Sachdaisotuyentinh 1

BI GING
I S TUYN TNH
I HC THNG LONG
Hc k I, nm hc 2005 - 2006
MC LC
Trang
Bi 1 Khi nim trng
1.1 Cc tnh cht c bn ca s thc
1.2 nh ngha trng . . . . . . . .
1.3 Mt s tnh cht ca trng . . .
1.4 Trng s hu t . . . . . . . .
1.5 Trng cc s nguyn modulo p
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Bi 2 Khng gian vect v khng gian con

2.1 nh ngha khng gian vect . . . . .
2.2 V d v khng gian vect . . . . . .
2.3 Mt s tnh cht ca khng gian vect
2.4 Khng gian vect con . . . . . . . . .
2.5 Giao ca mt s khng gian con . . .
2.6 Tng hai khng gian con . . . . . . .
2.7 T hp tuyn tnh . . . . . . . . . . .
2.8 Khng gian con sinh bi mt s vect
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Bi 3 C s v s chiu ca khng gian vect

3.1 c lp v ph thuc tuyn tnh . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Mt s tnh cht c lp v ph thuc tuyn tnh . . . .
3.3 Khi nim c s ca mt khng gian vect . . . . . . .
3.4 S tn ti c s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5 Khi nim s chiu ca khng gian vect hu hn sinh
3.6 C s trong khng gian vect n chiu . . . . . . . . .
3.7 Ta ca mt vect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.8 S chiu ca khng gian con . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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1
1
2
3
5
5
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8
8
9
11
13
14
15
15
16
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20
20
21
24
25
26
27
28
30
ii
MC LC
3.9
Hng ca mt h vect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bi 4 nh x tuyn tnh
4.1 nh ngha nh x tuyn tnh . . . . .
4.2 V d v nh x tuyn tnh . . . . . .
4.3 Mt s tnh cht ca nh x tuyn tnh
4.4 nh v nhn ca nh x tuyn tnh . .
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Bi 5 nh thc
5.1 Php th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Khi nim nh thc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 Cc tnh cht c bn ca nh thc . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4 Cc tnh cht ca nh thc suy ra t cc tnh cht c bn
5.5 Tnh nh thc bng cch a v dng tam gic . . . . .
5.6 Khai trin nh thc theo mt dng hoc ct . . . . . . .
5.7 nh l Laplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bi 6 Ma trn
6.1 Cc php ton ma trn . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 Tnh cht ca cc php ton ma trn . . . . . .
6.3 nh thc ca tch hai ma trn vung cng cp
6.4 Nghch o ca ma trn vung . . . . . . . . .
6.5 Mt ng dng vui: m ha . . . . . . . . . . .
6.6 Hng ca mt ma trn . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.7 Ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh . . . . . . . . . .
6.8 Tnh cht ca ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh . .
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Bi 7 H phng trnh tuyn tnh

7.1 Khi nim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 Tiu chun c nghim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3 H Cramer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4 Phng php Gauss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5 Bin lun v s nghim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.6 H phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.7 Khng gian nghim ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht
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33
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38
38
39
40
41
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45
45
48
51
53
55
57
60
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65
65
66
67
68
71
74
76
78
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84
84
85
86
88
90
91
91
iii
MC LC
7.8
H phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht lin kt . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ti liu tham kho

Ch mc
93
99
100
Bi 1
Khi nim trng
1.1 Cc tnh cht c bn ca s thc
Tp cc s thc c k hiu l R . Ta bit hai php ton cng (+) v nhn (.)
thng thng trn R c cc tnh cht sau:
Php cng c tnh cht kt hp: (a + b) + c = a + (b + c), a, b, c R ,
C s 0 R sao cho: 0 + a = a + 0 = a, a R ,
Vi mi s thc a c s thc i ca a l a sao cho: a + (a) =
(a) + a = 0,
Php cng c tnh cht giao hon: a + b = b + a, a, b R ,
Php nhn c tnh cht kt hp: (a.b).c = a.(b.c), a, b, c R ,
Php nhn c tnh cht giao hon: a.b = b.a, a, b R ,
C s 1 sao cho vi mi s thc a ta c: a.1 = 1.a = a,
Vi mi s thc a = 0 lun c s thc
1
a
sao cho a.
1
a
= 1,
Php nhn phn phi i vi php cng: a.(b+c) = a.b+a.c v (b+c).a =

b.a + c.a vi mi a, b, c R .
Tp cc s thc vi hai php ton c cc tnh cht ni trn cho php ta tin
hnh cc tnh ton trong thc t v nhn chung, mt tp hp no c trang b hai
php ton tha mn cc tnh cht ni trn c th coi l " mnh" chng ta xem
xt mt cch c th.
1.2. nh ngha trng
1.2 nh ngha trng

nh ngha 1.2.1
Cho tp hp K c t nht hai phn t. Trn K c hai php ton l php cng (k
hiu l +) v php nhn (k hiu l . hoc ). K cng vi hai php ton c
gi l mt trng nu tha mn 9 tnh cht sau:
1. Php cng c tnh cht kt hp: (a + b) + c = a + (b + c), a, b, c K .
2. C phn t 0 K sao cho: 0 + a = a + 0 = a, a K . Phn t 0 c
gi l phn t trung lp.
3. Vi mi phn t a K lun tn ti mt phn t a K sao cho: a + (a ) =
(a ) + a = 0. Phn t a c gi l phn t i ca a v c k hiu l
a.
4. Php cng c tnh cht giao hon: a + b = b + a, a, b K .
5. Php nhn c tnh cht kt hp: (a.b).c = a.(b.c), a, b, c K .
6. C phn t 1 K sao cho vi mi phn t a ta c: a.1 = 1.a = a. Phn
t 1 c gi l phn t n v ca php nhn trn K .
7. Vi mi phn t a = 0 lun c phn t a K sao cho a.a = a .a = 1.
Phn t a c gi l phn t nghch o ca a v c k hiu l a1 .
8. Php nhn c tnh cht giao hon: a.b = b.a, a, b K .
9. Php nhn phn phi i vi php cng: a.(b+c) = a.b+a.c v (b+c).a =
b.a + c.a, a, b, c K .
Cc tnh cht trn cn c gi l cc tin ca trng.
V d:
Tp hp cc s thc R vi php ton cng v nhn thng thng l
mt trng.
Xt cc tp hp s N , Z , Q cng hai php ton cng v nhn thng
thng.
Phn t 4 N nhng khng c phn t a N sao cho 4 + a = 0
nn tp s t nhin N khng phi l mt trng (tin 3 khng c
tho mn).
S nguyn 2 = 0 nhng khng c mt s nguyn x no tha mn
2.x = 1, do tp s nguyn Z khng phi l mt trng (tin 7
khng c tho mn).
1.3. Mt s tnh cht ca trng
Tp hp s hu t Q vi cc php ton cng v nhn thng thng

l mt trng v n tha mn c 9 tin ca trng. S 0 chnh l
phn t trung lp, s 1 chnh l phn t n v ca trng Q . Nu
1
a Q th i ca a l a, nghch o ca a = 0 l .
a
1.3 Mt s tnh cht ca trng

Cho K l mt trng, a, b, c K , khi :
Tnh cht 1.3.1 (Lut gin c i vi php cng)
Nu a + b = a + c (1) th b = c.
Chng minh: Do K l mt trng, a K nn a c i l a K . Cng v pha
bn tri ca ng thc (1) vi a, ta c:
(a) + (a + b) = (a) + (a + c)
[(a) + a] + b = [(a) + a] + c
(theo tin 1)
0+b=0+c
(theo tin 3)
b=c
(theo tin 2).

2
Tnh cht 1.3.2 (Quy tc chuyn v)

nh ngha a b = a + (b). Khi nu a + b = c (2) th a = c b.
Chng minh: Cng c hai v ca (2) vi b, ta c:
(a + b) + (b) = c + (b)
a + [b + (b)] = c + (b)
(theo tin 1)
a + 0 = c + (b)
(theo tin 3)
a = c + (b)
a=cb
(theo tin 2)
(theo nh ngha).
2
Tnh cht 1.3.3

a.0 = 0.a = 0.
Chng minh: Ta c: a.0 = a.(0 + 0) = a.0 + a.0. Mt khc: a.0 = a.0 + 0.
Do : a.0 + a.0 = a.0 + 0. Gin c cho a.0 ta c a.0 = 0. Tng t ta
c: 0.a = 0.
2
1.3. Mt s tnh cht ca trng
Tnh cht 1.3.4

Nu a.b = 0 th a = 0 hoc b = 0.
Chng minh: Gi s a.b = 0 (3) v a = 0. Ta s chng minh b = 0. Tht vy,
t a = 0, nhn hai v ca (3) vi a1 , ta c:
a1 .(a.b) = a1 .0
[a1 .a].b = a1 .0
(theo tin 5)
1.b = a1 .0
(theo tin 7)
b = a1 .0
(theo tin 6)
b=0
(theo tnh cht 1.3.3).

2
Tnh cht 1.3.5

a.(b) = (a).b = (a.b).
Chng minh: Ta c: a.(b) + a.b = a.[(b) + b] = a.0 = 0 v (a).b +
a.b = [(a) + a].b = 0.b = 0. Do : a.(b) = (a).b = (a.b).
2
Tnh cht 1.3.6
a(b c) = ab ac.
Chng minh: Ta c a.(b c) = a.[b + (c)] = a.b + a.(c) = a.b +
[(ac)] = a.b a.c.
2
Tnh cht 1.3.7
Nu a.b = a.c v a = 0 th b = c.
Chng minh: T a = 0, ta nhn hai v ca biu thc a.b = a.c vi a1 , ta c:
a1 .(a.b) = a1 .(a.c)
(a1 .a).b = (a1 .a).c
(theo tin 5)
1.b = 1.c
(theo tin 7)
b=c
(theo tin 6).

2
1.4. Trng s hu t
1.4 Trng s hu t
nh ngha 1.4.1
S thc r c gi l mt s hu t nu tn ti hai s nguyn m, n(n = 0) sao
m
cho r =
.
n
Nhn xt: Mt s hu t c th biu din di dng mt s thp phn hu hn hoc
s thp phn v hn tun hon.
V d:
23
8
40
13
= 2, 875.
= 3, 0769230769230... (c vit gn li thnh 3, 076923).
Ngc li, mt s thp phn hu hn hoc v hn tun hon c th vit c di

dng mt phn s.
Trng hp s thp phn hu hn: nu phn thp phn ca s c k ch s
th nhn v chia s vi 10k .
V d:
x = 15, 723 =
15723
1000
Trng hp s thp phn v hn tun hon:

V d:
a. x = 12, 357. Ta c 1000x = 12357, 357, nn
1000x x = 999x = 12345. Vy x =
12345
999
4115
333
b. y = 7, 26. Ta c 100y = 726, 6 v 10y = 72, 6 nn 90y =

654.
654
109
Vy y =
=
.
90
15
1.5 Trng cc s nguyn modulo p

Cho p l mt s nguyn. t Z p = {1, 2, 3, . . . , p 1}. Trn Z p xc nh hai
php ton cng (+) v nhn (. hoc ) nh sau:
a + b = (a + b) mod p,
a.b = (a.b) mod p.
1.5. Trng cc s nguyn modulo p
V d:
Php cng v nhn trong Z 7 c cho trong bng sau:
+
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
0
2
2
3
4
5
6
0
1
3
3
4
5
6
0
1
2
4
4
5
6
0
1
2
3
5
5
6
0
1
2
3
4
6
6
0
1
2
3
4
5
.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
2
0
2
4
6
1
3
5
3
0
3
6
2
5
1
4
4
0
4
1
5
2
6
3
5
0
5
3
1
6
4
2
6
0
6
5
4
3
2
1
Mnh 1.5.1
Z p l mt trng khi v ch khi p l s nguyn t.
Vic chng minh mnh trn coi nh bi tp dnh cho cc bn sinh vin. Phn t
trung lp ca php cng l 0 v phn t n v ca php nhn l 1. i ca 0 l 0,
nu 0 < a < p th i ca a l a = p a. Nu 0 < a < p th nghch o ca
a l phn t b (0 < b < p) sao cho a.b 1 (mod p).
V d:
Trong Z 7 ta c: 11 = 1, 21 = 4, 31 = 5, 41 = 2, 51 = 3,
61 = 6.
Trng Z 29 l mt trng hu hn quan trng thng c s dng
trong vic m ha (29 l s nguyn t nh nht khng nh hn s ch
ci trong bng ch ci ting Anh (26 ch)).
Ta c:
20 + 13 = (20 + 33) mod 29 = 33 mod 29 = 4.
20.13 = (20.13) mod 29 = 260 mod 29 = 28.
7 = 22, 12 = 17.
Ta c nghch o ca mt s phn t trong Z 29 nh sau:
11 = 1 v 1.1 = 1 mod 29 = 1,
21 = 15 v 2.15 = 30 mod 29 = 1.
Tng t 31 = 10, 41 = 22, 121 = 17.
1.5. Trng cc s nguyn modulo p
BI TP I
I.1.
I.2.
I.3.
I.4.
Chng minh Z p l mt trng khi v ch khi p l mt s nguyn t.

Lp bng cng v nhn trong trng Z 5 .
Tm phn t i v phn t nghch o ca cc phn t khc 0 trong trng Z 29 .
Cho K l mt trng, n N , ta nh ngha an = a.a.

. . . .a}. Quy c
| {z
n ln
a0 = 1. Chng minh cc ng thc sau:

n
a. (a + b) =
n
X
C kn ank bk ,
k=0
b. an bn = (a b)(an1 + an2 .b + . . . + a.bn2 + an1 ).

I.5.
Chuyn nhng phn s sau v s thp phn hu hn hoc v hn tun hon
a. x =
b. y =
c. z =
I.6.
125
8
379
110
462
13
,
.
Chuyn nhng s thp phn sau v phn s:
a. x = 17, 522,
b. y = 12, 536,
c. z = 23, 67.
Bi 2
Khng gian vect v khng gian con
2.1 nh ngha khng gian vect
nh ngha 2.1.1
Cho V l mt tp hp m cc phn t c k hiu l: , , . . . , K l mt
trng m cc phn t c k hiu l a, b, c, x, y, z . . .. Trn V ta c hai php
ton
Php cng hai phn t ca V :
+:V V V
(, ) 7 +
Php nhn mt phn t ca V vi mt phn t ca K :
.:K V V
(x, ) 7 x.
Gi s i vi mi , , V , mi x, y K cc iu kin sau c tha mn:
1. ( + ) + = + ( + ),
2. Tn ti vect sao cho + = + = ,
3. Vi mi c mt phn t sao cho + = + = ,

4. + = + ,
5. x.( + ) = x. + x.,
6. (x + y). = x. + y.,
7. (xy). = x.(y.),
8. 1. = , trong 1 l phn t n v ca trng K .
2.2. V d v khng gian vect
Khi ta ni rng V l mt khng gian vect trn trng K (hoc V l K khng

gian vect). Ta cng ni V l khng gian tuyn tnh trn trng K .
Ch :
Cc phn t ca V c gi l cc vect. Phn t c gi l vect khng,

c gi l phn t i ca v c k hiu l (). Ta s vit + ()
l v gi l hiu ca hai vect , .
Khi K = R (tng ng K = C ) ta ni V l khng gian vect thc (tng
ng khng gian vect phc).
Khi ta ni V l mt khng gian vect, ta ngm hiu rng ta ang ni n V
cng vi hai php ton l php cng hai phn t ca V v php nhn mt phn
t ca V vi mt phn t ca K .
n gin trong cch vit, t y tr i ta s k hiu php nhn mt phn t
x thuc trng K vi mt vect thuc V l x thay v vit x..
2.2 V d v khng gian vect

1. Trong khng gian cho trc mt im O c nh. Tp tt c cc vect hnh
hc trong khng gian, c gc ti O cng vi php cng cc vect v php nhn
mt s thc vi mt vect l mt khng gian vect thc. Khng gian vect ny
c gi l khng gian vect hnh hc v c k hiu l E3 .
2. Xt trng s thc R v trng s hu t Q . i vi R , tng ca hai s thc
l mt s thc v nu x Q , R th x R . Tm iu kin trong
nh ngha mt khng gian vect chnh l cc tnh cht quen thuc ca s thc.
V vy R l mt khng gian vect trn Q . Tuy nhin Q khng l khng gian
vect trn R v x R , Q th ni chung x
/ Q.
3. Cho R l trng s thc. K hiu R n l tch Descartes ca n bn R
R n = {(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) | ai R , i = 1, n}.
Vi = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ), = (b1 , b2 , . . . , bn ) l hai phn t ty thuc
R n v x l mt phn t ty thuc R , ta nh ngha:
+ = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) + (b1 , b2 , . . . , bn )
= (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , . . . , an + bn ),
x = x(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) = (xa1 , xa2 , . . . , xan ).
10
2.2. V d v khng gian vect
Khi R n cng vi php ton cng v nhn nh trn l mt khng gian vect
thc.
4. Xt C[a, b] l tp hp tt c cc hm s thc lin tc trn [a, b]. Tng ca hai
hm s f, g C[a, b] l hm s f + g C[a, b] c nh ngha bi
(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)
v tch ca ca mt s thc r R vi hm s f C[a, b] l hm s
rf C[a, b] c nh ngha bi
(rf )(x) = rf (x).
Khi C[a, b] l mt khng gian vect trn R i vi php cng v php nhn
c nh ngha trn.
5. K l mt trng. Vi mi b hu hn cc phn t thuc K : an , an1 , . . . , a1 , a0 ,
ta lp biu thc hnh thc:
p(x) = an xn + an1 xn1 + . . . + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 .
p(x) c gi l mt a thc ca n x (hay bin x) vi h s trn trng K .
Vi n = 0 mi phn t bt k ca trng K u l a thc.
a thc c tt c cc h s bng khng c gi l a thc khng, k hiu l .
Nu an = 0 th s n gi l bc ca a thc p(x), k hiu n = deg p(x). Ta
quy c deg = (hoc c th xem nh khng c bc).
Ta k hiu K [x] l tp hp tt c cc a thc n x vi h s trn K . Ta nh
ngha hai php ton cng v nhn v hng trn K [x] nh sau: Vi mi cp
a thc p(x), q(x),
p(x) = an xn + . . . + a1 x + a0 ,
q(x) = bm xm + . . . + bn+1 xn+1 + bn xn + . . . + b1 x + b0 .
Gi s m > n. Khi :
p(x)+q(x) = bm xm +. . .+bn+1 xn+1 +(an +bn )xn +. . .+(a0 +b0 ).
Gi s m = n. Khi :
p(x) + q(x) = (an + bn )xn + . . . + (a1 + b1 )x + (a0 + b0 ).
ap(x) = (aan )xn + (aan1 )xn1 + . . . + (aa1 )x + (aa0 ).
2.3. Mt s tnh cht ca khng gian vect
11
Vi hai php ton nh ngha nh trn, K [x] l mt khng gian vect trn K .
Trng hp c bit, khi K = R , ta c R [x] l mt khng gian vect thc.
Trong sut quyn sch ny nu khng lu g thm th ta ngm hiu rng
C[a, b], K [x], R [x], R n l cc khng gian vect c nh ngha trong cc v
d trn.
2.3 Mt s tnh cht ca khng gian vect

Mnh 2.3.1
Gi s V l mt khng gian vect trn trng K , khi
1. Vect khng l duy nht.
2. Vi mi V , vect i ca l duy nht.
3. 0 = , V .
4. x = , x K .
5. x = khi v ch khi x = 0 hoc = .
6. x() = (x) = (x), x K , V .
7. x( ) = x x, x K , , V .
8. (x y) = x y, x, y K , V .
9. Nu + = + th = , , , V (Lut gin c).
10. Nu + = th = , , , V (Quy tc chuyn v).
Chng minh:
1. Gi s tn ti 1 V cng tha mn iu kin: 1 + = + 1 = vi
mi V . Ta c
= + 1 = 1 .
Vy vect khng l duy nht.
2. Gi s tn ti 1 V sao cho + 1 = 1 + = . Ta c
1 = 1 + = 1 + [ + ()]
= (1 + ) + ()
= + () = .
Suy ra vect i ca l duy nht.
12
2.3. Mt s tnh cht ca khng gian vect
3. 0 = (0 + 0) = 0 + 0.
Cng 0 vo c hai v ca ng thc trn ta c
0 + (0) = (0 + 0) + (0).
Hay tng ng
= 0 + (0 + (0))
= 0 + = 0.
4. x = x( + ) = x + x. Cng x vo c hai v ca ng thc trn ta
c
x + (x) = (x + x) + (x).
ng thc ny tng ng vi
= x + [x + (x)]
= x + = x.
5. Theo tnh cht 3. v 4. ta c: nu x = 0 hoc = th x = .
Ngc li, gi s x = . Nu x = 0 th
1
= 1 = ( x)
x
1
1
= (x) =
x
x
= .
Vy x = ko theo x = 0 hoc = .
6. chng minh tnh cht ny, chng ta nhn thy rng
= 0 = [x + (x)]
= x + (x).
Cng (x) vo biu thc u tin v cui cng ca ng thc trn. Ta suy
ra: (x) = (x). Mt khc,
= x = x[ + ()]
= x + x().
Cng (x) vo c hai v ca ng thc trn ta c
(x) = x().
T cc lp lun trn, tnh cht c chng minh.
13
2.4. Khng gian vect con
7. Ta c
x( ) = x[ + ()] = x + x()
= x + (x)(theo tnh cht 6.)
= x x.
8. Ta c
(x y) = [x + (y)] = x + (y)
= x + (y) (theo tnh cht 6.)
= x y.
Cn lut gin c v quy tc chuyn v c chng minh tng t phn trng

s dnh cho cc bn nh bi tp.
2
2.4 Khng gian vect con

nh ngha 2.4.1
Gi s V l mt khng gian vect trn trng K . Tp con W khc rng ca V
c gi l khng gian vect con (hay khng gian con) ca khng gian vect V nu
cc iu kin sau c tha mn
1. , W : + W .
2. W : x W (x K ).
Ta c mt s nhn xt sau
1. V W = nn W . Theo iu kin 2. ta c: 0 = W . Vy mi
khng gian con u cha .
2. Gi s W l khng gian con ca V . D thy tm iu kin trong nh ngha
mt khng gian vect c tha mn, do W l mt K khng gian vect
. Ngc li, nu W l mt tp con ca V v W l mt K khng gian vect
i vi hai php ton xc nh trn V th W l mt khng gian con ca V .
Mnh 2.4.2
Tp W khc rng ca V l khng gian con ca K khng gian vect V khi v ch
khi vi mi , W , mi x, y K ta c: x + y W .
Chng minh:
() Gi s W l khng gian con ca V . Theo iu kin 2. ta c x W ,
y W . Li theo iu kin 1. ta c x + y W .
14
2.5. Giao ca mt s khng gian con
() Gi s x + y W vi mi , W, x, y K . Ly x = 1, y = 1
ta c
x + y = 1 + 1 = + W.
Ly y = 0 ta c: x + y = x + 0 = x + = x W .
Nh vy W tha mn hai iu kin trong nh ngha mt khng gian con do W
l mt khng gian con ca V .
2
V d:
1. Khng gian vect V bt k u c hai khng gian con l bn thn tp
V v tp {} gm ch mt vect khng. Cc khng gian con ny
c gi l cc khng gian con tm thng.
2. Trong khng gian vect hnh hc E3 , tp W gm cc vect gc ti
gc ta O v nm trn cng mt mt phng (P) cho trc i qua O
l mt khng gian con ca E3 .
3. W = {(x1 , x2 , 0) | x1 , x2 R } l mt khng gian con ca khng
gian vect R 3 .
4. Vi n 0, t
Pn [x] = {p(x) R [x] | deg p(x) n}.
Khi Pn [x] l mt khng gian con ca R [x].
2.5 Giao ca mt s khng gian con

Mnh 2.5.1
Gi s W1 , W2 , . . . , Wm l nhng khng gian con ca mt khng gian vect V
m
\
trn trng K . Khi W =
Wi l mt khng gian con ca V .
i=1
Chng minh: V Wi , i = 1, m nn W , do W = . Gi s ,
m
\
l hai vect ty thuc W , m W =
Wi suy ra , Wi , i = 1, m. Hn
i=1
na Wi l nhng khng gian con ca V nn theo mnh 2.5.1 vi mi x, y K

ta c x + y Wi , i = 1, m. T y suy ra x + y W v nh vy theo
mnh 2.5.1 ta c W l mt khng gian con ca V .
2
2.6. Tng hai khng gian con
15
2.6 Tng hai khng gian con

Mnh 2.6.1
Gi s W1 , W2 l hai khng gian con ca khng gian vect V trn trng K . Ta
nh ngha
W = {1 + 2 | 1 W1 , 2 W2 }.
Khi W l mt khng gian con ca V v c gi l tng ca hai khng gian con
W1 , W2 .
Chng minh: V = + nn W , do W = .
Gi s , l hai vect ty thuc W . Khi
= 1 + 2 , = 1 + 2 , vi 1 , 1 W1 ; 2 , 2 W2 .
Vi mi x, y K ta c
x + y = x(1 + 2 ) + y(1 + 2 ) = (x1 + y1 ) + (x2 + y2 ).
t 1 = x1 + y1 , 2 = x2 + y2 , theo mnh 2.5.1 ta c 1 W1 , 2
W2 . Vy theo nh ngha ca W th x + y = 1 + 2 W . Li theo mnh
2.5.1 ta c W l mt khng gian con ca V .
2
2.7 T hp tuyn tnh

nh ngha 2.7.1
Cho V l mt khng gian vect trn trng K .
1. Gi s 1 , 2 , . . . , m l m vect thuc V (m 1). Nu = x1 1 +
x2 2 + + xm m , xi K , i = 1, m th ta ni l t hp tuyn tnh
ca m vect cho hay biu din tuyn tnh qua h m vect cho.
2. Gi s S l tp con ca V (s phn t ca S c th hu hn hoc v hn). Ta
ni biu din tuyn tnh qua tp S nu biu din tuyn tnh qua mt h hu
hn vect thuc S.
D thy nu biu din tuyn tnh qua tp S v mi vect thuc S li biu din
tuyn tnh qua tp T (S,T l hai tp con ca K khng gian vect V ) th biu
din tuyn tnh qua tp T .
V d:
1. Nu S th biu din tuyn tnh qua S, biu din tuyn tnh qua tp
con bt k ca V .
2.8. Khng gian con sinh bi mt s vect
16
2. Trong khng gian vect V = R 2 xt cc vc t

= (2, 3), 1 = (0, 1), 2 = (1, 1)
Tnh ton ta thy = 1 + 22 . Vy l t hp tuyn tnh ca hai vect
1 , 2 .
3. Trong khng gian vect R [x] xt ba a thc vi h s thc:
1 = x + 3, 2 = 2x2 + 2x + 1, = x2 + 4x + 9, 5.
1
Trong trng hp ny = 31 + 2 . Suy ra l t hp tuyn tnh ca hai
2
vect 1 , 2 .
2.8 Khng gian con sinh bi mt s vect

Mnh 2.8.1
Cho h gm m vect 1 , 2 , . . . , m ca khng gian vect V trn trng K . Ta
nh ngha
W = {x1 1 + x2 2 + + xm m | xi K , i = 1, m}.
Khi
1. W l mt khng gian con ca V .
2. W cha i , i = 1, m.
3. W l khng gian con nh nht ca V cha i , i = 1, m.
Chng minh: Ta chng minh khng nh u cn hai khng nh sau c coi nh
bi tp.
V = 01 + 02 + + 0m W nn W = . Mt khc ly hai vect
, ty thuc W , khi
= a1 1 + a2 2 + + am m ,
= b1 1 + b2 2 + + bm m
v x, y K ty . Ta c
x + y = x(a1 1 + a2 2 + + am m ) + y(b1 1 + b2 2 + + bm m )
= (xa1 + yb1 )1 + (xa2 + yb2 )2 + + (xam + ybm )m W.
Vy W l mt khng gian con ca V .
17
nh ngha 2.8.2
W xc nh nh trong mnh 2.8.1 c gi l khng gian con sinh bi h m vect
1 , 2 , . . . , m v c k hiu l: L(1 , 2 , . . . , m ). H {1 , 2 , . . . , m }
c gi l h sinh ca W .
BI TP II
Bi tp v khng gian vect
II.1. Chng minh rng cc tp C[a, b], R [a, b] cng vi cc php ton c nh
ngha trong mc 2.2 l khng gian vect thc.
II.2. Trong cc tp sau y tp no l khng gian vect
1. Tp cc s phc C vi php ton cng hai s phc v php nhn mt s phc
vi mt s thc thng thng.
2. Tp cc s nguyn Z vi php cng hai s nguyn v php nhn mt s nguyn
vi mt s thc thng thng.
3. Tp cc cc a thc h s hu t vi php cng hai a thc v php nhn mt
a thc vi mt s hu t.
II.3. Chng minh rng cc tp sau y khng l khng gian vect trn trng s
thc vi php cng v php nhn l cc php cng v php nhn trong R 2
1. V = {(x1 , x2 )|x1 0, x2 0}.
2. V = {(x1 , x2 )|x1 x2 0}.
3. V = {(x1 , x2 )|x21 + x22 1}.
II.4.
Chng minh rng tp R 2 khng l khng gian vect i vi php cng v
php nhn c nh ngha nh sau
1. (x1 , x2 ) + (y1 , y2 ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ) v a(x1 , x2 ) = (ax1 , x2 ).
2. (x1 , x2 ) + (y1 , y2 ) = (x1 , x2 ) v a(x1 , x2 ) = (ax1 , ax2 ).
3. (x1 , x2 ) + (y1 , y2 ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ) v a(x1 , x2 ) = (a2 x1 , a2 x2 ).
II.5. Cho U, V l hai khng gian vect trn trng K . Trn X = U V ta xc
nh php cng hai phn ca X
(x1 , x2 ) + (y1 , y2 ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ),
v php nhn mt phn t ca X vi mt phn t ca trng K
a(x1 , x2 ) = (ax1 , ax2 ).
18
Chng minh rng X l mt khng gian vect trn K .

II.6. Cho R l trng s thc. K hiu
(R + )n = {(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) | xi R , xi > 0, i = 1, n}.
Vi x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ), y = (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) bt k thuc (R + )n v a R
bt k ta nh ngha
x + y = (x1 y1 , x2 y2 , . . . , xn yn ), ax = (xa1 , xa2 , . . . , xan ).
Chng minh rng (R + )n l mt khng gian vect thc.
Bi tp v khng gian con
II.7. Chng minh rng
1. Q l khng gian con ca khng gian vect R trn Q .
2. Tp Pn [x] gm cc a thc h s thc c bc khng vt qu n l mt khng
gian con ca khng gian vect R [x].
II.8.
Tp con no trong cc tp con sau y l khng gian con ca khng gian
3
vect R ?
1. W1 = {(x1 , 0, x3 )}.
2. W2 = {(x1 , x2 , x3 ) | x1 + x2 + x3 = 0}.
3. W3 = {(x1 , x2 , x3 ) | x1 + x2 + x3 = 1}.
4. W3 = {(x1 , x2 , x3 ) | x1 = x2 x3 }.
II.9.
Tp no trong nhng tp sau y l khng gian con ca khng gian vect
C[0, 1]?
1. W1 = {f C[0, 1] | f (0) = 1}.
2. W2 = {f C[0, 1] | f (0) = 0}.
3. W2 = {f C[0, 1] | f kh vi trn [0, 1]}.
II.10.
R [x]?
Tp no trong nhng tp sau y l khng gian con ca khng gian vect
1. Tp tt c cc a thc h s thc p tha mn p(0) = 0.

2. Tp tt c cc a thc h s thc c dng p(x) = ax, trong a R .
19
3. Tp tt c cc a thc h s thc c dng p(x) = ax2 + 1, trong a R .

II.11.
1. Cho W1 l tp hp tt c cc vect c dng (2a, 0, 3a), trong a l s thc
ty . Tm mt vect R 3 sao cho W1 = L().
2. Cho W2 l tp hp tt c cc vect c dng (3a + b, a, b), trong a,b l cc
s thc ty . Tm vect , R 3 sao cho W2 = L(, ).
II.12. Cho h gm m vect 1 , 2 , . . . , m ca khng gian vect V trn trng
K . Ta k hiu
W = x1 1 + x2 2 + . . . + xm m xi K , i = 1, m .
Chng minh rng W l khng gian con nh nht trong cc khng gian con ca V
cha h vect 1 , 2 , . . . , m .
II.13. Cho {Wi , i I} l mt h ty
\ nhng khng gian con ca mt khng
gian vect V . Chng minh rng W =
Wi l mt khng gian ca V .
iI
II.14. Cho W1 , W2 l hai khng gian con ca khng gian vect V . Chng minh
rng W1 + W2 l giao ca tt c cc khng gian con ca V cha W1 v W2 .
Bi 3
C s v s chiu ca khng gian vect
3.1 c lp v ph thuc tuyn tnh
nh ngha 3.1.1
Cho m vect 1 , 2 , . . . , m ca khng gian vect V trn trng K , m > 1.
1. H vect 1 , 2 , . . . , m c gi l ph thuc tuyn tnh nu tn ti m phn
t x1 , x2 , . . . , xm K khng ng thi bng 0 sao cho x1 1 + x2 2 +
+ xm m = .
2. H vect 1 , 2 , . . . , m c gi l c lp tuyn tnh nu n khng ph
thuc tuyn tnh, hay mt cch tng ng x1 1 +x2 2 + +xm m =
ko theo x1 = x2 = = xm = 0.
3. Tp S V c gi l c lp tuyn tnh nu mi h con hu hn ca S u
c lp tuyn tnh.
V d:
1. Trong khng gian hnh hc E3
Hai vect cng phng l ph thuc tuyn tnh.

Hai vect khng cng phng l c lp tuyn tnh.
Ba vect ng phng l ph thuc tuyn tnh.
Ba vect khng ng phng l c lp tuyn tnh.
Bn vect bt k l ph thuc tuyn tnh.
2. Trong khng gian vect R 3 , h vect

1 = (1, 2, 0), 2 = (0, 1, 2), 3 = (1, 4, 4)
3.2. Mt s tnh cht c lp v ph thuc tuyn tnh
21
l ph thuc tuyn tnh v:

1(1, 2, 0) 2(0, 1, 2) + 1(1, 4, 4)
= (1, 2, 0) + (0, 2, 4) + (1, 4, 4)
= (1 + 0 1, 2 2 + 4, 0 4 + 4) = (0, 0, 0).
H vect
1 = (1, 0, 0), 2 = (1, 1, 0), 3 = (1, 1, 1)
l c lp tuyn tnh. Tht vy, nu
x1 1 + x2 2 + x3 3 =
th x1 (1, 0, 0) + x2 (1, 1, 0) + x3 (1, 1, 1) = .
hay (x1 + x2 + x3 , x2 + x3 , x3 ) = (0, 0, 0).
T suy ra
x1 + x2 + x3 = 0
x2 + x3 = 0
x3 = 0
Do x1 = x2 = x3 = 0.
3. Trong R khng gian vect Pn [x] cc a thc h s thc mt bin
gm a thc khng v cc a thc c bc khng vt qu n, h cc
a thc 1, x, x2 , . . . , xn l c lp tuyn tnh. Tht vy, gi s c
a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + + an xn = ,
trong l a thc khng ca Pn [x]. Bng cch ng nht h s
hai v ta c a1 = a2 = = an = 0.
3.2 Mt s tnh cht c lp v ph thuc tuyn tnh

Mnh 3.2.1
1. H gm mt vect c lp tuyn tnh khi v ch khi = .
2. Mi h vect cha vect u ph thuc tuyn tnh.
3. Mi h vect cha hai vect t l vi nhau th ph thuc tuyn tnh.
4. Mt h gm m vect (m > 1) l ph thuc tuyn tnh khi v ch khi c mt
vect biu th tuyn tnh c qua cc vect cn li.
Chng minh:
22
1. () Gi s h c lp tuyn tnh. Nu = ta c 1. = t h
ph thuc tuyn tnh. Mu thun ny suy ra = .
() Nu = th t x = suy ra x = 0. Vy h c lp tuyn tnh.
2. Gi s cho h vect , 2 , . . . , m . Chn x1 = 1, x2 = = xm = 0,
ta c:
1. + 0.2 + + 0.m = .
3. Gi s h 1 , 2 , . . . m c hai vect i , j (i = j) t l, tc l
i = xj , x K .
Khi ta c
0.1 + + 1.i + + (x)j + + xm m = .
Vy h 1 , 2 , . . . , m ph thuc tuyn tnh.
4. () Gi s h m vect 1 , 2 , . . . , m ph thuc tuyn tnh. Khi tn ti
cc phn t x1 , x2 , . . . , xm thuc K khng ng thi bng 0 sao cho
x1 1 + x2 2 + + xi i + + xm m = ,
Do x1 , x2 , . . . , xm khng ng thi bng 0 nn tn ti i xi = 0. Khi
xi i = x1 1 + x2 2 + + xi1 i1 + xi+1 i+1 + + xm m .
Nhn c hai v ca ng thc ny vi
i =
x1
xi
x2
xi
1
xi
xi1
xi
ta c:
i1
xi+1
xi
i+1
xm
xi
m .
Nh vy i biu th tuyn tnh c qua cc vect cn li.

() Gi s c vect i biu th tuyn tnh c qua cc vect cn li, tc l
i = x1 1 + x2 2 + + xi1 i1 + xi+1 i+1 + + xm m .
Khi
x1 1 + x2 2 + + xi1 i1 1.i + xi+1 i+1 + + xm m = .
Vy h cho ph thuc tuyn tnh.
2
23
Mnh 3.2.2
Nu h gm cc vect 1 , 2 , . . . , m c lp tuyn tnh v l mt vect khng
biu th tuyn tnh c qua h vect cho th h vect 1 , 2 , . . . , m , cng
c lp tuyn tnh.
Chng minh: Gi s x1 1 + x2 2 + + xm m + x = . Nu x = 0 th
t suy ra
= (
x1
x
)1 + (
x2
x
)2 + + (
xm
x
)m .
iu ny tri vi gi thit khng biu th tuyn tnh c qua cc vect

1 , 2 , . . . , m . Do x = 0 v khi y
x1 1 + x2 2 + + xm m = .
V h vect cho c lp tuyn tnh nn x1 = x2 = = xm = 0. kt hp vi
x = 0 suy ra h vect 1 , 2 , . . . , m , c lp tuyn tnh.
2
Mnh 3.2.3
1. Nu ta thm mt s vect bt k vo mt h vect ph thuc tuyn tnh th c
mt h vect ph thuc tuyn tnh.
2. Nu bt i mt s vect bt k ca mt h vect c lp tuyn tnh th c mt
h vect c lp tuyn tnh.
Chng minh:
1. Gi s h vect 1 , 2 , . . . m ph thuc tuyn tnh. Khi tn ti m phn
t x1 , x2 , . . . , xm K khng ng thi bng 0 sao cho:
x1 1 + x2 2 + + xm m = .
Nu thm vo h cho r vect 1 , 2 , . . . , r th vi
xm+1 = xm+2 = = xm+r = 0
ta cng c
x1 1 + x2 2 + + xm m + 0.1 + 0.2 + + 0.r = .
Vy h vect 1 , 2 , . . . , m , 1 , 2 , . . . , r ph thuc tuyn tnh.
2. Suy ra t mnh 3.2.2.
2
3.3. Khi nim c s ca mt khng gian vect
24
3.3 Khi nim c s ca mt khng gian vect

nh ngha 3.3.1
Gi s V l K khng gian vect. Mt h vect trong V c gi l mt h sinh
ca V nu mi vect ca V u biu th tuyn tnh qua h . Nu V c mt h sinh
gm hu hn phn t th V c gi l K khng gian vct hu hn sinh.
nh ngha 3.3.2
Mt h sinh c lp tuyn tnh trong khng gian vect V c gi l mt c s ca
V.
V d:
1. Trong khng gian vect hnh hc E3 tp ba vect khng ng phng
ty lp thnh mt c s.
2. Trong R - khng gian vect R n , h gm cc vect
1 = (1, 0, . . . , 0), 2 = (0, 1, . . . , 0), . . . , n = (0, 0, . . . , 1)
l mt c s. Tht vy, mi vect = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) R n u
vit c di dng
= (a1 , 0, . . . , 0) + (0, a2 , . . . , 0) + + (0, 0, . . . , an )
= a1 1 + a2 2 + + an n .
Hn na, h vect 1 , 2 , . . . , n c lp tuyn tnh v nu
x1 1 + x2 2 + + xn n =
th (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = (0, 0, . . . , 0) hay x1 = x2 = =
xn = 0.
C s 1 , 2 , . . . , n c gi l c s chnh tc ca R n .
3. Trong R 3 h 4 vect 1 = (1, 0, 0), 2 = (0, 1, 0), 3 =
(0, 0, 1), 4 = (1, 1, 1) l h sinh nhng khng c lp tuyn tnh
v 4 = 1 + 2 + 3 .
4. Khng gian vect Pn [x] gm a thc khng v cc a thc f (x)
R [x] vi deg f (x) 6 n c mt c s l
1, x, x2 , . . . , xn1 , xn
Tht vy, mi a thc f (x) Pn [x] u c dng
f (x) = a0 + a1 x + + an1 xn1 + an xn .
nn {1, x, x2 , . . . , xn1 , xn } l h sinh ca Pn [x].
Mt khc theo v d 3 mc 3.1 li c {1, x, x2 , . . . , xn1 , xn } c
lp tuyn tnh.
25
3.4. S tn ti c s
3.4 S tn ti c s
nh l 3.4.1
Cho V l K khng gian vect. Gi s C l mt h vect c lp tuyn tnh trong
V , S l mt h sinh ca V v C S. Khi tn ti mt c s B ca V sao cho
C B S.
Chng ta cng nhn nh l ny.
H qu 3.4.2
Cho C l mt h vect ca khng gian vect V .
1. Nu C l h c lp tuyn tnh th c th b sung thm mt s vect vo h C
c mt c s ca V .
2. Nu C l h sinh ca V th c th bt i mt s vect ca h C c mt c
s ca V .
Chng minh:
1. H C c lp tuyn tnh trong khng gian vect V , V li l mt h sinh ca
chnh n nn theo nh l 3.4.1 c mt c s B ca V sao cho
C B V.
2. Ly mt vect = 0, C. Khi h c lp tuyn tnh nm trong h
sinh C ca V . Theo nh l 3.4.1 c mt c s B ca V sao cho
{} B C.
2
H qu 3.4.3
Mi khng gian vect V khc {} u c c s.
Chng minh: Ly V, = , ta c h {} c lp tuyn tnh. V l h sinh
ca V nn p dng nh l 3.4.1 c mt c s B ca V sao cho
{} B V.
Vy khng gian vect V c mt c s.
26
3.5. Khi nim s chiu ca khng gian vect hu hn sinh
3.5 Khi nim s chiu ca khng gian vect hu hn sinh

B 3.5.1
Trong khng gian vect V cho hai h vect:
1 , 2 , . . . , r ,
(1)
1 , 2 , . . . , s .
(2)
Nu h (1) c lp tuyn tnh v mi vect ca h (1) l t hp tuyn tnh ca h (2)

th r 6 s.
Chng minh: Theo gi thit ta c
1 = x1 1 + x2 2 + + xs s .
Do h (1) c lp tuyn tnh nn 1 = t suy ra cc v hng xi khng ng
thi bng khng. Gi s x1 = 0 khi
1 =
1
x1
x2
x1
xs
x1
s .
(3)
Thay 1 trong (2) bi 1 , ta c h

1 , 2 , . . . , s .
(4)
Theo gi thit mi vect ca h (1) u biu th tuyn tnh qua cc vect ca h (2),
theo cng thc (3) mi vect ca h (2) u biu th tuyn tnh qua cc vect ca h
(4). T mi vect ca h (1) u biu th tuyn tnh qua cc vect ca h (4). Do
2 = y1 1 + y2 2 + + ys s .
H (1) c lp tuyn tnh nn trong s cc h s y2 , . . . , ys phi c mt s khc
khng, gi s y2 = 0. Khi
2 =
y1
y2
1 +
1
y2
y3
y2
ys
y2
s .
(5)
Ta li thay 2 trong h (4) bi 2 v c h

1 , 2 , 3 , . . . , s .
(6)
T (3) v (5) suy ra mi vec t ca h (1) u biu th tuyn tnh qua h (6).
Nu r > s th tip tc qu trnh trn sau mt s hu hn bc, h (2) s c
thay th bi h
1 , 2 , . . . s ,
(7)
27
3.6. C s trong khng gian vect n chiu
trong mi vect ca h (1) u biu th tuyn tnh qua h (7). iu ny tri vi

gi thit h (1) c lp tuyn tnh.
Do r 6 s.
2
nh l 3.5.2
Nu V l mt khng gian vect hu hn sinh th V c mt c s hu hn v s phn
t ca cc c s trong V u bng nhau.
Chng minh: Gi s tp hu hn S l mt h sinh ca V . Theo h qu 3.4.2, ta
c th bt i mt s vect ca S c mt c s B ca V , B hu hn. Gi s
B cng l mt c s ca V . Do B c lp tuyn tnh v B l mt h sinh nn
theo b 3.5.1 ta c | B || B |. i vai tr ca hai c s ny cho nhau ta c
| B || B |. Vy mi c s ca V c s phn t bng nhau.
2
nh ngha 3.5.3
S cc vect ca mt c s ca khng gian vect hu hn sinh V c gi l s
chiu ca V , k hiu l dim V .
Nu dim V = n th V c gi l khng gian vect n chiu.
Khng gian ch gm c mt vect khng c c s, quy c dim{} = 0.
V d:
1. dim K n = n v K n c mt c s l
1 = (1, 0, . . . , 0), 2 = (0, 1, . . . , 0), . . . , n = (0, 0, . . . , 1)
2. dim Pn [x] = n + 1 v Pn [x] c mt c s l
1, x, x2 , . . . , xn
3. dim E2 = 2 v E2 c mt vect c s l hai vect n v i = (1, 0)
v j = (0, 1).
dim E3 = 3 v E3 c mt vect c s l ba vect n v
i = (1, 0, 0),
j = (0, 1, 0) v k = (0, 0, 1).
3.6 C s trong khng gian vect n chiu

Mnh 3.6.1
Cho V l mt khng gian vect n chiu v 1 , 2 , . . . , m l h gm m vect
trong V .
1. Nu 1 , 2 , . . . , m l h vect c lp tuyn tnh th m 6 n.
28
3.7. Ta ca mt vect
2. Nu 1 , 2 , . . . , m l h sinh ca V th m > n.
Chng minh:
1. H vect 1 , 2 , . . . , m c lp tuyn tnh nn c th b sung thm mt s
vect c mt c s ca V . Do m 6 n.
2. H vect 1 , 2 , . . . , m l h sinh ca V nn c th bt i mt s vect
c mt c s ca V . Do m > n.
2
H qu 3.6.2
Trong khng gian vect chiu V c s chiu n,
(n > 1)
1. Mi h gm n vect c lp tuyn tnh u l mt c s ca V .

2. Mi h sinh gm n vect u l mt c s ca V .
Chng minh: p dng h qu 3.4.2 ta c ngay iu phi chng minh.
V d:
H vect sau l c s ca R 3 .
1 = (1, 2, 1),
2 = (0, 1, 2),
3 = (1, 2, 0)
Tht vy, do dim R 3 = 3 nn ta ch cn chng minh 1 , 2 , 3 c lp

tuyn tnh.
Gi s x1 1 + x2 2 + x3 3 = . Ta c
x3 = 0
x1 +
2x1 + x2 + 2x3 = 0
x1 + 2x2
=0
Gii h ra ta c x1 = x2 = x3 = 0. Vy h 1 , 2 , 3 c lp tuyn
tnh.
3.7 Ta ca mt vect
Mnh 3.7.1
Gi s h vect 1 , 2 , . . . , m c lp tuyn tnh. Nu
= x1 1 + x2 2 + + xm m
th cch biu th tuyn tnh ny ca qua h vect cho l duy nht.
29
3.7. Ta ca mt vect
Chng minh: Gi s cn c cch biu din

= y1 1 + y2 2 + + ym m .
Khi
(y1 x1 )1 + (y2 x2 )2 + + (ym xm )m = .
V h gm cc vect {1 , 2 , . . . , m } c lp tuyn tnh nn
y1 x1 = y2 x2 = = ym xm = 0.
2
hay y1 = x1 , y2 = x2 , . . . , ym = xm .
T mnh trn, ta c nh ngha sau:
nh ngha 3.7.2
Cho c s 1 , 2 , . . . , n ca khng gian vect V . Khi mi V c cch biu
din duy nht di dng
= a1 1 + a2 2 + + an n , ai K , i = 1, n.
B n s (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) c gi l ta ca i vi c s 1 , 2 , . . . , n
v ai c gi l ta th i ca i vi c s .
V d:
Trong R 3 xt hai h c s
() : 1 = (1, 0, 0),
2 = (0, 1, 0),
3 = (0, 0, 1)
( ) : 1 = (1, 0, 0),
2 = (1, 1, 0),
3 = (1, 1, 1)
v = (2, 1, 1).
Ta c
= (2, 1, 1) = 2(1, 0, 0)1(0, 1, 0)+1(0, 0, 1) = 21 12 +3 ,
nh vy ta ca i vi c s () l (2, 1, 1).
Mt khc,
= 1(1, 0, 0) 2(1, 1, 0) + 1(1, 1, 1) = 11 22 + 3 ,
nn ta ca i vi c s ( ) l (1, 2, 1).
T ta thy ta ca mt vect ph thuc vo c s, trong cc c s
khc nhau th ta l khc nhau.
3.8. S chiu ca khng gian con
30
Mnh 3.7.3
Gi s i vi mt c s ca khng gian vect V , c ta l (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ),
c ta l (b1 , b2 , . . . , bn ). Khi
1. + c ta l (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , . . . , an + bn ).
2. x c ta l (xa1 , xa2 , . . . , xan ).
Chng minh:
1. Gi 1 , 2 , . . . , n l c s ang xt ca V . Theo gi thit ta c:
= a1 1 + a2 2 + + an n v = b1 1 + b2 2 + + bn n .
Do + = (a1 + b1 )1 + (a2 + b2 )2 + + (an + bn )n .
Vy + c ta l (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , . . . , an + bn ) i vi c s
1 , 2 , . . . , n .
2. T = a1 1 + a2 2 + + an n ta cng c
x = xa1 1 + xa2 2 + + xan n .
Vy x c ta l (xa1 , xa2 , . . . , xan ) i vi c s 1 , 2 , . . . , n .
2
3.8 S chiu ca khng gian con

nh l 3.8.1
Cho V l mt K khng gian vect n chiu, W l mt khng gian vect con ca
V . Khi ta c
1. dim W 6 n.
2. Nu dim W = n th W = V .
Chng minh:
1. Nu W = {} th dim W = 0 6 dim V .
Nu W = {} khi W l mt khng gian vect khc {} nn theo h qu
3.4.3 trong W c mt c s B. Ta c B l mt h vect trong V , c lp
tuyn tnh. Theo mnh 3.6.1, s vect trong B khng vt qu n. Do
dim W 6 n.
2. Nu dim W = dim V th trong W c mt c s gm n vect. Theo mnh
3.6.2 th y cng chnh l mt c s ca V . Vy W = V .
31
2
nh l 3.8.2
Cho U v W l hai khng gian con ca khng gian vect hu hn chiu V . Khi
dim(U + W ) = dim U + dim W dim(U W )
Chng minh: Nu mt trong hai khng gian con bng {}, chng hn U = {}
th dim U = 0 v ta c
U + W = W, U W = {}.
Do ,
dim(U + W ) = dim W = dim U + dim W dim(U W ).
Nu c hai khng gian con u khc {}. Gi 1 , 2 , . . . , r l mt c s ca
U W (trong trng hp U W = {} th coi r = 0.)
V 1 , 2 , . . . , r c lp tuyn tnh nn theo h qu 3.4.2 c th b sung c
c s 1 , . . . , r , 1 , . . . , m ca U v c s 1 , . . . , r , 1 , . . . , k ca W .
Ta s chng minh 1 , . . . , r , 1 , . . . , m , 1 , . . . , k l c s ca U + W .
Xt U + W , khi = + vi U, W . Ta c
= a1 1 + + ar r + b1 1 + + bm m ,
= a1 1 + + ar r + c1 1 + + ck k .
Do
= + = (a1 +a1 )1 + +(ar +ar )r +b1 1 + +bm m +c1 1 + +ck k
c ngha l
1 , . . . , r , 1 , . . . , m , 1 , . . . , k l mt h sinh ca U + W.
(1)
Gi s
x1 1 + + xr r + y1 1 + + ym m + z1 1 + + zk k = (2)
Khi
x1 1 + + xr r + y1 1 + + ym m = z1 1 zk k
v tri l mt vect thuc U , v phi l mt vect thuc W nn chng thuc vo
U W . Do
z1 1 zk k = t1 1 + + tr r
32
T suy ra
t1 1 + + tr r + z1 1 + + zk k = .
Do {1 , . . . , r , 1 , . . . , k } c lp tuyn tnh nn
t1 = = tr = z1 = = zk = 0.
Thay vo h thc (2) ta c
x1 1 + + xr r + y1 1 + + ym m = .
Li c h 1 , . . . , r , 1 , . . . , m c lp tuyn tnh nn
x1 = = xr = y1 = = ym = 0.
Nh vy
1 , . . . , r , 1 , . . . , m , 1 , . . . , k c lp tuyn tnh
(3)
T (1) v (3) ta c
1 , . . . , r , 1 , . . . , m , 1 , . . . , k
l c s ca U + W . T suy ra
dim(U + W ) = r + m + k = (r + m) + (r + k) r
= dim U + dim W dim(U W ). (3.1)
2
V d:
Trong khng gian vect R 4 , xt cc khng gian vect con U sinh bi
1 = (1, 0, 0, 2), 2 = (0, 2, 1, 1), 3 = (1, 1, 0, 1) v W sinh
bi
4 = (3, 2, 0, 1), 5 = (1, 2, 1, 1). Hy tm s chiu ca U, W, U +
W, U W .
T x1 1 + x2 2 + x3 3 = 0 ta c
x1 (1, 0, 0, 2) + x2 (0, 2, 1, 1) + x3 (1, 1, 0, 1) =
Hay (x1 x3 , 2x2 + x3 , x2 , 2x1 x2 + x3 ) = (0, 0, 0, 0) v ta c
h
x1
x3 = 0
2x2 + x3 = 0
x2
=0
2x1 x2 + x3 = 0
33
3.9. Hng ca mt h vect
Suy ra x1 = x2 = x3 = 0.
Vy h {1 , 2 , 3 } c lp tuyn tnh do dim U = 3.
Tng t ta cng c h {4 , 5 } v h {1 , 2 , 3 , 4 } c lp tuyn
tnh.
Do dim W = 2 v dim(U + W ) 4. Li c U + W l khng
gian vect con ca R 4 nn
dim(U + W ) 6 dim R 4 = 4.
T dim(U + W ) = 4.
p dng nh l v s chiu ca giao v tng cc khng gian con ta c
dim(U W ) = dim U +dim W dim(U +W ) = 3+24 = 1.
3.9 Hng ca mt h vect

nh ngha 3.9.1
Hng ca mt h vect 1 , 2 , . . . , m trong khng gian vect V l s chiu ca
khng gian vect con sinh bi 1 , 2 , . . . , m .
Nhn xt: K hiu W l khng gian con sinh bi h vect
1 , 2 , . . . , m .
(1)
ta c th tm c mt h con ca h (1) m l c s ca W . l mt h con c

lp tuyn tnh c tnh cht mi vect ca h (1) u biu th tuyn tnh qua n. Mt
h con nh th c gi l mt h con c lp tuyn tnh ti i ca h (1). Nh vy,
tm hng ca mt h vect, ta tm s vect c lp tuyn tnh ti i ca h .
V d:
Tm hng ca h vect:
1 = (1, 3, 4),
2 = (0, 2, 5),
3 = (2, 4, 3),
4 = (1, 1, 1)
trong khng vect R 3 .

Nhn thy h 1 , 2 c lp tuyn tnh. Tht vy, t x1 1 + x2 2 = ,
ta c
=0
x1
3x1 + 2x2 = 0
4x1 + 5x2 = 0
Suy ra x1 = x2 = 0.
Mt khc 3 = 21 2 v 4 = 1 + 2 nn 1 , 2 l h con
c lp tuyn tnh ti i ca h 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 . Do hng ca h ny
bng 2.
34
BI TP III
III.1.
Xt xem trong cc h vect sau trong R 3 h no c lp tuyn tnh?
a. 1 = (1, 1, 0), 2 = (0, 1, 1), 3 = (1, 0, 1).

b. 1 = (2, 0, 3), 2 = (5, 1, 7), 3 = (1, 2, 1).
c. 1 = (0, 2, 3), 2 = (3, 2, 1), 3 = (3, 0, 2).
d. 1 = (1, 2, 3), 2 = (2, 0, 1), 3 = (5, 6, 11).
III.2.
H no trong P2 [x] di y ph thuc tuyn tnh?
a. 1, x, x2 .
b. 1, x, x2 , 2x2 + 3.
c. x2 + x + 3, 5x2 x + 2, 3x2 + 3x + 4.
d. 1, 4x2 + x + 1, x2 + 6.
III.3.
Hy biu din vect thnh t hp tuyn tnh ca , , .
a. = (1, 2, 0), = (1, 2, 3), = (2, 5, 1), = (0, 1, 2).

b. = (0, 0, 0), = (2, 3, 3), = (4, 9, 1), = (1, 3, 1).
III.4. Hy biu din cc a thc sau thnh t hp tuyn tnh ca:
P1 = 4x2 + x + 2, P2 = 3x2 x + 1, P3 = 5x2 + 2x + 3
a. 0.
b. 2x2 2.
c. 3x2 + 6x 1.
d. 5x2 + x + 13.
III.5.
Tm s thc r cc vct sau ph thuc tuyn tnh trong R 3 :

= (r,
III.6.
1 1
1
1
1 1
,
), = (
, r,
), = (
,
, r).
2
2
2
2
2
2
Hy xc nh r sao cho l t hp tuyn tnh ca cc vect cn li.
a. = (9, 12, r), = (3, 4, 2), = (6, 8, 7).

b. = (7, 2, r), = (2, 3, 5), = (3, 7, 8).
35
c. = (4, 1, 3), = (2, 3, r), = (1, 4, 2).

d. = (5, 3, r), = (1, 2, 3), = (1, 0, 1), = (1, 2, 0).
e. = (1, 3, 5), = (3, 2, 5), = (2, 4, 7), = (5, 6, r).
III.7. Cho 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 l mt h vect c lp tuyn tnh trong K khng
gian vect V . Chng minh h 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 c xc nh sau y cng c lp
tuyn tnh:
a. 1 = 1 , 2 = 1 + 2 , 3 = 1 + 2 + 3 , 4 = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 ,
k K , k = 0,
b. 1 = 1 , 2 = 2 , 3 = 3 , 4 = 3 + k4 ,
c. 1 = 1 + 2 , 2 = 1 2 , 3 = 3 4 , 4 = 3 + 4 .
III.8.
Cc h vect sau c phi l c s ca khng gian vect R 3 khng?
a. 1 = (0, 0, 1), 2 = (0, 1, 1), 3 = (1, 1, 1).

b. 1 = (4, 1, 5), 2 = (3, 2, 1), 3 = (2, 5, 3).
III.9. Vi gi tr no ca x th h vect 1 = (x, 1, 0), 2 = (1, x, 1), 3 =
(0, 1, x) lp thnh c s ca khng gian vect R3 .
III.10. Tm mt c s v s chiu ca khng gian vect con ca R 3 sinh bi h
vect sau:
a. 1 = (1, 1, 2), 2 = (2, 1, 3), 3 = (1, 5, 6).
b. 1 = (2, 4, 1), 2 = (3, 6, 2), 3 = (1, 2,
III.11.
2
Cho W l khng gian vect sinh bi cc a thc
).
P1 = x3 2x2 + 4x + 1, P2 = x3 + 6x 5,
P3 = 2x3 3x2 + 9x 1, P4 = 2x3 5x2 + 7x + 5.
Tm mt c s v s chiu ca W .
III.12. Xc nh c s ca cc khng gian con ca R 3 .
a. Mt phng 3x 2y + 5z = 0.
b. Mt phng x y = 0.
c. ng thng
x = 3t
y=t
x = 5t
36
d. Cc vect c dng (a, b, c), trong b = a + c.

III.13.
Trong khng gian vect P3 [x] cc a thc f (x) R [x] c bc f (x) 6 3.
a. Chng minh hai h vect

1 = 1, 2 = x, 3 = x2 , 4 = x3 ,
1 = 1, 2 = (x 2), 3 = (x 2)2 , 4 = (x 2)3
l hai c s ca P3 [x].
b. Hy tm ta ca cc vect trong c s th nht i vi c s th hai.
III.14.
Cho hai h vect:
1 = (0, 1, 0, 2), 2 = (1, 1, 0, 1), 3 = (1, 2, 0, 1), 4 = (1, 0, 2, 1),

1 = (1, 0, 2, 1), 2 = (0, 3, 0, 2), 3 = (0, 1, 3, 1), 4 = (0, 1, 0, 1)
trong khng gian vect R 4 .
a. Chng minh rng chng l hai c s ca R4 .
b. Tm ta ca = (2, 0, 4, 0) i vi tng c s trn.
III.15.
Trong R4 xt tp: W = {(a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 ) | a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 = 0}.
a. Chng minh rng W l khng gian vect con ca R4 .

b. Chng minh rng cc vect 1 = (1, 0, 0, 1), 2 = (0, 1, 0, 1), 3 =
(0, 0, 1, 1), 4 = (1, 1, 1, 1) thuc W .
c. Tm c s v s chiu ca W .
III.16.
Trong R khng gian vect R 3 , chng minh rng cc tp sau:

U = {(x1 , x2 , x3 ) | x1 = 0}
V = {(x1 , x2 , x3 ) | x2 = 0}
W = {(x1 , x2 , x3 ) | x1 + x3 = 0}
l nhng khng gian vect con. Hy tm s chiu ca U + V v U + V + W .

III.17.
Trong khng gian vect R 4 xt cc khng gian vect con W sinh bi
(1, 0, 0, 2), (6, 2, 1, 1), (1, 6, 3, 7) v Z sinh bi (2, 2, 0, 1), (1, 3, 2, 1).
Tm s chiu ca W, Z, W + Z, W Z.
III.18. Trong R khng gian vect R 4 , tnh hng ca cc h vect sau:
37
a. 1 = (1, 2, 1, 3), 2
(8, 7, 3, 9).
= (0, 1, 1, 3), 3
= (0, 0, 2, 6), 4
b. 1 = (1, 4, 8, 12), 2 = (2, 1, 3, 1), 3 = (2, 8, 16, 24), 4 =

(1, 1, 2, 3).
3
3
c. 1 = (0, 0, 0, 0), 2 = (1, 0, 1, 3), 3 = (
, 0,
, 3).
3
3
2
2
d. 1
=
(0, 3, 12, 3), 2
=
(3 2,
, 2 2,
), 3
=
2
2
(6, 1, 4, 1).
III.19.
Trong R khng gian vect R [x] xt h vect
P0 = 5, P1 = 2x + 3, P2 = x2 + x + 1, P3 = 8x + 7, P4 = 2x2 + 4x + 20.
Tm hng ca h vect trn.
Bi 4
nh x tuyn tnh
4.1 nh ngha nh x tuyn tnh
Nh ta bit trong khng gian vc t c hai php ton cng v nhn v hng. Bi
ny s nghin cu nhng nh x bo ton hai php ton .
nh ngha 4.1.1
Gi s U v V l hai khng gian vc t trn trng K . nh x f : U V c
gi l nh x tuyn tnh nu n tha mn hai iu kin sau:
f ( + ) = f () + f (),
f (t) = tf (),
, U ,
U, t K .
nh x tuyn tnh f : U U c gi l php bin i tuyn tnh hay t ng

cu ca U .
iu kin th nht trong nh ngha trn l tnh bo ton php cng, cn iu kin
th hai l tnh bo ton php nhn. Tuy nhin ta c th kt hp hai iu kin li
thnh mt iu kin c pht biu trong mnh sau.
Mnh 4.1.2
Gi s U v V l hai khng gian vc t trn trng K . nh x f : U V l
nh x tuyn tnh khi v ch khi :
f (s + t) = sf () + tf () , U, s, t K .
Chng minh:
(): Theo nh ngha ca nh x tuyn tnh ta c:
f (s + t) = f (s) + f (t) = sf () + tf ().
(): T ng thc f (s + t) = sf () + tf ()
thay s = t = 1 ta c f ( + ) = f () + f (),
thay tip t = 0 ta c f (s) = sf () + 0f () = sf ().
T (1) v (2) ta c iu phi chng minh.
(1)
(2)
2
4.2. V d v nh x tuyn tnh
39
nh ngha 4.1.3
Gi s U v V l hai khng gian vc t trn trng K v f : U V l mt
nh x tuyn tnh.
1. f c gi l n cu nu n l n nh,
2. f c gi l ton cu nu n l ton nh,
3. f c gi l ng cu nu n l song nh. Trong trng hp ny ta ni khng
gian U v V ng cu vi nhau, k hiu l U
=V.
4.2 V d v nh x tuyn tnh

1. Gi s U v V l hai khng gian vc t trn trng K , V l vc t "khng"
ca V . nh x : U V xc nh bi () = V vi mi U l
nh x tuyn tnh v c gi l ng cu khng.
2. Cho V l mt K khng gian vc t, t l mt phn t c nh ca K .
nh x Dt : V V
7 t
l mt nh x tuyn tnh, gi l php v t t s t.
Khi t = 0, Dt l ng cu "khng".
Khi t = 0, Dt l mt t ng cu.
3. Php quay gc trong R 2 .
nh x f : R 2 R 2
(x, y) 7 (x cos y sin , x sin + y cos )
l nh x tuyn tnh v l ng cu.
4. nh x f : R 2 R 3 xc nh bi:
f (x1 , x2 ) = (x1 x2 , 2x1 + x2 , x1 2x2 ) l nh x tuyn tnh.
5. Gi s Pn [x] l khng gian vc t gm a thc khng v cc a thc n x c
bc khng vt qu n trn trng R .
nh x d : Pn [x] Pn1 [x] xc nh bi d(f (x)) = f (x) l nh x
tuyn tnh.
6. nh x f : K n K m (n m) xc nh bi:
f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xm ) l mt ton cu.
7. Cho A l mt khng gian con ca K khng gian vc t V
nh x i : A V
40
4.3. Mt s tnh cht ca nh x tuyn tnh
7
l nh x tuyn tnh v l n cu.
Ni ring, khi A = V th ta c nh x tuyn tnh idV : V V , l mt
t ng cu ca V v c gi l nh x ng nht trn V .
4.3 Mt s tnh cht ca nh x tuyn tnh

Mnh 4.3.1
Gi s U v V l hai khng gian vc t trn trng K v f : U V l nh x
tuyn tnh th:
a.
f (U ) = V .
b.
f (t1 1 + t2 2 + . . . + tn n ) = t1 f (1 ) + t2 f (2 ) + . . . + tn f (n ).
Chng minh: Theo nh ngha ca nh x tuyn tnh v tnh cht ca khng gian
vc t ta c:
a.
f (U ) = f (0) = 0f () = V ,
U.
b. f (t1 1 + t2 2 + . . . + tn n ) = f (t1 1 ) + f (t2 2 ) + . . . + f (tn n )

= t1 f (1 ) + t2 f (2 ) + . . . + tn f (n ).
2
Mnh 4.3.2
Gi s U, V v W l ba khng gian vc t trn trng K , f : U V v
g : V W l hai nh x tuyn tnh. Khi nh x hp thnh g f : U W
cng l nh x tuyn tnh.
Chng minh: T nh ngha ca nh x hp thnh v nh x tuyn tnh f v g
, , U, t K , ta c:
g f ( + ) = g(f ( + )) = g(f () + f ())
= g(f ()) + g(f ()) = g f () + g f (),
g f (t) = g(f (t)) = g(tf ()) = tg(f ()) = tg f ().
Vy f g l nh x tuyn tnh.
Mnh 4.3.3
Gi s U v V l hai khng gian vc t trn trng K v f : U V l ng
cu. Khi f 1 : V U cng l ng cu.
4.4. nh v nhn ca nh x tuyn tnh
41
Chng minh: Ta bit rng khi f l song nh th f 1 cng l song nh do vy ta

ch cn chng minh f 1 l nh x tuyn tnh. Tht vy, gi s , V, t K .
t = f 1 (), = f 1 ()
ta c f ( ) = , f ( ) = v
f 1 ( + ) = f 1 (f ( ) + f ( ))
= f 1 (f ( + )) = + = f 1 () + f 1 (),
f 1 (t) = f 1 (tf ( )) = f 1 (f (t )) = t = tf 1 ().
Vy f 1 l nh x tuyn tnh.
4.4 nh v nhn ca nh x tuyn tnh

Nhc li rng nu f : X Y l mt nh x, A l mt b phn ca X, B l mt
b phn ca Y .
Tp hp {y | a A, f (a) = y} c gi l nh ca A qua f v k hiu l
f (A).
Tp hp {x X | f (x) B} gi l nh ngc ca B qua f v k hiu l
f 1 (B).
nh l 4.4.1
Cho U v V l hai K khng gian vc t trn trng K , f : U V l nh x
tuyn tnh, khi :
1. Nu U l khng gian con ca U th f (U ) l khng gian con ca V .
2. Nu V l khng gian con ca V th f 1 (V ) l khng gian con ca U .
Chng minh:
1. Do U l khng gian con nn U = , t f (U ) = . Gi s , f (U )
v s, t K . Khi tn ti 1 , 1 U sao cho = f (1 ), = f (1 ).
Suy ra s + t = sf (1 ) + tf (1 ) = f (s1 + t1 ). Do U l khng gian
con v 1 , 1 U nn s1 + t1 U . T f (s1 + t1 ) f (U ).
Vy f (U ) l khng gian con ca V .
2. V V l khng gian con nn V V m f (U ) = V nn U f 1 (V ),
t f 1 (V ) = . Gi s , f 1 (V ) v s, t K . Xt s + t, ta
c f (s + t) = sf () + tf () V do f () V , f () V . Suy
ra s + t f 1 (V ). iu chng t f 1 (V ) l khng gian vc t con
ca U .
42
2
p dng mnh trn cho trng hp U = U v trng hp V = {V } ta c
kt qu:
f (U ) l khng gian con ca V v f 1 ({V }) l khng gian con ca U .
f (U ) c gi l nh ca nh x tuyn tnh f v c k hiu l Im f .
f 1 ({V }) c gi l nhn ca nh x tuyn tnh f v c k hiu l Ker f .
Mnh 4.4.2
Gi s f : U V l mt nh x tuyn tnh. Khi f l n cu khi v ch khi
Ker f = {U }.
Chng minh: (): Gi s f l n cu v Ker f . Khi f () =
V = f (U ). Do f l n nh nn t f () = f (U ) suy ra = U . Vy
Ker f {U }. Bao hm thc {U } Ker f cng ng v f (U ) = V . Vy
ta c Ker f = {U }.
(): Gi s Ker f = {U } v f () = f () khi f () f () = f (
) = V suy ra Ker f . M Ker f = {U }, vy = U , hay
= . Vy f l n cu.
2
B 4.4.3
Gi s U v V l hai khng gian vc t trn trng K , f : U V l nh
x tuyn tnh v 1 , 2 , . . . , n (1) l mt h vc t trn U . Khi nu h
f (1 ), f (2 ), . . . , f (n ) (2) l c lp tuyn tnh h (1) cng c lp tuyn
tnh.
Chng minh: Gi s c t1 1 + t2 2 + . . . + tn n = U th th:
f (t1 1 + t2 2 + . . . + tn n ) = f (U ) = V . Suy ra
t1 f (1 ) + t2 f (2 ) + . . . + tn f (n ) = V .
M h (2) c lp tuyn tnh, vy ta c t1 = t2 = . . . = tn = 0. iu chng
t h (1) c lp tuyn tnh.
2
nh l 4.4.4
Cho U v V l hai K khng gian vc t v f : U V l nh x tuyn tnh.
Khi :
dim U = dim Im f + dim Ker f.
Chng minh: Trng hp Im f = {V }, tc l f l nh x khng, ta c Ker f =
U v dim Im f = 0, ng thc nu l ng.
Khi Im f = {V } gi s 1 , 2 , . . . , n (1) l mt c s ca Im f . Do i Im f
43
nn tn ti i U sao cho f (i ) = i , (i = 1, . . . , n). H (1) c lp tuyn

tnh nn theo b 4.4.3 h 1 , 2 , . . . , n (2) cng c lp tuyn tnh. t
W l khng gian sinh bi h (2). Th th dim W = n. Ta hy chng minh
U = Ker f + W v Ker f W = {U }.
Vi mi U ta c f () Im f suy ra tn ti t1 , t2 , . . . , tn K
sao cho f () = t1 1 + t2 2 + . . . + tn n
t f () = t1 f (1 ) + t2 f (2 ) + . . . + tn f (n )
= f (t1 1 + t2 2 + . . . + tn n ).
t = t1 1 + t2 2 + . . . + tn n ta c
f () = f ( ) suy ra f ( ) = U .
iu c ngha l: Ker f. t = , ta c
= + Ker f + W m W, Ker f U nn suy ra U = Ker f + W.
chng minh Ker f W = {U } ta gi s Ker f W . Do Ker f
nn f () = V . Do W nn n c dng = s1 1 + s2 2 + + sn n .
Ta c V = f () = f (s1 1 + s2 2 + + sn n )
= s1 f (1 ) + s2 f (2 ) + + sn f (n )
= s1 1 + s2 2 + + sn n .
M h 1 , 2 , . . . , n c lp tuyn tnh, vy ta phi c s1 = s2 = . . . = sn = 0.
Suy ra = U . Nh vy ta chng minh c U = Ker f + W v
Ker f W = {U }. T nh l 3.8.2 suy ra dim U = dim Ker f + dim W .
M dim W = n = dim Im f . Vy ta chng minh c
dim U = dim Ker f + dim Im f.
2
BI TP IV
IV.1. Trong cc nh x sau y nh x no l nh x tuyn tnh:
a. f : R 3 R 2 ,
f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (x1 , x3 )
b. f : R 2 R 3 ,
f (x1 , x2 ) = (x2 , x1 + 2x2 , x1 )
c. f : R 3 R 2 ,
f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (x1 x3 , x3 + x2 + 1)
d. f : R 2 R 2 ,
f (x1 , x2 ) = (x1 x2 , x1 + x2 )
e. f : R R3 , f (x) = (x2 , x, 0)
44
f. f : R3 R2 , f (x, y, z) = (2xy, 6x + y z)
IV.2.
Chng minh cc nh x sau l nh x tuyn tnh:
a. : R [x] R ,
(f (x)) = f (0) f R [x]
(R [x] l khng gian cc a thc h s thc).
b. : R [x] P1 [x],
(f (x)) = r(x) trong r(x) l phn d khi chia
a thc f (x) cho a thc x2 + 1.(P1 [x] l khng gian cc a thc h s thc
bc khng vt qu 1 v a thc khng).
IV.3. Cho f : U V l mt nh x tuyn tnh. Chng minh rng
a. f l n cu khi v ch khi f bin mi h c lp tuyn tnh ca U thnh mt h
c lp tuyn tnh ca V .
b. f l ton cu khi v ch khi f bin mi h sinh ca U thnh mt h sinh ca V .
c. f l ng cu khi v ch khi f bin mi c s ca U thnh mt c s ca V .
IV.4. Cho U v V l hai khng gian vect hu hn chiu. Chng minh rng U
v V ng cu khi v ch khi dim U = dim V .
IV.5. Chng minh cc nh x sau l nh x tuyn tnh.
a. Php cho tng ng mi im M trong mt phng thnh im i xng vi n
qua trc Ox.
b. Php cho tng ng mi im M trong khng gian thnh im i xng vi n
qua mt phng Oxy.
IV.6. Tm Im f, Ker f v dim Im f, dim Ker f ca nh x tuyn tnh f sau:
a. f : R 2 R 3 ,
f (x1 , x2 ) = (x1 + x2 , x1 x2 , x1 + 2x2 ),
b. f : R 3 R 3 ,
f (x1 , x2 , x2 ) = (x1 + 2x2 , x2 x3 , x1 + x2 + x3 ),
c. f : R 3 R 2 ,
f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (0, 0, 0).
Bi 5
nh thc
5.1 Php th
nh ngha 5.1.1
Cho n l mt s t nhin khc 0. Mt song nh t tp In = {1, 2, . . . , n} n
chnh n c gi l mt php th bc n. Php th bc n c biu din di
dng:
1 2 ... n
.
=
a1 a2 . . . an
Tp hp cc php th bc n c k hiu bi Sn . V mi php th bc n l mt hon
v ca tp c n phn t nn tp Sn c n! phn t.
V d:
1 2 ... n
l php th v n c gi l php th ng
=
1 2 ... n
nht.
1 2 3
=
l mt php th bc 3.
2 3 1
1 2 3 4
khng phi l mt php th.
=
2 3 1 2
nh ngha 5.1.2
Cho v l hai php th bc n. Khi hp thnh ca hai song nh v (k
hiu ) cng l mt php th bc n v c gi l tch ca hai php th v .
N c xc nh nh sau:
(i) = ( (i)) i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
nh x ngc ca k hiu l 1 cng l mt php th bc n, c gi l nghch
o ca
46
5.1. Php th
V d:
Cho v l hai php th bc 4.
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
.
v =
=
1 3 4 2
2 3 1 4
Khi ta c:
1
2
3
4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
.
, v 1 =
, =
=
3 1 2 4
3 4 1 2
2 1 4 3
Ch :
Do php hp thnh cc nh x (v do tch cc php th) c tnh cht kt hp
nn bng qui np ngi ta cng c th m rng nh ngha cho tch ca nhiu
php th. c bit, ta c nh ngha n = n1 .
Cng do php hp thnh cc song nh khng c tnh cht giao hon nn tch cc
php th cng khng c tnh cht giao hon.
V d:
1 2 3
Cho =
2 1 5
1
2 =
1
4 5
l mt php th bc 5. Khi ta c:
3 4
1
2
3
4
5
2 3 4 5
.
v 3 =
2 1 3 4 5
2 4 5 3
nh ngha 5.1.3
Cho l mt php th bc n. Nu vi 1 i < j n m ta c (i) > (j) th
ta gi cp ((i), (j)) l mt nghch th ca .
Du ca php th , k hiu l s() v c tnh bi cng thc s() = (1)N () ,
trong N () l s cc nghch th ca .
Ta gi l php th chn nu nh s() = 1 v l php th l nu nh s() = 1.
V d:
1 2 3 4
c 4 nghch th l (2, 1), (4, 3), (4, 1), (3, 1).
=
2 4 3 1
Suy ra N () = 4. Vy du ca l s() = (1)4 = 1.
1 2 ... n
Php th ng nht =
khng c nghch th no.
1 2 ... n
Suy ra N () = 0. Du ca l s() = (1)0 = 1.
47
5.1. Php th
1 2 3
c 2 nghch th l (3, 1), (3, 2). Vy N ( ) = 2.
=
3 1 2
Suy ra du ca l s( ) = (1)2 = 1.
1
2
... n
c cc nghch th l
=
n n 1 ... 1
(n, n 1), (n, n 2), (n, n 3), . . . , (n, 1),

(n 1, n 2), (n 1, n 3), . . . , (n 1, 1),
..................,
(3, 2), (3, 1),
(2, 1).
Vy tng s cc nghch th ca l: N () = (n 1) + (n
n(n1)
n(n 1)
2) + . . . + 1 =
. Du ca l s() = (1) 2 .
2
Ta cng nhn mnh sau:
Mnh 5.1.4
Cho v l hai php th bc n. Khi ta c:
s( ) = s().s( ).
T mnh trn ta c th chng minh c:
Mnh 5.1.5
Nu l mt php th v t N th:
1. s( t ) = s()t ,
2. s( 1 ) = s().
Mnh 5.1.6
n!
n!
Nu n > 1 th trong s n! php th bc n, c
php th chn v
php th l.
2
2
Chng minh: C nh mt php th l . nh x:
: Sn Sn
7
l mt song nh, bin mt php th chn thnh php th l v bin mt php th l
thnh php th chn. Vy trong Sn c mt na php th chn, mt na php th l.
2
48
5.2. Khi nim nh thc
5.2 Khi nim nh thc

nh ngha 5.2.1
Ma trn c m n trn trng K l mt bng c m n phn t k hiu aij (i =
1, m, j = 1, n) thuc trng K v c vit thnh m dng, n ct
a11 a12 . . . a1n

a21 a22 . . . a2n
(5.1)
... ... ... ... .
am1 am2 . . . amn
Cc ma trn thng c k hiu bi cc ch ci A, B, C, . . .. Ta thng
vit ma trn (5.1) cn c k hiu bi A = (aij )mn hoc A = (aij ), i =
1, m, j = 1, n.
Tp cc ma trn c m n c k hiu l M at(m, n, K ).
Nu m = n th ta gi A l ma trn vung cp n. Khi cc phn t
aii (i = 1, n) c gi l cc phn t nm trn ng cho chnh ca ma trn
v ai,n+1i (i = 1, n) c gi l cc phn t nm trn ng cho ph ca
ma trn.
Nu m = 1 th ta gi A l ma trn dng. Nu n = 1 th ta gi A l ma trn
ct
aij gi l phn t trn dng i v ct j ca ma trn. Cc s ai1 , ai2 , . . . , ain
gi l cc phn t trn dng i. Cc s a1j , a2j , . . . , amj gi l cc phn t
trn ct j.
Ma trn nhn c t ma trn A bng cch chuyn dng thnh ct (v ct
thnh dng) c gi l ma trn chuyn v ca ma trn A v c k hiu l
At .
V d:
1 2
A = 2 4
0 3
1 2
B = 7 5
0 24
C= 1 2 0
5 3
5 2 l mt ma trn c 3 4.
5 9
4
8 l mt ma trn vung cp 3.
41
1 l mt ma trn dng.
49
5.2. Khi nim nh thc
6
3
D=
1 l mt ma trn ct.
3
Vy nu A l ma trn (5.1) th
a11
a12
At =
. . .
an1
a21
a22
...
an2
...
...
...
...
am1
am2
.
...
anm
Vi A v B l hai ma trn v d trn th ta c:
1 2 0
1
7
0
2 4 3
t
At =
5 5 5 v B = 2 5 24 .
4 8 41
3 2 9
nh ngha 5.2.2
Cho A = (aij ) l ma trn vung cp n trn trng K . nh thc ca ma trn A
l mt phn t thuc
X trng K , k hiu bi det A hay |A| c tnh bi cng thc
sau: det A =
s()a1(1) a2(2) . . . an(n) .
Sn
nh thc ca mt ma trn vung cp n c gi l nh thc cp n.

V d:
1. nh thc cp mt: Cho ma trn vung
cp 1: A = (a11 ). V S1
1
v ta c s() = 1 nn
ch c mt php th duy nht l =
1
det A = s().a11 = a11 .
a11 a12
. V S2 c hai phn
2. nh thc cp hai: Xt ma trn A =
a21 a22
1 2
1 2
, s() = 1, s() = 1.
v =
t l =
2 1
1 2
Vy det A = s()a11 a22 + s()a12 a21 = a11 a22 a12 a21 . Vy
nh thc cp hai bng tch cc phn t trn ng cho chnh tr tch
cc phn t trn ng cho ph.
a11 a12 a13

3. nh thc cp ba: Xt ma trn A = a21 a22 a23 . Tp S3 c 6
a31 a32 a33
50
5.2. Khi nim nh thc
phn t trong c 3 php th chn l:
1 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 3
,
,
1 2 3
3 1 2
2 3 1
v c 3 php th l l:
1 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 3
.
,
,
1 3 2
3 2 1
2 1 3
Vy det A = a11 a22 a33 +a12 a23 a31 +a13 a21 a32 a13 a22 a31
a12 a21 a33 a11 a23 a32 .
4. Tnh nh thc ca ma trn sau:
1
0
A=
5
5
0
0
0
3
2
4
0
2
0
1
0
1
Ta thy rng trong cng thc tnh nh thc ca ma trn A c 4! =

24 s hng tng ng vi 24 php th nhng hu ht cc s hng u
bng 0, ch cn mt s hng khc khng ng vi php th sau:
1 2 3 4
=
3 4 1 2
Do s() = 1 nn det A = 1.2.1.5.3 = 30.
5. nh thc ca cc ma trn dng tam gic:
Cc ma trn c dng sau c gi l ma trn dng tam gic:
a11 0
0 ... 0
a21 a22 0 . . . 0
,
a
a
a
.
.
.
0
A=
31 32 33
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
an1 an2 . . . . . . ann
a11 a12 a13 . . . a1n

0 a22 a23 . . . a2n
,
0
0
a
.
.
.
a
B=
33
3n
. . . . . . . . . . . .
0
0
0 . . . ann
51
5.3. Cc tnh cht c bn ca nh thc
0
0
C=
0
. . .
an1
a11
a21
D=
a31
. . .
an1
0
0
0
...
an2
...
0
0
...
0
a2,n1
. . . a3,n2 a3,n1
... ...
...
. . . an,n2 an,n1
a12
a22
a32
...
0
. . . a1,n2 a1,n1
. . . a2,n2 a2,n1
. . . a3,n2
0
... ...
...
...
0
0
a1n
a2n
a3n
,
...
ann
a1n
0
0
.
. . .
0
Ta s tnh nh thc ca cc ma trn dng tam gic trn:

Xt ma trn dng tam gic A v B. Ta nhn thy rng trong n! s
hng tng ng vi n! php th th ch c s hng ng vi php th
ng nht l khc 0. Vy nh thc ca ma trn tng ng trong
trng hp ny l:
det A = det B = a11 a12 . . . ann .
Xt ma trn dng tam gic C v D. Ta nhn thy rng trong n! s
hng tng ng vi n! php th ch c s hng tng ng vi php
th sau l khc 0:
1
2
... n
.
=
n n 1 ... 1
Ta bit rng s() = (1)
ny l:
n(n1)
2
det C = det D = (1)
. Vy nh thc trong trng hp
n(n1)
2
a1n a2,n1 . . . an1 .
5.3 Cc tnh cht c bn ca nh thc

Trong mc ny ta s cng nhn mt s tnh cht c bn ca nh thc m khng
chng minh.
5.3. Cc tnh cht c bn ca nh thc
52
Tnh cht 5.3.1

Nu i ch hai dng ca nh thc th nh thc i du. Tc l:
a
a
a
.
.
.
a
1n
11 12
11 a12 . . . a1n
a
21 a22 . . . a2n
21 a22 . . . a2n
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
aj1 aj2 . . . ajn

ai1 ai2 . . . ain
.
=
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
ai1 ai2 . . . ain

aj1 aj2 . . . ajn
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
an1 an2 . . . ann

an1 an2 . . . ann
Tnh cht 5.3.2
Nu cc phn t trn cng mt dng c cng tha s chung k th ta c th t tha
s chung k ra ngoi nh thc. C th:
a11 a12 . . . a1n

a11 a12 . . . a1n
. . . . . . . . . . . .
... ... ... ...
kai1 kai2 . . . kain = k ai1 ai2 . . . ain
. . . . . . . . . . . .
... ... ... ...
an1 an2 . . . ann

an1 an2 . . . ann
Tnh cht 5.3.3
Nu cc phn t trn cng mt dng ca ma trn vit thnh tng ca 2 phn t th
nh
thc cng vit c thnh tng ca 2 nh thc tng ng:
a11
a12
...
a1n
...
...
...
. . .
ai1 + bi1 ai2 + bi2 . . . ain + bin =
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
an1
an2
...
ann
a11 a12 . . . a1n a11 a12 . . . a1n
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b
b
.
.
.
b
+
= ai1 ai2 . . . ain i1
i2
in .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
an1 an2 . . . ann an1 an2 . . . ann

Tnh cht 5.3.4
nh thc ca ma trn A bng nh thc ca ma trn chuyn v ca n. Tc l
det A = det At .
T nhng tnh cht c bn ca nh thc ta c th suy ra cc tnh cht sau ca nh
thc.
5.4. Cc tnh cht ca nh thc suy ra t cc tnh cht c bn
53
5.4 Cc tnh cht ca nh thc suy ra t cc tnh cht c bn

Tnh cht 5.4.1
Nu nh thc c hai dng ging nhau th nh thc bng khng.
Chng minh: Gi s ma trn A c dng i v dng j ging nhau.Theo tnh cht
5.3.1 khi i ch hai dng i v j cho nhau th nh thc i du. Vy ta c:
a
a11 a12 . . . a1n
11 a12 . . . a1n
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
a
i1 ai2 . . . ain
i1 ai2 . . . ain
det A = . . . . . . . . . . . . = . . . . . . . . . . . . = det A.
ai1 ai2 . . . ain

ai1 ai2 . . . ain
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
an1 an2 . . . ann

an1 an2 . . . ann
2
Vy det A = 0.
Tnh cht 5.4.2

Nu nh thc c mt dng l t hp tuyn tnh ca cc dng cn li th nh thc
bng khng.
Chng minh: Khng mt tnh tng qut ta c th coi dng cui l t hp tuyn tnh
i
X
ca i dng u. Tc l: anj =
km amj , j = 1, n. Theo tnh cht 5.3.3 ta c
m=1
th vit nh thc thnh tng cc nh thc tng ng:
a11
. . .
ai1
. . .
an1
a12
...
ai2
...
an2
...
...
...
...
...
a1n
. . .
ain =
. . .
ann
54
5.4. Cc tnh cht ca nh thc suy ra t cc tnh cht c bn
a11
...
= ai1
...
k1 .a11
a11
. . .
= k1 ai1
. . .
a11
a11
. . . a1n
...
. . . . . .
. . . ain + . . . + ai1
...
. . . . . .
ki .ai1
. . . k1 a1n
a11 a12
a12 . . . a1n
. . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .
ai2 . . . ain + . . . + ki ai1 ai2

. . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .
ai1 ai2
a12 . . . a1n
a12
...
ai2
...
k1 .a12
a12 . . . a1n
. . . . . . . . .
ai2 . . . ain
. . . . . . . . .
ki .ai2 . . . ki ain
. . . a1n
. . . . . .
. . . ain .
. . . . . .
. . . ain
V s hng th nht trong tng l nh thc c dng 1 v dng n ging nhau, ..., s
hng th i trong tng l nh thc c dng i v dng n ging nhau nn theo tnh
cht 5.4.1 va chng minh trn tt c cc s hng trong tng trn u bng 0. Vy
D = 0.
2
Tnh cht 5.4.3
Nu nh thc c mt dng bng khng th nh thc bng khng.
Chng minh: p dng tnh cht 5.3.2 vi k = 0 ta c iu phi chng minh.
Tnh cht 5.4.4

Nu nhn cc phn t ca mt dng vi cng mt phn t ca K ri cng vo cc
phn t tng ng ca mt dng khc th ta c mt nh thc bng nh thc
cho. Tc l:
a
a
a
.
.
.
a
11
12
1n
11 a12 . . . a1n
a
a21
a22
...
a2n
21 a22 . . . a2n
. . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
ai1
ai2
...
ain
ai1 ai2 . . . ain

.
=
...
...
...
...
. . . . . . . . . . . .
aj1 + kai1 aj2 + kai2 + . . . ajn + kain

aj1 aj2 . . . ajn
. . . . . . . . . . . .
...
...
...
...
an1 an2 . . . ann

an1
an2
...
ann
5.5. Tnh nh thc bng cch a v dng tam gic
55
Chng minh: K hiu v tri l D1 , v phi l D2 . p dng tnh cht c bn 5.3.2

v 5.3.3 ta c:
a
a
.
.
.
a
a
.
.
.
a
1n
1n
11 12
11 12
a
21 a22 . . . a2n
21 a22 . . . a2n
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
ai1 ai2 . . . ain

ai1 ai2 . . . ain
D2 =
.
+k
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
ai1 ai2 . . . ain

aj1 aj2 . . . ajn
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
an1 an2 . . . ann

an1 an2 . . . ann
Li p dng tnh cht 5.4.1 ta c: D2 = D1 + 0 = D1 .
Ch :
Theo tnh cht 5.3.4 ca nh thc ta c det A = det At . V vy tt c cc

tnh cht ca nh thc trn vn cn ng nu thay t "dng" bng t "ct".
Ta nhn thy rng trong cng thc tnh nh thc cp n c n! s hng trong tng
tng ng vi n! php th. Nh vy, vic tnh nh thc cp 4 tr ln bng cch s
dng trc tip nh ngha gp rt nhiu kh khn. Ta s s dng cc tnh cht ca
nh thc phn trn xy dng cc phng php tnh nh thc n gin v thun
tin hn.
5.5 Tnh nh thc bng cch a v dng tam gic

Ta gi cc php bin i sau l cc php bin i s cp trn cc dng hay ct ca
nh thc:
1. i ch hai dng hay hai ct ca nh thc.
2. Nhn mt dng (hay mt ct) ca nh thc vi mt phn t t ca trng K ri
cng vo mt dng (hay mt ct) khc.
Cc php bin i loi th nht lm thay i du ca nh thc theo 5.3.1, cn cc
php bin i loi th hai gi nguyn nh thc theo 5.3.2.
T mt nh thc cho trc, ta lun c th s dng mt s php bin i s cp
a v dng tam gic, t d dng tnh c.
V d:
1. Tnh nh thc :
1 1 3
D = 2 5 7 .
1 7 2
5.5. Tnh nh thc bng cch a v dng tam gic
Nhn dng th nht vi 2 ri cng vo dng 2, ta c:
1 1 3
3 13 .
D = 0
1 7 2
Ly dng 1 cng vi dng th 3 ta c:
1 1 3
D = 0 3 13 .
0 6 5
Nhn dng 2 vi 2 ri cng vi dng 3 ta c:
1 1 3
13 = 1.3.(21) = 63.
D = 0 3
0 0 21
2. Tnh nh thc :
3 1
2
4
0 0 1 6
.
D =
3 1
2 1
2 2 3 1
i ch ct th nht v ct th hai cho nhau ta c:
1 3 2 4
0 0 1 6
.
D =
1
2
3
1
2 2 3 1
Nhn dng th nht vi 1 ri cng vo dng th 3, nhn dng th
nht vi 2 ri cng vo dng th 4:
1 3
2
4
0 0 1 6
.
D =
0
1
1
3
0 8
7
9
i dng th hai v ba cho nhau ta c:
1 3
2
4
0 1 1 3
.
D =
0
0
1
6
0 8
7
9
56
57
5.6. Khai trin nh thc theo mt dng hoc ct
Nhn dng th 2 vi
ngoi:
1 3
0 1
D =
0 0
0 0
8 cng vo dng th 4 v a tha s 15 ra
1 3
2
4
2
4
0 1 1 3
1 3
.
= 15
0
0
1
6
1 6
0 0
1 1
15 15
Ly dng 3 cng vo dng 4,
1 3
2
4
0 1 1 3
= 15.1.(1).(1).5 = 75.
D = 15
0 0 1 6
0 0
0
5
5.6 Khai trin nh thc theo mt dng hoc ct

nh ngha 5.6.1
Cho nh thc D cp n. Nu chn k dng v k ct ca nh thc (1 < k < n) th
nh thc M ca ma trn vung cp k gm cc phn t nm giao ca k dng v
k ct ny c gi l mt nh thc con cp k ca D. nh thc M ca ma trn

thu c sau khi xo i k dng v k ct ny c gi l nh thc con b ca nh
thc con M . Nu chn cc dng th i1 , i2 , . . . , ik v cc ct th j1 , j2 , . . . , jk
th biu thc
(1)i1 +i2 +...+ik +j1 +...+jk M

c gi l phn b i s ca nh thc con M .
V d:
Cho nh thc cp 5
D = 1
0
0
1
3
5
0
1
0
0
1
0
2 1
0 2
4 0 .
2 1
1 0
Nu chn dng th hai v ct th nht th ta c nh thc con cp mt:
58
M = 2. nh thc con b ca M l:
0 1 2 1
3 0 4 0
.
M =
5 1 2 1
0 0 1 0
Phn b i s ca M l (1)1+2 M = M . Tng qut ta c th

coi mi phn t aij ca mt nh thc l mt nh thc con cp mt
ca nh thc .
Nu chn dng 1 v 2, ct 2 v 3, ta c nh thc con cp hai l:
0 1
.
M =
1 0
Phn b i s ca M l:
1 4 0
M = (1)1+2+2+3 0 2 1
2 1 0
nh l 5.6.2
Cho nh thc D cp n, k hiu Aij l phn b i s ca phn t aij . Khi :
1. Vi mi i c nh, 1 i n
D = ai1 Ai1 + ai2 Ai2 + . . . + ain Ain ,
Cng thc khai trin nh thc theo dng i
2. Vi mi j c nh, 1 j n
D = a1j A1j + a2j A2j + . . . + anj Anj .
Cng thc khai trin nh thc theo ct j
Nhn xt: nh l trn cho php ta tnh nh thc cp n thng qua vic tnh mt s
nh thc cp n 1. Do ta bit cch tnh nh thc cp hai v ba, nn ta c th
tnh c nh thc cp bt k.
V d:
Tnh nh thc sau:
4
D =
0
0
3 1 2
0 2
5
.
1 3 2
0 4
6
59
Ta nhn thy ct th nht c nhiu phn t khng nn khai trin theo ct

th nht s c nhiu thun li. C th:
D = 0.A11 + (4).A21 + 0.A31 + 0.A41
3 1 2
= (4)(1)2+1 1 3 2
0 4
6
= 4(54 + 8 + 24 + 6) = 4.92 = 368.
Nhn xt: Trong cng thc c n s hng trong tng. Vy khi khai trin ta s chn
dng hoc ct c nhiu phn t khng th vic tnh ton s c rt gn. Nu nh
trong nh thc c sn cc dng hoc ct nh vy th ta khai trin lun. Nu trong
nh thc cha c, ta c th dng tnh cht ca nh thc bin i a v trng
hp trn.
V d:
Tnh nh thc sau:
1 4
2
5
1 4 3 6
.
D =
2 5 0
1
3
0
4 1
Li gii: Ly dng th nht cng vo dng th hai v ba, nhn dng th

nht vi 3 ri cng vo dng th t ta c:
1 4 2 5
0 0 5 11
D =
0
6
3
5
0 12 10 16
0 5 11
= (1).(1)1+1 . 6 3 5
12 10 16
= (300 + 660 + 396 480) = 876.
Hoc ta c th tnh
0 5 11
6 3 5 =
12 10 16
0 5 11
5
11
6 3 5 = 6.(1)1+2 .
16 6 = 876.
0 16 6
60
5.7. nh l Laplace
5.7 nh l Laplace
Trong mc ny, ta pht biu nh l cho php khai trin mt nh thc theo nhiu
dng v nhiu ct cng mt lc.
nh l 5.7.1 (nh l Laplace)
Gi s trong nh thc D cp n chn k dng (ct) c nh (1 k n) v
M1 , M2 , .., Mr (r = Cnk ) l tt c cc nh thc con cp k c th thit lp c
t k dng (ct) ny. Ai l phn b i s ca Mi , i = 1, r. Khi :
D = M1 A1 + M2 A2 + . . . + Mr Ar .
V d:
Tnh nh thc :
3 1 5
2
6 0
3
0
.
D =
2
1
0
0
4 7
0 5
Ta chn c nh ct 2 v ct 4. T hai ct ny ta thit lp c C42 = 6

nh thc cp hai nhng ch c duy nht 1 nh thc con khc khng.
l:
1 2
= 9.
M =
7 5
Gi A l phn b i s ca M , ta c:
3
1+4+2+4 6
= (1)(15) = 15.
A = (1)
.
1 2
Vy D = 9.15 = 135.
Ngoi cc nh l v phng php trn ta cng c th dng cc tnh cht ca nh
thc tnh nh thc.
BI TP V
Tnh du ca cc php th sau:
1 2 3 4
,
1.
2 1 4 3
1 2 3 4 5 6
,
2.
2 4 5 3 6 1
V.1.
61
5.7. nh l Laplace
3.
1 2 3 4 5
.
2 1 4 5 3
V.2.
1 2 ...
1. Cho =
2 4 ...
php th chn.
1
2
2. Cho =
n n1
V.3.
n n + 1 n + 2 ...
2n
. Tm n l
2n
1
3
. . . 2n 1
... n
. Tm n l php th l.
... 1
1 2 3 4 5 6
1. Cho php th =
. Tnh 100 v t suy ra du ca
6 5 1 2 4 3
m khng cn tnh N ().
1 2 ... n
c k nghch th. Hy tnh du ca php th sau:
2. Cho =
a1 a2 . . . an
1
2
... n
.
=
an an1 . . . a1
V.4.
V.5.
Tnh cc nh thc sau:
3 5 8
1. 4 12 1 ,
2 5 3
6 1 7
2. 5 2 3 ,
3 4 5
1 4 5
3. 0 1 3 ,
7 0 6
12 4 5
4. 4 3 9 .
0 1 24
Dng nh ngha tnh cc nh thc sau:
2 3 1
4
0
0 3 1 5 16
1. 0 0 4 10 8 .
0 0
0 7 5
0 0
0
0 4
2
3.
3
d
0
0
c
0
2
b
4
0
a
0
,
5
0
1
2.
3
1
1
0
1
5
2
1
4
0
0
0
,
1
0
0
4.
1
0
3
b
2
0
0
0
c
0
5
2
.
3
d
62
5.7. nh l Laplace
V.6.
sau:
Bng cch khai trin theo dng hoc ct hy tnh nh thc ca cc ma trn
0 1 1 1
1 2
3
1
,
1.
0
4
3
2
1 1 1
2
V.7.
1
1
1 ,
1
3
3. 1
1
1
3
1
1
1
1
1
3
1
1
1
1
1
3
1
2
5.
3
4
2
3
4
1
3
4
1
2
3
1
,
2
3
2. 2
1
0
1
3
0
2
2 0 0
5 1 0
7 3 1 ,
4 2 0
0 1 2
1
4.
1
1
1
2
3
4
1
3
6
10
1
6.
1
1
1
0
a
b
1
a
0
c
1
4
,
10
20
1
b
.
c
0
Tnh nh thc sau bng cch a v dng tam gic:
3 6 0
1 1 3
2. 1 2 2 ,
1. 2 5 7 ,
6 6 4
1 1 2
2
3.
4
8
1
3
9
27
5. 1
1
1
2
2
2
2
1
1
4
5
,
16 25
64 125
1
2
3
3
3
1
2
3
4
4
1
2
3 ,
4
5
1
5
2
3
0
2
7
1
,
4.
2
10
1
5
3 15 6 13
6. 3
3
3
a
3
3
3
3
3
a
3
3
3
3
3
a
3
3
3
3 ,
3
a
63
5.7. nh l Laplace
1
a1
a2
1 a1 + b1
a2
a1
a2 + b2
7. 1
. . .
...
1
a1
a2
. . . an + bn
...
...
...
an
an
an
x + 1
2
3
4
5
1
x
+
2
3
4
5
2
x+3
4
5 ,
9. 1
1
2
3
x+4
5
1
2
3
4
x + 5
V.8.
1
2
3
1 0
3
8. 1 2 0
. . . . . .
1 2 3
. . . n
. . . n
. . . n ,
. . . 0
a1 a1
0
.
.
.
0
0 a2 a2 . . . 0
.
10. . . . . . .
0
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
a
n
n
1
1
1 ... 1
Tnh nh thc sau bng cch p dng nh l Laplace:
1 2
3 1 2 1 1
3 4
0 2 0 3 2
2. 0 0
1. 0 0 2 1 0 ,
0 5
1 0 3 5 0
0 0
0 0 2 3 0
0
0
2
6
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
5 .
6
9
Dng
sau:
cng2 thc truy hi tnh cc nh thc
1 + x
x
0
...
0
x
1 + x2
x
...
0
x
1 + x2 . . .
0 ,
1. Dn = 0
...
. . .
0
0
0
x 1 + x2
cos
1
0
.
.
.
0
1
2cos
1
.
.
.
0
1
2cos . . .
0 .
2. Dn = 0
...
...
. . . . . . . . .
0
0
0
. . . 2cos
V.10.
a1 a2 a3
1. Cho m = b1 b2 b3 . Tnh cc nh thc sau:

c1 c2 c 3
a1 b2 c1
c1 c 2 c 3
b. a2 b2 c2 .
a. b1 b2 b3 ,
a3 b3 c3
a1 a2 a3
V.9.
5.7. nh l Laplace
2. Chng minh rng:
a b c
b+c
c
+
a
a
+
b
b1 + c1 c1 + a1 a1 + b1 = 2 a1 b1 c1 .
a2 b2 c2
b2 + c2 c2 + a2 a2 + b2
V.11.
Gii cc phng trnh sau:
1 x
2
= 0.
1. 2
x
1 + 2x
1 x x 2 x 3
1 2 4 8
= 0.
2.
1
3
9
27
1 4 16 64
x + 1
2
2
2
2
x
+
1
2
2
= 0.
3.
2
2
x +1
2
2
2
2
2
x2 + 1
64
Bi 6
Ma trn
6.1 Cc php ton ma trn
nh ngha 6.1.1
Cho hai ma trn A = (aij )mn , B = (bij )mn cng c m n. Tng ca hai
ma trn A v B l mt ma trn c k hiu l A + B v c xc nh nh sau:
A + B = (cij )mn , cij = aij + bij .
V d: Cho hai ma trn
3 1 1 2
6 1 1 2
A = 2 3 0 1 , B = 1 31 4 2 .
2 2 3 22
5 0 2 2
Tng ca hai ma trn ny l
9 2 2 4
A + B = 3 34 4 3 .
7 2 5 24
nh ngha 6.1.2
Cho ma trn A = (aij )mn c m n, v k K . Tch ca k v ma trn A l
ma trn c m n k hiu kA xc nh bi
kA = (bij )mn , bij = kaij .
V d: Cho
3
1
A=
1
2
1 1 2
31 4 2
4 5 3
2 3 22
66
6.2. Tnh cht ca cc php ton ma trn
Khi
6
2
2A =
2
4
2 2 4
62 8 4
8 10 6
4 6 44
nh ngha 6.1.3
Cho hai ma trn A = (aij )mp , B = (bij )pn . Tch AB ca A v B l ma trn
C = (cij )mn , cc phn t cij c xc nh nh sau:
cij = ai1 b1j + ai2 b2j + . . . + aip bpj =
p
X
aik bkj .
k=1
V d:
3
6 1 1 2
2 3 0 1 . 1
2
5 0 2 2
1
1 1
19
7
1
3 4
= 10 11 12 .
2 3
21 9 5
0 2
6.2 Tnh cht ca cc php ton ma trn

K hiu tp cc ma trn c m n vi cc phn t thuc trng K l M at(m
n, K ).
1. A + B = B + A, A, B M at(m n, K ).
2. (A + B) + C = A + (B + C), A, B, C M at(m n, K ).
3. O M at(m n, K ) tha mn A + O = A, A M at(m n, K ).
4. A M at(m n, K ) tn ti ma trn A M at(m n, K ) sao cho
A + (A) = O.
5. k(A + B) = kA + kB, A, B M at(m n, K ), k K .
6. (k + l)A = kA + lA, A M at(m n, K ), k, l K .
7. k(lA) = (kl)A, A M at(m n, K ), k, l K .
8. 1A = A, A M at(m n, K ), 1 l n v ca K .
(Tm tnh cht trn cho thy M at(m n, K ) cng vi php cng hai ma trn
v php nhn mt phn t ca K vi mt ma trn to thnh mt khng gian vc
t trn trng K .)
67
6.3. nh thc ca tch hai ma trn vung cng cp
9. (AB)C = A(BC), vi mi ma trn A, B, C sao cho cc php ton hai

v xc nh.
10. (A + B)C = AC + BC v C(A + B) = CA + CB, vi mi ma trn
A, B, C sao cho cc php ton hai v xc nh.
11. k(AB) = (kA)B = A(kB), k K , vi mi ma trn A, B sao cho
A.B xc nh.
12. Vi n 1, k hiu In = (aij )nn l ma trn vung cp n,
(
0 nu i = j,
aij =
1 nu i = j.
Vi mi ma trn A, B, nu A.In xc nh th A.In = A, nu In .B xc nh
th In .B = B. (In c gi l ma trn n v cp n)
Ch : Php nhn ma trn khng c tnh giao hon.
6.3 nh thc ca tch hai ma trn vung cng cp

nh l 6.3.1
Cho A, B l hai ma trn vung cp n, khi ta c det(AB) = det(A). det(B).
Chng minh: Gi s A = (aij ), B = (bij ). Ta xt nh thc cp 2n sau:
0
0 ...
0
a11 a12 . . . a1n
0
0 ...
0
a21 a22 . . . a2n
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
0 ...
0
an1 an2 . . . ann
0
D=
b11 b12 . . . b1n 1 0 . . . 0
b21 b22 . . . b2n

0 1 . . . 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
bn1 bn2 . . . bnn

0
0 . . . 1
Khai trin Laplace nh thc trn theo n dng u ta c:
2
D = (1)n+1+n+2+...+2n+1+2+...+n |A|.|B| = (1)n |A|.|B|.
68
6.4. Nghch o ca ma trn vung
Nhn ln lt cc dng th n + 1, n + 2,. . ., 2n tng ng vi ai1 , ai2 , . . . , ain

ri cng vo dng th i ta c:
c
11 c12 . . . c1n 1 0 . . . 0
c
0 1 . . . 0
21 c22 . . . c2n
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0
0 . . . 1
cn1 cn2 . . . cnn
D=
b11 b12 . . . b1n 1 0 . . . 0
b21 b22 . . . b2n

0 1 . . . 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
bn1 bn2 . . . bnn

0
0 . . . 1
trong
cik =
n
X
aij bjk .
j=1
t C l ma trn (cik ) ta c C = AB.

Khai trin Laplace nh thc D theo n dng u ta c:
1 0 . . . 0
0 1 . . . 0
D =(1)2(1+2+...+n) |C|
. . . . . . . . . . . .
0
0 . . . 1
2
=(1)n(n+1) .|C|.(1)n = (1)n |C|.

Vy
|C| = |A|.|B|
hay
|AB| = |A|.|B|.
2
6.4 Nghch o ca ma trn vung

nh ngha 6.4.1
Cho A l mt ma trn vung cp n. Ma trn vung B cp n c gi l ma trn
nghch o ca A nu AB = BA = In .
Nu A c ma trn nghch o th A c gi l ma trn kh nghch.
nh l 6.4.2
iu kin cn v ma trn vung A c nghch o l det(A) = 0.
69
Chng minh:
() Gi s ma trn vung A cp n kh nghch tc l tn ti B AB = BA = In .
Theo nh l 6.3.1 ta c 1 = det(In ) = det(AB) = det(A). det(B). Do
det(A) = 0.
() Gi s det(A) = 0 ta s chng minh ma trn B xc nh theo cng thc sau
l nghch o ca A.
A11 A21 . . . An1
A
1
12 A22 . . . An2
B=
.
..
..
. ...
.
det(A) ..
A1n A2n . . . Ann
(trong Aij l phn b i s ca phn t aij ).
Tht vy, gi s A.B = (cij )nn . Khi cij =
1
det(A)
cij = ai1 Aj1 + ai2 Aj2 + . . . + ain Ajn
.cij ,
(1 i, j n).
Ta c cii l khai trin theo dng i nh thc ca ma trn A, do cii = det(A).

cij vi i = j l khai trin theo dng j ca nh thc nhn c t nh thc ca ma
trn A khi thay hng j bi hng i. nh thc ny bng khng do c hai dng ging
nhau. Do cij = 0, i = j. Tm li ta c
(
0
nu i = j,
cij =
det(A) nu i = j.
Suy ra
cij
(
0
=
1
nu i = j,
nu i = j.
iu chng t AB = In . Tng t ta chng minh c BA = In .

Vy B l ma trn nghch o ca A.
V d: Cho ma trn
1 2 3
A = 2 3 1 .
3 1 2
70
det(A) = 1.3.2 + 2.1.3 + 3.2.1 3.3.3 1.1.1 2.2.2 = 18 = 0. Do

ma trn A kh nghch. Ta c:
2
1
3
1
1+2
= 5,
A
=
A
=
(1)
A11 = (1)1+1
12
12
3 2 = 1,
1
2
2
3
= 7,
A13 = 1)1+3
3 1
1
3
2
3
= 1, A22 = (1)2+2
A21 = (1)2+1
3 2 = 7,
1
2
1
2
= 5,
A23 = (1)2+3
3
1
1
3
2
3
= 7, A32 = (1)3+2
A31 = (1)3+1
2 1 = 5,
3
1
3+3 1 2
A33 = (1)
2 3 = 1.
Ma trn nghch o ca A l
5/18
1/18
7/18
5
1
7
1
1 7 5 = 1/18
A1 =
7/18 5/18 .
18 7 5 1
7/18 5/18 1/18
Ta c mt phng php khc tm ma trn nghch o ca mt ma trn vung kh
nghch A, l phng php Gauss-Jordan. Phng php ny gm cc bc nh
sau:
Vit ma trn n v I bn phi ma trn A.
Dng cc php bin i s cp trn cc dng a ma trn A v ma trn n
v I, ng thi cng dng cc php bin i vi ma trn pha bn phi.
Khi ma trn A c bin i thnh ma trn n v I th ma trn I cng c
bin i thnh ma trn nghch o A1 ca A.
V d:
Tm ma trn nghch o ca ma trn
3 1 1
A = 1 3 1 .
1 1 3
Vit ma trn n v vo bn phi ca A:
3 1 1 1 0 0
1 3 1 0 1 0
1 1 3 0 0 1
6.5. Mt ng dng vui: m ha
71
Cng dng 3 v dng 2 vo dng 1:
5 5 5 1 1 1
1 3 1 0 1 0 .
1 1 3 0 0 1
Nhn dng 1 vi
:
5
1 1 1 1/5 1/5 1/5

1 3 1
0
1
0 .
0
0
1
1 1 3
Nhn dng 1 vi 1 ri cng vo dng 2 v dng 3:
1/5
1/5
1/5
1 1 1
0 2 0 1/5
4/5 1/5 .
4/5
0 0 2 1/5 1/5
1
1
Nhn dng 2 vi , dng 3 vi :
2
2
1/5
1/5
1/5
1 1 1
0 1 0 1/10
2/5 1/10 .
2/5
0 0 1 1/10 1/10
Nhn dng 2 vi 1, dng 3 vi 1 ri cng vo dng 1:
2/5 1/10 1/10

1 0 0
0 1 0 1/10
2/5 1/10 .
2/5
0 0 1 1/10 1/10
Vy ta tm c ma trn nghch o ca ma trn A l
2/5 1/10 1/10

A1 = 1/10 2/5 1/10 .
1/10 1/10 2/5
6.5 Mt ng dng vui: m ha

Mc ny nu mt ng dng ca php nhn ma trn vo vic m ha. Cho A = (aij )3
l mt ma trn vung cp 3 vi h s thuc trng Z 29 v det(A) = 0 (trong Z 29 ).
Chia cc ch ci ca t cn m ha thnh cc nhm 3 ch ci. Nu nhm cui cng
72
ch c 1 ch ci th ta thm 2 du + v , nu nhm cui cng ch c 2 ch ci th

ta thm du . Sau thay cc k t ny bi cc s t 0 28 theo tng ng sau:
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
U V W X Y Z +
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
Mi nhm 3 k t c chuyn thnh mt nhm 3 s trong Z 29 , c xem nh mt
ma trn c 1 3. Chng hn ta c ma trn (x1 x2 x3 ). Nhn vi A ta c ma trn
(x1 x2 x3 )A = (y1 y2 y3 ).
Chuyn cc nhm s ny thnh nhng nhm k t theo tng ng nu trn v sp
xp theo ng th t cc nhm ban u ta c m ha ca t cho bi ma trn A.
V d: M ha t "Student" bi ma trn
1 1 3
2 .
A = 5 1
1 4 1
Ta c det(A) = 41 mod 29 = 12 = 0.
Nhm t trn thnh 3 nhm (S T U) (D E N) (T + -).
(S T U ) (18 19 20)
1 1 3
(18 19 20) 5 1
2 = (133 mod 29 81 mod 29
1 4 1
= (17
23
14) (R
N ) (3 4 13)
1 1 3
(3 4 13) 5 1
2 = (36 mod 29
1 4 1
(D
O).
= (7
24
4) (H
53 mod 29
) (19 26 27)
1 1 3
(19 26 27) 5 1
2 = (176 mod 29
1 4 1
(T
72 mod 29)
4 mod 29)
E).
115 mod 29
82 mod 29)
73
= (2
24) (C
28
Y ).
Vy "STUDENT" c m ha thnh "RXOHYEC*Y".

Qu trnh gii m c thc hin tng t nh qu trnh m ha nhng thay ma
trn A bi ma trn A1 .
V d: Gii m t c m ha bi ma trn A thnh "L X C - F L".
Trc tin ta tm ma trn A1 (trong Z 29 ).
Ta c det(A) = 12 nn (det(A))1 = 121 = 17.
5
2
1
2
= 9, A12 = (1)1+2
A11 = (1)1+1
1 1 = 7,
4
1
5
1
= 19,
A13 = (1)1+3
1
4
1
3
1
3
= 11, A22 = (1)2+2

A21 = (1)2+1
1 1 = 7,
4
1
1
1
= 5,
A23 = (1)2+3
1
4
3+2 1 3
3+1 1 3
=
5,
A
=
(1)
A31 = (1)
32
5 2 = 13,
1 2
3+3 1 1
A33 = (1)
5 1 = 6.
Ma trn nghch o ca A l
A1
9 11
1
7 4
= (det(A))
19 5
9 11 5
= 17 7 4 13 =
19 5 6
5
13
6
8 13
2
3 10 11 .
4
2
15
Ta nhm "LXC-FL" thnh hai nhm (L X C) v (- F L).

(L X
C) (11 23
2)
(11
= (11 mod 29
23
8 13
2
2) 3 10 11
4
2
15
83 mod 29 201 mod 29)

= (18 4 2) (S E
C).
74
6.6. Hng ca mt ma trn
( F
L) (27
11)
(27
8 13
2
5 11) 3 10 11
4
2
15
= (157 mod 29
323 mod 29 164 mod 29)

= (17 4 19) (R
T ).
Vy t cn tm l "SECRET".
6.6 Hng ca mt ma trn

nh ngha 6.6.1
Cho ma trn A c m n
a11
a21
A=
...
am1
a12
a22
...
am2
...
...
...
...
a1n
a2n
.
...
amn
Coi mi dng ca ma trn A nh mt vc t trong khng gian K n :

1 = (a11 , a12 , . . . , a1n )
2 = (a21 , a22 , . . . , a2n )
.....................
m = (am1 , am2 , . . . , amn )
Hng ca h vc t dng 1 , . . . , m gi l hng dng ca ma trn A.
Coi mi ct ca ma trn A nh mt vc t trong khng gian K m :
1 = (a11 , a21 , . . . , am1 )
2 = (a12 , a22 , . . . , am2 )
.....................
m = (a1n , a2n , . . . , amn )
Hng ca h vc t ct 1 , . . . , m gi l hng ct ca ma trn A.
Ta cng nhn nh l sau:
nh l 6.6.2
Hng dng ca ma trn A bng hng ct ca A v bng cp cao nht ca cc nh
thc con khc khng ca n.
6.6. Hng ca mt ma trn
75
nh ngha 6.6.3
Hng ca ma trn A l hng dng ca ma trn A (v cng bng hng ct ca ma
trn A). K hiu hng ca ma trn A l rank(A) hoc r(A).
Tm hng ca mt ma trn bng cch a v dng hnh thang:
Cc php bin i s cp sau khng lm thay i hng ca ma trn
- i ch 2 dng (hoc hai ct) ca ma trn.
- Nhn 1 dng (hay ct) vi mt phn t t = 0 ca trng K .
- Nhn 1 dng (hay 1 ct) vi t K ri cng vo mt dng (hay mt ct ) khc.
T mt ma trn cho trc lun c th s dng mt s php bin i s cp
a v mt ma trn c dng hnh thang, tc l mt ma trn A = (aij )mn c
tnh cht: r min(m, n) aij = 0, i, j tha mn i < j hay i > r v
a11 .a22 . . . arr = 0.
a11 . . . . . . . . . . . .
0 a22 . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A= 0
0 . . . arr . . . .
0
0 ... 0 ... ... 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0
0 ... 0 ... ... 0
R rng hng ca ma trn hnh thang ny l r.
V d: Tm hng ca ma trn
1 2 1 3
A = 2 1 0 1
2 3 1 2
Bin i ma trn A v dng hnh thang
1 2 1 3
1 2 1 3
1 2 1 3
A = 2 1 0 1 0 3 2 5 0 1 3 4
0 3 2 5
0 1 3 4
2 3 1 2
1 2 1 3
0 1 3 4 = B
0 0 7 7
Cc bc bin i:
nhn dng 1 vi (2) ri cng vo dng 2; nhn dng 1 vi (2) ri cng
vo dng 3,
76
6.7. Ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh
i v tr dng 2 v dng 3,
nhn dng 2 vi (3) ri cng vo dng 3.
Ma trn B c dng hnh thang v c hng l 3. T r(A) = 3.
6.7 Ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh

nh ngha 6.7.1
Cho V v V l hai K khng gian vc t hu hn chiu, 1 , . . . , n (1) l mt c
s ca V , 1 , . . . , n (2) l mt c s ca V v f l mt nh x tuyn tnh t V
n V . Gi s cc f (i ) (i = 1, 2, . . . , n) biu th tuyn tnh qua c s (2) nh
sau:
f (1 ) = a11 .1 + . . . + am1 .m ,
f (2 ) = a12 .1 + . . . + am2 .m ,
........................
f (n ) = a1n .1 + . . . + amn .m .
Khi ma trn
a11
a21
A=
...
am1
a12
a22
...
am2
...
...
...
...
a1n
a2n
...
amn
c gi l ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh f i vi 2 c s (1) v (2). K hiu

(2)
A = M(1) f.
Khi V = V v (1) trng vi (2), ta gi A l ma trn ca php bin i tuyn tnh
f i vi c s (1).
V d:
1. Cho khng gian vc t V , c s chiu l n. Ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh ng nht
idV i vi mt c s bt k l ma trn cp n:
1 0
0 1
In =
. . . . . .
0 0
... 0
... 0
.
. . . . . .
... 1
2. Trong R 3 v R 4 xt cc c s chnh tc:
1 = (1, 0, 0), 2 = (0, 1, 0), 3 = (0, 0, 1) (1) v
77
6.7. Ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh
1 = (1, 0, 0, 0), 2 = (0, 1, 0, 0), 3 = (0, 0, 1, 0), 4 = (0, 0, 0, 1) (2).

nh x tuyn tnh g : R 3 R 4 xc nh bi:
g(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (x1 + 3x2 , 2x1 2x2 + x3 , x2 + 4x3 , x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 ).
Khi :
g(1 ) = (1, 2, 0, 1) = 1 + 22 + 4 ,
g(2 ) = (3, 2, 1, 2) = 31 22 + 3 + 24 ,
g(3 ) = (0, 1, 4, 3) = 2 + 43 + 34 .
Vy ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh g i vi 2 c s nu l
1 3 0
2 2 1
0 1 4 .
1 2 3
Mnh 6.7.2
Cho V v V l hai K khng gian vc t hu hn chiu, 1 , . . . , n (1) v
1 , . . . , n (2) ln lt l hai c s ca V v V . Gi s f : V V l mt
nh x tuyn tnh c ma trn i vi hai c s (1) v (2) l A = (aij )mn . Khi
nu V c ta trong c s (1) l (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) th f () c ta
trong c s (2) l (y1 , y2 , . . . , ym ),

x1
y1
x
y
2
2
.. = A. .. .
.
.
xn
ym
Chng minh: Ta c
n
n
X
X
f () = f (
xi i ) =
xi f (i )
i=1
n
X
m
X
m X
n
X
aji j ) =
(
xi aji )j
i=1
j=1
j=1 i=1
i=1
xi (
Suy ra
yj =
n
X
i=1
xi aji =
n
X
aji xi
i=1
78
6.8. Tnh cht ca ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh
nh ngha 6.7.3
Gi s () = {1 , . . . , n }, ( ) = {1 , . . . , n } l hai c s ca khng gian
vc t V v
1 = a11 1 + a21 2 + . . . + an1 n
2 = a12 1 + a22 2 + . . . + an2 n
..................
n = a1n 1 + a2n 2 + . . . + ann n .
Khi ma trn
a11
a21
T =
. . .
an1
a12
a22
...
an2
...
...
...
...
a1n
a2n
...
ann
c gi l ma trn chuyn t c s () sang c s ( ).

Nhn xt: Ma trn chuyn t c s () sang c s ( ) ca V chnh l ma trn ca
nh x tuyn tnh idV i vi 2 c s ( ) v ().
V d: Trong R 3 xt hai c s:
(1) : 1 = (0, 1, 0), 2 = (2, 0, 0), 3 = (0, 0, 1),
(2) : 1 = (2, 1, 1), 2 = (1, 2, 1), 3 = (1, 1, 2).
Khi :
1 = 1 + 2 3
1
2 = 21 + 2 3
2
1
3 = 1 + 2 23 .
2
Ma trn chuyn t c s (1) sang c s (2) l:
1
2
1
T = 1 1/2 1/2
1 1 2
6.8 Tnh cht ca ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh

nh l 6.8.1
Cho ba K-khng gian vc t V1 , V2 , V3 . Gi s (1), (2), (3) ln lt l nhng c
s ca V1 , V2 , V3 . Cho hai nh x tuyn tnh f : V1 V2 , g : V2 V3 . Khi
(3)
(3)
(2)
M(1) gf = M(2) g.M(1) f.
79
H qu 6.8.2
(i) Nu f : V1 V2 ng cu v (1) l 1 c s ca V1 , (2) l 1 c s ca V2
th:
(1)
(2)
M(2) f 1 = (M(1) f )1 .
(ii) Cho f : V1 V2 l mt nh x tuyn tnh, (1) v (1 ) l 2 c s ca V1 ,
(2) v (2 ) l 2 c s ca V2 , S l ma trn chuyn t c s (1) sang c s
(1 ), T l ma trn chuyn t c s (2) sang c s (2 ). Khi :
(2 )
M(1) f = S.M(1 ) f.T 1 .

(2)
BI TP VI
VI.1.
Cho cc ma trn:
3 1
A = 0 3
5 2
4
1
B = 7 2
1 5
Tnh:
a. A + B C
b. 2A 5B + C
c. A + 2B 3C
VI.2. Cho cc ma trn:
4 3 7
A=
2 0 1
3 0
C = 6 5
1 4
B=
2 1 5
4 3 3
Tm ma trn X sao cho:

a. A 2X = B
b. 3B X = A
VI.3. Cho a thc f (x) = x2 2x + 3 v ma trn:
1 2
A=
3 0
Tnh:
VI.4.
f (A)
Chng minh rng mi ma trn cp 2:
a b
A=
c d
u tha mn phng trnh X 2 (a + d)X + (ad bc)I = 0
80
VI.5.
VI.6.
VI.7.
Tm ma trn nghch o ca cc ma trn sau:
1 1 1
3 2
C
A=
B = 2 1 2
4 3
3 0
1
0
1 3 5 7
1
0 1 2 3
E
=
D=
1
0 0 2
1
1
0 0 0
3
1 1 3
= 5 1
2
1 4 1
1 1 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
Gii cc phng trnh ma trn sau:
1 1
1 1 1
= 4 3
a. X 2 1
0
1 2
1 1 1
2 1 0
1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1
X = 1 2 1
b.
0 1 2
0 0 1 1
0 0 1
0 0 0 1
3
2
5
0
0
1
2
Cho A, B l hai ma trn vung cp n
1. Cho det(A) = 2 hy tnh det(A3 ) v det(A5 ).

2. Cho bit A kh nghch v det(A) = 5, tnh det(A1 ).
3. Cho det(A) = 4 v B 3 = A, tnh det(B).
4. Cho det(A) = 6, tnh det(A2 At A).
VI.8.
Dng ma trn
hy m ha cc t sau:
1. "HOUSEHOLD ".
2. "VIETNAM".
3. "QUESTION ".
4. "TIMESCALE ".
2 1 1
A = 1 2 1
1 1 2
81
VI.9. Cc t di y c m ha bi ma trn A trong bi tp trn, hy gii

m cc t .
1. "FZJWGP ".
2. "GMPHSC".
3. "YCINQIOQR".
VI.10.
Tm hng ca cc ma trn sau
1 4 8
a. A = 3 2 4
4 6 12
1 1 3
c. C = 2 1 3
3 1 3
VI.11.
a.
1
b. B = 0
0
1
1
d. D =
2
0
Tm hng ca cc ma trn sau
2 1 3 2 4
A = 4 2 5 1 7
2 1 1 8 2
3
5
c. C =
1
7
1 3 2 5
3 2 3 4
3 5 0 7
5 1 4 1
2 3 1 3
1 3 4 5
2 3 1 8
4 3 6
0 1 1
1 1 0
2 2 4
1
2
b. B =
5
7
4
8
d. D =
4
4
8
3
5 1
1 3 4
1 1 7
7
9
1
3 5 2 3
6 7 4 2
3 8 2 7
3 1 2 5
6 1 4 6
VI.12.
Tm x hng ca ma trn sau bng 2
2 1 3
A = 1 2 0
4 x 6
VI.13.
Tm ma trn chun tc tng ng vi cc nh x tuyn tnh sau:
1. f : R 2 R
f (x, y) = x + y.
2. f : R 3 R
f (x, y, z) = 2x 3y + z.
3. f : R 3 R 2
f (x, y, z) = (2x y, x + y 2z).
4. f : R 2 R 3
f (x, y) = (2x + y, x 2y, y).
5. f : R 2 R 4
f (x, y) = (x 2y, 3x, 0, x + y).
6. f : R 3 R 3
f (x, y) = (2x + z, x z, y).
7. f : R 3 R
f (x, y, z) = x y.
8. f : R 3 R 3
f (x, y, z) = (0, y, 2z).
9. f : R 3 R 3
f (x, y, z) = (x, 0, 0).
10. f : R 3 R 3
11. f : R R 3
82
f (x, y, z) = (x, x, 2z).

f (x) = (3x, x, 2x).
VI.14.
Cho nh x tuyn tnh f : R 3 R 2 xc nh bi f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) =
(2x1 , x2 x3 ).
a. Chng minh rng f l nh x tuyn tnh
b. Chng minh rng h vc t sau l c s ca R 3 : 1 = (1, 1, 1), 2 =
(0, 1, 2), 3 = (0, 0, 1).
c. Chng minh rng 1 = (1, 2), 2 = (1, 1) l mt c s ca R 2 .
d. Tm ma trn ca nh x f i vi hai c s () ca R 3 v () ca R 2 .
VI.15.
Cho V l khng gian vc t c dim V = 2. Gi 1 , 2 . l c s
ca V. Cho f l php bin i tuyn tnh ca V c ma trn trong c s () l
2 1
A=
. Tnh f (1 ), f (2 ), f (3 ) vi:
3 2
a. 1 = 31 + 52 .
b. 2 = 1 32 .
c. 3 = 21 32 .
VI.16.
Cho nh x tuyn tnh f : R 3 R 3 xc nh bi f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) =
(x2 2x3 , x2 + x1 , x1 ).
a. Tm ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh f i vi c s 1 = (1, 1, 0), 2 =
(0, 1, 1), 3 = (1, 0, 1).
b. Tm
tnh g bit rng ma trn biu din g trong c s cu (a) l
nh x tuyn
1 2 0
0 1 2
1 2 1
83
VI.17.
Cho nh x tuyn tnh f : R 2 R 2 xc nh bi f (x, y) = (x +
2
y, x y). Tm
mt c s trong R sao cho f c ma trn biu din trong c s
0 0
l A =
1 0
VI.18.
Cho nh x tuyn tnh f : R 3 R 3 tha mn

1
2
2
0
3
2
f 2 =
, f 5 =
, f 0 =
3
1
1 .
1
1
0
2
1
1
Tm ma trn ca f i vi c s chun tc ca R 3 .
VI.19. Gi P3 l khng gian vc t gm a thc O v cc a thc f (x) R [x]
c bc khng vt qu 3.
a. Chng minh rng hai h vc t
1 = 1, 2 = x, 3 = x2 , 4 = x3 ;
1 = 1, 2 = (x 2), 3 = (x 2)2 , 4 = (x 2)3
l hai c s ca P3 .
b. Tm ma trn chuyn t c s th nht sang c s th hai.
c. Tm ta ca vc t = x3 2x + 1 i vi c s th hai.
VI.20. Cho hai h vc t:
(1) 1 = (0, 1, 0, 2), 2 = (1, 1, 0, 1), 3 = (1, 2, 0, 1),
4 = (1, 0, 2, 1);
(2) 1 = (1, 0, 2, 1), 2 = (0, 3, 0, 2), 3 = (0, 1, 3, 1),
4 = (0, 1, 0, 1);
trong khng gian vc t R 4 .
a. Chng minh (1) v (2) l hai c s ca R 4 .
b. Tm ma trn chuyn t c s (1) sang c s (2).
c. Tm ta ca = (2, 0, 4, 0) i vi c s (2).
d. Tm ta ca i vi c s (1).
Bi 7
H phng trnh tuyn tnh
7.1 Khi nim
nh ngha 7.1.1
Cho K l mt trng. H m phng trnh n n x1 , x2 , . . . xn dng:
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + . . . + a1n xn =

b1
a x + a x + . . . + a x =
b2
21 1
22 2
2n n
..
..
. ...
.
a x + a x + + a x = b
m1 1
m2 2
mn n
(7.1)
trong cc aij , bi K c gi l mt h phng trnh tuyn tnh .

Mt phn t (c1 , c2 , . . . , cn ) K n gi l mt nghim ca h phng trnh cho
nu khi thay xi bi ci th cc phng trnh trong h tr thnh nhng ng thc ng.
H (7.1) c th vit gn di dng:
n
X
aij xj = bi ,
i = 1, m.
j=1
Cc phn t bi gi l cc h s t do.
Ma trn
a11 a12
a
21 a22
A = ..
..
.
.
am1 am2
. . . a1n
. . . a2n
..
...
.
. . . amn
85
7.2. Tiu chun c nghim
c gi l ma trn cc h s ca h phng trnh (7.1).

Ma trn
a11 a12 . . . a1n b1
a
21 a22 . . . a2n b2
Abs = ..
..
..
..
.
. ...
.
.
am1 am2 . . . amn bm
c gi l ma
h phng
trnh (7.1).
b sung ca
trn
b1
x1
b
x
2
2
t X = .. v B = .. th (7.1) c th vit di dng ma trn:
.
.
bm
xn
AX = B.
Nu coi cc vect ct ca ma trn Abs nh nhng vect trong K m :
j = (a1j , a2j , . . . , amj ), j = 1, n
= (b1 , b2 , . . . , bm ).
th h (7.1) c th vit di dng vect nh sau:
x1 1 + x2 2 + + xn n = .
7.2 Tiu chun c nghim

nh l 7.2.1
H phng trnh (7.1) c nghim khi v ch khi rank A = rank Abs .
Chng minh:
()Gi s h (7.1) c nghim l (c1 , c2 , . . . , cn ) tc l:
c1 1 + c1 1 + + c1 1 = .
Nh vy, l mt t hp tuyn tnh ca h vect 1 , 2 , . . . , n .
Suy ra L(1 , 2 , . . . , n , ) = L(1 , 2 , . . . , n ).
iu chng t rng rank A = rank Abs .
() Gi s rank A = rank Abs . iu c ngha l hng ca h
vect 1 , 2 , . . . , n , bng hng ca h vect 1 , 2 , . . . , n . Suy ra
dim L(1 , 2 , . . . , n , ) = dim L(1 , 2 , . . . , n )
T L(1 , 2 , . . . , n , ) = L(1 , 2 , . . . , n ) v do
L(1 , 2 , . . . , n ) hay tn ti cc phn t c1 , c2 , . . . , cn K sao cho
c1 1 + c2 2 + + cn n = .
Vy h (7.1) c nghim.
86
7.3. H Cramer
7.3 H Cramer
nh ngha 7.3.1
H phng trnh (7.1) c gi l h Cramer nu ma trn h s A l mt ma trn
vung kh nghch tc l m = n v nh thc:
a
11 a12 . . . a1n
a
21 a22 . . . a2n
det A = ..
..
. = 0.
.
. . . . ..
an1 an2 . . . ann

nh l 7.3.2 (Quy tc Cramer)
H phng trnh Cramer:
a11 x1 +a12 x2 + . . . + a1n xn = b1
a x +a x + . . . + a x = b
21 1
22 2
2n n
2
.
.
.
.
.
..
..
..
..
..
a x +a x + + a x = b
n1 1
n2 2
nn n
n
c nghim duy nht (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) c xc nh nh sau:
xj =
Dj
D
trong D l nh thc ca ma trn h s v
a
11 . . . a1j1 b1 a1j+1 . . . a1n
a
21 . . . a2j1 b2 a2j+1 . . . a2n
Dj = ..
, j = 1, n
..
..
..
. ...
.
...
.
.
an1 . . . anj1 bn anj+1 . . . ann

Chng minh: Vit h phng trnh di dng ma trn AX = B. Do det A = 0
nn A c ma trn nghch o A1 . Nhn A1 vo hai v ca phng trnh trn ta
c X = A1 B. Nh vy h c nghim duy nht (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ).
Thay bi =
a
11
a
21
Dj = ..
.
an1
ai1 x1 + ai2 x2 + . . . + ain xn bi ta c:

. . . a1j1 a11 x1 + a12 x2 + . . . + a1n xn
. . . a2j1 a21 x1 + a22 x2 + . . . + a2n xn
..
..
...
.
.
. . . anj1 an1 x1 + an2 x2 + + ann xn
. . . a1j+1
. . . a2j+1
..
...
.
. . . anj+1
a1n
a2n
..
.
ann
87
7.3. H Cramer
Do tnh cht ca nh thc ta c th vit
a
11 . . . a11 . . . a1n
a
21 . . . a21 . . . a2n
Dj = x1 ..
+ ...
. . . . ... . . . ...
an1 . . . an1 . . . ann
a
11 . . . a1j . . . a1n
a
21 . . . a2j . . . a2n
+ xj ..
+ ...
. . . . ... . . . ...
an1 . . . anj . . . ann
a
11 . . . a1n
a
21 . . . a2n
+ xn ..
. . . . ...
an1 . . . ann
. . . a1n
. . . a2n
. .
. . . ..
. . . ann
nh thc th j v phi bng D cn cc nh thc khc bng 0 cho nn Dj = xj D.

Do
Dj
xj =
, j = 1, 2, . . . , n.
D
2
V d:
Gii h phng trnh:
x
+ z = 2
x + 2y + z = 2
2x y + 2z = 3.
Li gii: Ta c:
1
0
1
D = 1 2 1 = 2 = 0
2 1 2
Do h
cho l h Cramer.
1 2 1
2 0 1
D1 = 2 2 1 = 2; D2 = 1 2 1 = 2;
2 3 2
3 1 2
1
0
2
D3 = 1 2 2 = 2
2 1 3
7.4. Phng php Gauss
88
p dng cng thc nghim cho h Cramer ta c:
x = D1 /D = 1,
y = D2 /D = 1,
z = D3 /D = 1.
H c nghim duy nht: (1, 1, 1).
7.4 Phng php Gauss

Cc php bin i sau khng lm thay i tp nghim ca mt h phng trnh:
1. i ch hai phng trnh ca h cho nhau.
2. Nhn hai v ca mt phng trnh ca h vi mt phn t k = 0 ca K .
3. Nhn hai v ca mt phng trnh ca h vi mt s k K ri cng v vi v
vo mt phng trnh khc ca h.
T mt h phng trnh tuyn tnh bt k cho trc bao gi cng c th s dng mt
s php bin i s cp a c v mt h phng trnh m ma trn h s ca
n c dng hnh thang.
a11 a12
...
. . . a1n
0 a
...
. . . a2n
22
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

0 . . . arr . . . arn
0
...
... 0
0
..
..
.
.
.
...
. . . ..
0
0
0... ... 0
K hiu b1 , b2 , . . . , bm l cc h s t do ca h phng trnh mi. Nu i > r
bi = 0 th h v nghim. Nu bi = 0, i > r, t r dng u tin ca ma trn trn
ta lun c mt nh con dng cho cp r khc 0. Khng mt tnh tng qut ta gi
s a11 , a22 , . . . , arr = 0 th h (7.1) tng ng vi h sau:

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + . . . + a1n xn = b1
a22 x2 + . . . + a2n xn = b2
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
arr xr + . . . + arn xn = br
gii h ny ta chuyn ta chuyn cc s hng cha cc xi vi i > r qua v phi
(cc n ny c gi l cc n t do ). T phng trnh cui, tnh c xr (qua cc
89
7.4. Phng php Gauss
n t do). Thay xr vo phng trnh th r 1 ta tnh c xr1 . Tip tc qu trnh

ta tnh c xr2 , . . . , x2 , x1
V d:
Gii h phng trnh:
2x1
4x1
2x1
x1
Li gii:
+
+
+
+
Abs
5x2
3x2
3x2
8x2
2
4
=
2
1
5
3
3
8
8x3
9x3
5x3
7x3
8
9
5
7
= 8
= 9
= 7
= 12
12
i ch dng th nht cho dng th t:
1 8 7 12
4 3 9 9
2 3 5 7
2 5 8 8
Nhn dng th ba vi 2 cng vo dng 1, nhn dng th t vi 1 ri
cng vo dng th ba, nhn dng th nht vi 2 ri cng vo dng th
t ta c:
12
1
8 7
0 3
1 5
0 2
1
3
0 11
6 16
Nhn dng th ba vi 1 ri cng vo dng th t, nhn dng th hai vi
2/3 ri cng vo dng th ba:
12
1
8 7
0 3
1 5
0
0 7/3 7/3
0 9
3 15
Nhn dng th hai vi 3 ri cng vo dng th t, nhn dng th ba vi
90
7.5. Bin lun v s nghim
3:
1
8 7 12
0 3
1 5
0
7
0
7
0
0
0
0
Vy ta c h sau:
x1 + 8x2 7x3 = 12
3x2 + x3 = 5
7x3 =
7
T phng trnh cui rt ra c x3 = 1 thay ln hai phng trnh trn ta
c x2 = 2, x3 = 3 (Phng trnh cui lun ng).
Vy nghim ca h l: (3, 2, 1) (Khng c n t do).
7.5 Bin lun v s nghim

Cho h phng trnh tuyn tnh n n vi ma trn h s l A v ma trn b sung l
Abs
Nu hng A = hng Abs th h v nghim.
Gii s hng A = hng Abs = r, c hai trng hp: r = n v r < n.
1. Trng hp hng A = hng Abs
ng vi h c dng:

a11 x1 + a12 x2 +
a22 x2 +
... ... ... ...
= r = n. H phng trnh tng

. . . + a1n xn
. . . + a2n xn
... ... ...
ann xn
=
=
...
=
b1
b2
...
bn
trong (a11 , a22 , ann = 0).

H ny c nghim duy nht.
2. Trng hp hng A = hng Abs =
ng vi h c dng:

a11 x1 + a12 x2 +
a22 x2 +
... ... ... ...
arr xr +
r < n, H phng trnh(7.1) tng

...
...
...
...
+ a1n xn
+ a2n xn
... ...
+ arn xn
=
=
...
=
b1
b2
...
br
91
7.6. H phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht
Cho cc n xr+1 , xr+2 , . . . ,xn (cc n t do) nhng gi tr ty ta tnh

c x1 , x2 , . . . ,xr qua cc n t do . iu chng t h phng trnh
c v s nghim.
Tm li:
- Nu hng A = hng Abs : h phng trnh v nghim.
- hng A = hng Abs = n: h phng trnh c nghim duy nht.
- hng A = hng Abs < n: h phng trnh c v s nghim.
7.6 H phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht

nh ngha 7.6.1
H phng trnh tuyn tnh trong cc h s t do u bng 0 c gi l h
phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht. Nh vy h phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht
c dng:
n
X
aij xj = 0,
i = 1, m
(7.2)
j=1
Nhn xt: H phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht lun nhn (0, 0, . . . , 0) lm
mt nghim. Nghim gi l nghim tm thng ca h.
Mnh 7.6.2
iu kin cn v h n phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht n n c nghim
khng tm thng l det A = 0.
Chng minh: H (7.2) c nghim khng tm thng tng ng h c v s
nghim, theo phn bin lun v s nghim, mc 7.5. iu ny tng ng vi
rank A = r < n tc l det A = 0.
2
7.7 Khng gian nghim ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh thun

nht
Mnh 7.7.1
Gi G l tp hp cc nghim ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht (7.2). Ta c:
1. G l mt khng gian con ca K n .
2. dim G = n rank A.
92
7.7. Khng gian nghim ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht
Chng minh:
1. V (7.2) lun c nghim tm thng nn G =
.
Gi s = (c1 , c2 , . . . , cn ) v = (d1 , d2 , . . . , dn ) thuc G; k, l K ;
ta chng minh k + l G.
Vit h (7.2) di dng vect:
n
X
xi i =
i=1
V , l nghim ca (7.2) nn
n
P
ci i = v
i=1
Suy ra:
n
P
di i =
i=1
n
P
(lci + kdi )i =
i=1
n
P
n
P
(lci )i +
i=1
n
P
=l
(kdi )i
i=1
n
P
ci i + k
i=1
di i
i=1
=+ =
iu chng t k + l l nghim ca h (2), hay k + l G . V do
G l khng gian con ca K 3 .
2. Xt nh x tuyn tnh:
K n K n
n
n
n
P
P
P
cho bi:(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = (
a1j xj ,
a2j xj , . . . ,
anj xj ) Tp
:
j=1
j=1
j=1
nghim G ca h phng trnh chnh l ker . Theo nh l (4.4.4) ta c:

dim G = dim K n dim Im = n dim Im .
Ta c Im c sinh bi (e1 ), (e2 ), . . . ,(en ) :
e1 = (1, 0, . . . , 0), e2 = (0, 1, . . . , 0) , en = (0, 0, . . . , 1).
M (e1 ) = (a11 , a21 , . . . , am1 ), . . . , (en ) = (a1n , a2n , . . . , amn ).
Vy dim Im = rank{(e1 ), (e2 ), . . . ,(en )} rank (aij )mn .
Suy ra dim G = nrank (aij )mn .
2
nh ngha 7.7.2
Mi c s ca khng gian nghim G ca mt h phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht
c gi l mt h nghim c bn ca h .
tm mt h nghim c bn ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht, trc tin
ta gii h (chng hn bng phng php Gauss) tm nghim tng qut ca n. Gi
s hng ca ma trn l r v s n l n.
93
7.8. H phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht lin kt
Nu r = n th khng gian nghim l {} v khng c c s.

Nu r < n th n r n c chn lm n t do. Cho cc n t do ny nhn
cc b gi tr: (1, 0, . . . , 0), (0, 1, . . . , 0) . . . , (0, 0, . . . , 1) v tnh cc nghim
1 , 2 , . . . , r ng vi cc gi tr . Khi h 1 , 2 , . . . , r l mt c s ca
khng gian nghim hay l mt h nghim c bn Ch rng mt khng gian vc
t c nhiu c s khc nhau nn mt h phng trnh tuyn tnh c th c nhiu h
nghim c bn khc nhau.
V d:
Tm h nghim c bn ca h phng trnh:
= 0
x1 x2 + x3 + 3x4
2x1 + x2 + 2x3 +
6x5 = 0
2x1
+ x3 + 3x4 + 3x5 = 0
Li gii: a h phng trnh v dng:
= 0
x1 x2 + x3 + 3x4
x2
2x4 + 2x5 = 0
x3 + x4 x5 = 0
Chn hai n t do x4 , x5 .
Cho x4 = 1, x5 = 0 ta tm c nghim 1 = (2, 2, 1, 1, 0).
Cho x4 = 0, x5 = 1 ta tm c nghim 2 = (1, 2, 1, 0, 1).
Ta tm c mt h nghim c bn ca h cho l
{1 = (2, 2, 1, 1, 0), 2 = (1, 2, 1, 0, 1)}.
7.8 H phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht lin kt

nh ngha 7.8.1
Cho h phng trnh tuyn tnh:
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + . . . + a1n xn =
a x + a x + . . . + a x =
21 1
22 2
2n n
.
..
a x + a x + + a x =
m1 1
m2 2
mn n
b1
b2
bm
(7.3)
H phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht:
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + . . . + a1n xn =

0
a x + a x + . . . + a x =
0
21 1
22 2
2n n
.
..
a x + a x + + a x = 0
m1 1
m2 2
mn n
94
(7.4)
gi l h phng trnh lin kt vi h (7.3).

Mnh 7.8.2
Cho 0 l mt nghim no (c nh) ca h (7.3). Khi l nghim ca (7.3)
khi v ch khi c dng 0 + l mt nghim ca h phng trnh thun
nht lin kt (7.3).
Chng minh: Vit h di dng vec t, v 0 = (c1 , c2 , . . . , cn ) l mt nghim
ca (7.3) nn ta c:
n
X
ci i =
i=1
Khi = (d1 , d2 , . . . , dn ) l mt nghim no ca (7.3) khi v ch khi:

n
X
di i = .
i=1
Tng ng vi
n
X
(di ci )i =
i=1
tc l G.
Nhn xt: Mnh trn thng c p dng trong hai trng hp:
V mt l do no d ta bit trc mt nghim ring ca h (7.3).

Cn phi gii nhiu h phng trnh tuyn tnh m chng c chung mt h thun
nht lin kt.
BI TP VII
VII.1. H phng trnh no sau y c nghim:
2x1 + 3x2 = 5
3x1 + x2 = 4
a.
x1 + x2 = 2
95
b.
c.
d.
e.
x1
x1
5x1
2x1
2x1
x1
2x1
x1
4x1
2x1
x1
x2 + x3 2x4 = 1
x2 + 2x3 x4 = 2
5x2 + 8x3 7x4 = 3
+ 2x2 3x3 4x4 = 1
x2 + x3 3x4 = 3
3x3
+ x3
x3
3x3
4x4
x4
+ 2x4
3x4
=
1
=
2
=
1
= 7
+ 3x2 + 3x3
+ x2 x3
x2 + 2x3
4x3
3x4
5x4
+ 4x4
+ x4
+ x5
+ 7x5
8x5
x5
+
+
+
2x2
3x2
3x2
4x2
VII.2. Tm iu kin h sau c nghim
ax1 + x2 + x3 = 1
a. x1 + ax2 + x3 = 1
x1 + x2 + ax3 = 1
= 10
= 1
= 2
= 3
2
3
x1 + ax2 + a x3 = a
b. x1 + bx2 + b2 x3 = b3
x1 + cx2 + c2 x3 = c3
96
VII.3. Gii cc h phng trnh sau:
3x1 + 2x2 + x3
a.
2x1 + 3x2 + 2x3
2x1 + 3x2 + x3
b. 4x1 + 6x2 5x3
6x1 + 9x2 4x3
3x1 + x2 2x3
2x1 x2 + 7x3
c.
x1 + 3x2 2x3
3x1 2x2 + 7x3
x1 + x2 x3
2x1 + 2x2 + 5x3

d.
7x3
3x1 + 3x2 + 4x3
x1 + x2
x1 + x2 + x3
x2 + x3 +
e.
x3 +
x4 x5 = 7
2x4 2x5 = 8
= 1
= 2
= 2
+ x4
3x4
+ 5x4
5x4
x5
+ 5x5
7x5
+ 8x5
+ x4
3x4
5x4
2x4
=
0
=
0
= 1
=
3
x4
x4 + x5
x4 + x5
=
=
=
=
1
2
3
3
=
1
=
4
= 3
=
2
= 1
VII.4. Gii v bin lun cc h phng trnh sau theo tham s a:
3x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 1
a. 7x1 + 6x2 + 5x3 = a
5x1 + 4x2 + 3x3 =

2
0
ax1 + x2 + x3 =
x1 + ax2 + x3 =
2
b.
x1 + x2 + ax3 = 3
x
2y +
3z +
t
2x
2y +
7z +
t
c.
x
2y + (a + 3)z +
2t
2
(a 3)x (2a 6)y
9z + (a 6)t
2x + 3y + z + 2t = 3
4x + 6y + 3z + 4t = 5
d.
6x + 9y + 5z + 6t = 7
8x + 12y + 7z + at = 9
=
2
=
3
=
4
= 3a 13
VII.5. Tm a thc f (x) bc nh hn hay bng 4 tha mn:

f (1) = 3, f (1) = 3, f (1) = 3, f (2) (1) = 12, f (3) (1) = 42.
97
VII.6.
VII.7.
f (3) =
VII.8.
Tm a thc f (x) bc 2 tha mn: f (1) = 1, f (1) = 9, f (2) = 3.

Tm a thc f (x) bc 3 tha mn: f (1) = 0, f (1) = 4, f (2) = 3,
16.
p dng nh l Cramer gii cc h sau:
2x 2y z = 1
y + z =
1
a.
x + y + z = 1
3x + 2y + z = 5
b. 2x + 3y + z = 1
2x + y + 3z = 11
VII.9. Tm iu kin h sau c nghim khng tm thng:
ax 3y + z = 0
(1 a)x +
2y = 0
a. 2x + y + z = 0
b.
2x + (4 a)y = 0
3x + 2y 2z = 0
VII.10. Chng minh rng mt a thc bc nh hn hay bng n hon ton xc nh nu
bit n + 1 gi tr yi = f (xi ) vi i = 0, 1, . . . , n, xi = xj , i = j . Tc l tn
ti a thc duy nht f (x) tha mn
f (xi ) = yi , i = 0, n
VII.11. * Gii h phng trnh sau:
xn + a1 xn1 + . . . + an1
x1 + an1 = 0
n1
x + a x
x1 + an2 = 0
n
2 n1 + . . . + a2
a.
..
..
..
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
x + a x
n1
x1 + ann = 0
n
n n1 + . . . + an
n1
x
+
a
x
+
.
.
.
+
a
xn = b1
1
1
2
x + a x + . . . + an1 x = b
1
2 2
n
2
2
b.
.
.
.
..
.. . . .
..
x + a x + . . . + an1 x = b
1
n 2
(7.5)
(ai i mt khc nhau )

VII.12. Tm h con c lp tuyn tnh ti i ca h vc t sau trong R 4 :
1 = (1, 2, 0, 1);
2 = (0, 1, 3, 2);
3 = (1, 0, 2, 4);
4 = (1, 1, 2, 3)
VII.13. Tm nghim tng qut v mt h nghim c bn ca mi h phng trnh tuyn
tnh thun nht sau y:
98
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
3x1 4x2 + x3 x4 = 0
6x1 8x2 + 2x3 + 3x4 = 0
x1
x1
4x1
x1
x1
2x1
3x1
2x1
x1
4x1
5x1
3x1
x1
2x2 + 3x3 x4 = 0
+ x2 x3 + 2x4 = 0
5x2 + 8x3 + x4 = 0
+
+
+
+
3x2
3x2
6x2
9x2
+
+
x2
x2
x2
x2
x3
x3
2x3
3x3
+ x3
+ 3x3
+ 7x3
+ 5x3
+ 4x4 x5
+ 4x4 + x5
+ x4
+ x4 + x5
+ 3x4
+ x4
+ 5x4
+ 7x4
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
+ x2 + x3 6x4 12x5 + 3x6 = 0

+
+ x3 x4 5x5
= 0
x2 + x3
3x5
= 0
VII.14. Cho h vect trong khng gian R 3

1 = (1, 2, 4); 2 = (2, 1, 5); 3 = (12, 1, 33)
Hy tm cc s x1 , x2 , x3 sao cho x1 1 + x2 2 + x3 3 = 0.
T kt lun h {1 , 2 , 3 } c c lp tuyn tnh hay khng?
VII.15.
Trong khng gian vect R 4 cho cc vect:
1 = (1, 1, 1, 1), 1 = (2, 2, 2, 2), 3 = (3, 0, 1, 1)

Hy biu th 4 = (12, 3, 8, 2) qua h vect cho.
VII.16.
0x1
2002x1
2003x1
2004x1
155x1
Chng
minh
+ 2002x2
+
0x2
324x2
+ 534x2
+ 723x2
phng
2003x3
+ 324x3
+
0x3
723x3
+
71x3
trnh
sau
+ 2004x4
534x4
+ 723x4
+
0x4
231x4
nghim
155x5
723x5
71x5
+ 231x5
+
0x5
=
=
=
=
=
khc
0
0
0
0
0
0:
Ti liu tham kho

[1] on Qunh, Khu Quc Anh, Nguyn Anh Kit, T Mn, Nguyn Don Tun,
Gio trnh Ton i cng, Phn I, i s tuyn tnh v Hnh hc Gii tch,
NXB i hc Quc Gia H Ni, 6 - 1997.
[2] Nguyn nh Tr, T Vn nh, Nguyn H Qunh, Ton hc Cao cp, Tp I,
i s v Hnh hc Gii tch, NXB Gio Dc, 2003.
[3] Nguyn Duy Thun, Ton Cao cp A1 - Phn i s tuyn tnh, NXB Gio
Dc, 2000.
[4] Phan Huy Ph, Nguyn Don Tun, Bi tp i s tuyn tnh, NXB i hc
Quc Gia H Ni, 3 - 2001.
[5] Ng Thc Lanh, i s tuyn tnh, NXB i hc v Trung hc chuyn nghip,
H Ni, 1970.
[6] Nguyn Hu Vit Hng, i s tuyn tnh, NXB i hc Quc Gia H Ni,
2000.
[7] Hong Hin Quang, Linear algebra, McGraw - Hill Book Company, 1968.
Ch mc
A
c lp tuyn tnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
nh x ng nht . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
ti i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
nh x tuyn tnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
G
nh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
ca nh x tuyn tnh . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 giao cc khng gian con . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
nh ngc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
H
hng
B
ct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
biu din tuyn tnh. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
ca ma trn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
C
dng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
c s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
h vect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
chnh tc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 h phng trnh
hu hn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
tuyn tnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
h phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht 91
D
h sinh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17, 24
dng tam gic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
h vect
c lp tuyn tnh ti i . . . . . . . . . 33
n cu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
K
ng cho chnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
khng gian con . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
ng cho ph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
khng gian con sinh bi mt h vect 17
ng cu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
khng gian vect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
nh l Laplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
hnh hc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 24
nh thc
hu hn chiu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
nh thc con cp k . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
hu hn sinh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
khai trin theo ct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
khng gian a thc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
khai trin theo dng . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
khai trin theo ct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
khai trin theo nhiu dng (ct) . . . 60
khai trin theo dng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
phn b i s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
tnh cht c bn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
M
nh thc ca ma trn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 ma trn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
ng cu khng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
nh x tuyn tnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
100
CH MC
ng cho chnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
ng cho ph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
ct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
chuyn v . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
dng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
dng tam gic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
phn t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
vung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
ca nh x tuyn tnh . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
chuyn c s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78, 79
kh nghch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
nghch o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
ma trn h s ca h phng trnh . . . . 85
N
nghch th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
nghim ca h phng trnh . . . . . . . . . 84
nhn ca nh x tuyn tnh . . . . . . . . . . 42
101
tch ca nhiu php th . . . . . . . . . . 46

php v t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
phng php tm ma trn nghch o
Gauss-Jordan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
phn b i s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
phn t i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
ph thuc tuyn tnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
S
s chiu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
s hu t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
T
tp cc ma trn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
ta ca vect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
t hp tuyn tnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
tng hai khng gian con . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
t ng cu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
tin
ca trng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
ton cu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
trng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
P
php bin i tuyn tnh . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
php th
ng nht . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
V
nghch th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
tch ca hai php th . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 vect khng. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

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BI GING

Bi 2 Khng gian vect v khng gian con

Bi 3 C s v s chiu ca khng gian vect

Bi 7 H phng trnh tuyn tnh

H phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht lin kt . . . . . . . . . . . .

Ti liu tham kho

Php nhn phn phi i vi php cng: a.(b+c) = a.b+a.c v (b+c).a =

1.2. nh ngha trng

1.2 nh ngha trng

1.3. Mt s tnh cht ca trng

Tp hp s hu t Q vi cc php ton cng v nhn thng thng

1.3 Mt s tnh cht ca trng

(theo tin 2).

Tnh cht 1.3.2 (Quy tc chuyn v)

Tnh cht 1.3.3

1.3. Mt s tnh cht ca trng

Tnh cht 1.3.4

(theo tnh cht 1.3.3).

Tnh cht 1.3.5

(a1 .a).b = (a1 .a).c

(theo tin 6).

Ngc li, mt s thp phn hu hn hoc v hn tun hon c th vit c di

Trng hp s thp phn v hn tun hon:

b. y = 7, 26. Ta c 100y = 726, 6 v 10y = 72, 6 nn 90y =

1.5 Trng cc s nguyn modulo p

1.5. Trng cc s nguyn modulo p

1.5. Trng cc s nguyn modulo p

Chng minh Z p l mt trng khi v ch khi p l mt s nguyn t.

Cho K l mt trng, n N , ta nh ngha an = a.a.

a0 = 1. Chng minh cc ng thc sau:

b. an bn = (a b)(an1 + an2 .b + . . . + a.bn2 + an1 ).

Chuyn nhng phn s sau v s thp phn hu hn hoc v hn tun hon

Chuyn nhng s thp phn sau v phn s:

3. Vi mi c mt phn t sao cho + = + = ,

2.2. V d v khng gian vect

Khi ta ni rng V l mt khng gian vect trn trng K (hoc V l K khng

Cc phn t ca V c gi l cc vect. Phn t c gi l vect khng,

2.2 V d v khng gian vect

2.2. V d v khng gian vect

2.3. Mt s tnh cht ca khng gian vect

2.3 Mt s tnh cht ca khng gian vect

2.3. Mt s tnh cht ca khng gian vect

2.4. Khng gian vect con

Cn lut gin c v quy tc chuyn v c chng minh tng t phn trng

2.4 Khng gian vect con

2.5. Giao ca mt s khng gian con

2.5 Giao ca mt s khng gian con

na Wi l nhng khng gian con ca V nn theo mnh 2.5.1 vi mi x, y K

2.6. Tng hai khng gian con

2.6 Tng hai khng gian con

2.7 T hp tuyn tnh

2.8. Khng gian con sinh bi mt s vect

2. Trong khng gian vect V = R 2 xt cc vc t

2.8 Khng gian con sinh bi mt s vect

2.8. Khng gian con sinh bi mt s vect

2.8. Khng gian con sinh bi mt s vect

Chng minh rng X l mt khng gian vect trn K .

Tp no trong nhng tp sau y l khng gian con ca khng gian vect

1. Tp tt c cc a thc h s thc p tha mn p(0) = 0.

2.8. Khng gian con sinh bi mt s vect

3. Tp tt c cc a thc h s thc c dng p(x) = ax2 + 1, trong a R .

Hai vect cng phng l ph thuc tuyn tnh.

2. Trong khng gian vect R 3 , h vect