Ethical Theories

Ethical Theories
Ethical theories are rules & principles that determine right and wrong for a given situation.
In every day life we come up against situations where values are in conflict and we have to make a choice what is right or wrong.

Rule of Ethical Theory

In locating a place for ethical theory, 2 extreme positions can be imagined. Ethical Absolutism vs Ethical Relativism (Ethical Subjectivism)

Ethical Absolutism
On one side of the spectrum would be a position Ethical Absolutism which claims that there are external, universally applicable moral principles. Right & wrong are objective qualities that can be rationally determined.

Ethical Relativism
The other extreme would be a position of relativism which claims context dependent & subjective. Relativists believe there are no universal right or wrong that can be rationally determined. It depends on the person taking the decision the culture, ethnic group he belongs to. Different cultures have different ethics, time dependent also (Descriptive Relativism), ER proposes different sets of beliefs can be equally right.
Ethical Subjectivism Ethical beliefs depend on the individual perception.

Traditional Ethical Theories

Can be differentiated into 2 groups
Motivation Principles

Action

Outcomes

Non Consequential Ethics

(deontological duty) Ethics of Duties Ethics of Rights & Justice

Consequential Ethics
(Teological goal) Egoism Utilitarianism

Consequentialist Ethics
Theories that base the moral judgment on the out comes of a certain action. If the outcomes are desirable the action is morally right; if not desirable then morally wrong.
Moral judgment based on intended aims, outcomes or goals of action.

Non Consequentialist Theories:

(Deonotological) The moral judgment is based on the underlying decision makers motivation. An action is right or wrong, not because we like the consequences they produce but because the underlying principles are morally correct. Duty is a situation derived from desirability of principle.

Consequentialist Ethical theories

2 Main Theories : 1) EGOISM 2) Utilitarianism

Both address right & wrong according to the outcome of the decision but egoism focuses on the outcomes for the decision maker & utilitarianism on the wider social outcomes within the society.

EGOISM: (Plato)
Following the theory of egoism, an action is morally right if the decision maker freely decides in order to pursue either (short term) desires or (long term) interests. Concept
Man has only limited insight into the consequences of his action Egoism based on desire is not same as selfishness eg a philanthropist derives pleasure from helping others. Pursuit of long term interest resolves some of the dilemmas posed by short term desires. Enlightened egoism. Adam Smith (1793) argued, in the economic system, pursuit of individual self interest was acceptable as it produced a morally desirable outcome for society through the invisible hand of (free) market place.

UTILITARIANISM: (Bentham Mill 1750-1870)

According to utilitarianism, an action is morally right if it results in the greatest amount of good for greatest number of people affected by the action(with least harm) Also known as greatest happiness principle. Focus on collective welfare of a decision. Man is hedonist, whose purpose in life is to maximise pleasure & minimise pain & utility is a measure. Happiness vs Unhappiness. A cost benefit analysis Criticism: Difficulties in quantification of benefits, loosing sight of minority welfare, subjective.

None Consequential Theories

Ethics of Duties Ethics of Rights & Justice

Ethics of Duties (Immanuel KANT 1724-1804)

For Kant, morality was a question of certain eternal, abstract & unchangeable principles a set of priori moral laws that human should apply to ethical problems. Human beings are rational, and are capable to decide these principles (without depending on God or the Church).

Ethics of Duties
Categorical Imperative: Theoretical framework
1) Maxim 1 Act only according to that maxim by which you can will at the same time that it should become universal law. i.e. everyone could follow the same principle(consistency) 2) Maxim 2 Treat humanity (whether your own person or another) always as an end & never as a means only respect human dignity, respect everyones need & goals. 3) Maxim 3 Act only if the principles of action are universally acceptable UNIVERSALITY. Whether action is acceptable to everyone Popularly known as principle of Universalism

Ethics of Rights & Justice

Natural or Moral Rights human beings are entitled to (John Locke British Philosopher 1632) which should be respected, protected Rights to life, freedom, property, extended now to, freedom of speech, conscience, belief etc. Natural Rights are certain basic, important unalienable entitlements that should be respected & protected in every single action. Rights & duties are 2 sides of the same coin. Declaration of Rights of Man (French Revolution) American Constitutional Rights, UN declaration of human rights are examples.

Theory of JUSTICE
Justice can be defined as the simultaneously fair treatment of individuals in a given situation with the result everybody gets what they deserve.
Fairness:
Fair Procedure Fair outcome: Consequences distributed in a fair manner Distributive Justice. Burdens & Rewards equally distributed Justice is determined by the market forces of Supply & demand

Egalitarianism: Non Egalitarianism: