). The delay line ts constructed on the principle of distributed L-C elements. In practical form it consists of a number of copper strips extending full length of the line (= 100 mm) and disposed around an insulated rod. These strips in conjunction with a very thin sheet of metallic foil provide the necessary distributed capacitance. Similarly, distributed inductance is obtained by winding nearly 1400 turns ofvery thin wire on the same rod. Each of the small L-C sections thus formed progressively delays the passage of signal due to inherent charge and discharge phenomenon to cause a172 MODERN TELEVISION PRACTICE total delay of 600 neno-seconds. A typical delay line is shown in Fig. 10.7(a). In addition to providing the delay, 5.5 MHz and 33.4 MHz reject filters are also put in the ¥ channel to prevent any beat interference due to somewhat higher amplitudes of these IF frequency components. (b) Fig. 10.7 ¥ Channel delay line (a) pictorial view (b) visual effect of chroma delay on a reproduced picture if the delay line ts not provided. If the delay time error is not corrected, the colour parts of the image will not exactly fit into the sharp outlines provided by the luminance signal. Since the colours arrive late and scanning goes from left to right, the colour parts of the picture are displaced to the right. Also the leading edges of objects in the picture miss the colour content. The combined effect is that the colour spills over the right edges. This is illustrated in Fig. 10.7(b) for the image of letter 'X’ as reproduced on thereceiver screen. A similar effect is noticed if the delay line ts not terminated in its characteristic impedance Z, which is usually around 1000 ohms. Incorrect termination causes reflections and to prevent that, the output impedance of the 1st video amplifier and. input impedance of the 2nd video amplifier are designed to have the same impedance as the Z, of delay line. Contrast and Brightness Controls Contrast in the picture can be varied by changing amplitude of the Y signal. This. ts done by providing a manual control of the gain of one of the video amplifiers in the Y channel, Similarly, average brightness of the scene can be changed by increasing or decreasing steady de component of the Y signal. Such a provision is usually made in the output circuit of 2nd video amplifier.PAL-D COLOUR RECEIVER 173 10.4 Chroma Decoder ‘The main function of chroma or colour decoder is to recover U and Vcolour-difference signals which are later combined with Y to obtain R, G and B video signals. For this the decoder has to perform the following functions (see Fig. 10.2) : () Chroma signal separation and amplification. (ii) Separation of U and V signal phasors by employing delay line technique. (i) Demodulation of U and V phasors to recover colour-difference signals. (iv) Generation of suitable subcarriers for the two demodulators. (v) To develop ‘ident’ signal for V channel switching and bias voltage for colour killer circuit. All modern receivers employ an IC in the chroma section to carry out the above functions. In fact, ICs are now available which also perform matrixing functions and deliver R, G. B signals directly as its output. Chroma Band-pass Amplifiers As shown in Fig. 10.2, the chroma signal and colour burst are separated from the incoming composite colour video signal by the chroma signal selection cireutt. It essentially consists ofa bandpass circuit whose centre frequency is chosen to be equal to that of the chroma subcarrier itself i.e. 4.43 MHz. Its passband {s approximately 3 MHz measured at the conventional 3 db down points of the frequency response curve. It is followed by a bridged-T circuit which offers very high impedance at 5.5 MHz to prevent break-through of the intercarrier sound signal into the colour decoder. The output from these filter networks which are connected in tandom is fedinto an emitter follower which provides due isolation and feeds chroma and colour burst signals to the first chroma amplifier from its emitter. As already mentioned and described in section 10.3, comb filters are considered more suitable for separation of luminance and chroma signals. On separation, the chroma and burst signals are amplified by the first chroma amplifier which is again controlled by the de voltage developed by the Automatic Chroma Control (ACC) amplifier. The output from the Ist chroma amplifier goes to both the second chroma amplifier and burst pre-amplifier. The second chroma amplifier incorporates colour saturation control circuit. The output of colour killer also feeds into it. As shown in the figure the output of 2nd amplifier stage is fed to the delay line and also simultaneously to addition and subtraction circuits. 10.5 Separation of U and V Colour Phasors Asexplained in an earlierchapter, remarkable improvement occursin the reproduced picture if delay line ts used to do the averaging first and then present colours to the eye. This technique of averaging and separation of U and V signals is based on the assumption that picture information carried on two successive lines changes so little that it can be regarded as identical for both. This method i.e. PAL-D is now used in all PAL receivers. it can be easily explained with the help of a basic circuit shown in Fig. 10.8. For convenience, both U and V phasors have been assumed to be positive, that is, they correspond to some shade of magenta (purple). Thus. for the Ist line when V signal is at +90° with respect to+ U axis, the phasor can be expressed as (U + JV) and as stated earlier this is called the NTSC line. On the next line when V gets switched toaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.178 MODERN TELEVISION PRACTICE Demodulation on Different Hues As deduced in chapter 6, the polarity of colour difference signals is different for different hues. This in turn determines the phase angle of U and V demodulation products and hence, that of the chrominance signal. The manner in which this information 1s used by the two demodulators to recover corresponding colour- difference signals can best be explained by considering transmission of a colour bar having a particular hue. A purplish hue has been chosen for this purpose and its U and Vsignals are shown in Fig. 10-10 along with corresponding subcarrier waveshapes. wd ratod o's wine ¥ wndiré & Reference phase scale for the sysiem NSN NISCline PAL tine U Modulation product (+02) \V Modulation product (+0.4) QAM, Signal showing the effect of ‘Switching of V signal by 180" line-by-tine in the PAL system Phase of the subcarrier to the U demodulator Phase of the subcarrier to the V ‘demodulator. Note that correct polarity ofthe V component is Fecovered by inverting the V PURPLE subcarrier on PAL ines HUE Fig. 10.10 Principle of demodulation in a PAL -D receiver. ‘The waveshapes correspond to a purplish hue.PAL-DCOLOUR RECEIVER 179 The U modulation product on separation is fed to the U demodulator and V to the V demodulator. The reference subcarrier signals that are fed to the two synchronous demodulators are shown below the U and V signal waveforms. The PAL lines (signals) and the associated reference signal are shown in dotted lines for convenience of understanding the demodulation process. The small vertical lines with arrows show the moments of conduction. Note that U demodulator passes current pulses when the U modulation product signal ts at tts positive maximum and the associated V modulation product signal (NTSC or PAL line} is passing through zero. Similarly the V demodulator conducts on V modulation product peaks when U signal is passing through zero. Note that this is true for both NTSC and PAL lines because the reference subcarrier reverses along with PAL lines thus ensuring that positive peaks of the reference signal coincide with positive peaks of PAL lines. The demodu- lated V colour-difference signal thus continues to be positive as desired. In conclusion it may be noted that - (a) The colour difference signals may be positive or negative depending on the hue. (b) Accordingly, each modulation product may have one of the two possible phases (180° apart) depending on polarity of the colour-difference signal. {c) When (B-Y) Is positive the U modulation product has a phase angle of 0° and this changes to 180° when (B-¥) is negative. (4) When (R-¥) Is positive the V modulation product has a phase angle of 90° and changes to 270° when (R-Y) is negative. This is true only for the NTSC lines. (e) On PAL lines an image inversion of V signal occurs irrespective of its polarity. (The reinserted reference subcarrier signal to the U demodulator must always have a phase lying along the +U axis. It is most important to note that this has to be so, whatever the polarity of the U colour difference signal. When put in another way the reference phase must remain along +U axis irrespective of whether the U modulation product is at 0° or 180°, (g Similarly, the reinserted subcarnier to the V demodulator must have a phase angle of +90° relative to +U axis and this must be true irrespective of whether the V modulation product has a phase angle of +90° or +270°. However, on PAL lines when image inversion of the V modulation product occurs, the reference subcarrier must undergo a similar inversion. This is achieved by shifting phase of the subcarrier from +90° to~ 90° line-by-line by an electronic switch. 10.7 Subcarrier Generation and Control As shown in the chroma section block diagram (Fig. 10.2) the second output from the 1st stage of chroma amplifier is fed to the burst pre-amplifier which forms part of a two-stage amplifier. The second stage is gated by pulses coincident in time with the line flyback pulses which are applied to this stage through a pulse shaping network. The purpose of these two stages is thus to separate burst pulses and amplify them to alevel suttable for operating the ‘burst phase discriminator which is sensitive to burst pulse only. Itis designed to detect any differencewhich might exist between the phase of burst pulse and that of the reference oscillator. It produces at Its output a de voltage whose magnitude and polarity are proportional to the magnitude and direction of the180 MODERN TELEVISION PRACTICE detected phase difference. This is used to control the frequency of reference oscillator tokeepit stable at 4.43361875 MHz. The control circutt is represented by the APC loop im the block diagram, ACC Amplifier Asecond output from the gated burst amplifier is converted to a de voltage by a rectifier circuit and then fed to the ACC amplifier. The magnitude of the voltage so fed back ts proportionalto the amplitude of burst and therefore to the amplitude of chroma signal itself, After amplification in the ACC amplifier. the voltage is used to control gain of the first stage of chroma amplifier in such a way as to ensure constant chromasignal amplitude at its output. Burst Phase Identification Another output from the burst phase discriminator is fed toa circuit whichis able to identify phase relationship of the colour burst. It may be recalled that phase of the burst alternates by + 45° relative to the phase of -U signa) and it ts this phase difference which enables the decoder to differentiate between U andV signals. This cireuit ie. the ‘burst phase identification’ has two outputs. One of these ts used to control operation of the 180° electronic switch which periodically inverts the waveform fed from the ref- erence oscillator (RO) to the V signal demodulator. It is important that this switching shall occur inthe correct phase and in synchronism with a similar switching operation which took place in the PAL encoder at the transmitting end and hence the need for such acireuit. The waveform fed from the Reference Oscillator (RO) to the Usignal de- modulator is phase shifted by a fixed - 90° in order to make its phase coincide with that of the subcarrier which was similarly phase-shifted before being modulated by the U signal. Colour Killer ‘The second output from the burst phase identification network tsfedto the ‘colour killer’ circuit. This is nomore than a half-wave rectifier circuit which producesa steady dc potential from the succession of burst pulses. This dc potential is fed to the second chroma amplifier to’enable’ it i.e. keep it operative thereby allowing the chroma signal to reach the two demodulators. In the absence of burst pulses, which will be the case when a monochrome picture is being transmitted, the de potential is missing and 2nd stage of the chroma amplifier is inhibited (blocked). The advantage of this is that colour nolse will be prevented from appearing on the picture tube screen when a black and white picture is being received. This is especially desirable in conditions of poor signal strength. 10.8 Matrixing for Drive Circuits On obtaining U and V colour-difference signals as outputs from the decoder and Y signal from the luminance channel it is now necessary to devise means for driving the picture tube electrodes with appropriate colour voltages. This involves two stage matrixing - first to extract (G-Y) from U and Y signals and second to obtain R, G and Bsignals for feedingcorresponding guns in the picture tube. The two possible methods are: (@ — matrixing of U and V to obtain (G-¥) and then use the tube electrodes for getting R.G. B drives.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.PAL-DCOLOUA RECEWER 183 Merits of RGB Matrix Compared to other methods, R, G, B matrixing has the following advantages : It eltminates the need for high level video amplifiers. a ‘The picture tube electrode are protection is better since control grids are at ground or low dc potential. (ii) Wide bandwidths are available for both colour and luminance signals which makes for crisper pictures. 10.9 Raster Circuits ‘The deflection or raster forming circuits of a colour receiver are same as in a B&W receiver, With the more common use of integrated circutts to generate drives for the deflecting coils, the syne separator is a part of an IC where the composite video signal is sliced to separate sync information. The pulse train thus obtained is suitably shaped before feeding to the vertical deflection section and AFC circuit in the line drive section. Vertical Deflection ‘The vertical oscillator can be a multivibrator, blocking oscillator ora Miller sweep generator. In some ICs a VCO (clock) is operated at twice the horizontal (ine) frequency (81.250 KHz) and then divided by a chain of binary dividers to obtain 50 Hz. The VCO output is synchronized by the usual AFC circuit and the derived 50 Hz square wave output is waveshaped before feeding it to the driver circuit. The driver has linearization and vertical height circuitry. With other ICs and conventional oscillator circuits a frequency control is also provided while the VCO type IC version does not need any vertical hold control. The output stage isa part of the IC ora discrete class AB operated amplifier and its output transformer provides impedance match to the vertical deflecting coils for obtaining linear deflection of the beam from top to bottom of the screen. The amplifier also feeds vertical blanking pulses to the drive circuitry. For smaller and medium screen picture tubes the vertical output amplifier also forms part of an IC and hence no separate transistor amplifier stage is necessary. Horizontal Deflection The horizontal or line deflection circuit performs a similar function of deflecting the beam from left to right across the screen. However, when compared with vertical section its design and mode of operation is quite different. The reaction scanning technique enables high efficiency, fast retrace and generation of EHT for the picture tube. In discrete versions the oscillator circuits are similar to those employed in the vertical deflection section. However, the drive and output circuits are designed differently to meet specific requirements. In integrated versions the AFC and oselllator circuits are of conventional type and form part of the same IC that has corresponding vertical deflection circuits. In some recent ICs for the deflection section, the horizontal (line) oscillator is of the VCO type as explained in the previous section. In fact the same clock oscillator operating at 31.250 KHz provides line frequency of 15625 Hz after a division by 2. Since horizontal and vertical scanning frequencies are derived from the same source which 1s locked with the incoming syne pulses by the AFC circuit, no horizontal or vertical hold controls are necessary. However, in both discrete and IC versions the line driver and output stages are discrete and employ high voltage, high wattage transistors because most of the power consumed by the 1eceiver is spent in the horizontal cum power supply section.184 MODERN TELEVISION PRACTICE (p40) “unaz1 woAL|oouN asjou ‘esopnyouy Aljensn Jojeredas oukg ssogqnd outs poe 1 (eutig o2p1, a80du09) SAD soyaredag outs ypuueyo snp ur 2 segues seonni pe juatiog is A aun sketap our Aejop pus Teusys wuosy> Tosealdine AS YON * yeuBjs X poundury Jayridure-sayng wos SAD puueya x puma 9 uy sogndure apy “soparap oapya jo ndino 1 seq are soy ‘=f Te SAO Apeais 621GeU2 SOV -ndure J] 0} aBeyo seq OT sogndure s9ynq Woy SAD ov srandino ars pore oopya sopjanud sayaiop sures oxy somayap mouonpouts ¥ Loykass se OI AT VORA WIA! OD UT, ‘wales BuMOTIG, pure soiomiep onpya ussmiaq Buyyayeut (sqo} reuBis oops souepadusy sopiaaid espe aes zayng Su, aysodaied payrfaury “TeuBis oapra auisoduico 9214 -sumtdure saynq oopin, ‘geusis punos pue arraad yaa19p ssoymdure at ©} pasn are sujoaiop svemmdag “TeuBis opin susodutog wo] Coy [EUS HOBOPP COPIA y “uona98 unos 2up uy posn Ajpeutsou sO] Uy TeuSys oipne payydury ‘so}Rp pumos woy IS uopdag punog sais so12re039)uy sonpard oy ‘saya at twoq eeu punoe pared) mon ag 4947e0199u yeu moss pouste a ‘sows2r8q a punos *Aouanbay a uy yup Axe eneuse yor LIV Te00| 40 afe[0R osIUOD LIV two peuts af Suman yron Lav “soumy ys JO eis at poundwry andyno tio fuse a sconce “ey As Teu}s a1 podeys pueg ‘sauny wo yndino poe aurwald ad ZHWYer= spre 7HW LYVe= OHI BE=d Tes at peg apm andino euuuy ann (10t Pid 998) RIVER anain0 inant ‘ovis (TOT B VOT “ya) saas00y moqog Iva ¥ jo soFee yo suopouNg “TOT TRLPAL-DCOLOURRECEIVER 185 { prog) “feuds wong 9 <06- Jo yTys aeoyd 2 ey soyenpowap 4 Ew peuBs acer aye s0yeT}260 S0ua3Far AG} AnTSUDSKy 6 soTeNpoMAP A “TeuBys souasagp-mojoo 1 way °S} pure feuds ear “zoyEPoUSp TeUBIE 1 -ayeuBye any juaraysp Jo woRynpoUEp ya1109 ‘soyerone souasayar way saiqeua soysnpoulap snowaryouds “PouBye souasagip-moqoo A, ARTF pus peud}s aurany> A soyeqpowap TeuBys A sqeutys A pow ‘eouy yeussyye uo soeraAas A seqeuttye yonposd worm uoered3e pus yore anq Apoove of Jo Sized 2a npn a pure h pavemmios reuye wmory> pormdury Seberate 209 SoC Bupmp (usd smarygouout jo} aatres 2 wwaryo mom yw9p odour sayy auf sopreed SoUseq™ aL aes engl may nda Nee oar anoqeg 5 “rovuransse1p ovenpoaiap A aun 01% J9 sopto “yous oruons9%9 Ost wos ayes fousnbay UT -wonwoynuaps ere A add seer Sa, p30) [oUBge OPH AL ye Buyezonas sogted ema oad vem yma doot Say we or “Naw Svy 2Bexon ror ed Aq pormaes sf 10Ve TSO SLL ‘ye sppureOqnE INO|O9 MD Aosanbary 1daax2 indus on oveTI989 souasapy seed yemq “TeuBye usp] Bujasy sasnd anojeo aresedse on posn $1 112119 pare aPettan jarvuao s0yetpoe0 -roqgydure wurosyo 261 Jo “soyeururoerp axed w doywupUsoerp JO Indus 3tn AY (Goualayay) x9pTEOqng yndyno way peudys ewONYD emg eING, -pagjanues goy sf xagndure 2aq3 uy sy anon womesraeg “SAD woul FOUBTE ze , -ssayydure fran rope ayy mea LE Teufis wuraaya poumdury “Touts o2pis aujsoduiog sredpureg ewan, teor-Phs 908) wacom vd “Bupe0oq Areveaoou saye poyoa! are ssonddne 775 x 2 xX 1000 + The pre-scalcr and other divide rattos are not fixed but depend on the system design and band Le. lower VIF, upper VIF and UIIF,202 MODERN TELEVISION PRACTICE Note that the value of N increases by 20 for each higher channel. Similarly for the higher VHF and UHF channels a suitable whole number factor (N) for the program- mable counter can be obtained. For this, it may be necessary to change the Programmable divide ratio in the reference oscillator chain of dividers. As is now obvious the main thrust of a microcomputer based control system is on channel selection and fine tuning. *However, besides this, several other facilities that become available in such a system include (1) auto seek programming. (1!) manual programming, (il) digital ‘LED’ display of the selected channel (1v) operation with or without remote control, (v) AFT control and (vi) audio mute during channel hunting. 11.5 Remote Control of Receiver Functions ‘The remote contro! facility if provided enabies the television viewer to operate various receiver controls from a distance without having to leave his or her seat. The complexity of any such system depends on the number of things it does. Its most important function is changing of stations. Next, it is useful to be able to alter the sound level preferably in a series of small steps. Turning the receiver ON and OFF is also a desired control function. Remote control of contrast and brightness is also useful. Finally it is also desirable to be able to alter colour intensity from a distance. ‘The cost becomes a deciding factor, since with increase in control functions the cost and complexity of the system increases. **The two schemes of remote control signaling to the television receiver are : (i) by ultrasonic waves generated mechanically or electrically, (t)_ by infrared wave transmission with LEDS. ‘The first ie. ultrasonic wave method was in use for quite some-time but has since been superseded by the infrared wave method. Many such systems have been developed to suit different requirements, The circuitry employed is quite complex and integrated circuits are used to process various inputs before the infrared wave transmission. A sketch of the remote control transmitter unit which goes with the channel selection system described in the previous section is shown in Fig. 11.10. The unit has 12 buttons for channel selection including one (no. 12) for VCR connections. ‘There are also volume. picture and colour buttons, In additions it has a power button, a sound mute button and a normal level button. The unit operated with four 1.5 V small cells, Since transmission to the TV receiver is by infrared waves, it is somewhat directional; The surface iabelled as such should point towards the receiver. The range of useful operation is around 7 meters within a radius of + 30° from the remote control receiver on the control panel of the TV set. Remote Transmitter A simplified schematic diagram of the remote transmitter of Fig. 11.10 ts shown * For more details refer chapter 10 of the book “Colour Television-Principles and Practice” by RRGulati (Wiley Eastern Publications) ‘* If interested in remote control of TV functions by electromechanical methods refer chapter 27 of the book MONOCIIROME & COLOUR TELEVISION’ By RR. Gulait (Wiley Estern Publication}.‘TELEVISION RECEWER TUNERS 208 in Fig. 11.11. It needs 24 different commands to carry out all the listed functions. Thus 24 different pulse pattems are generated and when a button ts pushed, the infrared waves are modulated via a 48 KHz carrier by one of the 24 pulse patterns. This point towards remote control Pitot tamp Program umber buttons Program select v buttons COLOUR PICTURE VOLUME PROGR NORMAL Fig. 11.10 Front view of a typical infrared wave remote control transmitter. The pulse output (high or low) on depression of any one key button activates special individual circuitry in the encoder. It produces a distinctive pulse train which modulates the crystal controlled 48 KHz carrier. After due amplification tt is fedto the LED driver which passes proportionate current pulses through the two LEDS, D, and D,. The cmission of radiation in the infrared region causes transmission of the modulated wave towards the remote controlled receiver when the untt is aimed at it. In addition, the modulated 48 KHz output from Q, is rectified by D, and lights the function indicator LED (D,) located on right hand top of the transmitter panel. ‘This LED shows that a function button has been depressed. If it fails to light, it indicate that the battery needs replacement.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.220 MODERN TELEVISION PRACTICE over the negative AGC voltage and reduces gain of the receiver during these intervals. The reduced gain results in weak vertical syne pulse which in turncan put the vertical deflection oscillator out of synchronism causing rolling of the Picture, To overcome this drawback a large time-constant filter would be destrable to filter out the 50 Hz ripple from the AGC bias. But with too large a time- constant the AGC voltage fails to respond to fast changes like aeroplane flutter and quick change of stations. (b) In fringe areas noise pulses develop an additional AGC voltage which tends to reduce overall IF gain. This effect is more pronounced for dark scenes. The net effect is that S/N ratio further deteriorates and this results in lot of snow on the picture. () Even when the input signal strength is quite low, a small AGC voltage gets developed and this reduces gain of the receiver, when actually, maximum possible gain is desired for salisfactory picture and sound output. To overcome these drawbacks special AGC circuits known as ‘keyed’ or ‘gated’ AGC have been developed and are used in all present day television receivers. The problem of reduction of gain with weak input signals is resolved by using ‘delayed’ AGC action. Keyed AGC System In this system, the AGC rectifier is allowed to conduct only during line sync pulse periods, with the help of flyback pulses derived from the output of horizontal (Line) deflection ctreutt of the receiver. Video signal is coupled as in the non-keyed system to AGC rectifier to produce AGC voltage proportional to the signal strength. However, AGC transistor is generally biased to cut-off so that it conducts only for the short time when keying pulse is applied. This ensures that the rectifler conducts only when blanking and sync pulses are on. Keyed AGC Circuit A basic keyed AGC circuit designed to develop a posilive AGC voltage is shown in Fig. 12.7, The p-n-ptransistor Q, is biased to cut-off under no signal conditions. Negative going retrace pulses are applied to the collector circuit. The base-emitter Junction gets forward biased when video signal at the base approaches ils minimum value. This corresponds to sync pulse periods and it is then that the collector is pulsed ‘on’ by flyback pulses. The keying pulses are [ed to the collector of keyer transistor via diode D,. When Q, conducts, current flows through R,, R,, Q,, D,, winding on L.O.T. and C, thereby charging it with the polarity marked on it. The voltage developed across C, 1s, the AGC output voltage. Diode D, prevents discharge of C, during the time between keying pulses. In the absence of D, the charge on C, will forward bias the collector to base Junction of Q, and allow the capacitor to discharge resulting in loss of AGC voltage. However, the diode has the correct polarity to couple negative flyback pulses from AGC winding to collector of the transistor. The capacitor C, and resistors R,and R, forma ilter to develop a steady de voltage for controlling overall gain of the receiver. Typical values of signal amplitudes are 25 V peak-to-peak for flyback pulses and 2 V p-p/or the video signal. For an n-p-n transistor the polarity of both inputsis opposite to that needed for a p-n-p transistor.+ISY to 44¥ 7 winding on | VISION IF SUBSYSTEM 221 Flyback pulses Fr video ‘amp LaF. Ee ar Fig. 12.7. ‘Typical transistor keyed AGC etreutt. Merits of Keyed AGC System (a) (b) (od ‘A long time-constant to filter out 50 Hz ripple is no longer necessary because conduction takes place only during horizontalretrace periods andnoundue build up of voltage occurs during vertical sync intervals. The relatively short time- constant filter. used to remove 15625 Hz ripple, enables the AGC bias to respond toflutter and fast change of stations, thereby ensuring a steady picture and sound output. AGC voltage developed is a true representation of the peak of fixed sync level and thus corresponds to the actual incoming signal strength. Noise effects are minimized because conduction is restricted to a small fraction of the total line period. Delayed AGC ‘The picture produced on the raster should be as noise free as possible. This is achieved by low-noise circuits. However, despite careful circuit design, each stage in the receiver contributes some noise. The cumulative effect of this, if not checked, would be a noisy picture. Noise effect can be overcome by high amplification of the incoming RF signal. The amplified signal will then swamp out effects of stage noise as it is processed by the receiver. It is, therefore, necessary to operate the RF amplifier at maximum gain, particularly for weak RF signals. In the circuits discussed so far, the AGC voltage is fed not only to the first and second IF amplifiers, but also to the RF amplifier. Thus the negative AGC bias would reduce the gain of RF amplifier even for low-level RF signals. This undesirable eflect is overcome by delaying the AGC voltage to the RF amplifier for weak RF signals, The technique used which is a delay in voltage not in time, is called delayed AGC. The delay ts caused by applying a fixed opposite de voltage against the developed AGC voltage. This prevents application of AGC bias to the amplifier till its amplitude becomes equal to the applied opposite voltage. Thus, the AGC action which tends to reduce gain of the RF amplifier is prevented for weak RF inputs to the tuner.222 MODERN TELEVISION PRACTICE 12.3 Noise Cancellation ‘The need for minimizing noise set-up in AGC and sync separator circuits has given rise to several methods of noise cancellation. ‘Iwo commonly used methods are described. In Fig. 12.8, diode D, is used as a switch which opens in the presence of noise preventing it from reaching the video amplifier. The necessary forward bias enabling it to pass noise free video signals is set by the potentiometer R,. When a To sync separater To picture "tube circuit level Fig. 12.8 Diode noise gate ctreutt. strong noise signal arrives the diode gets reverse biased thereby stopping noise pulses from reaching the video amplifier. Since video signal to both, the AGC keyer and syne separator is obtained from the output of video amplifier, noise pulses are prevented from reaching both these circuits, Another noise cancellation circuit is shown in Fig. 12.9, where noise is eliminated by using a separate noise gate. It separates noise from the composite video signal, amplifies it and then adds it to the inverted composite video signal. ‘The noise gate is a grounded base amplifier. normally set to cut-off. Any incoming noise pulse of sufficient amplitude counteracts the fixed reverse bias and sets the amplifier into conduction, Thus the noise pulse is amplified without inversion of its polarity. The gainof the noise gate amplifier is set equal to that of the video amplifier. Since the two noise pulses are equal in amplitude but opposite in polarity, they cancel on addition. ‘The AGC and syne separator circuits thus remain immune to incoming noise pulses. 12.4 Video and Intercarrier Sound Signal Detection Ina monochrome receiver, the same detector is used to obtain composite video signal and intercarrier FM sound signal (see Fig. 9. 10). However, as explained in Chapter 10, in colour receivers separate detectors are used for video and sound signal detection. Such a circuit is shown in Fig. 12,10. It can be seen that the sound take-off point isaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.226 MODERN TELEVISION PRACTICE “aoOEVO O1 Ta¥T 941 Jo UMAR 99914 duo wo “ere PuDg-2piM pung-apim, 39Vv sun oven aru at ! I 1 T 1 1 1 eo sasind f Gurkan 207 ! 1 | I ' t | 1 1 T I andyno (99%) nung of a= om B90EVD OI sun wordVISION IF SUBSYSTEM 227 Each stage of theIC is fed through an in-built dc voltage regulator. In addition. to this, an isolated zener reference de voltage is available at terminal 18 of the IC. It can be used with an external series element to provide necessary supply voltage to any terminal of the IC. IF Subsystem Circuit with CAS068 A typical application cireult of the vision IF subsystem of a 51 em B&W recelver employing CA 3068. (a 20 lead quad-in-line IC) is shown in Fig, 12.12. The IF signal from tuner Is connected by a coaxial cable to the input of IC at pin 6 through a set of trap circuits. The resistors R,, R,, R, provide an impedance match between output of the tuner and input circuit of the IC to avoid any reflections. The components Ry, Cy, C, and L, form a bridge ‘T’ network to attenuate adjacent channel. IF frequency of 40.4 MHz for which L, {s tuned for maximum(-36 db) attenuation at that frequency. The series parallel resonant circuit combination of L,, C, and C, forms a trap circuit that provides an attenuation of nearly 38 db to the sound IF frequency of 33.4 MHz. ‘The capacitor C,, transforms the low source impedance (400 ohms at point ‘A’) to 700 ohms. However, stability considerations in the cascade IF amplifier chain in the IC require a driving point impedance of about 500 ohms at terminal 6, A resistance value of 2.7 K for R, enables this and also provides bandwidth to pass the IF signal. The components L,, C,, alongwith R, constitute the input band shaping circuit. The inductor L, is tuned to get maximum gain at 36 MHz. ‘The required IF response is obiained through the interstage coupling networks consisting of R,g, R,,, Ly, Ly, Ly, Cyy. Cz and the single tuned circuit at the input consisting of L,, R, and C,,. Typical values of L,, L, and L, are 0.9 pH, 0.2 pH and 0.6 pH respectively. The value of L, determines the amount of coupling between the two tuned circuits, which in tum controls the bandwidth, The values of C,, (= 56 pF) and C,,(=15 pF) determine resonant frequencies of corresponding tuned circuits to be around centre frequency of the band. An Isolated de vollage obtained at pin 16 from the de supply to the IC is fed after decoupling with C,, to pins 12 and 13 forthe required bias at these points. Note that while tuning various coils, the connection at the AGC pin (4) is disconnected (a jumper is usually provided) to disable application of AGC voltage to the controlled amplifiers, The 12 V dc supply to the IC is fed at pin 15 via decoupling and smoothening network R,,, C,,,C,,andC,,. Furthermore necessary de voltage at the AGC pin 41s fed via R,,.R,,and R,,. The capacitor C,, charges from this voltage and the time constant C,, X (R,. + R,,) determines how fast the AGC action will be. It can be varied with potentiometer R,,. DC supply to pin 9 is also fed from pin 15 via - * IC supplies reverse AGC at pin 7 for the RF amplifier in the tuner, The series combination R,,-R,, sets the delay time for which R,, {s kept variable. Since reverse AGC that becomes available at pin 7 is suitable for electronic (p-n-p) tuners it 1s inverted by transistor Q, for the mechanical (n-p-n) tuner used in the receiver being considered. The inverted AGC that becomes available across R, Is filtered by capacitors C, and C, before feeding to the tuner, The V,_(dc) supply to the inverter transistor and that to the tuner is fed from the same 12 V de source that supplies de voltage to the IC. As shown in the figure, the tuner supply is decoupled via R,, and C,.228 MODERN TELEVISION PRACTICE Suyojduia saajooas Weg "8906 VO OI Td OHA Wyo Yas PIAL BE-ed Pd tuo 19 1 Jo tuateAeqns hidnssemod od pendes ‘waa, val] ORL agsioa 29v stun aun) 01 Addns 0 andyno oapia bss. Dud 2uds of eS 15 91 punes 01 “YO wou sa5)nd Buhay UV puuayayaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.234 MODERN TELEVISION PRACTICE spajaoos “UID LE MRE 8 Buydoqduuy oH AIA, QUEL ByVISION IF SUBSYSTEM 235 12.7 IF Subsystem for Small Screen B&W Receivers The improved performance and lesser cost of BELIC CA7611 haslead toitsuse inthe IF subsystem of some B&W recelvers. Atypical circuit as used in a37 cm B&W recelver employing a mechanical (incremental) tuner is shown inFig. 12.16. The F signal from the tuner Is fed to the IC at pins 1 and 16 viaa set of trap circuits, These are nearly the same as shown in Fig. 12.12 and have identical functions as explained in section 12.5, The nature of discrete networks at various pins of the IC as follows : IC CA7611 (IF Subsystem) INNO. SIRCUIT DESCRIPTION 116 Balanced IF input Between 2815 Decoupling eapacitor for de feedback loop of the IF amplifier. 3 RF AGC delay 4 RFAGC out 5,6,7, 10 ‘These pins pertain to AFT cireutt and since AFT is not used in B&W receNvers these are grounded as shown In Fig, 12.16. 89 An L-C tank clreuit is connected across these pins for passive regeneration of the IF picutre carrier needed for the synchronous detector. u Veg (4. C.) supply 12 Video and sound output 13 Ground 4) 4 IF AGC filter/VCR switch The delay to the AGC voltage for the tuner (R.F. amplifier] ts adjusted by varying preset R,,. No external invertion circuit at pin 4 (where the AGC voltage becomes available) is necessary because this |s provided within the IC. The inductor L, is tuned to obtain 38.9 MHz reference IF frequency for the synchronous video detector. Because of synchronous detection, there are no inter-modulation sum and difference frequency products and hence it 1s not necessary to provide separate detectors for the video and intercarrier sound IF signals. The combined output as obtained at pin 12 and across R,, is fed to the video amplifier and syne circuits. It 1s also fed to the sound IC (CA1190). The inductor L, prevents any higher frequencies from being fed to video and sound cireuits. 12.8 Common Faults in the IF Subsystem The video IF subsystem of a television receiver must pass video information, sound signal, syn-cum-blanking pulses and also colour information in colour recetvers. Thus the receiver sections that can be effected due to a fault in the IF subsystem are \ video, sound, sweep and chroma. The AGC that forms part of the subsystem can also cause some faults when not functioning properly. Common faultsin the IF subsystem may be classified as (i) complete or partial loss of signal, (1) improper alignment and (ui) faulty AGC operation. () Loss of Signat Acomplete loss of signal in the discrete IF subsystem can be due to the absence of de supply, faulty transistors or components. In case of IC version, it could be a faulty IC or SAW filter. Indications of complete loss of signal will be : no picture, no299 MODERN TELEVISION PRACTICE sound but normal raster. Complete signal loss can also result due to faults inthe AGC circuits because an incorrect bias to any of the controlled IF amplifiers can drive the transistors to cut-off and hence, block the flow of signal. A bad input cable from the tuner can also cause complete loss of IF signal. The procedure for locating fault in the system includes checking of dc voltages at all main points (pins) in the system and associated circuits. It ts common praclice now to assemble the IF subsystem as a separate module, This enables the serviceman to replace this module by a known good piece while servicing the receiver at the customer's place where additional equipment beyond a multimeter is usually not available. Partial loss of signal can result in insufficient contrast, snow and weak sound output. It should be first made sure that the IC in the integrated version is not defective or transistors in the discrete version are not bad or weak. If not, it will be necessary to check stage-by-stage for isolating defective coil or component. It should also be ensured that proper dc voltages are available at all pins of the IC or at collectors and emitters of all transistors in case of discrete circuitry. (a) Improper Alignment Improper alignment of the video IF section can cause smearing of the picture, wrong placement of colours in the piclure in colour receivers, ringing (appearance of ghost) and loss of fine details. Such problems are caused by excessive low frequency response and/or attenuation of higher video frequencies in the IF signal, Realignment as recommended by the manufacturer of the receiver should restore normal operation of the receiver. Television receivers that employ a SAW filter and IC combination in the subsystem seldom show the above mentioned symptoms. (ii) AGC problems Aweak or excessive AGC operation appears on the receiver screen in the form of either a washed out picture with poor contrast or as an overloaded picture with too much contrast. In colour receivers an incorrect AGC can cause weak colours. The first condition is caused by too much AGC voltage and the second by too little AGC bias. Since AGC is a part of the feedback loop in IF amplifiers, the two are interdependent and hence need separation to localize the fault. The best way to determine whether the IF amplifier or AGC circuit is at fault, is to disconnect the AGC line and substitute suitable de bias from a dry-cell pack, If on this replacement and proper voltage adjustment the fault disappears, presets in the AGC circults should be checked and reset as necessary. In the IC version, associated potentiometers like the ‘AGC take- over'and‘tuner AGC adjust’ should be varied to get anormal picture. The trouble could also be due to a shorted or open-circuited component around the AGC pins. The possibility of a defective IC can also be the cause of a weak or overloaded picture. REVIEW QUESTIONS 1, Enumerate desiga requirements of the Jon of B&W and colour receivers. Ilustrate your answer with overall IF response curve in ca 2. Describe basic principle of AGC and dixeuss the adv: IF and RF amplifiers in the TV receiver. acs of employing automatic gain control ofaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.RECEIVER SOUND SYSTEM 249 a . ayia va catput At resonance Above resonance Below resonance Fig. 18.900) Discriminator transformer voltages. of L, greatly exceeds that of C,, Therefore, voltage across L, is almost equal toe,, the applied primary voltage. Accordingly, the voltage fed to each diode is the vector sum of primary voltage and corresponding half-secondary voltage. As 1s obvious from the circuit diagram (Fig, 13.3(a)), the induced voltage across the secondary divides intotwo parts at the centre-tap and is thus applied in push-pull to the diode plates. However, the primary voltage which effectively appears between the centre-tap and ground is applied in parallel tothe two diodes. Therefore, the IF signal voltage for the two diodes isthe resultant (vector sum) of the induced secondary voltage applied in push-pulland the primary voltage applied in parallel to the two diodes. Diode Voltage Phase-Relations : As explained earlier, ina tuned circuit the secondary voltage is 90° out of phase with the primary voltage at resonance. As the applied IF frequency swings above and below the resonant frequency, the phase angle variesaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.254 MODERN TELEVISION PRACTICE soynidure ompaw ay o°z # NIM Buope S90E VO [1dE)) O1 Punos a4 jo Anon peunXA 1 1'E1 Bg HALE 17 ok anion 42wao} sunny 49-908 unosaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.272 MODERN TELEVISION PRACTICE angie delay @” ” A Gis) a Frequency Frequency (a) (b) Fig. 14.6 Phase response of the amplifier (0) Phase angles proportional to frequency (0) Corresponding time delay which is constant. Goin h Low; Mid 1 High (ab) | frequency; frequency | frequency 100% (b) Fig. 14.7. (a) Frequency and (bj phase response ot a practical ampiner. inturnwouldmean that the picture information between midband frequenciesand 25 Hz would get displaced with respect to each other by nearly 660/64 =10 lines. To correct this discrepancy even if phase shift at 25 Hz is made = 1°, the corresponding time delay would be 120 us and the picture information will get displaced by about 1.5 lines on the raster. The eyes are very sensitive to time delay errors and see this, as “smear on the picture. At very high video frequencies the effects of phase distortionVIDEO AMPLIFIERS AND LUMINANCE CHANNEL 273 are not as evident onthe screen because the time delay at these frequencies is relatively small. For example, iff, the upper corner frequency of the amplifier is set at 5 MHz, the corresponding time delay with respect to midband frequency 1s only 45/360 x 1/5 X 108 ~1/40th of a ps. The consequent displacement of the picture elements is too small to be detected. Thus. a video amplifier with flat frequency response up tothe highest useful frequency, has negligible time delay distortion for very high video frequencies. (5) Amplitude Distortion or Nonlinear Distortion : If the operating point on the transfercharacteristics of a device fora given load and signal amplitude is not carefully chosen, amplitude distortion occurs where different amplitudes of the signal receive different amplification. This can result in limitingand clipping of the signal or in weak signal output. If syne pulse voltage gets compressed, synchronization may be lost, because the video amplifier usually provides composite video signal for the syne separator. Very often some gain has to be sacrificed to avoid amplitude distortion. 14.4 Video Amplifier Configurations It is obvious from the preceding discussion that video amplifiers must meet several ‘exacting demands and this calls for careful and rigorous design considerations. The wide-band requirement starting from almost dc to several MHz with minimum phase distortion is perhaps the most stringent requirement. Both direct-coupled and R-C coupled configurations are used and each type has its own merits and demerits. Both types need high frequency compensation, and this is met by shunt-peaking and series-peaking techniques. Though a de amplifier does not need any low frequency compensation, the R-C coupled amplifier employs special low frequency boost techniques to extend the bandwidth at the lower end of its response. ‘Abasic R-C coupled amplifier configuration, is shown in Fig. 14.8. It is designed to work under class ‘A’ operation. The gain of this amplifier falls-off rapidly at high frequencies because of shunting effect of inter-electrode, input, and stray capaci- tances in parallel with the load resistance R,.. Video stage use low value of R, compared with audio amplifiers because of large bandwidth requirements. Although gain is Fig.14.8 Baste RC. coupled amplifier. reduced, lowering R, extends high frequency response. The effect of C, does not become important until its reactance ts low enough to become comparable with load