CH 4

CHNG 4
T I N O N TNG LAI
S bin mt ca thng tin trong cc h en c th lm gim kh nng tin on tng lai ca chng ta nh th no?
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Ngi dch: da_trch@yahoo.com; http://datrach.blogspot.com
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(Hnh 4.1) Mt ngi quan st trn tri t (mu xanh) ang chuyn ng trn qu o xung quanh mt tri s thy sao Ha (mu ) in trn vng cu cc sao. Chuyn ng biu kin phc tp ca cc hnh tinh c th c gii thch bng cc nh lut ca Newton v khng c nh hng g n s phn ca con ngi.
hn loi lun mong mun iu khin tng lai, hoc t nht l on trc c iu g s xy ra. l l do ti sao ngnh chim tinh hc li ph bin n th. Chim tinh hc cho rng cc s kin xy ra trn tri t u lin quan n chuyn ng ca cc hnh tinh trn bu tri. y l mt gi thit c th kim chng mt cch khoa hc, khng, n s l mt gi thit c th kim chng mt cch khoa hc nu nh cc nh chim tinh dm mo him ni mt d on chc chn m c th kim tra c. Tuy nhin, h cng thng minh ch ni nhng d on m h c th ng vi bt k kt qu no. Nhng pht biu kiu nh Cc mi quan h c nhn c th tr ln mnh lit hn hoc l Bn s c mt c may v ti chnh s khng bao gi b chng minh l sai c. Nhng l do m phn ng cc nh khoa hc khng tin vo chim tinh hc khng phi l nhng bng chng phi khoa hc hoc thiu nhng bng chng khoa hc m v n khng ph hp vi nhng l thuyt khc c kim chng bng thc nghim. Khi Copernicus v Galileo pht hin ra rng cc hnh tinh quay quanh mt tri ch khng phi quay quanh tri t, v Newton tm ra nh lut hp dn iu khin chuyn ng ca cc hnh tinh th chim tinh hc tr ln cc k ng ng. Ti sao v tr ca cc hnh tinh khc trn nn tri khi chng c nhn t tri t li c nhng mi tng quan vi nhng i phn t t gi l sinh vt c tr tu sng trn mt tiu hnh tinh (hnh 4.1)? Chim tinh hc cn phi lm cho chng ta tin vo s tng quan . Cc l thuyt c trnh by trong cun sch ny cng khng hn g chim tinh hc ch khng c thm
Thng ny sao Ha chim cung Nhn m, l thi gian tt bn t hc. Sao Ha yu cu bn sng mt cuc sng theo cch bn cho l ng v thng nhng ngi khc cho l sai. V nhng iu s xy ra. Vo ngy 20, sao Ha s i n phn hc vn ca bn, n lin quan n ngh nghip v bn s hc nhn ly trch nhim v gii quyt cc quan h kh khn. Tuy vy, n k trng rm bn s c c mt s thng sut v tm bao qut tuyt vi v ton b cuc i m bn s nhn c. Trang 103
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(Hnh 4.2) Nu bn bit v tr v tc ca qu bng m bn nm i, bn c th tnh c n s i n u.
cc bng chng thc nghim cng c cc l thuyt , nhng ta vn tin v cc l thuyt ny ph hp vi cc l thuyt c kim chng. S thnh cng ca cc nh lut ca Newton v cc l thuyt vt l khc dn n tng v quyt nh lun khoa hc (scientic determinism). tng ny c mt nh khoa hc ngi Php tn l Marquis de Laplace a ra ln u tin vo u th k th mi chn. Laplace cho rng nu chng ta bit c v tr v ta ca tt c cc ht trong v tr ti mt thi im th cc nh lut vt l s cho php chng ta on c trng thi ca v tr s nh th no ti bt k mt thi im no khc trong qu kh v tng lai (hnh 4.2). Ni cch khc, nu quyt nh lun khoa hc m ng th chng ta c th on trc c tng lai v khng cn n chim tinh hc. Tt nhin l trn thc t ngay c nhng ci n gin nh nh lut hp dn ca Newton cng dn n cc phng trnh m chng ta khng th gii mt cch chnh xc cho h c nhiu hn hai ht c. Hn na, cc phng trnh ny thng c mt tnh cht c bit l hn lon, do , mt thay i nh v v tr v vn tc ti mt thi im c th dn n mt tnh cht hon ton khc ti cc thi im tip theo. Nhng ngi xem phim Cng vin k Jura (Jurassic Park, hnh 4.3) u bit, mt xo trn nh mt ni ny c th gy ra mt thay i ln mt ni khc. Mt con bm v cnh Tokyo c th gy ra ma cng vin trung tm New York (hnh 4.3). iu phin phc l chui s kin khng c tnh lp
(Hnh 4.3)
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li. Ln sau con bm v cnh, mt lot cc s kin khc s khc i v cc s kin ny s nh hng n thi tit. l l do ti sao cc d bo thi tit rt khng ng tin cy. Do vy, mc d v nguyn l th cc nh lut ca in ng lc hc lng t s cho php chng ta tnh ton c tt c mi th trong ha hc v sinh hc, nhng chng ta vn khng c nhiu thnh cng trong vic on trc c hnh vi con ngi t cc phng trnh ton hc. Tuy nhin, mc d gp phi nhng kh khn trn thc tin nh th, nhng v nguyn tc, phn ln cc nh khoa hc vn c an i vi tng cho rng tng lai vn c th d bo c.
U VO
Thot nhn th quyt nh lun khoa hc c v nh b nguyn l bt nh e da. Nguyn l bt nh ni rng chng ta khng th o chnh xc v tr v vn tc ca mt ht ti mt thi im. Chng ta o v tr cng chnh xc bao nhiu th chng ta xc nh vn tc cng km chnh xc by nhiu, v ngc li. Li gii thch v quyt nh lun khoa hc ca Laplace cho rng nu chng ta bit v tr v vn tc ca cc ht ti mt thi im th chng ta c th xc nh c v tr v vn tc ca chng ti bt k thi im no trong qu kh v tng lai. Nhng lm th no m chng ta c th lm c iu nu nh ngay t u nguyn l bt nh khng cho chng ta bit c v tr v vn tc ti mt thi im? D my tnh ca chng ta tt th no i chng na, nu chng ta cung cp d liu u vo sai th chng ta U RA
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HM SNG NHN
V tr
PHN B XC SUT VN TC CA HT
Vn tc
SNG CC HM SNG
V tr
PHN B XC SUT VN TC CA HT (Hnh 4.4) Hm sng xc nh xc sut m ht s c cc v tr v vn tc khc nhau theo cch m chng phi tun theo nguyn l bt nh.
Vn tc
s nhn c cc d on sai lm. Tuy vy, quyt nh lun c khi phc di mt dng khc trong mt l thuyt mi c gi l c hc lng t, tng thch vi nguyn l bt nh. Trong c hc lng t, ni mt cch gn ng, ta c th d on mt cch chnh xc mt na nhng iu m ta mong mun thc hin trn quan im Laplace c in. Trong c hc lng t, mt ht khng c v tr hoc vn tc xc nh nhng trng thi ca ht c th c biu din bng mt ci gi l hm sng (hnh 4.4). Ti mi v tr trong khng gian, mt hm sng l mt con s cho bit xc xut m ht c th c tm thy ti v tr . Tc thay i ca hm sng t im ny n im khc cho bit kh nng ht c cc vn tc khc nhau. Mt s hm sng c mt nh rt nhn
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ti mt im c th trong khng gian. Trong trng hp ny, bt nh v v tr ca ht l rt nh. Trn gin ta cng c th thy trong nhng trng hp , hm sng thay i rt nhanh gn nh ca sng, hm sng tng nhanh mt sn v gim nhanh pha sn kia. iu ny c ngha l phn b xc sut ca vn tc c tri trn mt vng gi tr rt ln. Hay ni mt cch khc, bt nh v vn tc rt ln. Mt khc, chng ta hy xem cc hm sng thoai thoi th bt nh v v tr ln nhng bt nh v vn tc li nh. Vy nn, vic m t cc ht bng hm sng khng cho ta v tr v vn tc chnh xc. Gi y ta thy rng hm sng l tt c nhng g m ta c th xc nh. Thm ch chng ta cng khng th cho rng Cha bit v tr v vn tc ca cc ht nhng giu khng cho chng ta bit. Cc l thuyt bin s n (hidden variable) nh th khng ph hp vi cc quan st thc nghim. Hn th na, Cha b gii hn bi nguyn l bt nh v khng th bit v tr v vn tc ca ht; Cha ch c th bit hm sng ca ht m thi. Tc thay i ca hm sng theo thi gian c cho bi mt
(Hnh 4.5) PHNG TRNH SCHRODINGER S ph thuc ca hm sng theo thi gian c xc nh bi ton t H lin quan n nng lng ca h ang xt.
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(Hnh 4.6) Trong khng thi gian phng ca thuyt tng i hp, nhng ngi quan st chuyn ng vi cc tc khc nhau s c cc php o thi gian khc nhau, nhng chng ta c th dng phng trnh Schrodinger trong bt k thi gian no on c hm sng trong tng lai.
phng trnh gi l phng trnh Schrodinger (hnh 4.5). Nu ta bit hm sng ti mt thi im th chng ta c th dng phng trnh Schrodinger tnh hm sng ti bt k thi im no khc trong qu kh v tng lai. Vy nn, quyt nh lun khoa hc vn ng trong l thuyt lng t nhng vi mt mc thp hn. Thay cho kh nng on trc c c v tr v vn tc, chng ta ch c th bit c hm sng. Hm sng ch cho bit chnh xc v tr hoc vn tc ch khng th bit c c hai. Do , trong c hc lng t, kh nng tin on chnh xc ch bng mt na kh nng tin on trong th gii quan Laplace c in. Vi ngha gii hn ny, ta c th ni quyt nh lun khoa hc vn ng. Tuy nhin, vic dng phng trnh Schrodinger tnh hm sng theo thi gian (tc l d on nhng iu s xy ra trong tng lai) hin nhin tha nhn rng thi gian tri i mt cch trn tru mi mi ti khp cc im trong khng gian. iu ny r rng l ng trong vt l Newton. Thi gian c cho l tuyt i, tc l mi s kin trong lch s ca v tr c nh du bi mt con s c gi l thi gian v chui con s tri mt cch trn tru t v hn trong qu kh n v hn trong tng lai. c th ni l cm nhn chung v thi gian v l cch nhn m phn ng mi ngi thm ch l phn ng cc nh vt l tm nim. Tuy nhin vo nm 1905, nh chng ta thy, thuyt tng i hp vt b khi nim thi gian tuyt i, trong , thi gian t n khng cn l mt i lng c lp
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im dng
Thi gian
Thi gian
Khng gian
Khng gian (Hnh 4.7) THI GIAN DNG Mt php o thi gian c th nht thit phi c mt im dng m ti quai cm ca chic cc tip xc vi phn tr chnh: ti cc im , thi gian s dng. Ti cc im nh th, thi gian khng tng theo bt k hng no. Do , ta c th dng phng trnh Schrodinger tin on hm sng trong tng lai.
ca mt th lin tc bn chiu c gi l khng thi gian. Trong thuyt tng i hp, cc nh quan st khc nhau chuyn ng vi cc vn tc khc nhau trong khng thi gian theo cc hng khc nhau. Mi nh quan st c php o thi gian ring ca anh ta hoc c ta dc theo hng m anh hoc c ta ang chuyn ng. V cc nh quan st khc nhau s o c cc khong thi gian khc nhau gia cc s kin (hnh 4.6). Do , trong thuyt tng i hp, khng c thi gian tuyt i chng ta c th nh du cc s kin. Tuy nhin khng thi gian trong thuyt tng i hp li phng. iu ny c ngha l, trong thuyt tng i hp, thi gian c o bi bt k nh quan st chuyn ng t do s tng mt cch trn tru trong khng thi gian t m v cng ca qu kh v cng n dng v cng ca tng lai v cng. Chng ta c th dng bt k php o thi gian no trong phng trnh Schrodinger tnh s ph thuc ca hm sng vo thi gian. Vy nn, trong thuyt tng i hp, chng ta vn c mt kiu quyt nh lun lng t. Trong thuyt tng i rng th tnh hung li khc i v khng thi gian khng cn phng m b b cong bi vt cht v nng lng trong . Trong h mt tri ca chng ta, t nht l trn nc thang v m, cong ca khng thi gian nh n ni n khng nh hng n quan nim chung ca chng ta v thi gian. Trong trng hp , chng ta vn c th dng thi gian trong phng trnh Schrodinger bit s ph thuc ca hm sng vo thi gian. Tuy nhin, mt khi chng ta cho php khng thi gian c th b cong th kh nng, trong khng thi gian c mt cu trc khng cho php thi gian tng mt cch trn tru i vi mi nh quan st nh chng ta trng i, c th xy ra. V d, khng thi gian ging
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nh mt hnh tr thng ng (hnh 4.7). Chiu cao ca hnh tr c th l php o thi gian, thi gian tng i vi mi ngi quan st v chy t m v cng n dng v cng. Tuy nhin, hy tng tng rng, thay cho hnh tr l mt hnh tr vi mt ci quai (hoc l mt h giun (wormhole)) tch ri khi hnh tr sau li nhp li. Do , bt k php o thi gian no u c cc im dng ti ni m ci quai nhp vo hnh tr chnh: cc im m ti thi gian dng li. Ti cc im ny thi gian khng tng i vi bt k ngi quan st no. Trong mt khng thi gian nh vy chng ta khng th dng phng trnh Schrodinger bit c s ph thuc ca hm sng vo thi gian. Hy cn thn vi cc h giun: bn khng bao gi bit c ci g s chui ra t . Cc h en l nguyn nhn chng ta ngh thi gian khng tng i vi cc nh quan st. Tho lun u tin v h en xut hin vo nm 1783. Mt cu gio s ca i hc Cambridge, John Michell trnh by lun c sau y: nu ai bn mt ht, nh l mt vin n i bc chng hn, thng ln tri th chuyn ng ln trn s b chm li do lc hp dn v cui cng l ht s dng chuyn ng ln trn v s ri tr li (hnh 4.8). Tuy vy nu vn tc bn ban u ln hn mt vn tc ti hn c gi l vn tc thot th lc hp dn s khng mnh dng ht li v ht s bay i. Trn tri t, vn tc thot vo khong 12 km/giy; trn mt tri th gi
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H EN SCHWARZSCHILD Nm 1916, mt nh thin vn hc ngi c Karl Schwarzschild tm thy mt nghim t l thuyt tng i ca Einstein i din cho mt h en hnh cu. Cng trnh ca Schwarzschild tip l mt b n bt ng ca thuyt tng i. ng chng minh rng nu mt ngi sao b c c trong mt vng nh th trng hp dn ti b mt s tr ln mnh n mc nh sng cng khng th thot c. Ngy nay ngi sao nh th c gi l mt h en, mt vng khng thi gian b bao bi mt ci gi l chn tri s kin, n gii hn vng khng gian m tt c mi th, ngay c nh sng cng khng th thot ra n vi
ngi quan st. Trong mt thi k rt di, cc nh vt l, ngay c Einstein cng nghi ng mt hnh th cc oan nh th ca vt cht c th xut hin trong v tr thc. Tuy nhin, ngy nay chng ta hiu rng bt k mt ngi sao khng quay, nng, sau khi t ht nhin liu ht nhn s phi suy sp thnh h en hnh cu hon ho ca Schwarzschild. ng knh (R) ca chn tri s kin ca h en ch ph thuc vo khi lng ca n, v c cho bi cng thc: R = 2MG/c2 Trong cng thc ny, c l vn tc nh sng, G l hng s Newton, v M l khi lng ca h en. Mt h en c khi lng bng khi lng mt tri s c bn knh bng hai dm.
tr vo khong 618 km/giy. C hai vn tc thot u ln hn nhiu vn tc ca cc vin n i bc nhng li nh hn vn tc nh sng (vo khong 300.000 km/giy). Vy nn nh sng c th thot khi tri t v mt tri mt cch khng my kh khn. Nhng Michell li l lun rng c th c cc ngi sao ln hn nhiu ln mt tri v c vn tc thot ln hn vn tc nh sng (hnh 4.9). Chng ta khng th nhn thy cc ngi sao v bt k tia sng no c phng i s b lc hp dn ca ngi sao ko tr li. tng v cc ngi sao ti ca Michell da trn nn vt l ca Newton, trong thi gian l tuyt i v thi gian khng m xa n nhng s kin xy ra. Vy nn, trong bc tranh vt l c in ca Newton, cc ngi sao en khng nh hng n kh nng tin on tng lai ca chng ta. Nhng trong thuyt tng i rng, trong cc vt th khng l lm cong khng thi gian th tnh hung li khc hn. Nm 1916, ngay sau khi thuyt tng i rng c a ra ln u tin, Karl Schwarzschild (ng mt ngay sau khi mc bnh mt trn vi Nga trong i chin th gii ln th nht) tm thy mt nghim ca cc phng trnh trng ca thuyt tng i rng biu din cho mt h en. Trong rt nhiu nm, ngi ta khng hiu hoc
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(Hnh 4.10) Quasar 3C273, ngun pht sng v tuyn gi sao u tin c pht hin, pht ra mt nng lng rt ln trong mt vng nh. C ch duy nht gii thch hin tng sng cao nh th l vt cht ang ri vo h en. JOHN WHEELER John Chibald Wheeler sinh nm 1911 ti Jacksonville, Florida, Hoa K. ng ly bng tin s v tn x ca nh sng ln nguyn t Helium i hc John Hopkins nm 1933. Nm 1938 ng lm vic cng nh vt l an Mch Niels Bohr pht trin l thuyt phn hch. Sau mt thi gian, ng lm vic cng vi sinh vin ca ng l Richard Feynman, tp trung nghin cu nhit ng hc; nhng ngay sau khi Hoa K tham gia i chin th gii 2, c hai u ng gp vo s n Mahattan. Vo nhng nm u thp k 50, ly cm hng t cng trnh v s suy sp hp dn ca nhng ngi sao nng ca Robert Oppenheimer vo nm 1039, Wheeler chuyn sang thuyt tng i rng ca Einstein. Vo thi gian , phn ln cc nh vt l u nghin cu vt l ht nhn v thuyt tng i rng khng thc s c coi l ph hp vi th gii vt l. Nhng gn nh mt mnh Wheeler n thng c m lm thay i lnh vc nghin cu thng qua cc cng trnh ca ng v thng qua vic ging dy kha hc u tin v thuyt tng i i hc Princeton. Rt lu sau, vo nm 1969, ng a ra khi nim h en, m lc by gi ch c mt s t ngi tin rng n tn ti, ch trng thi suy sp ca vt cht. V t cng trnh ca Werner Israel, ng d on rng h en khng c tc, m ch trng thi suy sp c bt k ngi sao nng khng quay no cng c th c m t bng nghim Schswarzschild.
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khng nhn ra tm quan trng ca nhng iu m Schwarzschild tm ra. Bn thn Einstein cng khng bao gi tin vo cc h en v quan im ca ng cng c phn ln cc nh khoa hc c uy tn v thuyt tng i chia s. Ti cn nh chuyn i Paris trnh by mt bo co v pht hin ca ti cho rng thuyt lng t ng cc h en khng hon ton en. Bo co ca ti kh t nht v vo lc gn nh khng c ai Paris tin vo cc h en. Ngi Php cn cm thy rng ci tn trou noir (l en) m h dch ra ting Php c ngha hi tc tu v nn thay bng ci tn astre occlu tc l ngi sao n (hidden star). Tuy vy, d l ngi sao n hoc bt k tn no khc cng khng nhn c s nhn nhn ca cng chng bng ci tn h en. y l tn do Archibald Wheeler a ra. ng l mt nh vt l M, ngi gy nhiu cm hng cho cc cng trnh trong lnh vc ny. S pht hin ra cc quasar vo nm 1963 gy ra mt cuc bng pht cc nghin cu l thuyt v h en v cc n lc quan st nhn thy chng (hnh 4.10). y l bc tranh c ghp li. Hy xem xt nhng iu chng ta tin v lch s ca mt ngi sao c khi lng ln gp hai mi ln khi lng mt tri. Cc ngi sao nh vy c hnh thnh t cc m my kh nh l cc ngi sao trong tinh vn Thin Lang (Orion, hnh 4.11). Khi cc m my kh co li di lc hp dn ca chnh bn thn chng, cc kh ny s nung nng v thm ch tr nn nng khi ng phn ng nhit hch bin hydro thnh helium. Nhit to bi qu trnh ny gy nn mt p sut gip ngi sao chng tri li lc hp dn ca n v lm cho ngi sao khng b co thm na. Ngi sao s trng thi ny trong mt thi gian di, t chy hydro v bc x nh sng vo khng gian. Trng hp dn ca ngi sao s nh hng n ng truyn ca chm sng pht ra t ngi sao . Ta c th v mt gin vi thi gian l trc thng ng, khong cch t tm ca ngi sao l trc nm ngang (hnh 4.12). Trong gin ny, b mt ca ngi sao c biu din bng hai ng thng ng nm hai bn ca tm sao. Ta c th o thi gian bng giy v khong cch bng giy nh sng khong cch m nh sng i c trong mt giy. Khi ta dng cc n v ny th tc ca nh sng l 1; tc l, tc ca nh sng l mt giy nh sng trn giy. Gin ng rng, pha xa ngi sao, xa trng hp dn ca n th ng truyn ca tia sng trn gin l mt ng thng to vi trc thng ng mt gc 45 . Tuy nhin, gn ngi sao th cong ca khng thi gian do khi lng ca ngi sao gy ra s lm thay i ng truyn ca cc tia sng v lm cho chng to vi phng thng ng mt gc
(Hnh 4.11) Cc ngi sao c hnh thnh t cc m bi kh ging nh tinh vn Thin lang.
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K d
Tia sng
Tia sng
Chn tri Ngi sao Thi gian Thi gian Ngi sao
Hnh 4.12
Khng gian
Khng gian Hnh 4.13
(Hnh 4.12) Khng thi gian xung quanh mt ngi sao khng b suy sp. nh sng c th thot ra t b mt ngi sao (ng thng ng mu ). xa ngi sao, nh sng to vi phng thng ng mt gc 45 , nhng gn ngi sao, khi lng ca ngi sao lm cong khng thi gian lm cho cc tia sng lm mt gc nh hn vi phng thng ng. (Hnh 4.13) Nu mt ngi sao suy sp (ng mu ct nhau ti mt im) khng thi gian b b cong n ni nh sng gn b mt b hng vo trong. Mt h en c hnh thnh, mt vng khng thi gian m nh sng t khng th thot ra c. Trang 114
hp hn. Cc ngi sao nng s t chy hydro thnh helium nhanh hn mt tri rt nhiu. iu ny c ngha l chng s cn kit hydro ch trong mt thi gian ngn khong vi trm triu nm. Sau , cc ngi sao ny s i mt vi mt cuc khng hong. Chng c th t helium thnh cc nguyn t nng hn nh l carbon v oxygen, nhng cc phn ng ht nhn ny khng gii thot nhiu nng lng, do cc ngi sao s mt nhit v mt i p sut nhit gip ngi sao chng li lc hp dn. Do cc ngi sao tr nn nh hn. Nu khi lng ca chng ln hn hai ln khi lng mt tri th p sut s khng bao gi ngn chn qu trnh co li. Chng s suy sp thnh mt im vi mt v hn to nn ci gi l im k d (hnh 4.13). Trong gin thi gian theo khong cch t tm ngi sao, khi mt ngi sao co li th ng truyn ca cc tia sng
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K d
Tia sng thot ra ti thi im chn tri s kin hnh thnh
Tia sng thot ra sau khi chn tri s kin hnh thnh
Nn nh sng b by Nn nh sng b nh hng bi trng hp dn
Khi u chn tri s kin
Nn nh sng thot ra
THI GIAN
Tia sng thot ra trc khi chn tri s kin hnh thnh
KHNG GIAN
t b mt ngi sao s to vi ng thng ng nhng gc nh hn v nh hn. Khi ngi sao t n mt bn knh ti hn xc nh th cc ng truyn ca tia sng s l ng thng ng trn gin , tc l nh sng s i trn mt khong cc c nh vi tm ngi sao m khng bao gi c th thot i c. ng truyn ti hn ca tia sng s lt trn mt b mt c gi l chn tri s kin (event horizon) phn cch vng khng thi gian m nh sng c th thot khi ngi sao v vng khng thi gian m nh sng khng th thot c. Bt k mt tia sng no c ngi sao pht i sau khi i qua chn tri s kin s b b cong tr li bi cong ca khng thi gian. Ngi sao s tr thnh mt trong nhng ngi sao en ca Michell, hoc nh ngy nay chng ta ni, mt h en.
Chn tri l vng bin gii ca mt h en c hnh thnh bi cc tia sng ch chm khng thot khi h en v gi mt khong cch khng i vi tm ca h en.
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(Hnh 4.15) MT H EN TM THIN H Tri: Pht hin thin h NGC 4151 t ng knh thin h trng rng. Gia: ng nm ngang bc hnh l nh sng pht ra t mt h en tm thin h 4151. Phi: Hnh ny cho thy tc pht ra oxygen. Tt c cc bng chng u cho thy rng NGC 4151 c cha mt h en c khi lng bng mt trm triu ln khi lng mt tri. (Hnh 4.14)
Lm th no c th ghi nhn mt h en nu khng mt tia sng no c th thot khi n? Cu tr li l h en vn to ra mt lc ht hp dn khng i ln cc vt th ln cn khi ngi sao b suy sp. Nu mt tri l mt h en hoc tr thnh mt h en m khng mt i khi lng ca n th th cc hnh tinh vn quay nh chng ang quay hin nay. C mt cch tm kim cc h en l tm kim vt cht quay xung quanh mt vt th khng l, c v khng nhn thy. Ngi ta quan st rt nhiu cc h nh th. C l n tng nht l cc h en khng l xut hin tm ca cc thin h v cc quasar (hnh 4.15). Cc tnh cht ca h en c tho lun cho n nay khng gy nn vn ln no cho quyt nh lun. Thi gian s kt thc i vi nh du hnh v tr ri vo h en v chm vo im k d. Tuy nhin, trong thuyt tng i, ngi ta hon ton t do khi o thi gian vi cc tc khc nhau v ti cc a im khc nhau. Do , ngi ta c th tng tc ng h ca nh du hnh v tr khi anh ta hoc c ta tin n gn im k d, vy nn, ngi ta vn ghi nhn c khong thi gian v tn. Trn gin thi gian khong cch (hnh 4.14), cc mt phng m ti thi gian l hng s (mt ng thi gian) s rt dy c ti trung tm bn di im m ti k d xut hin. Nhng cc mt phng li ph hp vi php o thi gian thng thng ti vng khng thi gian gn phng cch xa h en. Ta c th dng thi gian trong vng khng thi gian gn phng cho phng trnh Schrodinger v tnh hm sng ti cc thi im sau nu ta bit thi gian trc . Do , ta vn c quyt nh lun. Tuy vy, cng ng lu rng, ti cc thi im sau, mt phn ca
CT: ng ng thi gian
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Tn hiu t nh du hnh v tr vo hi 12:00:00
THI GIAN
n it g 59 tr 59: v 11: nh i h o h u d ai v h N h u hi th n it g 58 tr 59: v 11: nh i h o h u d ai v h N h u hi th n it g :57 tr :59 v i 11 nh h o h u v d n Nh u ti
hi
KHNG GIAN Hnh minh ha mt nh du hnh h cch xung mt ngi sao ang suy sp vo hi 11 gi 59 pht 57 giy v chm vo ngi sao ang co li ti bn knh ti hn m ti hp dn mnh n ni khng mt tn hiu no c th thot ra c. Nh du hnh gi tn hiu t ng h ca anh ta v phi thuyn ang quay cch quanh ngi sao mt khong cch tng i ln. Mt ai ang nhn ngi sao t pha xa s khng bao gi nhn thy n i qua ng chn tri vo h en. Thay vo , ngi sao c v nh ln l bn ngoi kch thc ti hn v ng h trn b mt ngi sao s chm dn ri tt hn.
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hm sng li bn trong h en ni m khng ai bn ngoi c th quan st thy hm sng . V th, mt ngi quan st ngi nhy cm khng b ri vo h en, khng th chy ngc phng trnh Schrodinger tnh hm sng ti cc thi im trc . lm iu , anh ta hoc c ta cn bit phn ca hm sng nm bn trong h en. Phn hm sng ny c cha cc thng tin v nhng ci ri vo h en. Rt c kh nng l mt lng ln cc thng tin v h en vi khi lng v tc quay cho c th c to thnh t rt nhiu tp hp cc ht khc nhau; h en khng ph thuc vo bn cht vt th suy sp to nn n. John Wheeler gi kt qu ny l h en khng c tc. i vi ngi Php, iu ny khng nh cc mi nghi ng ca h.
H en khng c tc
NHIT CA H EN H en pht x ging nh mt vt nng c nhit (T) v ch ph thuc vo khi lng ca n. Ni chnh xc hn l nhit cho bi cng thc sau: T = hc3/8kGM Trong cng thc ny (c) l vn tc nh sng, (h) l hng s Plank, (G) l hng s hp dn Newton, (k) l hng s Boltzman. Cui cng l (M) l khi lng ca h en, do , h en cng nh th nhit cng cao. Cng thc ny cho chng ta thy rng, nhit ca mt h en c khi lng bng vi ln khi lng mt tri c nhit ch khong mt phn triu trn khng tuyt i.
Kh khn cho quyt nh lun xut hin khi ti thy rng cc h en khng phi l hon ton en. Nh l ta thy trong chng 2, thuyt lng t ng rng cc trng c th khng hon ton bng khng ngay c trong ci m ta gi l chn khng. Nu chng bng khng th chng s c c v tr ti im khng v tc thay i hay cn gi l vn tc cng bng khng. iu ngy vi phm nguyn l bt nh ni rng ngi ta khng th xc nh chnh xc vn tc v v tr. Thay vo , tt c cc trng cn phi c mt ci gi l thng ging chn khng nht nh (tng t nh l con lc trong chng 2 phi c thng ging im khng). Thng ging chn khng c th c gii thch theo mt vi cch c v khc nhau nhng thc t l chng tng ng vi nhau v mt ton hc. Trn quan im thc chng, ta khng b b buc khi s dng bt k m hnh no hiu qu nht cho bi ton t ra. Trong trng hp ny, s rt c ch khi coi thng ging chn khng nh cc cp ht o xut hin cng nhau ti mt im trong khng thi gian, chuyn ng ra xa nhau ri quay tr li vi nhau v hy nhau ln nhau. o c ngha l cc ht ny khng th c quan st mt cch trc tip, nhng ta c th o c cc hiu ng gin tip, v cc php o ny ph hp vi cc tin on l thuyt vi mt chnh xc ng k (hnh 4.16). Nu h en hin din th mt thnh phn ca cp ht c th b ri vo h en li thnh phn kia t do thot vo v tn (hnh 4.17). i vi mt ngi pha xa h en th ht thot ra kia dng nh c pht x t h en. Ta trng i ph ca h en chnh l ph ca mt vt nng vi nhit t l vi trng hp dn ti chn tri s kin bin gii ca h en. Ni cch khc, nhit ca h en ph thuc vo kch thc ca n. Mt h en c khi lng gp vi ln khi lng mt tri s c nhit khong mt phn triu trn khng tuyt i, v mt
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(Hnh 4.16, bn tri) Trong khng gian trng rng, cc cp ht xut hin trong khonh khc ri hy ln nhau. (Hnh 4.17, bn trn) Cc ht o xut hin v hy ln nhau gn chn tri s kin ca h en. Mt ht b ri vo h en trong khi ht kia thot ra ngoi. T bn ngoi chn tri s kin dng nh h en ang bc x cc ht ra khng gian.
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Cc s kin m ngi quan st khng bao gi nhn thy
Chn tri s kin ca ngi quan st (Hnh 4.18) Nghim de Sitter ca cc phng trnh trng ca thuyt tng i biu din mt v tr gin n theo kiu lm pht. Trn gin , thi gian hng ln trn v kch thc ca v tr theo phng nm ngang. Khong cch v khng gian tng nhanh n mc nh sng t cc thin h xa xi khng bao gi c th n vi chng ta, v do , c mt chn tri s kin ging chn tri s kin ca h en, mt bin gii ngn cch nhng vng v tr ta khng th quan st c. Trang 120
Lch s ngi quan st Chn tri s kin Mt ng thi gian ca ngi quan st
h en ln hn li c nhit thp hn. Do vy, bt k bc x lng t no t cc h en nh th s b chm hon ton trong bc x 2,7 cn st li t v n ln bc x phng v tr m ta tho lun trong chng 2. Ta c th ghi c bc x t cc h en nh hn v nng hn, nhng dng nh khng c nhiu cc h en nh th. Tht ng tic! Nu ngi ta pht hin ra mt h en th ti s c gii Nobel. Tuy nhin chng ta vn c nhng bng chng kh quan gin tip v bc x ny, bng chng ny n t v tr s khai. Nh m t trong chng 3, ngi ta cho rng vo nhng giai on rt sm trong lch s, v tr tri qua mt thi k lm pht, khi v tr gin n vi mt tc cha tng c. Qu trnh gin n trong thi k ny nhanh n ni mt s vt th qu xa chng ta v nh
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sng ca chng khng bao gi n c vi chng ta. V tr gin n qu nhiu v qu nhanh trong khi nh sng t chng truyn vn hng v chng ta. Do s c mt chn tri trong v tr ging nh chn tri ca h en, phn cch vng m nh sng t c th n vi chng ta v vng m nh sng khng th n vi ta c (hnh 4.18). Cc lp lun tng t cho tht rng c mt bc x nhit t chn tri ny ging nh bc x nhit t chn tri ca h en. T bc x nhit, chng ta mun bit ph c trng ca cc thng ging mt . y, cc thng ging mt ny cng gin n cng v tr. Khi kch thc ca chng tr ln ln hn kch thc ca chn tri s kin th chng s b ng bng, cho nn ngy nay ta c th thy chng nh l nhng thng ging nh trong nhit ca bc x phng v tr cn li t thi k s khai ca v tr. Cc thng ging quan st ph hp vi cc tin on v thng ging nhit vi chnh xc cao. Thm ch nu bng chng thc nghim v bc x ca h en khng trc tip cho lm th tt c nhng ai nghin cu vn ny u ng rng bng chng cn phi ph hp vi cc l thuyt khc m c kim chng bng cc quan st. iu ny c ngha rt quan trng i vi quyt nh lun. Bc x t h en s mang nng lng i, iu ny c ngha l h en s mt nng lng v tr nn nh i. V s nh i ny, n lt n, c ngha l nhit ca h en s tng v tc bc x cng s tng. Cui cng th h en s gim n khi lng bng khng. Lc th ta khng bit lm th no c th tnh c vic g s xy ra, nhng kt qu duy nht hp l v ng nhin l h en dng nh bin mt hon ton. Th th ci g s xy ra sau i vi phn hm sng nm trong h en v thng tin v nhng ci ri vo h en m phn hm sng c? D on u tin c th l phn hm sng ny, v cc thng tin m n mang, s thot ra khi h en cui cng th cng bin mt. Tuy nhin, thng tin khng c truyn i mt cch min ph, ngi ta nhn ra iu khi nhn c ha n in thoi! Thng tin cn nng lng mang n i v li c rt t nng lng cn st li trng thi
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(Hnh 4.19) Bc x nhit t chn tri s kin ca h en mang nng lng dng i lm gim khi lng ca n. V mt i khi lng, nhit ca h en tng ln v tc bc x cng gia tng lm cho khi lng ca n gim i cng nhanh. Chng ta khng bit iu g xy ra nu khi lng tr ln cc nh, nhng kt qu hp l nht c th l h en bin mt hon ton.
cui cng ca h en. Cch duy nht c v hp l thng tin bn trong c th i c ra ngoi l n s thot ra lin tc vi bc x ch khng i n trng thi cui cng ny. Tuy nhin, theo bc tranh v mt ht ca cp ht o b ri vo h en v ht kia thot ra ngoi, ta khng trng i ht thot ra ngoi c lin h vi ht b ri vo h en hoc mang i thng tin v ht b ri vo h en. Do vy cu tr li duy nht dng nh l thng tin ca phn hm sng bn trong h en b mt (hnh 4.19). S mt mt thng tin nh th c hm rt quan trng vi quyt nh lun. bt u, ta hy lu rng, thm ch, nu bn bit hm sng sau khi h en bin mt th bn cng khng th chy ngc phng trnh Schrodinger v tnh xem hm sng nh th no trc khi h en c hnh thnh. Hm sng trc ph thuc mt phn vo hm sng b mt trong h en. Chng ta tng ngh l chng ta bit qu kh mt cch chnh xc. Tuy nhin, nu thng tin b mt trong h en th suy ngh khng cn ng na. Bt k iu g cng c th xy ra.
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Mc d vy th ni chung mi ngi nh l cc nh du hnh v tr v nhng ngi t vn cho h quan tm n vic tin on tng lai hn l xem xt li qu kh. Thot nhn, c v nh l vic mt mt phn hm sng trong h en khng ngn cn chng ta tin on hm sng bn ngoi h en. Nhng ha ra s mt mt ny li tc ng n tin on nh th, nh chng ta s thy khi ta xem xt mt th nghim v t duy do Einstein, Boris Podolsky v Nathan Rosen xut vo nhng nm 1930. Hy hnh dung mt nguyn t phng x phn r v pht ra hai ht i theo hai hng ngc nhau vi spin cng ngc nhau. Mt ngi quan st m ch nhn vo mt ht th khng th tin on ht s quay phi hay quay tri. Nu ngi quan st o c mt ht quay phi th anh ta hoc c ta c th on chc chn l ht kia s quay tri, v ngc li (hnh 4.20). Einstein cho rng iu ny chng minh thuyt lng t tht nc ci: gi s by gi ht kia pha bn kia ca thin h, ngi ta vn c th bit ngay tc th hng quay ca n. Tuy vy, phn ln cc nh khoa hc ng rng chnh
(Hnh 4.20) Trong th nghim t duy EinsteinPodolsky-Rosen, mt ngi quan st o spin ca mt ht s bit hng spin ca ht th hai.
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(Hnh 4.21) Mt cp ht o c mt hm sng tin on c hai ht c spin ngc nhau. Nhng nu mt ht b ri vo h en th ta khng th on c chc chn spin ca ht cn li.
Einstein lm ln ch khng phi thuyt lng t. Th nghim v t duy Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen khng chng minh rng ngi ta c th gi thng tin nhanh hn nh sng. M chnh l iu nc ci. Ngi ta khng th chn ht quay phi quan st nn ngi ta khng th on trc c ht pha xa ngi quan st s quay tri. Trn thc t, th nghim v t duy ny chnh l nhng iu xy ra vi bc x h en. Cp ht o s c mt hm sng tin on rng hai ht s mi c spin ngc nhau (hnh 4.21). iu m chng ta mun lm l on spin v hm sng ca ht thot ra. Ta c th lm c iu ny nu ta c th quan st c ht b ri vo h en. Nhng ht trong h en th ta khng th o c spin v hm sng ca n. Vy nn ta khng th tin on spin v hm sng ca
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Cc mng gp nhau
H en
(Hnh 4.22)
ht thot ra. Ht c th c cc spin khc, cc hm sng khc vi cc xc sut khc nhau, nhng n khng c mt spin hoc mt hm sng duy nht. Vy nn, kh nng tin on tng lai ca chng ta dng nh b gii hn hn. tng c in ca Laplace v vic ta c th tin on c v tr v vn tc ca ht cn phi thay i khi nguyn l bt nh cho thy rng ta khng th o chnh xc c v tr v vn tc. Tuy nhin, ngi ta vn c th o c hm sng v s dng phng trnh Schrodinger bit tng lai s nh th no. iu ny cho php ta chc chn on c t hp ca v tr v vn tc l mt na ca nhng iu c th on trc theo tng ca Laplace. Chc chn l ta c th tin on cc ht c spin ngc nhau, nhng nu mt ht b ri vo h en th chng ta khng th tin on chc chn v ht cn li. iu ny c ngha l ngi ta khng th tin on chc chn bt k php o no bn ngoi h en:
Cc h en c th c coi nh l phn giao nhau ca cc mngp trong cc chiu b sung ca khng thi gian. Thng tin v cc trng thi bn trong h en c th c lu tr di dng cc sng trn mng-p.
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(Hnh 4.23) Mt ht b ri vo h en c th c coi nh mt vng dy kn p vo mng-p (1). N kch thch mt sng trn mng-P (2). Cc sng c th i vi nhau lm cho mt phn ca mng-p b t ra to mt vng dy kn (3). y l mt ht thot ra khi h en.
kh nng tin on chc chn ca chng ta b gim v khng. Do vy ngnh chim tinh hc c th tin on tng lai khng ti hn cc nh lut khoa hc. Nhiu nh vt l khng thch s suy gim trong quyt nh lun, v do , h cho rng thng tin v nhng th bn trong c th thot ra ngoi bng cch no . Trong nhiu nm, ngi ta ho vng tm thy cch cu ly thng tin. Nhng vo nm 1996, Andrew Strominger v Cumrun Vafa thc hin mt ci tin quan trng. H coi mt h en c to nn bi cc thnh phn c gi l cc mng-p (p-brane: xem trang 54). Nhc li l ta c th hnh dung v cc mng-p nh l cc tm chuyn ng trong khng gian ba chiu v trong by chiu b sung m ta khng (hnh 4.22). Trong mt s trng hp nht nh, ta c th chng minh rng s cc sng trn cc mng-p bng lng thng tin m ta trng i h en c. Nu cc ht p vo mng-p, cc ht s to ra thm cc sng trn cc mng . Tng t, nu cc sng ang chuyn ng theo cc hng khc nhau trn cc mng-p
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m gp nhau ti mt im no th chng c th to nn mt nh sng ln n ni lm cho mt phn ca mng-p b t v thot ra ngoi nh mt ht. Vy nn cc mng-p c th hp th v pht x cc ht ging nh h en (hnh 4.23). Ta c th coi cc mng-p nh l mt l thuyt hiu dng; tc l, chng ta khng cn tin rng thc s c cc mng t hon chuyn ng trong mt khng thi gian phng hay khng, th cc h en vn c th x s nh th chng c to thnh t cc mng nh vy. Ging nh nc vy, nc c to thnh t hng t t cc phn t H2O vi cc tng tc phc tp. Nhng m hnh cht lng lin tc l m hnh hiu dng rt tt. M hnh ton hc v cc h en cho rng chng c to thnh t cc mng-p cho cc kt qu tng t vi m hnh cp ht o c m t trc y. Do , trn quan im thc chng, y cng l mt m hnh rt tt, t nht l i vi mt s loi h en nht nh. i vi loi h en , m hnh mng-p tin on mt cch chnh xc tc pht x m m hnh cp ht o a ra. Tuy nhin, c mt s khc nhau quan trng: trong m hnh mng-p, thng tin v nhng ci ri vo h en c lu tr bi hm
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sng ca cc sng trn cc mng-p. Cc mng-p c coi nh l cc tm trong khng gian phng, v v l do , thi gian s tri i mt cch trn tru, ng truyn ca cc tia sng s khng b b cong, v thng tin trong cc sng s khng b mt. Thay vo , cui cng th thng tin hin ra t h en theo cc bc x t cc mng-p. Vy nn, theo m hnh mng-p, chng ta c th s dng phng trnh Schrodinger tnh hm sng ti cc thi im sau . Khng c g b mt c, thi gian s quay u n. Chng ta s c mt quyt nh lun hon ho theo ngha lng t. Th th bc tranh no trong hai bc tranh trn l ng? Mt phn hm sng s b mt trong h en hay tt c cc thng tin s thot ra nh mng-p d on? y l mt trong nhng cu hi ni cm nht trong vt l l thuyt ngy nay. Nhiu ngi tin rng cng trnh gy y cho thy thng tin s khng b mt. Th gii l an ton v c th d on c, s khng c g bt ng xy ra. Nhng iu vn cha r rng. Nu ta chn thuyt tng i rng ca Einstein mt cch nghim tc th ta phi tha nhn xc xut m khng thi gian t tri mnh nh mt ci n v thng tin b mt trong nhng np gp. Khi phi thuyn Enterprise i qua mt h giun, vi iu bt ng xy ra. Ti bit iu v chnh ti trn phi thuyn chi bi vi Newton, Einstein v Data. Ti rt ngc nhin. Hy xem ci g xy ra u gi ca ti ny!
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CHNG 4

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(Hnh 4.2) Nu bn bit v tr v tc ca qu bng m bn nm i, bn c th tnh c n s i n u.

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Khng gian Hnh 4.13

Tia sng thot ra ti thi im chn tri s kin hnh thnh

Nn nh sng b by Nn nh sng b nh hng bi trng hp dn

Khi u chn tri s kin

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CT: ng ng thi gian

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Tn hiu t nh du hnh v tr vo hi 12:00:00

n it g 59 tr 59: v 11: nh i h o h u d ai v h N h u hi th n it g 58 tr 59: v 11: nh i h o h u d ai v h N h u hi th n it g :57 tr :59 v i 11 nh h o h u v d n Nh u ti

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Cc s kin m ngi quan st khng bao gi nhn thy

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Mt cnh trong phim Star Trek: The Next Generation, 2001

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