COMMUNICATION THEORY

by Wikibooks contributors

From Wikibooks,
the open-content textbooks collection

 Copyright 20042006, Wikibooks contributors. his book is publishe! by Wikibooks contributors. "ermission is gr#nte! to copy, !istribute #n!$or mo!i%y this !ocument un!er the terms o% the &'( Free )ocument#tion *icense, +ersion ,.2 or #ny l#ter -ersion publishe! by the Free .o%t/#re Foun!#tion0 /ith no 1n-#ri#nt .ections, no Front-Co-er exts, #n! no 2#ck-Co-er exts. 3 copy o% the license is inclu!e! in the section entitle! 4&'( Free )ocument#tion *icense4. 1m#ge licenses #re liste! in the section entitle! 41m#ge Cre!its.4 5uot#tions6 3ll rights reser-e! to their respeti-e #uthors. "rincip#l #uthors6 7#l#-#is 8C9 : ;oe "etrick 8C9 : 3shley 3nker 8C9 : C#rolyn 7urley 8C9 : 3lbertin 8C9 : )erek 8C9 : <younghee 8C9 : =ouling *iu 8C9 : >y#nko?ey 8C9 he current -ersion o% this Wikibook m#y be %oun! #t6 http6$$en./ikibooks.org$/iki$Communic#tion@ heory

Contents
Wh#t is Communic#tionA...................................................................................................................... 6

"B>."BC

1+B. C'

7BC>=.......................................................................................................

1ntro!uction........................................................................................................................................... D
7BC>1B.

E 3"">C3C7B.

CCFF('1C3

1C'........................................................................,,

(ncert#inty >e!uction.........................................................................................................................,, "rop#g#n!# #n! the "ublic.................................................................................................................. 2G (ses #n! &r#ti%ic#tions....................................................................................................................... G4 he Fr#nk%urt .chool...........................................................................................................................42 .emiotics #n! Fyth.............................................................................................................................H0 Cr#lity #n! *iter#cy.............................................................................................................................6, )i%%usion o% 1nno-#tions..................................................................................................................... D0 .ociologic#l .ystems...........................................................................................................................D6 'et/ork .ociety.................................................................................................................................. IG

32C(

7B 2CC<.................................................................................................................

IJ

7istory E )ocument 'otes.................................................................................................................IJ 3uthors E 1m#ge Cre!its.................................................................................................................... J0 >e%erences........................................................................................................................................... J, &'( Free )ocument#tion *icense................................................................................................... ,,4

Ch#pter ,

1 W HAT

IS

C OMMUNICATION ?

ome h#-e suggeste! th#t the -ery common pr#ctice o% beginning # communic#tion theory cl#ss /ith #n #ttempt to !e%ine communic#tion #n! theory is %l#/e! pe!#gogy. 'onetheless, it is !i%%icult to begin # stu!y o% the theories o% communic#tion /ithout %irst h#-ing some gr#sp, ho/e-er tempor#ry #n! tenuous, o% /h#t sorts o% phenomen# 4count4 #s communic#tion, #n! /h#t kin!s o% i!e#s #bout those phenomen# constitute 4theory,4 or, more speci%ic#lly, goo! theory. Communication is # slippery concept, #n! /hile /e m#y c#su#lly use the /or! /ith some %reKuency, it is !i%%icult to #rri-e #t # precise !e%inition th#t is #gree#ble to most o% those /ho consi!er themsel-es communic#tion schol#rs. Communic#tion is so !eeply roote! in hum#n beh#-iors #n! the structures o% society th#t it is !i%%icult to think o% soci#l or beh#-ior#l e-ents th#t #re #bsent communic#tion. We might s#y th#t communic#tion consists o% tr#nsmitting in%orm#tion %rom one person to #nother. 1n %#ct, m#ny schol#rs o% communic#tion t#ke this #s # /orking !e%inition, #n! use *#ss/ellLs m#xim 84/ho s#ys /h#t to /hom to /h#t e%%ect49 #s # me#ns o% circumscribing the %iel! o% communic#tion. Cthers suggest th#t there is # ritu#l process o% communic#tion th#t c#nnot be #rti%ici#lly #bstr#cte! %rom # p#rticul#r historic#l #n! soci#l context. 3s # rel#ti-ely young %iel! o% inKuiry, it is prob#bly prem#ture to expect # conceptu#li?#tion o% communic#tion th#t is sh#re! #mong #ll or most o% those /ho /ork in the #re#. Furthermore, communic#tion theory itsel% is, in m#ny /#ys, #n #ttempt to !escribe #n! expl#in precisely /h#t communic#tion is. 1n!ee!, # theory is some %orm o% expl#n#tion o% # cl#ss o% obser-e! phenomen#. <#rl "opper color%ully !escribe! theory #s 4the net /hich /e thro/ out in or!er to c#tch the /orl!--to r#tion#li?e, expl#in, #n! !omin#te it.4 he i!e# o% # theory lies #t the he#rt o% #ny schol#rly process, #n! /hile those in the soci#l sciences ten! to #!opt the tests o% # goo! theory %rom the n#tur#l sciences, m#ny /ho stu!y communic#tion #!here to #n i!e# o% communic#tion theory th#t is #kin to th#t %oun! in other #c#!emic %iel!s. his book #ppro#ches communic#tion theory %rom # biogr#phic#l perspecti-e, in #n #ttempt to sho/ theory !e-elopment /ithin # soci#l context. F#ny o% these theorists /oul! not #ctu#lly consi!er themsel-es 4communic#tion4 rese#rchers. he %iel! o% communic#tion stu!y is rem#rk#bly inclusion#ry, #n! integr#tes theoretic#l perspecti-es origini#lly !e-elope! in # r#nge o% other !isciplines.

4 M Communic#tion heory

1ntro!uction

2 I NTRODUCTION
li-e -ersion N !iscussion N e!it lesson N comment N report #n error N #sk # Kuestion

Evaluating theory

h#t m#kes # theory 4goo!4A .ix criteri# might be s#i! to be properties o% # strong theory. 8 he terminology presente! here is !r#/n %rom *ittleOohn, Theories of Human Communication, but # simil#r set o% criteri# #re /i!ely #ccepte! both /ithin #n! outsi!e the %iel! o% communic#tion.9 Theo etica! Sco"e 7o/ gener#l is the theoryA h#t is, ho/ /i!ely #pplic#ble is itA 1n most c#ses, # theory th#t m#y only be #pplie! /ithin # %#irly n#rro/ set o% circumst#nces is not consi!ere! #s use%ul #s # theory th#t encomp#sses # -ery /i!e r#nge o% communic#ti-e inter#ctions. he i!e#l, o% course, is # theory th#t succinctly expl#ins the n#ture o% hum#n communic#tion #s # /hole. A"" o" iateness heories #re o%ten e-#lu#te! b#se! upon ho/ /ell their epistemologic#l, ontologic#l, #n! #xiologic#l #ssumptions rel#te to the issue or Kuestion being expl#ine!. 1% # theory rec#pitul#tes its #ssumptions 8i% it is t#utologic#l9, it is not #n e%%ecti-e theory. Heu istic #a!ue .ome theories suggest the /#ys in /hich %urther rese#rch m#y be con!ucte!. 2y presenting #n expl#n#tory mo!el, the theory gener#tes Kuestions or hypotheses th#t c#n be oper#tion#li?e! rel#ti-ely e#sily. 1n pr#ctic#l terms, the success o% # theory m#y rest on ho/ re#!ily other rese#rchers m#y continue to !o %ruit%ul /ork in re#ction or support. $a!i%it& 1t m#y seem ob-ious th#t %or # theory to be goo!, it must #lso be -#li!. +#li!ity re%ers to the !egree to /hich the theory #ccur#tely represents the true st#te o% the /orl!. 3re the #rguments intern#lly consistent #n! #re its pre!ictions #n! cl#ims !eri-e! logic#lly %rom its #ssumptionsA F#ny #lso reKuire th#t theories be %#lsi%i#ble0 th#t is, theories th#t present pre!ictions th#t--i% they pro-e to be incorrect--in-#li!#te the theory. he #bsence o% such Kuestions signi%ic#ntly re!uces the -#lue o% the theory, since # theory th#t c#nnot be pro-en %#lse 8perh#ps9 c#nnot be sho/n to be #ccur#te, either. 'a simon& he l#/ o% p#rsimony 8Ccc#mLs r#?or9 !ict#tes th#t # theory shoul! pro-i!e the simplest possible 8-i#ble9 expl#n#tion %or # phenomenon. Cthers suggest th#t goo! theory exhibits #n #esthetic Ku#lity, th#t # goo! theory is be#uti%ul or n#tur#l. h#t it le#!s to #n 43h#P4 moment in /hich #n expl#n#tion %eels #s i% it %its. O"enness heories, perh#ps p#r#!oxic#lly, shoul! not exist to the #bsolute exclusion o% other theories. heory shoul! not be !ogm#6 it shoul! encour#ge #n! pro-i!e both %or skepticism #n! shoul!--to /h#te-er !egree possible--be comp#tible /ith other #ccepte! theory. Wikibooks M (

Ch#pter 2 1t is import#nt to note th#t # theory is not 4true,4 or 4%#lse4 8!espite the #bo-e !iscussion o% %#lsi%i#bility9, but r#ther better or /orse #t expl#ining the c#uses o% # p#rticul#r e-ent. Bspeci#lly /ithin the soci#l sciences, /e m#y %in! se-er#l !i%%erent theories th#t e#ch expl#in # phenomenon in use%ul /#ys. here is -#lue in being #ble to use theories #s 4lenses4 through /hich you c#n un!erst#n! communic#tion, #n! through /hich you c#n un!erst#n! the /orl! together /ith other schol#rs.

Theories and Models

A simple communication model with a sender which transfers a message containing information to a receiver.

F#ny suggest th#t there is no such thing #s # success%ul bo!y o% communic#tion theory, but th#t /e h#-e been rel#ti-ely more success%ul in gener#ting mo!els o% communic#tion. 3 mo!el, #ccor!ing to # semin#l ,JH2 #rticle by <#rl )eutsch 84Cn Communic#tion Fo!els in the .oci#l .ciences49, is 4# structure o% symbols #n! oper#ting rules /hich is suppose! to m#tch # set o% rele-#nt points in #n existing structure or process.4 1n other /or!s, it is # simpli%ie! represent#tion or templ#te o% # process th#t c#n be use! to help un!erst#n! the n#ture o% communic#tion in # soci#l setting. .uch mo!els #re necess#rily not one-to-one m#ps o% the re#l /orl!, but they #re success%ul only inso%#r #s they #ccur#tely represent the most import#nt elements o% the re#l /orl!, #n! the !yn#mics o% their rel#tionship to one #nother. )eutsch suggests th#t # mo!el shoul! pro-i!e %our %unctions. 1t shoul! org#ni?e # complex system 8/hile being #s gener#l #s possible9, #n! shoul! pro-i!e #n heuristic %unction. 2oth these %unctions #re simil#r to those liste! #bo-e %or theories. 7e goes on to suggest mo!els shoul! be #s origin#l #s possible, th#t they shoul! not be ob-ious enough th#t they %#il to she! light on the existing system. hey shoul! #lso pro-i!e some %orm o% me#surement o% the system th#t /ill /ork #n#logously /ithin the mo!el #n! /ithin the #ctu#l system being obser-e!. Fo!els #re tools o% inKuiry in # /#y th#t theories m#y not be. 2y representing the system being obser-e!, they pro-i!e # /#y o% /orking through the problems o% # 4re#l /orl!4 system in # more #bstr#ct /#y. 3s such, they len! themsel-es to the e-entu#l construction o% theory, though it m#y be th#t theory o% the sort %oun! in the n#tur#l sciences is something th#t c#nnot be #chie-e! in the soci#l sciences. (n%ortun#tely, /hile mo!els pro-i!e the 4/h#t4 #n! the 4ho/,4 they #re not #s suite! to expl#ining 4/hy,4 #n! there%ore #re r#rely #s s#tis%ying #s strong theory.

) M Communic#tion heory

1ntro!uction

Laws and Rules

he #im in the n#tur#l sciences is to cre#te /h#t, since 7empel #t le#st, h#s been c#lle! co-ering l#/. Co-ering l#/ reKuires the explicit rel#tionship o% # c#us#l con!ition to #n e%%ect /ithin cert#in boun!eries. 1t h#s been obser-e! th#t soci#l rel#tionships #re -ery !i%%icult to c#pture /ithin the structure o% co-ering l#/. "erh#ps this is bec#use people h#-e the #nnoying h#bit o% -iol#ting 4n#tur#l l#/s.4 WittgensteinLs l#ter /ork in p#rticul#r put %or/#r! the possibility th#t rules-b#se! systems m#y pro-i!e # more e%%ecti-e !escripti-e mo!el o% /6en6hum#n communic#tion. his m#y #ccount %or the propensity o% communic#tion theorists to !e-elop mo!els more o%ten th#n theory. >ules-b#se! #ppro#ches #re p#rticul#rly popul#r /ithin speech communic#tion, /here hum#n inter#ction is seen to procee! #long structur#l, though not necess#rily c#us#l, lines.

Mapping the Theoreti al Lands ape

3 !iscipline is !e%ine! in l#rge p#rt by its theoretic#l structure. 1nste#! communic#tion, #t its present st#te, might be consi!ere! # %iel! o% inKuiry. heory is o%ten borro/e! %rom other /6en6soci#l sciences, /hile communic#tion pro-i!es %e/ ex#mples o% theories th#t h#-e been exporte! to other !isciplines. Wh#t is t#ught #s communic#tion theory #t one institution is unlikely to be #t #ll simil#r to /h#t is t#ught /ithin other communic#tion schools. his theoretic#l -#rieg#tion m#kes it !i%%icult to come to terms /ith the %iel! #s # /hole. h#t s#i!, there #re some common t#xonomies th#t #re use! to !i-i!e up the r#nge o% communic#tion rese#rch. /o common m#ppings /ill be brie%ly presente! here. F#ny #uthors #n! rese#rchers !i-i!e communic#tion by /h#t #re sometimes c#lle! *conte+ts* o *!e#e!s,* but more o%ten represent institution#l histories. he stu!y o% communic#tion in the (., /hile occurring /ithin !ep#rtments o% psychology, sociology, linguistics, #n! #nthropology #mong others, gener#lly !e-elope! %rom schools o% rhetoric #n! schools o% Oourn#lism. While m#ny o% these h#-e become 4!ep#rtments o% communic#tion,4 they o%ten ret#in their historic#l roots, #!hering l#rgely to theories %rom speech communic#tion in the %ormer c#se, #n! m#ss me!i# in the l#tter. he gre#t !i-i!e bet/een speech communic#tion #n! m#ss communic#tion is Ooine! by # number o% sm#ller sub-#re#s o% communic#tion rese#rch, inclu!ing intercultur#l #n! intern#tion#l communic#tion, sm#ll group communic#tion, communic#tion technology, policy #n! leg#l stu!ies o% communic#tion, telecommunic#tion, #n! /ork !one un!er # -#riety o% other l#bels. .ome o% these !ep#rtments t#ke # l#rgely soci#l science perspecti-e, others ten! more he#-ily to/#r! the hum#nities, #n! still others #re ge#re! more to/#r! pro!uction #n! pro%ession#l prep#r#tion. hese 4le-els4 o% communic#tion pro-i!e some /#y o% grouping communic#tion theories, but ine-it#bly, there #re theories #n! concepts th#t le#k %rom one #re# to #nother, or th#t %#il to %in! # home #t #ll. 1% communic#tion is # cohesi-e %iel! o% stu!y, one /oul! expect to see # cohesi-e set o% theories, or #t le#st # common un!erst#n!ing o% the structure o% the %iel!, #n! this #ppe#rs to still be !e-eloping. 3nother /#y o% !i-i!ing up the communic#tion %iel! emph#si?es the #ssumptions th#t un!ergir! p#rticul#r theories, mo!els, #n! #ppro#ches. While this ten!s #lso to be b#se! on institution#l !i-isions, theories /ithin e#ch o% the se#en *t a%itions* o% communic#tion theory th#t >obert Cr#ig suggests ten! to rein%orce one #nother, #n! ret#in the s#me groun! epistemologic#l #n! #xiologic#l #ssumptions. 7is tr#!itions inclu!e the rhetoric#l, semiotic, phenomenologic#l, cybernetic, sociopsychologic#l, #n! sociocultur#l tr#!itions. B#ch o% these #re, %or Cr#ig, cle#rly !e%ine! #g#inst the others #n! rem#in cohesi-e #ppro#ches to !escribing communic#ti-e beh#-ior. 3s # t#xonomic #i!, these l#bels help to Wikibooks M -

Ch#pter 2 org#ni?e theory by its #ssumptions, #n! help rese#rchers to un!erst#n! the re#sons some theories m#y be incommensur#ble. While these t/o #ppro#ches #re -ery commonly use!, it seems th#t they !ecentr#li?e the pl#ce o% l#ngu#ge #n! m#chines #s communic#ti-e technologies. he i!e# th#t communic#tion is 8#s +ygotsky #rgues9 the prim#ry tool o% # species th#t is !e%ine! by its tools rem#ins #t the outskirts o% communic#tion theory. 1t is represente! some/h#t in the To onto Schoo! o. communication theo & 8#ltern#ti-ely sometimes c#lle! me!ium theory9 #s represente! by the /ork o% 1nnis, Fc*uh#n, #n! others. 1t seems th#t the /#ys in /hich in!i-i!u#ls #n! groups use the technologies o% communic#tion-#n! in some c#ses #re use! by them--rem#ins centr#l to /h#t communic#tion rese#rchers !o, #n! the i!e#s th#t surroun! this, #n! in p#rticul#r the pl#ce o% persu#sion, #re const#nts #cross both the 4tr#!itions4 #n! 4le-els4 o% communic#tion theory.

/ M Communic#tion heory

(ncert#inty >e!uction

0 U NC1RTAINT2 R 1DUCTION
Charles Berger, Richard Calabrese
li-e -ersion N !iscussion N e!it lesson N comment N report #n error N #sk # Kuestion

Advan es in Interpersonal Co!!uni ation" Charles #erger$ Ri hard Cala%rese and &ey Un ertainty Theorists

ince the mi!-t/entieth century, the concept o% in%orm#tion h#s been # strong %oun!#tion %or communic#tion rese#rch #n! the !e-elopment communic#tion theory. 1n%orm#tion exch#nge is # b#sic hum#n %unction in /hich in!i-i!u#ls reKuest, pro-i!e, #n! exch#nge in%orm#tion /ith the go#l o% re!ucing uncert#inty. (ncert#inty >e!uction theory 8(> 9, #ccre!ite! to Ch#rles >. 2erger #n! >ich#r! ;. C#l#brese 8,JDH9, recogni?e! th#t re!ucing uncert#inty /#s # centr#l moti-e o% communic#tion. hrough the !e-elopment o% (> , these schol#rs pioneere! the %iel! o% interperson#l communic#tion by ex#mining this signi%ic#nt rel#tionship in uncert#inty rese#rch. 7e#lth #n! 2ry#nt 820009 st#te6 QCne o% the moti-#tions un!erpinning interperson#l communic#tion is the #cKuisition o% in%orm#tion /ith /hich to re!uce uncert#intyR 8p. ,HG9. he stu!y o% in%orm#tion is b#sic to #ll %iel!s o% communic#tion, but its rel#tion to the stu!y o% uncert#inty in p#rticul#r #!-#nce! theoretic#l rese#rch in the %iel! o% interperson#l communic#tion. (> pl#ces the role o% communic#tion into the centr#l %ocus /hich /#s # key step in the !e-elopment o% the %iel! o% interperson#l communic#tion. 2erger #n! C#l#brese 8,JDH9 note6 QWhen communic#tion rese#rchers h#-e con!ucte! empiric#l rese#rch on the interperson#l communic#tion process, they h#-e ten!e! to employ soci#l psychologic#l theories #s st#rting pointsR 8p. JJ9. he rese#rch un!erlying the theory #n! e%%orts m#!e by other contempor#ries m#rke! the emergence o% interperson#l communic#tion rese#rch0 /ith the !e-elopment o% (> , communic#tion rese#rchers beg#n to look to communic#tion %or theories o% gre#ter un!erst#n!ing r#ther th#n theoretic#l #ppro#ches %oun!e! in other soci#l sciences.

The History o' Interpersonal Co!!uni ation Resear h" A #rie' Overview
r#!ition#lly, communic#tion h#s been -ie/e! #s #n inter!isciplin#ry %iel!. 1nterperson#l communic#tion is most o%ten linke! to stu!ies into l#ngu#ge, soci#l cognition, #n! soci#l psychology. "rior to the ,J60s, only # mo!est #mount o% rese#rch /#s complete! un!er the l#bel o% interperson#l communic#tion. 7e#th #n! 2ry#nt 820009 m#rke! this time #s the origin o% the %iel! o% interperson#l communic#tion6 Q"#rticul#rly since ,J60, schol#rs #!opte! communic#tion #s the centr#l term bec#use they /#nte! to stu!y it #s # signi%ic#nt #n! uniKue #spect o% hum#n beh#-iorR 8p. HJ9. he ,J60s pro!uce! rese#rch th#t imp#cte! the !e-elopment o% #n interperson#l %iel!. >ese#rch in psychi#try ex#mine! person#lity #n! the in%luence o% rel#tionships, %in!ing th#t psychi#tric problems /ere not only # result o% sel% problems, but # result o% rel#tion#l problems #s /ell. >ese#rch tren!s in hum#nistic psychology #n! existenti#lism inspire! the i!e# th#t rel#tionships coul! be impro-e! through e%%ecti-e communic#tion 87e#th E 2ry#nt, 20009. Wikibooks M 3

Ch#pter G >ese#rch con!ucte! un!er the title o% interperson#l communic#tion initi#lly %ocuse! on persu#sion, soci#l in%luence, #n! sm#ll group processes. heories explore! the role o% le#rning, !isson#nce, b#l#nce, soci#l Ou!gment, #n! re#ct#nce 82erger, 200H9. <urt *e/in, # %ore%#ther o% soci#l psychology, pl#ye! # consi!er#ble role in in%luencing interperson#l rese#rch pioneers such #s Festinger, 7ei!er, <elley, #n! 7o-l#n!. 2y the ,JD0s, rese#rch interests beg#n to shi%t into the re#lm o% soci#l inter#ction, rel#tion#l !e-elopment, #n! rel#tion#l control. his /#s in%luence! by the rese#rch o% such schol#rs #s <n#pp, Fehr#bi#n, 3ltm#n, #ylor, )uck, <elley, #n! hib#ut. )uring the l#ter p#rt o% the !ec#!e #n! into the ,JI0s, the cogniti-e #ppro#ches o% 7e/es, "l#n#lp, >olo%%, #n! 2erger bec#me popul#r #long /ith rese#rch into beh#-ior#l #n! communic#ti-e #!#pt#tion by &iles, 2urgoon, #n! "#tterson. 2erger 8200H9 st#tes6 Qthese e#rly theoretic#l %or#ys helpe! sh#pe the interperson#l comm rese#rch #gen!# !uring the p#st t/o !ec#!esR 8p. 4,69. o!#y, interperson#l communic#tion ten!s to %ocus on !y#!ic communic#tion, communic#tion in-ol-ing %#ce-to-%#ce inter#ction, or communic#tion #s # %unction o% !e-eloping rel#tionships. >ese#rch into interperson#l communic#tion theory typic#lly %ocuses on the !e-elopment, m#inten#nce, #n! !issolution o% rel#tionships. 1t h#s been recogni?e! th#t interperson#l communic#tion is moti-#te! by uncert#inty re!uction 82erger E C#l#brese, ,JDH9. .ince its intro!uction in the ,JD0s, uncert#inty h#s been recogni?e! #s # m#Oor %iel! o% stu!y th#t h#s contribute! to the !e-elopment o% the %iel! o% communic#tion #s # /hole. his ch#pter stri-es to %ocus on those theorists /ho pioneere! the rese#rch o% uncert#inty re!uction in communic#tion. heir /ork is cruci#l to the !e-elopment o% the %iel! o% interperson#l communic#tion, #n! is centr#l in our un!erst#n!ing o% interperson#l processes.

(e'ining Un ertainty
.ince uncert#inty h#s been i!enti%ie! #s #n import#nt construct, necess#ry to the stu!y o% communic#tion, it /oul! be bene%ici#l to kno/ /hen the concept origin#te!, #n! ho/ it h#s been !e%ine! #n! stu!ie!. Cne /#y to consi!er uncert#inty is through the theoretic#l %r#me/ork o% in%orm#tion theory. .h#nnon #n! We#-er 8,J4J9 propose! th#t uncert#inty existe! in # gi-en situ#tion /hen there /#s # high #mount o% possible #ltern#ti-es #n! the prob#bility o% their e-ent /#s rel#ti-ely eKu#l. .h#nnon #n! We#-er rel#te! this -ie/ o% uncert#inty to the tr#nsmission o% mess#ges, but their /ork #lso contribute! to the !e-elopment o% (> . 2erger #n! C#l#brese 8,JDH9 #!opte! concepts %rom the in%orm#tion theorists #s /ell #s 7ei!erLs 8,JHI9 rese#rch in #ttribution. 2erger #n! C#l#brese 8,JDH9 exp#n!e! the concept o% uncert#inty to %it interperson#l communic#tion by !e%ining uncert#inty #s the Qnumber o% #ltern#ti-e /#ys in /hich e#ch inter#ct#nt might beh#-eR 8p. ,009. he gre#ter the le-el o% uncert#inty th#t exists in # situ#tion, the sm#ller the ch#nce in!i-i!u#ls /ill be #ble to pre!ict beh#-iors #n! occurrences. )uring inter#ctions in!i-i!u#ls #re not only %#ce! /ith problems o% pre!icting present #n! p#st beh#-iors, but #lso expl#ining /hy p#rtners beh#-e or belie-e in the /#y th#t they !o. 2erger #n! 2r#!#cSs 8,JI29 !e%inition o% uncert#inty highlighte! the complexity o% this process /hen they st#te!6 Q(ncert#inty, then, c#n stem %rom the l#rge number o% #ltern#ti-e things th#t # str#nger c#n belie-e or potenti#lly s#yR 8p. D9. (ncert#inty pl#ys # signi%ic#nt role /hen ex#mining rel#tionships. 7igh le-els o% uncert#inty c#n se-erely inhibit rel#tion#l !e-elopment. (ncert#inty c#n c#use stress #n! #nxiety /hich c#n le#! to lo/ 14 M Communic#tion heory

(ncert#inty >e!uction le-els o% communic#tor competence 8West E urner, 20009. 1ncompetent communic#tors m#y not be #ble to !e-elop rel#tionships or m#y be too #nxious to eng#ge in initi#l inter#ctions. West #n! urner 820009 note th#t lo/er le-els o% uncert#inty c#use! incre#se! -erb#l #n! non-erb#l beh#-ior, incre#se! le-els o% intim#cy, #n! incre#se! liking. 1n inter#ctions in!i-i!u#ls #re expecte! to incre#se pre!ict#bility /ith the go#l th#t this /ill le#! to the #bility to pre!ict #n! expl#in /h#t /ill occur in %uture inter#ctions. When high uncert#inty exists it is o%ten !i%%icult to re#ch this go#l. 3lthough in!i-i!u#ls seek to re!uce uncert#inty, high le-els o% cert#inty #n! pre!ict#bility c#n #lso inhibit # rel#tionship. 7e#th #n! 2ry#nt 820009 st#te6 Q oo much cert#inty #n! pre!ict#bility c#n !e#!en # rel#tionship0 too much uncert#inty r#ises its costs to #n un#ccept#ble le-el. >el#tionship buil!ing is # !i#lectic o% st#bility #n! ch#nge, cert#inty #n! uncert#intyR 8p. 2D,9. here%ore uncert#inty is # concept th#t pl#ys # signi%ic#nt role in interperson#l communic#tion. he %ollo/ing theorists explore ho/ communic#tion c#n be # -ehicle in!i-i!u#ls utili?e to re!uce uncert#inty.

Early In'luen es
he %ollo/ing theorists signi%ic#ntly contribute! to the ex#min#tion o% uncert#inty in communic#tion. he in%luence o% their /ork c#n be seen re%lecte! in the #ssumptions o% 2erger #n! C#l#brese 8,JDH9.

5eon 6estin7e 81313913/3:

*eon Festinger stu!ie! psychology #t the (ni-ersity o% 1o/# un!er the !irection o% <urt *e/in. *e/in, one o% the %oun!ers o% soci#l psychology #n! # pioneer in the rese#rch o% group !yn#mics, h#! # subst#nti#l in%luence on the !e-elopment o% interperson#l communic#tion. 3%ter gr#!u#tion, Festinger initi#lly /orke! #t the (ni-ersity o% >ochester, but in ,J4H he %ollo/e! *e/in to F#ss#chusetts 1nstitute o% echnology #n! the >ese#rch Center %or &roup )yn#mics. 3%ter *e/inLs !e#th, Festinger /orke! #t the (ni-ersity o% Fichig#n, .t#n%or! (ni-ersity, #n! the 'e/ .chool %or .oci#l >ese#rch 8.#melson, 20009. Fuch o% FestingerSs rese#rch %ollo/e! his mentor *e/in #n! %urther !e-elope! *e/inSs theories. .e-er#l o% FestingerLs theories /ere highly in%luenti#l on the emerging %iel! o% interperson#l communic#tion #n! on the !e-elopment o% (> . Festinger is best kno/n %or the theories o% Cogniti-e )isson#nce #n! .oci#l Comp#rison. Cogniti-e )isson#nce theory 8C) 9 #ttempte! to expl#in ho/ #n imb#l#nce #mong cognitions might #%%ect #n in!i-i!u#l. *e/in %oresh#!o/e! C) in his obser-#tions reg#r!ing #ttitu!e ch#nge in sm#ll groups 8Festinger, ,JI29. C) #llo/s %or three rel#tionships to occur #mong cognitions6 # conson#nt rel#tionship, in /hich cognitions #re in eKuilibrium /ith e#ch other0 # !isson#nt rel#tionship, in /hich cognitions #re in competition /ith e#ch other0 #n! #n irrele-#nt rel#tionship, in /hich the cognitions in Kuestion h#-e no e%%ect on one #nother 8West E urner, 20009. Cogniti-e )isson#nce, like uncert#inty, h#s #n element o% #rous#l #n! !iscom%ort th#t in!i-i!u#ls seek to re!uce. .oci#l Comp#rison theory postul#tes th#t in!i-i!u#ls look to %ee!b#ck %rom others to e-#lu#te their per%orm#nce #n! #bilities. o e-#lu#te the sel%, the in!i-i!u#l usu#lly seeks the opinions o% others /ho #re simil#r to the sel%. his nee! %or soci#l comp#rison c#n result in con%ormity pressures 8 renholm E ;ensen, 20049. 2erger #n! C#l#brese 8,JDH9 rel#te! soci#l comp#rison to (> by st#ting th#t QFestinger h#s suggeste! th#t persons seek out simil#r others /ho #re proxim#te /hen they experience Wikibooks M 11

Ch#pter G # high le-el o% uncert#inty reg#r!ing the #ppropri#teness o% their beh#-ior #n!$or opinions in # p#rticul#r situ#tionR 8p. ,0D9. Festinger recei-e! the )istinguishe! .cientist #/#r! o% the 3meric#n "sychologic#l 3ssoci#tion #n! the )istinguishe! .enior .cientist 3/#r! %rom the .ociety o% Bxperiment#l .oci#l "sychology. FestingerSs leg#cy is signi%ic#nt, #n! his theoretic#l in%luence c#n still be recogni?e! in contempor#ry soci#l science rese#rch. 3ronson 8in Festinger, ,JI09 st#te!, Q1t /#s in this er# th#t *eon Festinger in-ente! #n! !e-elope! his theory o% cogniti-e !isson#nce, #n! in my opinion, soci#l psychology h#s not been the s#me sinceR 8p. G9.

6 it; Hei%e 81/3)913//:

Frit? 7ei!er e#rne! his !octor#te in philosophy %rom the (ni-ersity o% &r#?. )uring his time in Burope, 7ei!er /#s #ble to /ork /ith m#ny reno/ne! psychologists such #s Wol%g#ng <Thler, F#x Wertheimer, #n! <urt *e/in. 7ei!er, like Festinger, recogni?e! *e/in #s # subst#nti#l imp#ct on his li%e6 Q1 /#nt to p#y tribute to U*e/inLsV stimul#ting in%luence, /hich h#s #%%ecte! much o% my thinking #n! /hich is still strong e-en in this book, #lthough it !oes not !eri-e !irectly %rom his /orkR 87ei!er, ,JHI, p. -ii9. 1n ,J2J, 7ei!er mo-e! to the (nite! .t#tes to /ork #t .mith College #n! l#ter the (ni-ersity o% <#ns#s /here he /orke! %or the rem#in!er o% his li%e 83sh, 20009. 7ei!erSs ,JHI public#tion, The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations, signi%ie! # m#Oor bre#kthrough in the stu!y o% interperson#l communic#tion 87e#th E 2ry#nt, 20009. 3t this point, soci#l psychologists like 7ei!er exp#n!e! their rese#rch to %ocus on interperson#l rel#tions #s #n import#nt %iel! o% stu!y. hough m#ny soci#l psychologists %ocuse! on beh#-ior in interperson#l rel#tions, their rese#rch ser-e! #s # g#te/#y %or rese#rch ex#mining communic#tion in interperson#l rel#tionships. 7ei!erSs text pro-i!e! one o% the %irst %orums %or !iscussing rel#tion#l phenomen#. 7ei!erSs /ork re%lecte! *e/inSs cogniti-e #ppro#ch to beh#-ior. 7ei!er 8,JHI9 %ocuse! on theories in cogniti-e consistency, emph#si?ing th#t in!i-i!u#ls pre%er /hen their cognitions #re in #greement /ith e#ch other. 7ei!er ex#mine! ho/ in!i-i!u#ls percei-e #n! e-#lu#te the #ctions #n! beh#-iors o% others, # %ocus reex#mine! in 2erger #n! C#l#breseSs !e-elopment o% (> . 7ei!er st#te!6 Qpersons #cti-ely seek to pre!ict #n! expl#in the #ctions o% othersR 82erger E 2r#!#c, ,JI2, p. 2J9. 7ei!erSs theory o% Qn#W-e psychologyR suggeste! th#t in!i-i!u#ls #ct #s obser-ers #n! #n#ly?ers o% hum#n beh#-ior in e-ery!#y li%e. 1n!i-i!u#ls g#ther in%orm#tion th#t helps them to pre!ict #n! expl#in hum#n beh#-ior. Q he n#W-e %#ctor #n#lysis o% #ction permits m#n to gi-e me#ning to #ction, to in%luence the #ctions o% others #s /ell #s o% himsel%, #n! to pre!ict %uture #ctionsR 87ei!er, ,JHI, p. ,2G9. When ex#mining moti-#tions in interperson#l rel#tions, 7ei!er 8,JHI9 %oun! th#t #%%ecti-e signi%ic#nce is gre#tly !etermine! by c#us#l #ttribution. 7ei!er st#tes6 Q hus, our re#ctions /ill be !i%%erent #ccor!ing to /hether /e think # person %#ile! prim#rily bec#use he l#cke! #!eKu#te #bility or prim#rily bec#use he !i! not /#nt to c#rry out the #ctionsR 8,JHI, p. ,2G9. he con!ition o% moti-#tion becomes the %ocus #n! is relie! on %or m#king Ou!gments #n! #lso interpreting the #ction. 7ei!er /#s #/#r!e! # &uggenheim Fello/ship, # )istinguishe! .cienti%ic Contribution 3/#r! %rom the 3meric#n "sychologic#l 3ssoci#tion, #n! /#s # %ello/ o% the 3meric#n 3c#!emy o% 3rts #n! .ciences. 7is in%luence continues to gro/ #%ter his !e#th in ,JII.

12 M Communic#tion heory

(ncert#inty >e!uction

C!au%e 1< Shannon 8131)92441: an% Wa en Wea#e 81/34913-/:

Cl#u!e B. .h#nnon recei-e! his 2... %rom Fichig#n .t#te (ni-ersity #n! his "h.). %rom F#ss#chusetts 1nstitute o% echnology 8F1 9. .h#nnon /orke! %or the '#tion#l >ese#rch Council, the '#tion#l )e%ense >ese#rch Committee, #n! 2ell elephone *#bor#tories, /here he !e-elope! the m#them#tic#l theory o% communic#tion, no/ kno/n #s in%orm#tion theory, /ith W#rren We#-er. .h#nnon /ent on to te#ch #t F1 until his !e#th in 200,. )uring his li%etime .h#nnon /#s #/#r!e! the 'obel "ri?e, *eibm#nn "ri?e, 2#ll#ntine Fe!#l, WhoLs Who *i%e 3chie-ement "ri?e, #n! the <yoto "ri?e 8QCl#u!e Bl/oo! .h#nnonR, 20029. W#rren We#-er recei-e! his 2... #n! "h.). %rom the (ni-ersity o% Wisconsin. We#-er /orke! #s %#culty #t hroop College, C#li%orni# 1nstitute o% echnology, (ni-ersity o% Wisconsin, #n! ser-e! in Worl! W#r Cne. We#-er /#s #lso #n #cti-e member o% the >ocke%eller Foun!#tion, .lo#n-<ettering 1nstitute %or C#ncer >ese#rch, 3l%re! ". .lo#n Foun!#tion, #n! .#lk 1nstitute %or 2iologic#l .tu!ies, ser-ing in m#ny le#!ership roles. 7e /#s #/#r!e! ('B.CCLs <#ling# "ri?e be%ore his !e#th in ,JDI 8>eingol!, 20009. .h#nnon #n! We#-er signi%ic#ntly contribute! to the system#tic #ppro#ch to the stu!y o% communic#tion. 2oth theorists /ere engineers /ho sought to expl#in in%orm#tion exch#nge through cybernetic processes. hey /ere the %irst to e%%ecti-ely mo!el in%orm#tion, #s they sought to expl#in ho/ to #tt#in precise #n! e%%icient sign#l tr#nsmissions in the re#lm o% telecommunic#tions. 1n their theory o% in%orm#tion, .h#nnon #n! We#-er 8,J4J9 sho/e! th#t the nee! to re!uce uncert#inty moti-#tes in!i-i!u#lSs communic#tion beh#-ior. his concept /#s l#ter exten!e! by 2erger #n! C#l#brese 8,JDH9 in the !e-elopment o% (> . 1n%orm#tion theory pro-i!e! the connections %rom in%orm#tion to uncert#inty #n! uncert#inty to communic#tion th#t %#cilit#te! the !e-elopment o% (> . Q.h#nnon E We#-erSs 8,J4J9 #ppro#ch stresse! the conclusion th#t in%orm#tion is the number o% mess#ges nee!e! to tot#lly re!uce uncert#intyR 87e#th E 2ry#nt, 2000, p. ,4H9. 1n!i-i!u#ls h#-e # !esire to re!uce uncert#inty #n! they #re #ble to %ul%ill this nee! by incre#sing in%orm#tion. 1n!i-i!u#ls incre#se in%orm#tion through communic#tion 8.h#nnon E We#-er, ,J4J9. hese concepts #re %urther explore! in the ex#min#tion o% in%orm#tion-seeking str#tegies in (> .

Un ertainty in the Modern Era

Cha !es R< =e 7e > =io7 a"h&
Ch#rles >. 2erger recei-e! his 2... %rom "ennsyl-#ni# .t#te (ni-ersity #n! his F.3. #n! "h.). %rom Fichig#n .t#te (ni-ersity. 3%ter gr#!u#tion, 2erger /orke! #t 1llinois .t#te (ni-ersity #t 'orm#l, 'orth/estern (ni-ersity, #n! the (ni-ersity o% C#li%orni# #t )#-is, /here he continues to /ork to!#y #s the ch#ir o% the )ep#rtment o% Communic#tion. 2erger h#s been in-ol-e! /ith the 1ntern#tion#l Communic#tion 3ssoci#tion since the ,JD0s, is #n #cti-e member o% the '#tion#l Communic#tion 3ssoci#tion, #n! belongs to such pro%ession#l groups #s the 3meric#n "sychologic#l .ociety, the .ociety %or Bxperiment#l .oci#l "sychology, the .ociety %or "erson#lity #n! .oci#l "sychology, #n! the 1o/# 'et/ork %or "erson#l >el#tionships 8QCh#rles >. 2ergerR, 200,9. 2erger h#s publishe! on # -#riety o% topics in interperson#l communic#tion inclu!ing6 uncert#inty Wikibooks M 10

Ch#pter G re!uction, str#tegic inter#ction, in%orm#tion-seeking, #ttribution, interperson#l #ttr#ction, soci#l cognition, #n! #pprehension. 1n the p#st thirty-%i-e ye#rs, 2erger h#s publishe! #pproxim#tely %orty #rticles #ppe#ring in the Communication Education, Communication onographs, Communication Research, Communication Theory, Communication !uarterly, Communication "ear#oo$, Educational and Psychological easurement, Human Communication Research, %ournal of Communication, %ournal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology %ournal of &ocial Issues, %ournal of Personality, Personal Relationship Issues, &peech onographs, 'estern %ournal of Communication, #n! the 'estern %ournal of &peech Communication. 2erger h#s co#uthore! %i-e books #n! contribute! to o-er thirty other texts. 1n ,JI2, 2erger recei-e! the &ol!en 3nni-ers#ry 2ook 3/#r!, presente! by the .peech Communic#tion 3ssoci#tion, %or his text6 (anguage and &ocial )nowledge.

Richa % ?< Ca!ab ese> =io7 a"h&

>ich#r! ;. C#l#brese recei-e! his 2.3. %rom *oyol# (ni-ersity, t/o F.3. !egrees %rom 2r#!ley (ni-ersity, #n! his "h.). %rom 'orth/estern (ni-ersity. C#l#brese h#s t#ught #t 2r#!ley (ni-ersity, the (ni-ersity o% 1llinois #t (rb#n, #n! 2o/ling &reen (ni-ersity. C#l#brese bec#me # pro%essor in communic#tion #t )ominic#n (ni-ersity in >i-er Forest, 1llinois, in ,J6D, /here he continues to /ork to!#y. Currently, C#l#brese is the !irector o% the F#ster o% .cience in Crg#ni?#tion F#n#gement "rogr#m #t )ominic#n (ni-ersity #n! #lso # consult#nt %or org#ni?#tion#l communic#tion 8Q>ich#r! ;oseph C#l#breseR, 200,9. C#l#brese is # member o% the 1ntern#tion#l 3ssoci#tion o% 2usiness Communic#tors, the .peech Communic#tion 3ssoci#tion, #n! is in-ol-e! /ith the '#tion#l Communic#tion 3ssoci#tion. C#l#brese is the co#uthor o% Communication and Education &$ills for *ietetics Professionals.

A Theo & o. Unce taint& Re%uction> @Some e+"!o ations in initia! inte action an% be&on%> ToAa % a %e#e!o"menta! theo & o. inte "e sona! communicationB 813-(:<
1n ,JD,, 2erger bec#me #n #ssist#nt pro%essor o% communic#tion #t 'orth/estern (ni-ersity. )uring this time, C#l#brese stu!ie! un!er 2erger, recei-ing his "h.). in ,JDG. 1n ,JDH, 2erger #n! C#l#brese publishe! Q.ome explor#tions in initi#l inter#ction #n! beyon!6 o/#r! # !e-elopment#l theory o% interperson#l communic#tion,R /hich ser-es #s the %oun!#tion o% (> . his #rticle inspire! # /#-e o% ne/ rese#rch ex#mining the role o% uncert#inty in communic#tion. 2erger #n! C#l#brese 8,JDH9 %orme! (> , #lso kno/n #s initi#l inter#ction theory, to expl#in the role o% communic#tion in re!ucing uncert#inty in initi#l inter#ctions #n! the !e-elopment o% interperson#l rel#tionships. he theory /#s !e-elope!, like other interperson#l theories be%ore it 87ei!er, ,JHI9, /ith the go#l o% #llo/ing the communic#tor the #bility to pre!ict #n! expl#in initi#l inter#ctions. hough 2erger #n! C#l#brese !i! not explore the re#lm o% subseKuent inter#ction, they !i! strongly recommen! th#t %uture rese#rch shoul! in-estig#te the #pplic#tion o% the %r#me/ork o% (> to !e-elope! rel#tionships. Bspeci#lly in initi#l encounters, there exists # high !egree o% uncert#inty gi-en th#t # number o% possible #ltern#ti-es exist in the situ#tion 8.h#nnon E We#-er, ,J4J9. 2ut in!i-i!u#ls c#n use communic#tion to re!uce this uncert#inty. 2erger #n! C#l#brese 8,JDH9 m#int#ine! th#t Qcommunic#tion beh#-ior is one -ehicle through /hich such pre!ictions #n! expl#n#tions #re themsel-es %ormul#te!R 8p.,0,9. 1n!i-i!u#ls h#-e the #bility to !ecre#se uncert#inty by est#blishing pre!ict#ble p#tterns o% inter#ction. 2ec#use o% this, re!ucing uncert#inty c#n help %oster the !e-elopment o% rel#tionships. 14 M Communic#tion heory

(ncert#inty >e!uction 2erger #n! C#l#brese 8,JDH9 %oun! th#t uncert#inty /#s rel#te! to se-en other communic#tion #n! rel#tion#l-%ocuse! concepts6 -erb#l output, non-erb#l /#rmth, in%orm#tion seeking, sel%-!isclosure, reciprocity, simil#rity, #n! liking. From those concepts, the rese#rchers intro!uce! # collection o% #xioms, or propositions, supporte! by p#st uncert#inty rese#rch. B#ch #xiom st#tes # rel#tionship bet/een # communic#tion concept #n! uncert#inty. From this b#sis o% #xioms, the theorists /ere #ble to use !e!ucti-e logic to in%er t/enty-one theorems th#t comprise the theory o% uncert#inty re!uction 8West E urner, 20009. he proce!ure use! to !e-elop the #xioms #n! theorems /#s #!opte! %rom 2l#lock 8,J6J9. 3 complete list o% the #xioms #n! theorems o% (> is #-#il#ble in 3ppen!ix 3. Centr#l to (> is the supposition th#t in initi#l inter#ctions, #n in!i-i!u#lSs prim#ry concern is to !ecre#se uncert#inty #n! incre#se pre!ict#bility reg#r!ing the beh#-iors o% the sel% #n! the communic#ti-e p#rtner. his i!e# is b#se! on 7ei!erLs 8,JHI9 notion th#t in!i-i!u#ls seek to m#ke sense out o% the e-ents he percei-es 82erger E C#l#brese, ,JDH9. 1n!i-i!u#ls must be #ble to eng#ge in pro#cti-e #n! retro#cti-e str#tegies to le#rn ho/ to pre!ict /h#t /ill h#ppen #n! #lso expl#in /h#t h#s #lre#!y h#ppene!. 7e#th #n! 2ry#nt 820009 st#te!6 Q(ncert#inty-re!uction theory is # po/er%ul expl#n#tion %or communic#tion bec#use it oper#tes in #ll contexts to help expl#in /hy people communic#te #s they !oR 8p. 2D,9. he imp#ct o% 2erger #n! C#l#brese 8,JDH9 on the %iel! o% interperson#l communic#tion /#s #n! continues to be proli%ic. 1n the p#st thirty ye#rs, this #rticle h#s gener#te! # plethor# o% rese#rch, ch#nging the /#y th#t rel#tionships #re explore! #n! #n#ly?e!.

1+"ansions on Unce taint& Re%uction

3lthough (> /#s prim#rily %orme! to expl#in beh#-ior in initi#l inter#ctions, its #pplic#tion h#s since been exp#n!e! to incorpor#te #ll le-els o% interperson#l rel#tionships. Q(ncert#inties #re ongoing in rel#tionships, #n! thus the process o% uncert#inty re!uction is rele-#nt in !e-elope! rel#tionships #s /ell #s in initi#l inter#ctionsR 8West E urner, 2000, p. ,4,9. he %ollo/ing section /ill ex#mine uncert#inty re!uction rese#rch since its intro!uction in ,JDH. A< Cha !es =e 7e .ince its conception, 2erger h#s pro!uce! # plethor# o% rese#rch exp#n!ing (> to better %it the !yn#mic n#ture o% interperson#l rel#tions. 2erger 8,JDJ9 est#blishe! th#t three pre!ece#sing con!itions must exist %or #n in!i-i!u#l to re!uce uncert#inty. hese moti-#tions to re!uce uncert#inty inclu!e6 # potenti#l %or costs or re/#r!s, !e-i#tions %rom expecte! beh#-ior, #n! the possibility o% %uture inter#ction. 1n ,JI2, 2erger te#me! up /ith ;#mes ;. 2r#!#c, %ormerly o% (ni-ersity o% C#li%orni# #t .#nt# 2#rb#r# 8,JI0-20049, to publish # book !e-ote! to uncert#inty re!uction rese#rch. heir text, title! (anguage and &ocial )nowledge+ ,ncertainty in Interpersonal Relations, /#s #lso e!ite! by 7o/#r! &iles, origin#tor o% Communic#tion 3ccommo!#tion heory #n! #lso %#culty o% (C.2. 1n this text, the #uthors %ocuse! on the %unction o% communic#tion, #n! speci%ic#lly l#ngu#ge, #s # proponent %or re!ucing uncert#inty. 2erger #n! 2r#!#c 8,JI29 propose! six #xioms th#t built on (> Ss origin#l se-en #xioms to exten! the rel#tionship bet/een uncert#inty re!uction #n! l#ngu#ge. hrough the use o% these #xioms Wikibooks M 1(

Ch#pter G the #uthors speci%ic#lly ex#mine! the role o% l#ngu#ge #s #n uncert#inty re!ucing #gent. he #uthors %urther #rr#nge! uncert#inty into t/o c#tegories6 cogniti-e uncert#inty #n! beh#-iour#l uncert#inty 82erger E 2r#!#c, ,JI29. Cogniti-e uncert#inty re%ers to uncert#inty #ssoci#te! /ith belie%s #n! #ttitu!es. 2eh#-iour#l uncert#inty re%ers to uncert#inty reg#r!ing the possible beh#-iors in # situ#tion. his c#tegori?#tion helpe! rese#rchers i!enti%y the origins o% uncert#inty, /hich resulte! in #n incre#se! #bility to #!!ress the !iscom%ort pro!uce! by uncert#inty. 2erger #n! 2r#!#c /ere cogniti-e th#t (> /oul! be more use%ul i% its in%luence /#s exten!e! to inclu!e !e-elope! rel#tionships #s /ell #s initi#l inter#ction. 2erger #n! 2r#!#c 8,JI29 #lle-i#te! this by st#ting th#t uncert#inty re!uction /#s critic#l to rel#tion#l !e-elopment, m#inten#nce, #n! !issolution #s /ell. 2erger #g#in rel#te! his rese#rch to 7ei!er 8,JHI9 by st#ting th#t in!i-i!u#ls m#ke c#su#l #ttributions reg#r!ing communic#ti-e beh#-ior. 3s rel#tionships %urther !e-elop, in!i-i!u#ls m#ke retro#cti-e #n! pro#cti-e #ttributions reg#r!ing # p#rtnerSs communic#tion #n! beh#-ior 82erger E 2r#!#c, ,JI29. 2erger 8,JID9 highlighte! the role o% costs #n! re/#r!s in rel#tionships by st#ting th#t Quncert#inty re!uction is # necess#ry con!ition %or the !e%inition o% the currency o% soci#l exch#nge, #n! it is through communic#ti-e #cti-ity th#t uncert#inty is re!uce!R 82erger, ,JID, p. HD9. 2erger 8,JID9 #lso exp#n!e! (> by cl#iming th#t three types o% in%orm#tion-seeking str#tegies #re use! to re!uce uncert#inty6 p#ssi-e, #cti-e, or inter#cti-e str#tegies. his is rel#te! to the concepts o% in%orm#tion theory 8.h#nnon E We#-er, ,J4J9, emph#si?ing th#t incre#se! in%orm#tion results in !ecre#se! uncert#inty. =< De#e!o"ments . om Othe Resea che s he l#tter impro-ements m#!e by 2erger exp#n!e! the scope #n! -#lue o% (> . Cther rese#rchers #lso m#!e contributions to %urther !e-elopments o% (> . .ince its intro!uction in ,JDH, (> h#s been exp#n!e! %rom # theory o% rel#tion#l !e-elopment to one #lso import#nt in est#blishe! rel#tionships. he %ollo/ing sections ex#mine the contributions m#!e by current interperson#l rese#rchers to (> . Wi!!iam Dou7!as Willi#m )ougl#s /#s # stu!ent #t 'orth/estern (ni-ersity /hile 2erger /#s on %#culty. he t/o schol#rs coll#bor#te! in their stu!y o% uncert#inty in ,JI2, #n! )ougl#s continue! in the s#me -ein o% rese#rch #%ter gr#!u#tion. )ougl#sS rese#rch h#s #ppe#re! in m#Oor communic#tion Oourn#ls inclu!ing6 Communication onographs, Communication Research, Human Communication Research, %ournal of -roadcasting and Electronic edia, #n! the %ournal of Personal and &ocial Relationships. )ougl#sS rese#rch in uncert#inty #ccounts %or in!i-i!u#l !i%%erences /hen ex#mining initi#l inter#ctions. Fuch o% his rese#rch exp#n!e! pre-ious /ork in initi#l inter#ction, ex#mine! glob#l uncert#inty, sel%-monitoring, #n! the rel#tionship o% -erb#l communic#tion to uncert#inty re!uction. )ougl#s 8,JID9 ex#mine! one o% the moti-#tions to re!uce uncert#inty origin#lly posite! in 2erger 8,JDJ96 the #nticip#tion o% %uture inter#ction. 1n this stu!y, Kuestion-#sking in situ#tions o% -#rying le-els o% #nticip#te! %uture inter#ction /#s #n#ly?e!. )ougl#s %oun! th#t high le-els o% mutu#l Kuestion-#sking occurre! /hen the le-el o% #nticip#te! %uture inter#ction /#s mo!er#te. his %in!ing suggeste! th#t in!i-i!u#ls seem to #-oi! neg#ti-e conseKuences 8)ougl#s, ,JID9. )ougl#s 8,JJ09 exp#n!e! this -erb#l communic#tion to uncert#inty rel#tionship by !isco-ering th#t Kuestion-#sking resulte! in uncert#inty re!uction /hich in turn resulte! in incre#se! le-els o% !isclosure. )ougl#s 8,JJ,9 !e%ines glob#l uncert#inty #s Quncert#inty #bout #cKu#int#nceship in gener#lR 8p. 1) M Communic#tion heory

(ncert#inty >e!uction GH69. 1n this #rticle, )ougl#s %oun! th#t in!i-i!u#ls /ith high glob#l uncert#inty #re less likely to eng#ge in Kuestion-#sking, sel%-!isclosure, #n! #re e-#lu#te! #s less competent communic#tors th#n in!i-i!u#ls /ith lo/ glob#l uncert#inty. Fin!ings #lso suggeste! th#t high glob#l uncert#inty positi-ely correl#tes to communic#tion #pprehension. his h#s # neg#ti-e e%%ect on rel#tion#l !e-elopment #n! c#n result in lo/ le-els o% rel#tion#l s#tis%#ction. Unce taint&9Inc easin7 1#ents .#lly "l#n#lp #n! ;#mes 7oneycutt 8,JIH9 #lso m#!e subst#nti#l contributions to uncert#inty re!uction rese#rch. "l#n#lp #n! 7oneycutt recogni?e! th#t communic#tion !oes not #l/#ys %unction #s #n uncert#inty re!ucing #gent, but c#n #lso ser-e to incre#se uncert#inty /hen in%orm#tion con%licts /ith p#st kno/le!ge. he #uthors rese#rche! /h#t speci%ic e-ents le#! to incre#se! uncert#inty in interperson#l rel#tionships #n! their e%%ects on both the in!i-i!u#l #n! the rel#tionship. he results %oun! th#t uncert#inty-incre#sing e-ents /ere -ery likely to result in rel#tion#l !issolution or !ecre#se! closeness o% the rel#tion#l p#rtners. his rese#rch /#s -ery bene%ici#l bec#use it le! to better expl#n#tions reg#r!ing the role o% communic#tion in uncert#inty re!uction. Romantic Re!ationshi"s F#lcolm "#rks #n! F#r# 3!elm#n 8,JIG9 sought to exp#n! the bre#!th o% (> to #pply to rom#ntic rel#tionships. )#t# /#s collecte! %rom in!i-i!u#ls in prem#rit#l rom#ntic rel#tionships through Kuestionn#ires #n! telephone inter-ie/s. 1n!i-i!u#ls /ho communic#te! more o%ten /ith their rom#ntic p#rtner #n! their p#rtnerSs net/ork 8%#mily #n! %rien!s9 percei-e! gre#ter simil#rity to their p#rtner. hey #lso recei-e! gre#ter support %rom their o/n net/ork 8%#mily #n! %rien!s9, #n! experience! # lo/er !egree o% uncert#inty 8"#rks E 3!elm#n, ,JIG9. hese %in!ings support (> Ss #xioms th#t gre#ter -erb#l communic#tion #n! simil#rity ser-e to !ecre#se uncert#inty 82erger E C#l#brese, ,JDH9, #n! #lso exten!s the scope o% (> to rom#ntic rel#tionships. Re!ationa! Maintenance 1n recent ye#rs, stu!ies h#-e begun to link uncert#inty re!uction to rel#tion#l m#inten#nce processes. )#inton #n! 3ylor 8200,9 connecte! rel#tion#l uncert#inty positi-ely to Oe#lousy #n! neg#ti-ely to rel#tion#l m#inten#nce beh#-iors. hese results suggeste! th#t in!i-i!u#ls #re less likely to eng#ge in rel#tion#l m#inten#nce /hen high uncert#inty exists in the rel#tionship. Cu!tu a! Stu%ies >ese#rch con!ucte! by Willi#m &u!ykunst #n! suk#s# 'ishi!# 8,JI49 exp#n!e! (> Ss scope to intercultur#l contexts. .peci%ic#lly the rese#rchers ex#mine! the e%%ects o% #ttitu!e simil#rity, cultur#l simil#rity, culture, #n! sel%-monitoring on #ttr#ction, intent to interrog#te, intent to sel%!isclose, #ttribution#l con%i!ence, #n! intent to !ispl#y non-erb#l #%%ili#ti-e beh#-iors 8&u!ykunst E 'ishi!#, ,JI49. >ese#rch con!ucte! on in!i-i!u#ls o% the ;#p#nese #n! 3meric#n cultures %oun! # positi-e correl#tion bet/een e#ch o% the -#ri#bles in!ic#ting th#t uncert#inty -#ries #cross cultures. C< C iticisms o. URT 2erger 8,JID9 recogni?e! th#t (> Qcont#ins some propositions o% !ubious -#li!ityR 8p. 409. *ike m#ny other success%ul theoretic#l #ppro#ches, 2erger #n! C#l#breseSs 8,JDH9 theory o% uncert#inty re!uction h#s inspire! subseKuent rese#rch th#t ser-e! both #s supporting e-i!ence #n! in #n Wikibooks M 1-

Ch#pter G opposition#l role to the theory. hese criticisms help to cl#ri%y the un!erlying principles o% the theory #n! suggest /#ys %or impro-ement %or %uture rese#rch. Fich#el .unn#%r#nk 8,JI69 #rgue! th#t # moti-#tion to re!uce uncert#inty is not # prim#ry concern in initi#l inter#ctions. 7is belie% /#s th#t # Qm#ximi?#tion o% rel#tion#l outcomesR 8p. J9 /#s o% more signi%ic#nt concern in initi#l encounters. .unn#%r#nk #rgue! th#t the pre!icte! outcome -#lue 8"C+9 o% the inter#ction h#! # gre#ter e%%ect on uncert#inty. 2erger 8,JI69 comb#te! .unn#%r#nkSs #rguments by #ckno/le!ging th#t outcomes c#nnot be pre!icte! i% there is no pre-ious history o% inter#ction reg#r!ing the beh#-ior o% the in!i-i!u#ls. 2erger cl#ims th#t .unn#%r#nkSs #rguments simply exp#n!e! (> 6 th#t by pre!icting outcomes 8using "C+9 in!i-i!u#ls #re #ctu#lly re!ucing their uncert#inty 82erger, ,JI69. <#thy <ellerm#nn #n! >o!ney >eynol!s 8,JJ09 #lso teste! the -#li!ity o% (> . heir prim#ry concern /#s #xiom three, /hich rel#te! high uncert#inty to high in%orm#tion seeking 8see #ppen!ix 39. heir stu!y o% o-er # thous#n! stu!ents %oun! th#t # /#nt %or kno/le!ge /#s # gre#ter in!ic#tor th#n # l#ck o% kno/le!ge %or promotion o% in%orm#tion-seeking 8<ellerm#nn E >eynol!s, ,JJ09. hese rese#rchers emph#si?e! th#t high uncert#inty !oes not cre#te enough moti-#tion to result in in%orm#tion-seeking0 r#ther # /#nt %or in%orm#tion must #lso exist. C#n#ry #n! )#inton 8200G9 explore! uncert#inty re!uction in terms o% rel#tion#l m#inten#nce #cross cultur#l contexts #n! %oun! th#t the #pplic#bility o% (> m#y not hol! to multiple cultures. C#n#ry #n! )#inton 8200G9 %ocuse! on the concept o% uncert#inty #-oi!#nce in cultures st#ting6 Qin!i-i!u#ls %rom cultures /ith # high toler#nce %or uncert#inty #re unlikely to %in! the experience o% uncert#inty #s # prim#ry moti-#tor %or per%orming rel#tion#l m#inten#nceR 8p. G,49. his le#!s to # gener#l Kuestioning o% -#li!ity o% (> other cultures.

Lega y and In'luen e

>ese#rch h#s %oun! th#t communic#tion pl#ys # critic#l role in initi#l inter#ctions #n! rel#tion#l !e-elopment. 2erger #n! C#l#brese 8,JDH9 /ere the %irst to in-estig#te the role o% communic#tion in initi#l inter#ctions /ith the !e-elopment o% # theory o% uncert#inty re!uction. 1ts /i!espre#! in%luence le! to its #!option in other rel#tion#l #n! communic#ti-e contexts such #s sm#ll group, m#ss communic#tion, #n! computer-me!i#te! communic#tion. he in%luence o% (> is /ell note! by others in the %iel!6 Q"ostul#tes by 2erger #n! C#l#brese prompte! more th#n t/o !ec#!es o% rese#rch to pro-e, cl#ri%y, #n! critiKue uncert#inty re!uctionSs expl#n#tion o% ho/ people communic#te interperson#llyR 87e#th E 2ry#nt, 2000, p. 2DH9. 2erger #n! C#l#brese 8,JDH9 gener#te! #!!ition#l stu!ies on uncert#inty re!uction #ccomplishe! by such schol#rs #s 7e/es, "l#n#lp, "#rks, 3!elm#n, &u!ykunst, =#ng, 'ishi!#, )ougl#s, <ellerm#n, 7#mmer, >uther%or!, 7oneycutt, .unn#%r#nk, C#pell#, Werner, #n! 2#xter. (> h#s /ithstoo! the test o% time, pro-ing itsel% #s # heuristic theory /ith utility th#t incre#ses /ith subseKuent rese#rch.

1/ M Communic#tion heory

(ncert#inty >e!uction

Appendi) A" A)io!s and Theore!s o' Un ertainty Redu tion Theory
A+ioms o. Unce taint& Re%uction Theo &
,. &i-en the high le-el o% uncert#inty present #t the onset o% the entry ph#se, #s the #mount o% -erb#l communic#tion bet/een str#ngers incre#ses, the le-el o% uncert#inty %or e#ch inter#ct#nt in the rel#tionship /ill !ecre#se. 3s uncert#inty is %urther re!uce!, the #mount o% -erb#l communic#tion /ill incre#se. 2. 3s non-erb#l #%%ili#ti-e expressi-eness incre#ses, uncert#inty le-els /ill !ecre#se in #n initi#l inter#ction situ#tion. 1n #!!ition, !ecre#ses in uncert#inty le-el /ill c#use incre#ses in non-erb#l #%%ili#ti-e expressi-eness. G. 7igh le-els o% uncert#inty c#use incre#ses in in%orm#tion seeking beh#-ior. 3s uncert#inty le-els !ecline, in%orm#tion seeking beh#-ior !ecre#ses. 4. 7igh le-els o% uncert#inty in # rel#tionship c#use !ecre#ses in the intim#cy le-el o% communic#tion content. *o/ le-els o% uncert#inty pro!uce high le-els o% intim#cy. H. 7igh le-els o% uncert#inty pro!uce high r#tes o% reciprocity. *o/ le-els o% uncert#inty pro!uce lo/ reciprocity r#tes. 6. .imil#rities bet/een persons re!uce uncert#inty, /hile !issimil#rities pro!uce incre#ses in uncert#inty. D. 1ncre#ses in uncert#inty le-el pro!uce !ecre#ses in liking0 !ecre#ses in uncert#inty le-el pro!uce incre#ses in liking.

Theo ems o. Unce taint& Re%uction Theo &

,. 3mount o% -erb#l communic#tion #n! non-erb#l #%%ili#ti-e expressi-eness #re positi-ely rel#te!. 2. 3mount o% communic#tion #n! intim#cy le-el o% communic#tion #re positi-ely rel#te!. G. 3mount o% communic#tion #n! in%orm#tion seeking beh#-ior #re in-ersely rel#te!. 4. 3mount o% communic#tion #n! reciprocity r#te #re in-ersely rel#te!. H. 3mount o% communic#tion #n! liking #re positi-ely rel#te!. 6. 3mount o% communic#tion #n! simil#rity #re positi-ely rel#te!. D. 'on-erb#l #%%ili#ti-e expressi-eness #n! intim#cy le-el o% communic#tion content #re positi-ely rel#te!. I. 'on-erb#l #%%ili#ti-e expressi-eness #n! in%orm#tion seeking #re in-ersely rel#te!. J. 'on-erb#l #%%ili#ti-e expressi-eness #n! reciprocity r#te #re in-ersely rel#te!. ,0.'on-erb#l #%%ili#ti-e expressi-eness #n! liking #re positi-ely rel#te!. ,,.'on-erb#l #%%ili#ti-e expressi-eness #n! simil#rity #re positi-ely rel#te!. ,2.1ntim#cy le-el o% communic#tion content #n! in%orm#tion seeking #re in-ersely rel#te!. ,G.1ntim#cy le-el o% communic#tion content #n! reciprocity r#te #re in-ersely rel#te!. ,4.1ntim#cy le-el o% communic#tion content #n! liking #re positi-ely rel#te!. ,H.1ntim#cy le-el o% communic#tion content #n! simil#rity #re positi-ely rel#te!. ,6.1n%orm#tion seeking #n! reciprocity r#te #re positi-ely rel#te!. ,D.1n%orm#tion seeking #n! liking #re neg#ti-ely rel#te!. ,I.1n%orm#tion seeking #n! simil#rity #re neg#ti-ely rel#te!. ,J.>eciprocity r#te #n! liking #re neg#ti-ely rel#te!. Wikibooks M 13

Ch#pter G 20.>eciprocity r#te #n! simil#rity #re neg#ti-ely rel#te!. 2,..imil#rity #n! liking #re positi-ely rel#te!.

24 M Communic#tion heory

"rop#g#n!# #n! the "ublic

4 ' RO'ACANDA

AND TH1

' U=5IC

Walter Lippmann, Harold D. Lasswell, Edward Bernays, and ac!ues Ellul

li-e -ersion N !iscussion N e!it lesson N comment N report #n error N #sk # Kuestion

roun! the time o% Worl! W#r Cne #n! /o, Communic#tion rese#rch l#rgely %ocuse! on the in%luence o% prop#g#n!#. Cne Kuestion th#t rese#rchers sought to #ns/er /#s6 ho/ c#n communic#tion be utili?e! to cre#te beh#-ior#l ch#ngesA &o-ernments %elt th#t i% they /ere to %unction e%%iciently, they coul! only !o so /ith the coor!in#te! cooper#tion o% their citi?ens. hrough the use o% prop#g#n!#, go-ernments coul! ensure th#t # n#tion %unctione! to meet its go#ls, but coul! #lso le#! to crushing in!i-i!u#lsL #bility to sh#pe their o/n li-es #n! their o/n consciousness. >ese#rch into this #re# gre#tly exp#n!e! m#ss communic#tion rese#rch in the t/entieth century. his ch#pter #ppro#ches the Kuestion o% prop#g#n!#, %rom the perspecti-e o% someone th#t m#ny h#-e c#lle! one o% the 4%#thers o% communic#tion,4 W#lter *ippm#nn.

Early E)perien es o' *alter Lipp!ann +,--./,.012

W#lter *ippm#nn /#s born in ,IIJ #n! spent much o% his youth exploring #rts such #s p#inting #n! music, tr#-elling to Burope, #n! #cKuiring # p#rticul#r interest in re#!ing, #ll !ue to his %#milySs secure economic st#tus 8Weing#st, ,J4J9. 2y the time he entere! 7#r-#r! in the %#ll o% ,J06, *ippm#nn h#! been expose! to # /i!e #rr#y o% i!e#s #n! h#! been /ell prep#re! %or the ch#llenging /ork th#t l#y #he#! o% him #t school. 1t /#s #t 7#r-#r! th#t the %irst in%luences on *ippm#nnSs /ork #n! theoretic#l #ppro#ch %irst #ppe#re!. *ippm#nn /#s in%luence! by the soci#l thinkers o% the time such #s &eorge .#nt#y#n#, Willi#m ;#mes, #n! &r#h#m W#ll#s. 1t is impossible to un!erst#n! *ippm#nnLs o/n thought /ithout some groun!ing in the perspecti-es popul#r #t 7#r-#r! #n! else/here. 7e /#s in%luence! by the mo-e to/#r! #n 3meric#n pr#gm#tic #ppro#ch, #s /ell #s soci#list thinkers o% the time.

3rede essors o' *alter Lipp!ann

Wi!!iam ?ames 81/4291314:
F#ny consi!er Willi#m ;#mes to be one o% the most prominent in%luences on *ippm#nn /hile #t 7#r-#r! 8Weing#st, ,J4J0 .teel, ,JJJ9. he t/o schol#rs %irst met /hen *ippm#nn publishe! #n #rticle in the Illustrated, # 7#r-#r! c#mpus m#g#?ine. *ippm#nnLs #rticle, /ritten #s # response to # book o% 2#rrett Wen!ellLs, /#s # comment#ry on soci#l Oustice #n! the plight o% the common m#n. ;#mes /#s intrigue! by *ippm#nnLs #rticle #n! surprise! *ippm#nn by #ppro#ching him. he t/o bec#me %rien!s, #n! *ippm#nnLs regul#r con-ers#tions /ith ;#mes pro%oun!ly in%luence! his %uture /ork. Willi#m ;#mes is perh#ps best kno/n %or his theories o% pr#gm#tism. ;#mes 8,J0D9 !e%ines the pr#gm#tic metho! #s, 4 he #ttitu!e o% looking #/#y %rom %irst things, principles, Lc#tegories,L suppose! Wikibooks M 21

Ch#pter 4 necessities0 #n! o% looking to/#r! l#st things, %ruits, conseKuences, %#ct4 8p. 2J9. 7e sho/e! ho/ pr#gm#tism is rel#te! to truth, #n! truth is th#t /hich c#n be -eri%ie!. 4 rue i!e#s #re those th#t /e c#n #ssimil#te, -#li!#te, corrobor#te, #n! -eri%y4 8;#mes, ,J0D, p. II9. 1n this /#y, ;#mes 8,J0D9 suggeste! th#t the un!erst#n!ing o% the /orl! is b#se! on en!uring, signi%ic#nt perceptions o% the e%%ects o% the obOects th#t surroun! in!i-i!u#ls. 3lthough *ippm#nn str#ye! %rom the pr#ctice o% pr#gm#tism in his o/n /ork, there /ere i!e#s th#t he took %rom ;#mesL theories #n! #pplie! to his o/n li%e. .teel 8,JJJ9 cl#ims th#t one o% these i!e#s /#s th#t o% meliorism, or the i!e# th#t 4things coul! be impro-e!, but ne-er per%ecte!4 8p. ,I9. 3nother is pr#ctic#lity, or the i!e# th#t 4men h#! to m#ke !ecisions /ithout /orrying #bout /hether they /ere per%ect4 8.teel, ,JJJ, p. ,I9. he themes o% meliorism #n! pr#ctic#lity #re in!ee! e-i!ent in *ippm#nnSs thought #n! /riting. hroughout m#ny ye#rs o% /riting, *ippm#nnLs opinions on the issues o% the public #n! their rel#tionship to go-ernment ten!e! to /#-er. For ex#mple, #ccor!ing to Weing#st 8,J4J9, *ippm#nn initi#lly supporte! the i!e# th#t go-ernment inter-ention in the economy /#s necess#ry, speci%ic#lly through the pro-ision o% public proOects to support employment !uring times o% economic h#r!ship. 7o/e-er, /hen Fr#nklin ). >oose-elt presente! his 'e/ )e#l, /hich inclu!e! more go-ernment inter-ention in the public #ren#, *ippm#nn !i! not support the progr#m 8Weing#st, ,J4J9. *ippm#nn 8,JG69 /#-ere! in his -ie/s on soci#lism #s /ell. 1t is !oubt%ul th#t his const#nt ch#nges o% opinion /ere purpose%ul0 r#ther they ser-e! #s e-i!ence o% ;#mesL in%luence on *ippm#nnLs /ork. 2y #ccepting the i!e#s o% meliorism #n! pr#ctic#lity, it coul! potenti#lly me#n th#t one is #l/#ys stri-ing to %in! the next best solution0 th#t /hen one theory %#ils, #nother c#n be !e-elope! to t#ke its pl#ce. 2y Kuestioning himsel% #n! his belie%s, *ippm#nn /#s #!-#ncing his o/n theories #n! %in!ing ne/ /#ys o% un!erst#n!ing his surroun!ings.

Ceo 7e Santa&ana 81/)0913(2:

.#nt#y#n# /#s # philosopher #t 7#r-#r! /ho #lso in%luence! the /ork o% *ippm#nn. .#nt#y#n#Ss theories re-ol-e! #roun! the i!e# o% the essence o% obOects, /hich Funson 8,J629 !e%ine! #s the 4!#tum o% intuition4 8p. I9. .#nt#y#n# /#s intereste! in unco-ering the -#rious essences th#t m#!e up hum#n li%e6 those -#lues /hich coul! be unco-ere! #n! then tie! to hum#n experience 8.teel, ,JJJ9. his outlook is # sh#rp contr#st to the theories o% ;#mes, /hich *ippm#nn h#! #lre#!y been expose! to. .teel 8,JJJ9 expl#ine! th#t /hile ;#mes %ocuse! on the i!e# o% mor#l rel#ti-ism, or the #bility to cre#te truth %rom obser-#tion, .#nt#y#n# /#s %ocusing on the 4se#rch %or #bsolute mor#l -#lues th#t coul! be reconcile! /ith hum#n experience4 8p. 2,9. .#nt#y#n#Ss in%luence on *ippm#nn is e-i!ent in his l#ter /ork. ie! to .#nt#y#n#Ss i!e#s o% the 4essence4 o% hum#nity #n! li%e, /ere his i!e#s th#t !emocr#cy coul! result in # tyr#nny o% the m#Oority 8.teel, ,JJJ, p. 2,9. his i!e# is e#sily rel#te! to *ippm#nnLs l#ter /ritings in Phantom Pu#lic 8,J2H9. Phantom Pu#lic ex#mines the 3meric#n public /ithin # !emocr#tic system. *ippm#nn 8,J2H9 expresses his i!e#s th#t the m#Oority o% the 3meric#n public is une!uc#te! in public issues, e#sily m#nipul#te! into si!ing /ith the m#Oority, #n! there%ore, pl#ys # -ery limite! role in the !emocr#tic process. 1n rel#tion to !emocr#cy, *ippm#nn st#tes, 4 hus the -oter i!enti%ie! himsel% /ith the o%%ici#ls. 7e trie! to think th#t their thoughts /ere his thoughts, th#t their !ee!s /ere his !ee!s, #n! e-en in some mysterious /#y they /ere # p#rt o% himX.1t pre-ente! !emocr#cy %rom #rri-ing #t # cle#r i!e# o% its o/n limits #n! #tt#in#ble en!s4 8p. ,4I9. *ippm#nn 8,J2H9 sho/s th#t /ithin # !emocr#tic system the m#Oority is #ctu#lly suppresse! by the minority opinion. 1t is this o-er/helming suppression o% the public opinion /ithin # !emocr#tic system th#t seems to represent .#nt#y#n#Ss in%luence on 22 M Communic#tion heory

"rop#g#n!# #n! the "ublic *ippm#nn. 1% .#nt#ny#n# #rgue! th#t !emocr#cy /oul! result in # tyr#nny o% the m#Oority, *ippm#nn 8,J2H9 supporte! this i!e# by sho/ing th#t public opinion c#use! little in%luence on # !emocr#tic system th#t /#s #ctu#lly controlle! by the e!uc#te! elite.

C aham Wa!!as 81/(/913(2:

&r#h#m W#ll#s, # %oun!er o% the F#bi#n .ociety, /#s #nother pre!ecessor to *ippm#nnSs /ork 8.teel, ,JJJ9. W#ll#s is perh#ps best kno/n %or his /ork Human .ature in Politics 8,JI,9. he politic#l -ie/s expresse! in this book helpe! to sh#pe *ippm#nnSs l#ter thoughts #bout the rel#tionship bet/een the public #n! its en-ironment. W#ll#s 8,JI,9 expresses his thoughts on the publicSs un!erst#n!ing o% their surroun!ings. 7e st#tes th#t the uni-erse presents the public /ith, 4#n unen!ing stre#m o% sens#tions #n! memories, e-ery one o% /hich is !i%%erent %rom e-ery other, #n! be%ore /hich, unless /e c#n select #n! recogni?e #n! simpli%y, /e must st#n! helpless #n! un#ble to either #ct or think. F#n h#s there%ore to cre#te entities th#t sh#ll be the m#teri#l o% his re#soning4 8p. ,G49. 1n this /#y, W#ll#s /#s sho/ing th#t the public is inc#p#ble o% un!erst#n!ing their en-ironment0 the stimuli th#t they #re presente! /ith #re too numerous to g#in # /ell--erse! un!erst#n!ing. .teel 8,JJJ9 cl#ims th#t this i!e# /#s one o% W#ll#sS gre#test in%luences on the %uture /ork o% *ippm#nn, p#rticul#rly in "ublic Cpinion 8,J229. 1n this /ork, *ippm#nn 8,J229 exp#n!e! upon W#ll#sS origin#l i!e#s #bout the rel#tionship bet/een the public #n! their en-ironment, #n! /#s #ble to sho/ th#t the public /#s not #ble to t#ke in #ll o% the kno/le!ge %rom their en-ironment th#t /oul! truly be nee!e! to #%%ect their go-ern#nce. 3si!e %rom inspiring *ippm#nn to ex#mine the rel#tionship bet/een the public #n! the en-ironment, W#ll#s c#n #lso be cre!ite! /ith in%luencing *ippm#nn to bre#k his ties /ith the .oci#list school o% thought 8.teel, ,JJJ9. (ntil his inter#ctions /ith W#ll#s, *ippm#nn h#! hel! strong soci#list belie%s, b#se! not only upon his experiences #t school, but #lso upon the /ritings o% <#rl F#rx.

Da ! Ma + 81/1/91//0:
<#rl F#rx /#s p#rticul#rly concerne! /ith expl#ining the cl#ss struggles th#t existe! in society 8>ogers, ,JJ49. 7is most /ell-kno/n /orks /ere *as )apital 8C#pit#l9 #n! The Communist anifesto. hrough these /orks, F#rx expl#ine! his theories #bout the struggle o% the /orking cl#ss, their #lien#tion %rom their /ork, #n! their nee! to rebel #g#inst the elite in or!er to t#ke o/nership %or their #ctions #n! g#in po/er 8>ogers, ,JJ49. F#rxism expl#ine! the /#y th#t economic %orces cre#te ch#nges in society, #n! the nee! %or the cre#tion o% # communist system to restore eKu#lity to th#t system 8>ogers, ,JJ49. While #t 7#r-#r!, *ippm#nn re#! F#rxSs i!e#s on communism, #n! chose to support the i!eology o% soci#lism 8.teel, ,JJJ9. *ippm#nn #lso Ooine! the F#bi#ns /hile #t school. hey /ere # group /hich urge! %or the empo/ering o% the mi!!le-cl#sses, r#ther th#n the o-er-thro/ing o% the elite, in or!er to cre#te soci#l eKu#lity 8.teel, ,JJJ9. (nlike F#rxists, ho/e-er, the F#bi#ns still belie-e! in the presence o% #n intellectu#l elite 8.teel, ,JD09. his theme is present in *ippm#nnSs Phantom Pu#lic 8,J2H9. 1n this piece o% liter#ture, *ippm#nn 8,J2H9 expl#ins th#t society is truly !omin#te! by #n intellectu#l elite, e-en /hen they might think th#t they #re %ollo/ing # system o% m#Oority rule. 4Xit is h#r! to s#y /hether # m#n is #cting executi-ely on his opinions or merely #cting to in%luence the opinion o% someone else, /ho is #cting executi-ely4 8 *ippm#nn, ,J2H, p. ,,09. Wikibooks M 20

Ch#pter 4 F#rx #lso cl#ime! th#t m#ss me!i# is use! #s # tool by the elite soci#l cl#sses to control society 8>ogers, ,JJ49. his theme is e-i!ent in *ippm#nnSs Pu#lic /pinion 8,J229, /hich expl#ine! th#t it /#s the m#ss me!i# /ho !etermine! /h#t in%orm#tion the public coul! #ccess, #n! ho/ the limit#tion o% such #ccess coul! in turn, sh#pe public opinion. he remn#nts o% F#rxism #re present in *ippm#nnSs l#ter /orks, such #s Pu#lic /pinion #n! Phantom Pu#lic. 2y ,J,4, *ippm#nn /#s no longer # supporter o% the implement#tion o% soci#lism on # l#rge sc#le 8.teel, ,JJJ9. With his public#tion o% *rift and astery 8,J,49, *ippm#nn !enounce! the use o% soci#lism 8.teel, ,JJJ9. Furthermore, his public#tion o% 0ood &ociety 8,JG69 /#s essenti#lly # criticism o% the -ery theories o% soci#lism th#t he h#! once supporte!. 2y this point, *ippm#nn 8,JG69 recogni?e! the error in the soci#list theories0 the %#ct th#t e-en by putting #n en! to pri-#te o/nership #n! !e-eloping collecti-e property, people still m#y not kno/ ho/ to properly !istribute resources /ithout exploit#tion. *ippm#n 8,JG69 cl#ims 4 his is the cruci#l point in the soci#list #rgument6 the /hole hope th#t exploit#tion, #cKuisiti-eness, soci#l #nt#gonism, /ill !is#ppe#r rests upon con%i!ence in the mir#culous e%%ect o% the tr#ns%er o% titles4 8p. D29. *ippm#nnSs /#-ering -ie/s on soci#lism #re import#nt. hey cle#rly #%%ect ho/ *ippm#nn sees the rel#tion bet/een m#n, his en-ironment, #n! his go-ernment. hese themes /ill be pre-#lent in *ippm#nnSs theories, #s he expl#ins ho/ #n! /hy the public is subOect to m#nipul#tion.

Si7mun% 6 eu% 81/()91303:

3si!e %rom his re#!ing o% <#rl F#rx, *ippm#nn /#s #lso in%luence! by the re#!ings o% other #c#!emics. C% p#rticul#r import#nce to the /ork o% the prop#g#n!#$m#ss communic#tion theorists in gener#l /#s the /ork o% .igmun! Freu!. Freu!Ss in%luence c#n be seen not only in the /ork o% *ippm#nn, but #lso in the /ork o% *ippm#nnSs contempor#ries. .igmun! Freu! /#s initi#lly tr#ine! #s # me!ic#l !octor #n! l#ter %oun!e! psycho#n#lytic theory 8>ogers, ,JJ49. C% p#rticul#r import#nce to psycho#n#lytic theory /#s the un!erst#n!ing o% #n in!i-i!u#lSs min!. 3ccor!ing to >ogers 8,JJ49, Freu! /#s #ble to !i-i!e the hum#n consciousness into three st#tes0 the conscious, preconscious, #n! unconscious. he conscious consists o% those things /hich /e kno/ #bout oursel-es, the preconscious consists o% those things /hich /e coul! p#y conscious #ttention to i% /e so !esire!, #n! the unconscious consists o% those things /hich /e !o not un!erst#n! or kno/ #bout oursel-es 8>ogers, ,JJ49. From these three le-els o% in!i-i!u#l #n#lysis, Freu! #ttempte! to un!erst#n! hum#n beh#-ior. 2oth Freu!Ss gener#l theories o% psycho#n#lysis, #s /ell #s one o% Freu!Ss /ritings in p#rticul#r, The Interpretation of *reams, c#me to be o% p#rticul#r import#nce to the prop#g#n!# theorists. The Interpretation of *reams !e#lt /ith the i!e# th#t !re#ms #re # %orm o% /ish %ul%illment0 they represent # !esire o% the unconscious th#t c#n be #chie-e! !uring sleep through the cre#tion o% # !re#m to %ul%ill # nee! 8*e-in, ,J2J9. *ippm#nn #pplie! this i!e# to his /ork in Pu#lic /pinion 8,J229. 1n Pu#lic /pinion, *ippm#nn 8,J229 stresse! the i!e# o% Q he Worl! Cutsi!e #n! the "ictures in Cur 7e#!sR 8p. G9. his concept in-ol-es the i!e# th#t # personSs perceptions o% #n e-ent or situ#tion m#y not m#tch /h#t is #ctu#lly h#ppening in their en-ironment 8*ippm#n, ,J229. his i!e# /#s in%luence! by The Interpretation of *reams, in th#t *ippm#nn use! this book to !e-elop his i!e# o% # Qpseu!oen-ironmentR th#t existe! in the min!s o% in!i-i!u#ls 8>ogers, ,JJ4, p. 2G49. 2ern#ysL 8,J2I9 un!erst#n!ing o% hum#n moti-es /#s #lso b#se! on the stu!y o% Freu!Ss /ork. 2ern#ys /#s Freu!Ls nephe/, #n! #t -#rious times in his li%e the 3meric#n tr#-elle! to +ienn# to -isit 24 M Communic#tion heory

"rop#g#n!# #n! the "ublic /ith his uncle. 2ern#ys h#! # speci#l interest in #!opting psycho#n#lytic theory into his public rel#tions /ork, #n! this in%luence! his thinking in rel#tion to public opinion. 1n Propaganda, 2ern#ys 8,J2I9 cl#ims it is the Freu!i#n school o% thought th#t recogni?e! 4m#nLs thoughts #n! #ctions #re compens#tory substitutes %or !esires /hich he h#s been oblige! to suppress4 8p. H29. 2ern#ys 8,J2I9 goes on to sho/ th#t prop#g#n!ists c#nnot merely #ccept the re#sons th#t men gi-e %or their beh#-ior. 1% they #re truly hi!ing their re#l moti-es, #s Freu! suggests, then 4the success%ul prop#g#n!ist must un!erst#n! the true moti-es #n! not be content to #ccept the re#sons /hich men gi-e %or /h#t they !o4 82ern#ys, ,J2I, p. H29. 2y getting to the root o% # m#nSs /#nts #n! nee!s, 2ern#ys suggests th#t prop#g#n!# c#n become more e%%ecti-e #n! in%luenti#l. C-er#ll, Freu!Ss theories /ere # strong gui!ing %r#me/ork %or un!erst#n!ing in!i-i!u#ls. 2y helping theorists such #s *#ss/ell, *ippm#nn, 2ern#ys, #n! Bllul to un!erst#n! in!i-i!u#ls, Freu! /#s #lso helping them to un!erst#n! the public th#t they #ime! to m#nipul#te.

The Theories o' *alter Lipp!ann

While #t 7#r-#r!, *ippm#nn h#! %irst-h#n! exposure to the theories o% Willi#m ;#mes, &eorge .#nt#y#n#, #n! &r#h#m W#ll#s. 7e h#! #lso re#! the /orks o% .igmun! Freu! #n! <#rl F#rx. While some #pplic#tions o% *ippm#nnSs pre!ecessorsS i!e#s to his rese#rch h#-e #lre#!y been !iscusse!, it is import#nt to ex#mine the o-er#ll theories o% W#lter *ippm#nn. Follo/ing his time #t 7#r-#r!, *ippm#nn !eci!e! to pursue # c#reer in Oourn#lism. 7e h#! %ocuse! on the stu!y o% "hilosophy #t 7#r-#r!. 2y ,J,0 he h#! !roppe! out o% their gr#!u#te progr#m #n! /#s re#!y to pursue # c#reer 8.teel, ,JJJ9. *ippm#nn st#rte! his c#reer by /orking %or *incoln .te%%ens, /riting prim#rily #bout soci#lism #n! issues on W#ll .treet 8>ogers, ,JJ49. Follo/ing his time /ith .te%%ens, *ippm#nn beg#n /ork on #n elite intellectu#l m#g#?ine kno/n #s the .ew Repu#lic 8>ogers, ,JJ49. *ippm#nn /orke! on .ew Repu#lic %or nine ye#rs, #n! #s his time there c#me to #n en!, he beg#n to publish his most prominent pieces o% liter#ture 8>ogers, ,JJ49.

3u%li Opinion
Pu#lic /pinion 8,J229 is perh#ps *ippm#nnSs most /ell-kno/n /ork. 1t /#s in this piece th#t *ippm#nn %irst beg#n to !e-elop #n! expl#in his theories on the %orm#tion o% public opinion. *ippm#nn 8,J229 begins this book by !escribing # situ#tion in ,J,4, /here # number o% &erm#ns, Frenchmen, #n! Bnglishmen /ere tr#ppe! on #n isl#n!. hey h#-e no #ccess to me!i# o% #ny kin!, except %or once e-ery sixty !#ys /hen the m#il comes, #lerting them to situ#tions in the re#l /orl!. *ippm#nn expl#ins th#t these people li-e! in pe#ce on the isl#n!, tre#ting e#ch other #s %rien!s, /hen in #ctu#lity the /#r h#! broken out #n! they /ere enemies 8*ippm#nn, ,J229. he purpose o% the #bo-e #nec!ote is to !e-elop the i!e# o% 4 he Worl! Cutsi!e #n! the "ictures in Cur 7e#!s4 8*ippm#nn, ,J22, p. G9. hroughout Pu#lic /pinion, *ippm#nn 8,J229 expl#ins the /#y th#t our in!i-i!u#l opinions c#n !i%%er %rom those th#t #re expresse! in the outsi!e /orl!. 7e !e-elops the i!e# o% prop#g#n!#, cl#iming th#t 41n or!er to con!uct prop#g#n!#, there must be some b#rrier bet/een the public #n! the e-ent4 8*ippm#nn, ,J22, p. 2I9. With this sep#r#tion, there is the #bility o% the me!i# to m#nipul#te e-ents or present limite! in%orm#tion to the public. his in%orm#tion m#y not m#tch the publicSs perception o% the e-ent. 1n this /#y, *ippm#nn /#s essenti#lly presenting some o% Wikibooks M 2(

Ch#pter 4 the %irst -ie/s on the m#ss communic#tion concepts o% g#tekeeping #n! #gen!#-setting, by sho/ing the me!i#Ss po/er to limit public #ccess to in%orm#tion. *ippm#nn 8,J229 sho/e! ho/ in!i-i!u#ls use tools such #s stereotypes to %orm their opinions. Q1n putting together our public opinions, not only !o /e h#-e to picture more sp#ce th#n /e c#n see /ith our eyes, #n! more time th#n /e c#n %eel, but /e h#-e to !escribe #n! Ou!ge more people, more #ctions, more things th#n /e c#n e-er count, or -i-i!ly im#gineXWe h#-e to pick our s#mples, #n! tre#t them #s typic#lR 8*ippm#nn, ,J22, p. JH9. *ippm#nn sho/s th#t the public is le%t /ith these stereotypic#l Ou!gments until the me!i# presents limite! in%orm#tion to ch#nge their perception o% #n e-ent. >ogers 8,JJ49 cl#ims th#t in this /#y, *ippm#nn /#s sho/ing us th#t 4...the pseu!oen-ironment th#t is con-eye! to us by the me!i# is the result o% # high !egree o% g#tekeeping in the ne/s process4 8p. 2GD9. *ippm#nn recogni?e! th#t the me!i# /#s #ltering the %lo/ o% in%orm#tion, by limiting the me!i# content th#t /#s presente! to the public. Furthermore, *ippm#nn presents the i!e# o% #gen!#-setting, #s he recogni?es th#t the m#ss me!i# is the link bet/een in!i-i!u#l perceptions o% # /orl!, #n! the /orl! th#t #ctu#lly exists 8>ogers, ,JJ49.

3hanto! 3u%li
Phantom Pu#lic 8,J2H9 %ocuse! on !escribing the ch#r#cteristics o% the public itsel%. *ippm#nn 8,J2H9 use! this book to sho/ the publicSs in#bility to h#-e -#st kno/le!ge #bout their en-ironment, #n! there%ore, to sho/ their %#ilure to truly support # position. *ippm#nn 8,J2H9 gi-es # h#rsh -ie/ o% the gener#l public, st#ting, 4 he in!i-i!u#l m#n !oes not h#-e opinions on public #%%#irs... 1 c#nnot im#gine ho/ he coul! kno/, #n! there is not the le#st re#son %or thinking, #s mystic#l !emocr#ts h#-e thought, th#t the compoun!ing o% in!i-i!u#l ignor#nces in m#sses o% people c#n pro!uce # continuous !irecting %orce in public #%%#irs4 8p. GJ9. his book seeme! to sho/ th#t !emocr#cy /#s not truly run by the public, but r#ther, /#s being controlle! by #n e!uc#te! elite. he public coul! not be truly /ell in%orme!, so they /ere e#sily con-ince! to si!e /ith #n e!uc#te! minority, /hile con-incing themsel-es th#t they /ere #ctu#lly in # system o% m#Oority rule. *ippm#nn 8,J2H9 cl#ims th#t the book #ime! to 4...bring the theory o% !emocr#cy into some/h#t truer #lignment /ith the n#ture o% public opinion... 1t h#s seeme! to me th#t the public h#! # %unction #n! must h#-e metho!s o% its o/n in contro-ersies, Ku#lit#ti-ely !i%%erent %rom those o% the executi-e men4 8p. ,JD9.

Other *ritings
*ippm#nn #lso publishe! # number o% other books th#t !e#lt prim#rily /ith his politic#l thoughts reg#r!ing the public. hese inclu!e! A Preface to Politics 8,J,G9 #n! 0ood &ociety 8,JG69. While these /orks #re import#nt to/#r! un!erst#n!ing *ippm#nnSs thoughts on the rel#tion o% the public to their go-ernment, Pu#lic /pinion #n! Phantom Pu#lic hel! most o% *ippm#nnSs theories th#t /ere rele-#nt to m#ss communic#tion rese#rch.

4uture Career 3ath

3si!e %rom his m#Oor /orks o% liter#ture, *ippm#nn /#s perh#ps best kno/n %or his 4 o!#y #n! omorro/4 column, /hich he beg#n publishing in ,JG, in the .ew "or$ Herald Tri#une 8Weing#st, ,J4J9. his column g#-e *ippm#nn complete %ree!om o% expression, #n! the #bility to /rite #bout 2) M Communic#tion heory

"rop#g#n!# #n! the "ublic such topics #s history, go-ernment, economics, #n! philosophy 8Weing#st, ,J4J9. 3lthough the column ten!e! to #ppe#l to # limite! 3meric#n #u!ience, it !e#lt /ith # /i!e -#riety o% import#nt issues. Weing#st 8,J4J9 estim#tes th#t only 40Y o% 3meric#n #!ults coul! un!erst#n! *ippm#nnSs column, #n! only 24Y coul! be consi!ere! regul#r re#!ers o% the column 8p. G09. 7o/e-er, it is this column th#t still must be recogni?e! %or helping *ippm#nnSs i!e#s to g#in popul#rity. *ippm#nnSs -#rious /orks le! him to # gre#t m#ny opportunities to /ork /ith import#nt %igures in history. 1n ,J,I, he /#s gi-en the #bility to #ssist "resi!ent Woo!ro/ Wilson in /riting the Fourteen "oints, /hich helpe! to restore pe#ce #%ter Worl! W#r Cne 8>ogers, ,JJ49. C% more import#nce to communic#tion stu!ies, *ippm#nn /#s #lso gi-en the opportunity to publish #n! present prop#g#n!# in Burope to support the #ccept#nce o% the Fourteen "oints on #n intern#tion#l sc#le 8.teel, ,JJJ9. 1t is through this /ork th#t some o% *ippm#nnSs ties to 7#rol! *#ss/ell c#n be obser-e!.

Other 3ropaganda Theorists

Ha o!% 5assAe!! 81342913-/:
3s *ippm#nn /#s /riting prop#g#n!#, 7#rol! *#ss/ell /#s un!ert#king empiric#l #n#lyses o% prop#g#n!#. 1n %#ct, much o% the prop#g#n!# th#t *#ss/ell /#s ex#mining /#s #ctu#lly being /ritten by *ippm#nn himsel% 8>ogers, ,JJ49. 7#rol! *#ss/ell 8,J02-,JDI9 /#s # prominent schol#r in the #re# o% prop#g#n!# rese#rch. 7e %ocuse! on con!ucting both Ku#ntit#ti-e #n! Ku#lit#ti-e #n#lyses o% prop#g#n!#, un!erst#n!ing the content o% prop#g#n!#, #n! !isco-ering the e%%ect o% prop#g#n!# on the m#ss #u!ience 8>ogers, ,JJ49. *#ss/ell is cre!ite! /ith cre#ting the m#ss communic#tion proce!ure o% content #n#lysis 8>ogers, ,JJ49. &ener#lly, content #n#lysis c#n be !e%ine! #s, 4...the in-estig#tion o% communic#tion mess#ges by c#tegori?ing mess#ge content into cl#ssi%ic#tions in or!er to me#sure cert#in -#ri#bles4 8>ogers, ,JJ49. 1n #n ess#y entitle! 4Contents o% Communic#tion,4 *#ss/ell 8,J469 expl#ins th#t # content #n#lysis shoul! t#ke into #ccount the %reKuency /ith /hich cert#in symbols #ppe#r in # mess#ge, the !irection in /hich the symbols try to persu#!e the #u!ienceSs opinion, #n! the intensity o% the symbols use!. 2y un!erst#n!ing the content o% the mess#ge, *#ss/ell 8,J469 #ims to #chie-e the go#l o% un!erst#n!ing the 4stre#m o% in%luence th#t runs %rom control to content #n! %rom content to #u!ience4 8p. D49. his metho! o% content #n#lysis is tie! strongly to *#ss/ellLs 8,JHG9 e#rly !e%inition o% communic#tion /hich st#te!, 4Who s#ys /h#t in /hich ch#nnel to /hom #n! /ith /h#t e%%ects4 8p. I49. Content #n#lysis /#s essenti#lly the Ls#ys /h#tL p#rt o% this !e%inition, #n! *#ss/ell /ent on to !o # lot o% /ork /ithin this #re# !uring the rem#in!er o% his c#reer. *#ss/ellLs most /ell-kno/n content #n#lyses /ere #n ex#min#tion o% the prop#g#n!# content !uring Worl! W#r Cne #n! /o. 1n Propaganda Techni1ue in the 'orld 'ar, *#ss/ell 8,JGI9 ex#mine! prop#g#n!# techniKues through # content #n#lysis, #n! c#me to some striking conclusions. *#ss/ell 8,JGI9 /#s simil#r to Bllul, in th#t he sho/e! th#t the content o% /#r prop#g#n!# h#! to be per-#si-e in #ll #spects o% the citi?enSs li%e in or!er to be e%%ecti-e. Furthermore, *#ss/ell 8,JGI9 sho/e! th#t #s more people /ere re#che! by this prop#g#n!#, the /#r e%%ort /oul! become more e%%ecti-e. 4...U Vhe #cti-e prop#g#n!ist is cert#in to h#-e /illing help %rom e-erybo!y, /ith #n #xe to grin! in tr#ns%orming the W#r into # m#rch to/#r! /h#te-er sort o% promise! l#n! h#ppens to #ppe#l to Wikibooks M 2-

Ch#pter 4 the group concerne!. he more o% these sub-groups he c#n %ire %or the W#r, the more po/er%ul /ill be the unite! !e-otion o% the people to the c#use o% the country, #n! to the humili#tion o% the enemy4 8*#ss/ell, ,JGI, p. D69. 3si!e %rom un!erst#n!ing the content o% prop#g#n!#, *#ss/ell /#s #lso intereste! in ho/ prop#g#n!# coul! sh#pe public opinion. his !e#lt prim#rily /ith un!erst#n!ing the e%%ects o% the me!i#. *#ss/ell /#s p#rticul#rly intereste! in ex#mining the e%%ects o% the me!i# in cre#ting public opinion /ithin # !emocr#tic system. 1n *emocracy Through Pu#lic /pinion, *#ss/ell 8,J4,9 ex#mines the e%%ects o% prop#g#n!# on public opinion, #n! the e%%ects o% public opinion on !emocr#cy. *#ss/ell 8,J4,9 cl#ims, Q)emocr#tic go-ernment #cts upon public opinion #n! public opinion #cts openly upon go-ernmentR 8p. ,H9. 3%%ecting this rel#tionship is the existence o% prop#g#n!#. )ue to this prop#g#n!#, Q&ener#l suspiciousness is !irecte! #g#inst #ll sources o% in%orm#tion. Citi?ens m#y con-ince themsel-es th#t it is hopeless to get the truth #bout public #%%#irsR 8*#ss/ell, ,J4,, p. 409. 1n this /#y, *#ss/ell h#s cre#te! # cycle, /hereby the public is limite! in the in%orm#tion th#t is presente! to them, #n! #lso #pprehensi-e to #ccept it. 7o/e-er, it is still th#t in%orm#tion th#t is #%%ecting their !ecisions /ithin the !emocr#tic system, #n! is being presente! to them by the go-ernment. his is #n interesting /#y o% -ie/ing the po/er o% the me!i# th#t is some/h#t simil#r to *ippm#nnSs theories.

1%Aa % =e na&s 81/319133(:

3t #pproxim#tely the s#me time th#t *ippm#nn #n! *#ss/ell /ere ex#mining public opinion #n! prop#g#n!#, B!/#r! 2ern#ys 8,IJ,-,JJH9 /#s ex#mining public rel#tions, prop#g#n!#, #n! public opinion. 2ern#ys 8,J2I9 !e%ines prop#g#n!# #s, 4# consistent, en!uring e%%ort to cre#te or sh#pe e-ents to in%luence the rel#tions o% # public to #n enterprise, i!e#, or group4 8p. 2H9. Contr#ry to other prop#g#n!# theorists, 2ern#ys recogni?es th#t prop#g#n!# c#n be either bene%ici#l or h#rm%ul to the public. 1t c#n help in!i-i!u#ls !eci!e /h#t to think #bout or #lter the opinions o% in!i-i!u#ls, but this m#y #ctu#lly be bene%ici#l to societySs %unctioning #s # /hole. 2ern#ys st#tes, QWe #re go-erne!, our min!s #re mol!e!, our t#stes %orme!, our i!e#s suggeste!, l#rgely by men /e h#-e ne-er he#r! o%... +#st numbers o% hum#n beings must cooper#te in this m#nner i% they #re to li-e together #s # smoothly %unctioning society4 8p. J9. 2#se! on these i!e#s th#t the public opinion c#n be mo!i%ie!, #n! th#t such sh#ping is # necess#ry p#rt o% society, 2ern#ys pursue! his /ork in the %iel! o% public rel#tions. 4"ublic rel#tions is the #ttempt, by in%orm#tion, persu#sion, #n! #!Oustment, to engineer public support %or #n #cti-ity, c#use, mo-ement, or institution4 82ern#ys, ,JHH, p. G9. 1n he Bngineering o% Consent, 2ern#ys 8,JHH9 l#ys out the %r#me/ork %or un!erst#n!ing the public #n! !e-eloping # public rel#tions c#mp#ign. 2ern#ys 8,JHH9 cl#ims th#t the key to # success%ul public rel#tions c#mp#ign is #!Oustment o% the c#mp#ign to the #ttitu!es o% -#rious groups in society, g#thering in%orm#tion to e%%ecti-ely express #n i!e#, #n! %in#lly, utili?ing persu#sion to in%luence the public opinion in the inten!e! !irection. 2ern#ysS theories represent # step %or/#r! %or m#ss communic#tion theory. hey mo-e #/#y %rom more typic#l present#tions o% Qhit-or-miss prop#g#n!#,R #n! mo-e to/#r! # !eeper un!erst#n!ing o% the public, #n! the necessity o% #ttention-gener#ting prop#g#n!# in in%luencing public opinion 82ern#ys, ,JHH, p.229. 2ern#ys 8,JHH9 himsel% m#!e # st#tement reg#r!ing his phr#se, Qthe engineering o% consent.R 7e s#i!, QBngineering implies pl#nning. 3n! it is c#re%ul pl#nning more th#n #nything else th#t !istinguishes mo!ern public rel#tions %rom ol!-time hit or miss publicity #n! prop#g#n!#R 82ern#ys, ,JHH, p.229. Furthermore, 2ern#ysS theories #lso represent # !i%%erent -ie/ o% the %orm#tion o% public opinion. 1n opposition to *ippm#nn, /ho -ie/s the public #s being e#sily m#nipul#te!, 2/ M Communic#tion heory

"rop#g#n!# #n! the "ublic 2ern#ys c#utions #g#inst this. 7e cl#ims, Q he public is not #n #morphous m#ss /hich c#n be mol!e! #t /ill or !ict#te! toR 82ern#ys, ,J2I, p. 669. 1nste#!, 2ern#ys 8,J2I9 o%%ers the i!e# th#t in #ttempting to in%luence the public, # business must QXstu!y /h#t terms the p#rtnership c#n be m#!e #mic#ble #n! mutu#lly bene%ici#l. 1t must expl#in itsel%, its #ims, its obOecti-es, to the public in terms /hich the public c#n un!erst#n! #n! is /illing to #cceptR 8p. 669. 2ern#ys el#bor#tes on these i!e#s in "ublic >el#tions 8,JH29. >#ther th#n merely #ttempting to m#nipul#te the public through prop#g#n!#, 2ern#ys presents public rel#tions #s # tool th#t c#n be use! to combine the i!e#s o% the public #n! the persu#!er. Q he obOecti-e-min!e! public rel#tions m#n helps his client #!Oust to the contempor#ry situ#tion, or helps the public #!Oust to itR 82ern#ys, ,JH2, p. J9. 2ern#ys -ie/ o% the public is so%ter th#n th#t o% *ippm#nn, #s he recogni?es the po/er o% society, but still #lso cl#ims th#t m#nipul#tion o% the public is possible. 2ern#ys 8,JH29 /rites o% the bene%its o% public rel#tions, Q o citi?ens in gener#l, public rel#tions is import#nt bec#use it helps them to un!erst#n! the society o% /hich /e #re #ll # p#rt, to kno/ #n! e-#lu#te the -ie/point o% others, to exert le#!ership in mo!i%ying con!itions th#t #%%ects us, to e-#lu#te e%%orts being m#!e by others, #n! to persu#!e or suggest courses o% #ctionR 8p. ,09. (n!er this %r#me/ork, /hile m#nipul#tion o% the public is still possible, it is not in such bl#t#nt ignor#nce o% the public opinion. heorists such #s *ippm#nn #n! Bllul ten!e! to !is#gree /ith this point.

?acEues 1!!u! 81312 F 1334:

;#cKues BllulSs 8,J,2-,JJ49 theories on prop#g#n!# took # !i%%erent -ie/ o% the %orm#tion o% public opinion. Bllul 8,J6H9 sho/s th#t prop#g#n!# is #ctu#lly # speci%ic techniKue, /hich is both nee!e! by the public, #n! by those /ho cre#te the prop#g#n!# in the %irst pl#ce. 1n Propaganda+ The 2ormation of FenSs 3ttitu!es, Ellul 345678 defines propaganda as, 4# set o% metho!s employe! by #n org#ni?e! group th#t /#nts to bring #bout the #cti-e or p#ssi-e p#rticip#tion in its #ctions o% # m#ss o% in!i-i!u#ls, psychologic#lly uni%ie! through psychologic#l m#nipul#tions #n! incorpor#te! into # system4 8p. 6,9. 1n contr#st to the other theorists ex#mine! in this ch#pter, Bllul ten!s to -ie/ prop#g#n!# #s # necess#ry, but #ll-encomp#ssing, #cti-ity. 1t is not something to be presente! to the public in # single inst#nce, but r#ther, must become # consistent p#rt o% e-ery #spect o% the publicLs li%e. 1n The Technological &ociety, Bllul 8,J649 c#tegori?es prop#g#n!# #s # %orm o% hum#n techniKue. 1n gener#l, he consi!ers the term 4techniKue,4 to be re%erring to the metho!s th#t people use to obt#in their !esire! results 8Bllul, ,J649. .peci%ic#lly, he cl#ims th#t hum#n techniKue ex#mines those techniKues in /hich 4m#n himsel% becomes the obOect o% the techniKue4 8Bllul, ,J64, p. 229. 1n this scen#rio, m#n is the 4obOect,4 #s he is const#ntly being expose! to, #n! pressure! by, -#rious present#tions o% prop#g#n!#. Bllul 8,J649 goes on to s#y, 4 echniKues h#-e t#ught the org#ni?ers ho/ to %orce him into the g#me... he intensi-e use o% prop#g#n!# !estroys the citi?enLs %#culty o% !iscernment4 8p. 2D69. While The Technological &ociety %ocuses on the metho!s use! to cre#te # techniKue, such #s prop#g#n!#, Propaganda+ The 2ormation of en9s Attitudes 8,J6H9 %ocuses on the speci%ic rel#tionship bet/een prop#g#n!# #n! the m#nipul#tion o% public opinion. 3s /ith *ippm#nn, Bllul un!erst#n!s the l#ck o% kno/le!ge th#t the gener#l public hol!s %or use in %orming public opinion. Bllul 8,J6H9 comments on the use o% stereotypes #n! symbols in prop#g#n!#, #s !i! *ippm#nn in "ublic Cpinion 8,J229. Bllul 8,J6H9 st#tes, 4 he more stereotypes in # culture, the e#sier it is to %orm public opinion, #n! the more #n in!i-i!u#l p#rticip#tes in th#t culture, the more susceptible he becomes to the m#nipul#tion o% these symbols4 8p. ,,,9. Wikibooks M 23

Ch#pter 4 2oth Bllul #n! *ippm#nn recogni?e the in#bility o% the public to %orm e!uc#te! opinions #s # /hole. 7o/e-er, /hile *ippm#nn chose to %ocus on the i!e# th#t /e shoul! #ccept the %#ct th#t it is truly #n e!uc#te! elite th#t is controlling our opinions, Bllul chose to %ocus on the %#ct th#t the public #ctu#lly h#s # nee! %or prop#g#n!#. Bllul contests the i!e# th#t the public is merely # -ictim o% prop#g#n!#. >#ther, he st#tes th#t, 4 he prop#g#n!ee is by no me#ns Oust #n innocent -ictim. 7e pro-okes the psychologic#l #ction o% prop#g#n!#, #n! not merely len!s himsel% to it, but e-en !eri-es s#tis%#ction %rom it. Without this pre-ious, implicit consent, /ithout this nee! %or prop#g#n!# experience! by pr#ctic#lly e-ery citi?en o% the technologic#l #ge, prop#g#n!# coul! not spre#!4 8Bllul, ,J6H, p. ,2,9. hrough his theories in The Technological &ociety #n! Propaganda+ The 2ormation of en9s Attitudes, Bllul ten!s to gi-e the me!i# #n! societySs elite 8the cre#tors o% prop#g#n!#9 # lot o% po/er in sh#ping public opinion. While 2ern#ys recogni?e! the import#nce o% m#king prop#g#n!# #ppe#l to the nee!s o% the public, Bllul cl#ims th#t the publicLs nee! is simply %or prop#g#n!# in the %irst pl#ce.

Re ent Mass Co!!uni ation Theorists

2#se! on the tr#!ition#l theories o% *ippm#nn, *#ss/ell, 2ern#ys, #n! Bllul, more recent stu!ies h#-e been #ble to be con!ucte! on the use o% prop#g#n!# in cre#ting public opinion. *ippm#nn 8,J229 /#s essenti#lly the %irst theorist to !e-elop the i!e# o% the #gen!#-setting %unction o% the me!i#. 2y ,JD2, FcCombs #n! .h#/ h#! set out to stu!y this phenomenon in their /ork Q he 3gen!#-.etting Function o% F#ss Fe!i#.R his stu!y ex#mine! the ,J6I presi!enti#l c#mp#ign, by #sking un!eci!e! -oters to i!enti%y the key issues o% the presi!enti#l c#mp#ign, #n! then comp#ring those i!e#s to the issues th#t /ere being presente! by the m#ss me!i# #t the time 8FcCombs E .h#/, ,JD29. FcCombs #n! .h#/ 8,JD29 %oun! th#t there /#s # Z0.J6D correl#tion bet/een -oter Ou!gment o% import#nt issues, #n! me!i# present#tion o% those issues. FcCombs #n! .h#/ use! this in%orm#tion to %urther *ippm#nnSs i!e#s th#t the m#ss me!i# !i! in!ee! set the #gen!# %or /h#t the public shoul! think #bout. 1yeng#r #n! <in!er 8,JI29 exp#n!e! on *ippm#nnSs theories #s /ell, by putting the i!e# o% #gen!#-setting #n! priming to the test. hey cre#te! experiment#l situ#tions, in /hich subOects /ere expose! to ne/s bro#!c#sts th#t emph#si?e! p#rticul#r e-ents. he results o% this stu!y both supporte! #n! exp#n!e! upon *ippm#nnSs initi#l theories. 4Cur experiments !ecisi-ely sust#in *ippm#nnSs suspicion th#t me!i# pro-i!e compelling !escriptions o% # public /orl! th#t people c#nnot !irectly experience4 81yeng#r E <in!er, ,JI2, p. IHH9. 1yeng#r #n! <in!er 8,JI29 %oun! th#t those ne/s items th#t recei-e! the most #ttention, /ere the ne/s items th#t people %oun! to be the most signi%ic#nt. Furthermore, 1yeng#r #n! <in!er 8,JI29 #lso %oun! e-i!ence o% # priming e%%ect, in th#t those e-ents th#t recei-e! the most #ttention by # ne/s bro#!c#st, #lso /eighe! the most he#-ily on e-#lu#tions o% the presi!ent #t # l#ter time. *ippm#nnSs 8,J229 theories in "ublic Cpinion #lso touche! on the i!e# o% # g#tekeeper in the me!i# process. 2y ,JH,, <urt *e/in h#! exp#n!e! on this i!e#, by sho/ing th#t people c#n m#nipul#te #n! control the %lo/ o% in%orm#tion th#t re#ches others 8>ogers, ,JJ49. 2#se! on the i!e#s o% both *e/in #n! *ippm#nn, White 8,JH09 un!ertook #n ex#min#tion o% the role o% # g#tekeeper in the re#lm o% m#ss me!i#. 1n he Q&#tekeeperR6 3 C#se .tu!y 1n the .election o% 'e/s, White 8,JH09 ex#mine! the role o% # /ire e!itor in # ne/sp#per. 7e %oun! strong e-i!ence th#t there /#s # g#tekeeping role #t /ork /ithin the m#ss me!i#, #s this e!itor reOecte! nine-tenths o% the #rticles th#t he recei-e!, b#se! prim#rily on /hether he consi!ere! the e-ent to be Qne/s/orthy,R #n! /hether he h#! #nother #rticle on the s#me topic th#t he like! better. 7is results /ere import#nt, #s they sho/e! the subOecti-e 04 M Communic#tion heory

"rop#g#n!# #n! the "ublic Ou!gments th#t #n in!i-i!u#l c#n exert in rele#sing limite! in%orm#tion to the public.

Con lusion" The I!portan e o' These Theories

he theories !e-elope! by *ippm#nn, *#ss/ell, Bllul, #n! 2ern#ys #re import#nt %or # number o% re#sons. 2#se! on the i!e#s o% his pre!ecessors, *ippm#nn /#s #ble to bring #ttention to the %#ct th#t the public is #ble to be in%luence! by the me!i#. he /ork o% *ippm#nn #n! his colle#gues h#s le! to more recent rese#rch th#t is me#nt to help un!erst#n! the in%luence o% the me!i# on the public. hrough the /ork 1yeng#r #n! <in!er, White, *e/in, #n! FcCombs #n! .h#/, # more comprehensi-e un!erst#n!ing o% the me!i# h#s been !e-elope!. he public h#s no/ been m#!e #/#re -#rious me!i# %unctions such #s #gen!#-setting, g#tekeeping, #n! priming, #n! the potenti#l e%%ects th#t these techniKues c#n h#-e on their #u!iences. he theories presente! in this p#per h#-e tie! he#-ily to both the !irect e%%ects #n! limite! e%%ects me!i# mo!els. heorists such #s Bllul ten!e! to si!e he#-ily /ith the !irect e%%ects mo!el, /hereby prop#g#n!# coul! !irectly in%luence the thought o% the m#sses. Fe#n/hile, theorists such #s *ippm#nn #lso note! th#t the me!i# might not be in%luencing only thought, but m#y #lso be in%luencing /h#t people thought #bout. 1t /#s this line o% thinking th#t resulte! in # st#rting point %or %uture rese#rch in the #re# o% the limite! e%%ects o% the me!i#. .uch limite! e%%ects /ere sho/n through the /ork o% 1yeng#r #n! <in!er, #s /ell #s FcCombs #n! .h#/. C-er#ll, the rese#rch o% the schol#rs !iscusse! in this p#per h#s been -ery import#nt to the un!erst#n!ing o% the me!i#, the m#nipul#tion o% the public, #n! the %orm#tion o% public opinion. While the theories o% *ippm#nn, *#ss/ell, 2ern#ys, #n! Bllul /ere %orme! ye#rs #go, they continue to help us un!erst#n! the society th#t surroun!s us to!#y.

Wikibooks M 01

Ch#pter H

( U S1S

AND

C RATI6ICATIONS

Het"og, #at", and $riends

li-e -ersion N !iscussion N e!it lesson N comment N report #n error N #sk # Kuestion

Introdu tion

ses #n! gr#ti%ic#tions #ppro#ch is #n in%luenti#l tr#!ition in me!i# rese#rch. he origin#l conception o% the #ppro#ch /#s b#se! on the rese#rch %or expl#ining the gre#t #ppe#l o% cert#in me!i# contents. he core Kuestion o% such rese#rch is6 Why !o people use me!i# #n! /h#t !o they use them %orA 8F#c5u#il, ,JIG9. here exists # b#sic i!e# in this #ppro#ch6 #u!ience members kno/ me!i# content, #n! /hich me!i# they c#n use to meet their nee!s. 1n the m#ss communic#tion process, uses #n! gr#ti%ic#tions #ppro#ch puts the %unction o% linking nee! gr#ti%ic#tions #n! me!i# choice cle#rly on the si!e o% #u!ience members. 1t suggests th#t peopleSs nee!s in%luence /h#t me!i# they /oul! choose, ho/ they use cert#in me!i# #n! /h#t gr#ti%ic#tions the me!i# gi-e them. his #ppro#ch !i%%ers %rom other theoretic#l perspecti-es in th#t it reg#r!s #u!iences #s #cti-e me!i# users #s oppose! to p#ssi-e recei-ers o% in%orm#tion. 1n contr#st to tr#!ition#l me!i# e%%ects theories /hich %ocus on Q/h#t me!i# !o to peopleR #n! #ssume #u!iences #re homogeneous, uses #n! gr#ti%ic#tions #ppro#ch is more concerne! /ith Q/h#t people !o /ith me!i#R 8<#t?, ,JHJ9. 1t #llo/s #u!iences person#l nee!s to use me!i# #n! respon!s to the me!i#, /hich !etermine! by their soci#l #n! psychologic#l b#ckgroun!. (ses #n! gr#ti%ic#tions #ppro#ch #lso postul#tes th#t the me!i# compete /ith other in%orm#tion sources %or #u!ienceSs nee! s#tis%#ction 8<#t? et #l., ,JD4#9. 3s tr#!ition#l m#ss me!i# #n! ne/ me!i# continue to pro-i!e people /ith # /i!e r#nge o% me!i# pl#t%orms #n! content, it is consi!ere! one o% the most #ppropri#te perspecti-es %or in-estig#ting /hy #u!iences choose to be expose! to !i%%erent me!i# ch#nnels 8*#>ose el #l., 200,9. he #ppro#ch emph#si?es #u!iencesS choice by #ssessing their re#sons %or using # cert#in me!i# to the !isreg#r! o% others, #s /ell #s the -#rious gr#ti%ic#tions obt#ine! %rom the me!i#, b#se! on in!i-i!u#l soci#l #n! psychologic#l reKuirements 8.e-erin E #nk#r!, ,JJD9. 3s # bro#!er perspecti-e #mong communic#tion rese#rches, it pro-i!es # %r#me/ork %or un!erst#n!ing the processes by /hich me!i# p#rticip#nts seek in%orm#tion or content selecti-ely, commensur#te /ith their nee!s #n! interests 8<#t? et #l., ,JD4#9. 3u!ience members then incorpor#te the content to %ul%ill their nee!s or to s#tis%y their interests 8*o/ery E )eFleur, ,JIG9.

Origin and History

1t is /ell #ccepte! th#t communic#tion theories h#-e !e-elope! through the re#lms o% psychology #n! sociology o-er the p#st ,00 ye#rs. With illume! by -#lu#ble i!e#s #s /ell #s exploring more untille! %iel!s in these t/o !isciplines, rese#rchers elicit # series o% higher conceptions o% un!erst#n!ing me!i#. 3s # sub-tr#!ition o% me!i# e%%ects rese#rch, uses #n! gr#ti%ic#tions #ppro#ch is suggeste! to be origin#lly stemme! %rom # %unction#list p#r#!igm in the soci#l sciences 82lumler E <#t?, ,JD49. 02 M Communic#tion heory

(ses #n! &r#ti%ic#tions o some extent, ho/e-er, %unction#l theory on communic#tion #grees /ith me!i#Ss e%%ects to/#r!s people. For ex#mple, # mo!el o%ten use! in the theory, the 7ypo!ermic 'ee!le mo!el, !iscusses th#t Qthe m#ss me!i# h#-e # !irect, imme!i#te #n! in%luenti#l e%%ect upon #u!iences by [inOectingS in%orm#tion into the consciousness o% the m#ssesR 8W#tson E 7ill ,JJD, p. ,0H9. Function#l theory in%luence! stu!ies on communic#tion %rom the ,J20s to the ,J40s. 3%ter th#t, # shi%t /hich re!isco-ere! the rel#tionship bet/een me!i# #n! people occurre! #n! le! to est#blishment o% uses #n! gr#ti%ic#tions #ppro#ch. he explor#tion o% gr#ti%ic#tions th#t moti-e people to be #ttr#cte! to cert#in me!i# is #lmost #s ol! #s empiric#l m#ss communic#tion rese#rch itsel% 8Fc5u#il, ,JIG9. )#ting b#ck to the ,J40s, rese#rchers bec#me intereste! in the re#sons %or -ie/ing !i%%erent r#!io progr#mmes, such #s so#p oper#s #n! Kui??es, #s /ell #s !#ily ne/sp#per 8*#?rs%el! E .t#nton, ,J44, ,J4J0 7er?og, ,J440 W#rner E 7enry, ,J4I0 etc.9. 1n these stu!ies, rese#rchers !isco-ere! # list o% %unctions ser-e! either by some speci%ic content or by the me!ium itsel% 8<#t? et #l., ,JD4b9. For inst#nce, r#!io so#p oper#s /ere %oun! to s#tis%y their listeners /ith #!-ice, support, or occ#sions %or emotion#l rele#se 87er?og, ,J440 W#rner #n! 7enry, ,J4I90 r#ther th#n Oust o%%ering in%orm#tion, ne/sp#per /#s #lso !isco-ere! to be import#nt to gi-e re#!ers # sense o% security, sh#re! topics o% con-ers#tion #n! # structure to the !#ily routine 82erelson, ,J4J9. For these !i-erse !imensions o% us#ge s#tis%#ction, psychologist 7er?og 8,J449 m#rke! them /ith the term Qgr#ti%ic#tions.R (ses #n! gr#ti%ic#tions #ppro#ch bec#me pre-#iling in the l#te ,JH0s till ,JD0s /hen tele-ision h#s gro/n up. .ome b#sic #ssumptions o% the #ppro#ch /ere propose! /hen it /#s re!isco-ere! !uring th#t er#. 3mong the group o% schol#rs /ho %ocus on uses #n! gr#ti%ic#tions rese#rch, Blihu <#t? is one o% the most /ell-kno/n #n! contribute! gre#tly to est#blishing the structure o% the #ppro#ch. Blihu <#t? is ser-e! both #s # sociologist #n! #s # communic#tion rese#rcher. 7e recei-e! his "h.). in .ociology in ,JH6 %rom Columbi# (ni-ersity #n! beg#n te#ching #t the (ni-ersity o% Chic#go until ,J6G. )uring the next thirty ye#rs, he t#ught in the )ep#rtment o% .ociology #n! Communic#tion #t the 7ebre/ (ni-ersity o% ;erus#lem. 1n the l#te ,J60, in-ite! by the &o-ernment o% 1sr#el, <#t? he#!e! the t#sk %orce ch#rge! /ith the intro!uction o% tele-ision bro#!c#sting. his experience le! to his subseKuent #c#!emic /ork #bout bro#!c#sting #n! tele-ision in leisure, culture #n! communic#tion %rom the ,JD0s to,JJ0s 8("B'', 200,9. 1n ,JJ2, he Ooine! the %#culty o% the 3nnenberg .chool #t the (ni-ersity o% "ennsyl-#ni#, #n! #lso !irecte! its experiment#l .chol#rs progr#m %or post-!octor#l stu!y. <#t?Ss mentor in Columbi# (ni-ersity is "#ul *#?#rs%el!, /ho is one o% the pioneers o% gr#ti%ic#tions rese#rch. heir cooper#ting /ork pro!uce! import#nt outgro/ths th#t connect the concept o% gr#ti%ic#tions /ith the %unction#l theory mo!el. *#ter, <#t? intro!uce! uses #n! gr#ti%ic#tion #ppro#ch /hen he c#me up /ith the notion th#t people use the me!i# to their bene%it. 1n # stu!y by <#t?, &ure-itch #n! 7##s 8,JDG9, # subOect /hich is kno/n #s the uses #n! gr#ti%ic#tions rese#rch /ere explore!. hey -ie/e! the m#ss me!i# #s # me#ns by /hich in!i-i!u#ls connect or !isconnect themsel-es /ith others #n! %oun! th#t people ben! the me!i# to their nee!s more re#!ily th#n the me!i# o-erpo/er them 8<#t?, &ure-itch #n! 7##s, ,JDG9. 3long /ith colle#gue ;#y &. 2lumler, <#t? publishe! # collection o% ess#ys on gr#ti%ic#tions in ,JD4 /hich /ere entitle! he (ses o% F#ss Communic#tion. hey took # more hum#nistic #ppro#ch to looking #t me!i# use. hey suggest th#t me!i# users seek out # me!ium source th#t best %ul%ills the nee!s o% the user #n! they h#-e #ltern#te choices to s#tis%y their nee!. 82lumler E <#t?, ,JD49. hey #lso !isco-ere! th#t me!i# ser-e! the %unctions o% sur-eill#nce, correl#tion, entert#inment #n! cultur#l Wikibooks M 00

Ch#pter H tr#nsmission %or both society #n! in!i-i!u#ls 82lumler #n! <#t?, ,JD49. Fi-e b#sic #ssumptions /ere st#te! in # stu!y o% <#t?, 2lumler, #n! &ure-itch in ,JD4 #s %ollo/s. hey pro-i!e # %r#me/ork %or un!erst#n!ing the correl#tion bet/een me!i# #n! #u!iences6
,. 2. G. 4. he #u!ience is concei-e! #s #cti-e, i.e., #n import#nt p#rt o% o% m#ss me!i# use is #ssume! to be go#l oriente! X p#tterns o% me!i# use #re sh#pe! by more or less !e%inite expect#tions o% /h#t cert#in kin!s o% content h#-e to o%%er the #u!ience member. 1n the m#ss communic#tion process much initi#ti-e in liking nee! gr#ti%ic#tion #n! me!i# choice lies /ith the #u!ience member X in!i-i!u#l #n! public opinions h#-e po/er -is-\--is the seemingly #llpo/er%ul me!i#. he me!i# compete /ith other sources o% nee! s#tis%#ction. he nee!s ser-e! by m#ss communic#tion constitute but # segment o% the /i!er r#nge o% hum#n nee!s, #n! the !egree to /hich they c#n be #!eKu#tely met through m#ss me!i# consumption cert#inly -#ries. Fetho!ologic#lly spe#king, m#ny o% the go#ls o% m#ss me!i# use c#n be !eri-e! %rom !#t# supplie! by in!i-i!u#l #u!ience members themsel-es- i.e., people #re su%%iciently sel%-#/#re to be #ble to report their interests #n! moti-es in p#rticul#r c#ses, or #t le#st to recogni?e them /hen con%ronte! /ith them in #n intelligible #n! %#mili#r -erb#l %ormul#tion. +#lue Ou!gments #bout the cultur#l signi%ic#nce o% m#ss communic#tion shoul! be suspen!e! /hile #u!ience orient#tions #re explore! on their o/n terms. 8p. ,H-,D9.

H.

1n #!!ition, <#t?, 2lumler, #n! &ure-itch #lso commente! th#t, #lthough pre-ious rese#rches on gr#ti%ic#tions !etecte! !i-erse gr#ti%ic#tions th#t #ttr#ct people on the me!i#, they !i! not #!!ress the connections bet/een these gr#ti%ic#tions 8<#t? et #l., ,JD4#9. hey suggeste! th#t uses #n! gr#ti%ic#tions rese#rch concern /ith %ollo/ing #spects6 Q8,9 the soci#l #n! the psychologic#l origins o% 829 nee!s /hich gener#te 8G9 expect#tions o% 849 the m#ss me!i# or other sources /hich le#! to 8H9 !i%%erenti#l exposure 8or eng#ging in other #cti-ities9, resulting in 869 nee! gr#ti%ic#tion #n! 8D9 other conseKuences, perh#ps mostly uninten!e! onesR 8<#t? et #l., ,JD4b, p. 209. he stu!ies o% <#t? #n! his colle#gues l#i! # theoretic#l %oun!#tion o% buil!ing the uses #n! gr#ti%ic#tions #ppro#ch. .ince then, the rese#rch on this subOect h#s been strengthene! #n! exten!e!. he current st#tus o% uses #n! gr#ti%ic#tions is still b#se! on <#t?Ss %irst #n#lysis, p#rticul#rly #s ne/ me!i# %orms h#-e emerge! in such #n electronic in%orm#tion #ge /hen people h#-e more options o% me!i# use.

Needs and 5rati'i ations

(ses #n! gr#ti%ic#tions #ppro#ch emph#si?es moti-es #n! the sel%-percei-e! nee!s o% #u!ience members. 2lumler #n! <#t? 8,JD49 conclu!e! th#t !i%%erent people c#n use the s#me communic#tion mess#ge %or -ery !i%%erent purposes. he s#me me!i# content m#y gr#ti%y !i%%erent nee!s %or !i%%erent in!i-i!u#ls. here is not only one /#y th#t people uses me!i#. Contr#rily, there #re #s m#ny re#sons %or using the me!i# #s there #re me!i# users 82lumler E <#t?, ,JD49. 2#sic nee!s, soci#l situ#tion, #n! the in!i-i!u#lSs b#ckgroun!, such #s experience, interests, #n! e!uc#tion, #%%ect peopleSs i!e#s #bout /h#t they /#nt %rom me!i# #n! /hich me!i# best meet their nee!s. h#t is, #u!ience members #re #/#re o% #n! c#n st#te their o/n moti-es #n! gr#ti%ic#tions %or using !i%%erent me!i#. Fc5u#il, 2lumler, #n! 2ro/n 8,JD29 propose! # mo!el o% Qme!i#-person inter#ctionsR to cl#ssi%y %our import#nt me!i# gr#ti%ic#tions6 8,9 )i-ersion6 esc#pe %rom routine or problems0 emotion#l rele#se0 829 "erson#l rel#tionships6 comp#nionship0 soci#l utility0 8G9 "erson#l i!entity6 sel% re%erence0 re#lity explor#tion0 -#lue rein%orces0 #n! 849 .ur-eill#nce 8%orms o% in%orm#tion 04 M Communic#tion heory

(ses #n! &r#ti%ic#tions seeking9. 3nother sub!i-i!e! -ersion o% the #u!ienceSs moti-#tion /#s suggeste! by Fc&uire 8,JD49, b#se! on # gener#l theory o% hum#n nee!s. 7e !istinguishe! bet/een t/o types o% nee!s6 cogniti-e #n! #%%ecti-e. hen he #!!e! three !imensions6 Q#cti-eR -ersus Qp#ssi-eR initi#tion, Qextern#lR -ersus Qintern#lR go#l orient#tion, #n! emotion st#bility o% Qgro/thR #n! Qpreser-#tion.R When ch#rte!, these %#ctors yiel! ,6 !i%%erent types o% moti-#tions /hich #pply to me!i# use. <#t?, &ure-itch #n! 7##s 8,JDG9 !e-elope! GH nee!s t#ken %rom the soci#l #n! psychologic#l %unctions o% the m#ss me!i# #n! put them into %i-e c#tegories6 ,. 2. G. 4. H. Cogniti-e nee!s, inclu!ing #cKuiring in%orm#tion, kno/le!ge #n! un!erst#n!ing0 3%%ecti-e nee!s, inclu!ing emotion, ple#sure, %eelings0 "erson#l integr#ti-e nee!s, inclu!ing cre!ibility, st#bility, st#tus0 .oci#l integr#ti-e nee!s, inclu!ing inter#cting /ith %#mily #n! %rien!s0 #n! ension rele#se nee!s, inclu!ing esc#pe #n! !i-ersion.

Congruously, Fc5u#ilSs 8,JIG9 cl#ssi%ic#tion o% the %ollo/ing common re#sons %or me!i# use6 In.o mation
%in!ing out #bout rele-#nt e-ents #n! con!itions in imme!i#te surroun!ings, society #n! the /orl! seeking #!-ice on pr#ctic#l m#tters or opinion #n! !ecision choices s#tis%ying curiosity #n! gener#l interest le#rning0 sel%-e!uc#tion g#ining # sense o% security through kno/le!ge

'e sona! I%entit&

%in!ing rein%orcement %or person#l -#lues %in!ing mo!els o% beh#-ior i!enti%ying /ith -#lue! others 8in the me!i#9 g#ining insight into onesel%

Inte7 ation an% Socia! Inte action

g#ining insight into the circumst#nces o% others0 soci#l emp#thy i!enti%ying /ith others #n! g#ining # sense o% belonging %in!ing # b#sis %or con-ers#tion #n! soci#l inter#ction h#-ing # substitute %or re#l-li%e comp#nionship helping to c#rry out soci#l roles en#bling one to connect /ith %#mily, %rien!s #n! society

1nte tainment

esc#ping, or being !i-erte!, %rom problems rel#xing getting intrinsic cultur#l or #esthetic enOoyment Wikibooks M 0(

Ch#pter H

%illing time emotion#l rele#se sexu#l #rous#l 8p. DG9

hese !imensions o% uses #n! gr#ti%ic#tions #ssume #n #cti-e #u!ience m#king moti-#te! choices. Fc5u#il 8,JJ49 #!!e! #nother !imension to this !e%inition. 7e st#tes6
"erson#l soci#l circumst#nces #n! psychologic#l !ispositions together in%luence both X gener#l h#bits o% me!i# use #n! #lso X belie%s #n! expect#tions #bout the bene%its o%%ere! by the me!i#, /hich sh#pe ... speci%ic #cts o% me!i# choice #n! consumption, %ollo/e! by ... #ssessments o% the -#lue o% the experience 8/ith conseKuences %or %urther me!i# use9 #n!, possibly ... #pplic#tions o% bene%its #cKuire! in other #re#s o% experience #n! soci#l #cti-ity 8p. 2GH9.

his exp#n!e! expl#n#tion #ccounts %or # -#riety o% in!i-i!u#l nee!s, #n! helps to expl#in -#ri#tions in me!i# sought %or !i%%erent gr#ti%ic#tions.

5rati'i ations sought +562 and grati'i ations o%tained +5O2

he person#l moti-#tions %or me!i# use #lso suggest th#t the me!i# o%%er gr#ti%ic#tions /hich #re expecte! by #u!iences. hese gr#ti%ic#tions c#n be thought o% #s experience! psychologic#l e%%ects /hich #re -#lue! by in!i-i!u#ls. "#lmgreen #n! >#yburn 8,JIH9 thus propose! # mo!el o% the gr#ti%ic#tions sought 8&.9 #n! gr#ti%ic#tions obt#ine! 8&C9 process. he mo!el !istinguishes bet/een &. #n! &C. hus, /here &C is notice#bly higher th#n &., /e #re likely to be !e#ling /ith situ#tions o% high #u!ience s#tis%#ction #n! high r#tings o% #ppreci#tion #n! #ttention 8Fc5u#il, ,JIG9. o in-estig#te the rel#tionship bet/een &. #n! &C, "#lmgreen et #l. 8,JI09 con!ucte! # stu!y o% gr#ti%ic#tions sought #n! obt#ine! %rom the most popul#r tele-ision ne/s progr#ms. he results in!ic#te! th#t, on the one h#n!, e#ch &. correl#te! either mo!er#tely or strongly /ith its correspon!ing &C0 on the other h#n!, the rese#rchers %oun! th#t the gr#ti%ic#tions #u!iences reporte!ly seek #re not #l/#ys the s#me #s the gr#ti%ic#tions they obt#in 8"#lmgreen et #l, ,JI09. 3 l#ter stu!y con!ucte! by Wenner 8,JI29 %urther sho/e! th#t #u!iences m#y obt#in !i%%erent le-els o% gr#ti%ic#tions %rom /h#t they seek /hen they #re expose! to e-ening ne/s progr#ms.

Media (ependen y Theory

Fe!i# !epen!ency theory, #lso kno/n #s me!i# system !epen!ency theory, h#s been explore! #s #n extension o% or #n #!!ition to the uses #n! gr#ti%ic#tions #ppro#ch, though there is # subtle !i%%erence bet/een the t/o theories. h#t is, me!i# !epen!ency looks #t #u!ience go#ls #s the origin o% the !epen!ency /hile the uses #n! gr#ti%ic#tions #ppro#ch emph#si?es #u!ience nee!s 8&r#nt et #l., ,JJI9. 2oth, ho/e-er, #re in #greement th#t me!i# use c#n le#! to me!i# !epen!ency. Foreo-er, some uses #n! gr#ti%ic#tions stu!ies h#-e !iscusse! me!i# use #s being go#l !irecte! 8"#lmgreen, Wenner E >osengren. ,JIH0 >ubin, ,JJG0 "#rker E "l#nk, 20009.

0) M Communic#tion heory

(ses #n! &r#ti%ic#tions Fe!i# !epen!ency theory st#tes th#t the more !epen!ent #n in!i-i!u#l is on the me!i# %or h#-ing his or her nee!s %ul%ille!, the more import#nt the me!i# /ill be to th#t person. )eFleur #n! 2#ll>oke#ch 8,JD69 !escribe! !epen!ency #s the correl#ting rel#tionship bet/een me!i# content, the n#ture o% society, #n! the beh#-ior o% #u!iences. 1t ex#mines both m#cro #n! micro %#ctors in%luencing moti-es, in%orm#tion-seeking str#tegies, me!i# #n! %unction#l #ltern#ti-e use, #n! !epen!ency on cert#in me!i# 8>ubin #n! Win!#hl, ,JI29. 3s )eFleur #n! 2#ll->oke#ch 8,JIJ9 suggeste!, #cti-e selectorsS use o% the me!i# to #chie-e their go#ls /ill result in being !epen!ent on the me!i#. *ittleOohn 820029 #lso expl#ine! th#t people /ill become more !epen!ent on me!i# th#t meet # number o% their nee!s th#n on me!i# th#t pro-i!e only # %e/ ones. Q1% # person %in!s # me!ium th#t pro-i!es them /ith se-er#l %unctions th#t #re centr#l to their !esires, they /ill be more incline! to continue to use th#t p#rticul#r me!ium in the %utureR 8>ossi, 20029. he intensity o% me!i# !epen!ency !epen!s on ho/ much people percei-e th#t the me!i# they choose #re meeting their go#ls. hese go#ls /ere c#tegori?e! by )eFleur #n! 2#ll->oke#ch 8,JIJ9 into three !imensions /hich co-er # /i!e r#nge o% in!i-i!u#l obOecti-es6 8,9 soci#l #n! sel% un!erst#n!ing 8e.g., le#rning #bout onesel%, kno/ing #bout the /orl!90 829 inter#ction #n! #ction orient#tion 8e.g., !eci!ing /h#t to buy, getting hints on ho/ to h#n!le ne/s or !i%%icult situ#tion, etc.90 8G9 soci#l #n! solit#ry pl#y 8e.g., rel#xing /hen #lone, going to # mo-ie /ith %#mily or %rien!s9. )eFleur #n! 2#ll>oke#ch 8,JIJ9 #lso suggeste! th#t more th#n one kin! o% go#l c#n be #cti-#te! 8#n! s#tis%ie!9 by the s#me me!ium. )epen!ency on # speci%ic me!ium is in%luence! by the number o% me!i# sources #-#il#ble to #n in!i-i!u#l. 1n!i-i!u#ls shoul! become more !epen!ent on #-#il#ble me!i# i% their #ccess to me!i# #ltern#ti-es is limite!. he more #ltern#ti-es there #re %or #n in!i-i!u#l, the lesser is the !epen!ency on #n! in%luence o% # speci%ic me!ium 8.un et #l., ,JJJ9.

Uses and 5rati'i ations Resear h in a New Era

he uses #n! gr#ti%ic#tions h#s #l/#ys pro-i!e! # cutting-e!ge theoretic#l #ppro#ch in the initi#l st#ges o% e#ch ne/ m#ss me!ium, such #s ne/sp#pers, r#!io #n! tele-ision, #n! no/ the 1nternet, /hich recei-es the signi%ic#nce -i# this #ppro#ch 8>uggiero, 20009. he uses #n! gr#ti%ic#tions theory h#s been /i!ely use!, #n! #lso is better suite!, %or stu!ies o% 1nternet use. 1n the 1nternet en-ironment, users #re e-en more #cti-ely eng#ge! communic#tion p#rticip#nts, comp#re! to other tr#!ition#l me!i# 8>uggiero, 20009. he theory #lso suggests th#t people consciously choose the me!ium th#t coul! s#tis%y their nee!s #n! th#t #u!iences #re #ble to recogni?e their re#sons %or m#king me!i# choices 8<#t? et #l., ,JD49. .ome sur-eys h#-e sho/n th#t users h#-e little trouble -erb#li?ing their nee!s /hen using the 1nternet 8Bighmey E FcCor!, ,JJD0 *illie, ,JJD0 'ortey, ,JJI0 "iirto, ,JJG0 >y#n, ,JJH9. <#t? et #l. 8,JD49 #rgue! th#t #-#il#ble me!i# choice compete to s#tis%y in!i-i!u#l nee!s. hus, there exists competition not only bet/een the 1nternet #n! other tr#!ition#l me!i#, but #mong e#ch options in the 1nternet itsel% #s /ell. )espite the robustness o% this list, history h#s sho/n th#t ne/ me!i# o%ten cre#te ne/ gr#ti%ic#tions #n! ne/ moti-#tions #mong -#rious #u!ience groups 83nglem#n, 20009. hese ne/ !imensions o% usersS moti-#tions #n! gr#ti%ic#tions nee! to be i!enti%ie! #n! s#tis%ie!. 3lthough moti-#tions %or 1nternet use m#y -#ry #mong in!i-i!u#ls, situ#tions, #n! me!i# -ehicles, most uses #n! gr#ti%ic#tions Wikibooks M 0-

Ch#pter H stu!ies explore them b#se! on some or #ll o% the %ollo/ing !imensions6 rel#x#tion, comp#nionship, h#bit, p#ssing time, entert#inment, soci#l inter#ction, in%orm#tion$sur-eill#nce, #rous#l, #n! esc#pe 8*in, ,JJJ9. Bx#mining ho/ #n! /hy stu!ents use # uni-ersity computer bulletin bo#r!, >#%e#li 8,JI69 %oun! th#t users sel!om skip the %#ctu#l or in%orm#ti-e mess#ges, /hich in!ic#tes their strong interest in mess#ges o% this type. F#!!ox 8,JJI9 #lso suggeste! th#t the most import#nt re#son /hy people use the 1nternet is to g#ther -#rious kin!s o% in%orm#tion. *in 8200,9 %oun! simil#r results /hen she ex#mine! online ser-ices #!option. .he %oun! th#t online ser-ices #re percei-e! prim#rily #s in%orm#tion-l#!en me!i#, #n! th#t #u!iences /ho nee! to cre#te more outlets %or in%orm#tion reception #re the ones most likely to #!opt online ser-ices 8*in, 200,9. 1nternet use is #lso linke! to # series o% instrument#l #s /ell #s entert#inment-oriente! gr#ti%ic#tions 8*in, ,JJ69. .ome schol#rs r#nke! !i-ersion$entert#inment #s more import#nt th#n exch#nging in%orm#tion in triggering me!i# use 8.chlinger, ,JDJ0 =#nkelo-ich "#rtners, ,JJH9. >#%e#li 8,JI69 %oun! th#t the prim#ry moti-#tion o% bulletin bo#r! users #re recre#tion, entert#inment, #n! !i-ersion, %ollo/e! by le#rning /h#t others think #bout contro-ersi#l issues by communic#ting /ith people /ho m#tter in # community. Bntert#inment content #ppe#rs to s#tis%y usersS nee!s %or esc#pism, he!onistic ple#sure, #esthetic enOoyment, or emotion#l rele#se 8Fc5u#il, ,JJ49. "ro-i!ing entert#inment, there%ore, c#n moti-#te #u!iences to use the me!i# more o%ten 8*uo, 20029. Bx#mining the 1nternet #s # source o% politic#l in%orm#tion, ;ohnson #n! <#ye 8,JJI9 %oun! th#t people use the /eb prim#rily %or sur-eill#nce #n! -oter gui!#nce #n! secon!#rily %or entert#inment, soci#l utility #n! excitement. 1n # stu!y o% the /eb #s #n #ltern#ti-e to tele-ision -ie/ing, Ferguson #n! "erse 820009 %oun! %our m#in moti-#tions %or 1nternet use6 entert#inment, p#ssing time, rel#x#tion$esc#pe #n! soci#l in%orm#tion. he 1nternet combines elements o% both m#ss #n! interperson#l communic#tion. he !istinct ch#r#cteristics o% the 1nternet le#! to #!!ition#l !imensions in terms o% the uses #n! gr#ti%ic#tions #ppro#ch. For ex#mple, Qle#rningR #n! Qsoci#li?#tionR #re suggeste! #s import#nt moti-#tions %or 1nternet use 8;#mes et #l., ,JJH9. Q"erson#l in-ol-ementR #n! Qcontinuing rel#tionshipsR /ere #lso i!enti%ie! #s ne/ moti-#tion #spects by Bighmey #n! FcCor! 8,JJI9 /hen they in-estig#te! #u!ience re#ctions to /ebsites. he potenti#l %or person#l control #n! po/er is #lso embe!!e! in 1nternet use. "#-lik 8,JJ69 note! th#t online, people #re empo/ere! to #ct, communic#te, or p#rticip#te in the bro#!er society #n! politic#l process. his type o% use m#y le#! to incre#se! sel%-esteem, sel%-e%%ic#cy, #n! politic#l #/#reness 8*illie, ,JJD9. 7eightene! inter#ctions /ere #lso suggeste! #s moti-#tions %or using the 1nternet. <uehn 8,JJ49 c#lle! #ttention to this inter#cti-e c#p#bility o% the 1nternet through !iscussion groups, e-m#il, !irect or!ering, #n! links to more in%orm#tion 8.chum#nn E horson, ,JJJ0 <o, 20029. 3s such, *in 8200,9 suggeste! th#t online ser-ices shoul! be %#shione! to s#tis%y peopleSs nee! %or use%ul in%orm#tion #s /ell #s soci#l inter#ction opportunities. &roup support is #nother import#nt re#son %or using the 1nternet. he 1nternet c#n pro-i!e # rel#ti-ely s#%e -enue to exch#nge in%orm#tion, gi-e support, #n! ser-e #s # meeting pl#ce /ithout %e#r o% persecution 8 ossberg, 20009. 1t pro-i!es #n #ccessible en-ironment /here in!i-i!u#ls c#n e#sily %in! others /ho sh#re simil#r interests #n! go#ls. 3s p#rt o% # group, they #re #ble to -oice opinions #n! concerns in # supporti-e en-ironment 8<orenm#n E Wy#tt, ,JJ69.

0/ M Communic#tion heory

(ses #n! &r#ti%ic#tions Cther stu!ies i!enti%ie! #nonymity #s one o% the re#sons /hy people go online. 3ccor!ing to Fc<enn# et #l. 820009, people use the security o% online #nonymity to !e-elop he#lthy %rien!ships #n! gr#ti%y their nee! to soci#li?e. hose /ho pl#y m#ssi-ely multipl#yer online role-pl#ying g#mes 8FFC>"&s9 report th#t #nonymity re!uces their sel%-#/#reness #n! moti-#tes their beh#-iors in g#me pl#ying 8Foo E <oi-isto, 20049. 3nother sur-ey !one by Choi #n! 7#Kue 820029 #lso %oun! #nonymity #s # ne/ moti-#tion %#ctor %or 1nternet use. .ome #lso suggeste! th#t the 1nternet o%%er !emocr#tic communic#tion to #nonymous p#rticip#nts in -irtu#l communities such #s ch#t rooms. >y#n 8,JJH9 in!ic#te! th#t #nonymity moti-#tes users to spe#k more %reely on the 1nternet th#n they /oul! in re#l li%e. With sm#ll %e#r o% soci#l punishment #n! recrimin#tion, minority groups c#n eKu#lly p#rticip#te in the communic#tion process pro-i!e! the technology is uni-ers#lly #-#il#ble 82r#in#, 200,9.

Criti is!s o' Uses and 5rati'i ations Resear h

3lthough uses #n! gr#ti%ic#tions #ppro#ch hol!s # signi%ic#nt st#tus in communic#tion rese#rch, the rese#rch o% the #ppro#ch recei-es criticisms both on its theory #n! metho!ology represente!. Fc5u#il 8,JJ49 commente! th#t the #ppro#ch h#s not pro-i!e! much success%ul pre!iction or c#su#l expl#n#tion o% me!i# choice #n! use. .ince it is in!ee! th#t much me!i# use is circumst#nti#l #n! /e#kly moti-#te!, the #ppro#ch seems to /ork best in ex#mining speci%ic types o% me!i# /here moti-#tion might be presente! 8Fc5u#il, ,JJ49. he rese#rcher 1en 3ng #lso critici?e! uses #n! gr#ti%ic#tions #ppro#ch in such three #spects6 ,. 1t is highly in!i-i!u#listic, t#king into #ccount only the in!i-i!u#l psychologic#l gr#ti%ic#tion !eri-e! %rom in!i-i!u#l me!i# use. he soci#l context o% the me!i# use ten!s to be ignore!. his o-erlooks the %#ct th#t some me!i# use m#y h#-e nothing to !o /ith the pursuit o% gr#ti%ic#tion - it m#y be %orce! upon us %or ex#mple. 2. here is rel#ti-ely little #ttention p#i! to me!i# content, rese#rchers #tten!ing to /hy people use the me!i#, but less to /h#t me#nings they #ctu#lly get out o% their me!i# use. G. he #ppro#ch st#rts %rom the -ie/ th#t the me!i# #re #l/#ys %unction#l to people #n! m#y thus implicitly o%%er # Ousti%ic#tion %or the /#y the me!i# #re currently org#ni?e! 8cite! by CCF.-1n%ob#se, 200G9. .ince it is h#r! to keep tr#ck o% exposure p#tterns through obser-#tion, uses #n! gr#ti%ic#tions rese#rch %ocus on the %#ct relie! he#-ily on sel%-reports 8<#t?, ,JID9. .el%-reports, ho/e-er, #re b#se! on person#l memory /hich c#n be problem#tic 8'#gel et #l., 20049. 3s such, the respon!ents might in#ccur#tely rec#ll ho/ they beh#-e in me!i# use #n! thus !istortion might occur in the stu!y.

Wikibooks M 03

Ch#pter 6

) T H1 6 RAND6URT S CHOO5
Roland Barthes
li-e -ersion N !iscussion N e!it lesson N comment N report #n error N #sk # Kuestion

The 4ran7'urt 6 hool and Co!!uni ation Theory

1 thought 3!orno, on our %irst meeting, the most #rrog#nt, sel%-in!ulgent 8intellectu#lly #n! cultur#lly9 m#n 1 h#-e e-er met. .ome 20 ye#rs l#ter, 1 c#n think o% #!!ition#l cl#im#nts %or th#t position, but 1 !oubt i% they #re serious ri-#ls. 8)on#l! F#c>#e, cite! in Forrison, ,JDI, pp. GG,-GG29

he Fr#nk%urt .chool /#s # group o% critic#l theorists #ssoci#te! /ith the 1nstitut %]r .o?i#l%orschung 81nstitute o% .oci#l >ese#rch9 /hich /#s loc#te! %irst #t the (ni-ersity o% Fr#nk%urt 8,J2G-,JGG9, then in &ene-#, ./it?erl#n! 8,JGG-GH9, Columbi# (ni-ersity in 'e/ =ork 8,JGH-,J4J9, #n! %in#lly b#ck #t the (ni-ersity o% Fr#nk%urt, %rom ,J4J to present. .ome o% the theorists #ssoci#te! /ith /h#t bec#me kno/n #s the Fr#nk%urt .chool inclu!e! F#x 7orkheimer, heo!or 3!orno 8nee Wiesengrun!9, 7erbert F#rcuse, W#lter 2enO#min, Brich Fromm, *eo *o/enth#l, #n! Frie!rich "ollock. Felix Weil beg#n the 1nstitute o% .oci#l >ese#rch in ,J2G. he theoretic#l b#sis o% the 1nstitute /#s F#rxist, to no sm#ll !egree bec#use o% C#rl &r]nberg, /ho ser-e! #s !irector %rom ,J2G-,JG0. F#x 7orkheimer succee!e! &r]nberg #s !irector #n! ser-e! in th#t c#p#city until ,J60, /hen heo!or 3!orno bec#me !irector, until his !e#th in ,J6J. hese theorists /ere #ll #ssoci#te! /ith the 1nstitute in the ,J20s, except %or F#rcuse, /ho beg#n /orking /ith the 1nstitute in ,JG2. From the l#te ,JH0s ;]rgen 7#berm#s /oul! be in-ol-e! /ith the 1nstitute, but %or # number o% re#sons his /ork is o%ten consi!ere! sep#r#te %rom th#t o% the Fr#nk%urt .chool. he 1nstitute %or .oci#l >ese#rch continues to oper#te #t the (ni-ersity o% Fr#nk%urt, but /h#t is kno/n #s the Fr#nk%urt .chool !i! not exten! beyon! the theorists #ssoci#te! /ith it. he interests o% the Fr#nk%urt .chool theorists in the ,J20s #n! ,JG0s l#y pre!omin#ntly in # F#rxist #n#lysis o% soci#l #n! economic processes, #n! the role o% the in!i-i!u#l #n! the group in rel#tion to these processes. heir p#rticul#r rele-#nce to communic#tion theory lies prim#rily in 3!ornoLs i!e# o% the culture in!ustry, #n! F#rcuseLs /ritings on one-!imension#lity.

The Culture Industry

1n ,J4D F#x 7orkheimer #n! heo!or 3!orno publishe! *iale$ti$ der Auf$l:rung+ Philosophische 2ragmente, /hose title /#s tr#nsl#te! into Bnglish 8in ,JD29 #s *ialectic of Enlightenment+ Philosophical 2ragments. Cne o% the sections o% this book /#s concerne! /ith /h#t 7orkheimer #n! 3!orno c#lle! the culture in!ustry. 1t /#s their contention th#t the culture in!ustry /#s the result o% #n historic#l process th#t /ith #n incre#se in technology 8inclu!ing m#ss communic#tion technology9 there /#s #n incre#se in the #bility to pro!uce commo!ities, /hich en#ble! incre#se! consumption o% goo!s. he consumption o% mech#nic#lly repro!uce! cultur#l pro!ucts^ pre!omin#ntly r#!io #n! %ilm^le! to %ormul#s o% pro!ucing them %or entert#inment purposes, #n! it !i! not occur to consumers to Kuestion the i!e# th#t the entert#inment presente! to them h#! #n 44 M Communic#tion heory

he Fr#nk%urt .chool i!eologic#l purpose or purposes. Consumers #!#pte! their nee!s #roun! these cultur#l pro!ucts, #n! in !oing so no longer kne/ o% #nything else th#t they might !esire, or th#t there might be #nything else they coul! !esire. he entert#inment th#t they enOoye! !i! not re%lect their re#l soci#l, politic#l, or economic interests, but inste#! blin!e! them %rom Kuestioning the pre-#iling system. Bntert#inment #lso h#! the %unction o% #llo/ing the !omin#nt system to replic#te itsel%, /hich #llo/e! %or %urther exp#nsion in pro!uction #n! consumption. hus, %or 3!orno #n! 7orkheimer the culture in!ustry /orke! in such # /#y th#t those /ho /ere un!er its in%luence /oul! not e-en notice th#t they /ere being m#nipul#te!. .ubseKuent to the bookSs public#tion in ,J4D, theorists o% the Fr#nk%urt .chool kne/ o% 3!ornoLs conception o% the culture in!ustry, but the imp#ct o% the i!e# o% the culture in!ustry in gener#l philosophic#l !iscourse !uring the ,JH0s #n! ,J60s /#s limite!. *ialectic of Enlightenment !i! not recei-e # /i!er !istribution until ,J6J, #n! #lthough 7erbert F#rcuse continue! the gener#l i!e# o% the culture in!ustry in his /ne;*imensional an o% ,J64, he !i! not re%er to it #s such. 1n spite o% F#rcuseSs incisi-e criticism o% !omin#nt i!eologic#l structures, there is not # cultur#l component in his thought th#t c#n be sep#r#te! out %rom i!eology #s # /hole, #s #ppe#rs in the /ork o% 3!orno #n! 7orkheimer. hus, #s # concept rel#ting to communic#tion theory in the (nite! .t#tes, the culture in!ustry c#n more properly be s#i! to h#-e come to existence !ue to the Bnglish tr#nsl#tion o% 3!orno #n! 7orkheimerSs book in ,JD2.

5enesis o' 8The Culture Industry9

1n or!er to un!erst#n! the cre#tion o% the i!e# o% the culture in!ustry #s /ell #s its reception the concept c#n be ex#mine! chronologic#lly, %rom its pre-con!itions, through its gener#tion, to its subseKuent imp#ct. he i!e# o% the culture in!ustry gro/s out o% # concern /ith culture, is !e-elope! through insights into the mech#nic#l repro!uction o% culture, #n! is ultim#tely gener#te! in opposition not only to popul#r music, but #lso to 7olly/oo! mo-ies. h#t this is so gro/s out o% # number o% historic#l contingencies. heor!or Wiesengrun! enrolle! #t the (ni-ersity o% Fr#nk%urt in ,J2, not only to stu!y philosophy, but music. Wiesengrun! publishe! in the ,J20s #n! e#rly ,JG0s un!er the n#me heo!or Wiesengrun!-3!orno, #n! l#ter took the n#me 3!orno, /hich h#! been his motherSs m#i!en n#me. 3ccor!ing to hom#s F#nn, 3!orno re%use! to choose bet/een music #n! philosophy throughout his entire li%e, belie-ing th#t he /#s pursuing the s#me obOecti-e in t/o !isp#r#te %iel!s 8;_ger, 2004, p. G,9. 3lthough he /rote his !octor#l thesis on 7usserl, #n! # post!octor#l thesis on <ierkeg##r!, 3!orno mo-e! to +ienn# to stu!y music composition /ith 3lb#n 2erg. Fost o% 3!ornoLs music /#s /ritten bet/een ,J2H #n! ,JG0, though he continue! to compose music %or the rest o% his li%e. 1n #!!ition to composing, 3!orno /#s # music critic #n! e!itor o% usi$#latter des An#ruch %rom ,J2I to ,JG2. 3s # composer #n! music critic 3!orno /#s #/#re o% con!itions rel#ting to the pro!uction #n! !issemin#tion o% music in the ,J20s #n! ,JG0s. his #spect o% 3!ornoSs c#reer is import#nt in un!erst#n!ing his subseKuent #ppro#ch to culture. 2ec#use he h#! # pro%oun! kno/l!ege o% #rt, /hich is gre#t p#rt o% culture, his belei% /h#t the re#l #rt shoul! be like in%luence! on his criticism #g#inst culture in!ustry. o 3!orno, the gist o% re#l #rt is #utonomy. 2oth o% the pro!uction #n! the consumption o% cultur#l pro!uct shoul! be origin#te! by #utonomy /hich #rouses uniKueness o% re#l #rt. 3ccor!ing to 3!orno, culture in!ustry /hich pro!ucts #n! consumes the m#ss cultur#l pro!uct is not b#se! on #utonomy but p#ssi-ity so th#t it ne-er seeks %or uniKueness o% re#l #rt or culture. 3!orno /#s intro!uce! to W#lter 2enO#min in ,J2G, #n! the t/o theorists bec#me %rien!s. .ince Wikibooks M 41

Ch#pter 6 2enO#min ne-er recei-e! # !egree th#t /oul! #llo/ him to te#ch #t # uni-ersity, #ccor!ing to 7#nn#h 3ren!t, 3!orno bec#me in e%%ect 2enO#minLs only pupil. 3%ter 2enO#minSs !e#th Qit /#s 3!orno /ho then intro!uce! # r#tion#li?e! -ersion o% his i!e#s into #c#!emic philosophy.R 8;_ger, 2004, p. 6H-69. he rel#tionship /ith 2enO#min h#! #n imp#ct on the !e-elopment o% 3!ornoLs thought !uring this perio!. >eturning to Fr#nk%urt, 3!orno beg#n te#ching #t the 1nstitute, #n! publishe! #rticles in the <eitschrift fur &ocialforschung 8;ourn#l %or .oci#l >ese#rch9 th#t h#! been set up by the 1nstitute in ,JG2. 3!orno lost his right to te#ch in .eptember ,JGG !ue to the rise to po/er o% the '#?i p#rty. 7orkheimer h#! #lre#!y set up # br#nch o% the 1nstitute in &ene-#, ./it?erl#n!, #n! the 1nstitute beg#n oper#ting there. he '#?isL rise to po/er not only me#nt th#t 3!orno lost his Oob #n! /oul! e-entu#lly %orce his !ep#rture %rom &erm#ny, but #lso #%%ecte! his philosophic#l thought. 3s ;]rgen 7#berm#s /oul! l#ter note, the %#ct th#t l#bor mo-ements /ere co-opte! in the !e-elopment o% %#scist regimes /#s one o% the historic#l experiences in%luencing the !e-elopment o% critic#l theory, the others being .t#linist repression #n! the pro!uction o% m#ss culture in the (nite! .t#tes 8Forris, 200,, p. 4I9. 3!orno /#s #t Cx%or! %rom ,JG4 to ,JGI, /here he /orke! on # m#nuscript on 7usserl. 7e /#s consi!ere! #n outsi!er, ne-er integr#ting into the 2ritish #c#!emic m#instre#m, #n! he looke! %or/#r! to Ooining his Fr#nk%urt .chool colle#gues, m#ny o% /hom h#! in the me#ntime mo-e! to the (nite! .t#tes. 3lre#!y in the l#te ,JG0s 3!orno e-i!ence! little hope %or m#ss culture. 3s prop#g#n!# #n! entert#inment incre#se! !uring the ,JG0s, 2enO#min #n! 3!orno !eb#te! m#ss culture, since %ilm #n! r#!io bec#me the t/o most popul#r me#ns to !issemin#te prop#g#n!# un!er the %#scist #n! .t#linist !ict#torships. he ess#y tr#nsl#te! #s QCn the Fetish Ch#r#cter in Fusic #n! the >egression in *isteningR is in e%%ect # pessimistic reply to W#lter 2enO#minSs more optimistic ess#y, Q he Work o% 3rt in the 3ge o% Fech#nic#l >epro!uctionR 82runkhorst, ,JJJ, p. 629. 3 prim#ry problem %or 3!orno l#y in the %#ct th#t inste#! o% being enOoye! in # concert h#ll, symphonic /orks coul! no/ be he#r! o-er the r#!io, #n! coul! be repro!uce! on phonogr#ph recor!s. he result /#s in%erior to the origin#l, #n! 3!orno /#s emph#tic in his con!emn#tion o% the mech#nic#l repro!uction o% music6 Q ogether /ith sport #n! %ilm, m#ss music #n! the ne/ listening help to m#ke esc#pe %rom the /hole in%#ntile milieu impossibleR 83!orno, 200,b, p. 4D9. While 2enO#min reg#r!e! the !estroy o% #ur# by photogr#ph or %ilm #s the em#ncip#tion %rom hier#rchic#l t#stes tie! to cl#ss, to 3!orno, the #ur# o% the origin#l #rt/ork /#s the essenti#l o% the #rtistic #uthenticity. o 2enO#min, the mech#nic#l repro!uction /#s the ch#llenge #g#inst the #uthority o% "l#tonic or!er %rom the top-the origin#l or 1!e#to !o/n o% l#yers o% imit#tions0 to 3!orno, m#ss pro!uction /#s nothing but the !estruction o% the #uthenticity. he gener#l #ttitu!e o% the Fr#nk%urt school /#s th#t o% 3!orno. 1n ,JGI F#x 7orkheimer, /ho h#! succee!ing in est#blishing # rel#tionship %or the 1nstitute o% .oci#l >ese#rch /ith Columbi# (ni-ersity th#t en#ble! the 1nstitute to continue /orking in 'e/ =ork, obt#ine! # position %or 3!orno #t the "rinceton >#!io >ese#rch "roOect, run by "#ul *#?#rs%el!. 3!orno, #nxious to le#-e 2rit#in in the hopes o% being /ith other members o% the 1nstitute, #ccepte! the position, #lthough he l#ter cl#ime! th#t he !i! not kno/ /h#t # Qr#!io proOectR /#s. For his p#rt, *#?#rs%el! looke! %or/#r! to /orking /ith 3!orno, /hom he kne/ to be #n expert on music. 3!orno /rote %or the "roOectSs Oourn#l Radio Research in ,J4,, reiter#ting his position th#t r#!io /#s only #n im#ge o% # li-e per%orm#nce. 1n #!!ition, he Kuestione! the cl#im by the r#!io in!ustry th#t the me!ium /#s bringing serious music to the m#sses 8Wiggersh#us, ,JJ4, p. 24G9. While /orking #t the "rinceton >#!io >ese#rch "roOect 3!orno bec#me shocke! #t the !egree to /hich culture h#! become commerci#li?e! in the (nite! .t#tes. Commerci#li?#tion o% culture in the (nite! .t#tes h#! gone %#r 42 M Communic#tion heory

he Fr#nk%urt .chool beyon! #nything he h#! seen in Burope. Further, the pre-#lence o% #!-ertising in the (nite! .t#tes /#s something /ith no correl#ti-e in Burope. he closest thing in 3!ornoSs experience to the #!-ertising in!ustry in the (nite! .t#tes /#s %#scist prop#g#n!# 8;_ger, 2004, p. ,229. 3!orno /#s l#ter to #llu!e to his experience /ith the "rinceton >#!io >ese#rch "roOect in the ess#y on the culture in!ustry by noting the st#tistic#l !i-ision o% consumers, #n! st#ting th#t he s#/ this rese#rch #s being Qin!istinguish#ble %rom politic#l prop#g#n!#R 87orkheimer #n! 3!orno, 2002, p. JD9. 1t bec#me ob-ious th#t *#?#rs%el! #n! 3!orno !i! not #gree on the -#lue o% empiric#l stu!ies, #n! 3!orno le%t the proOect. 3!ornoSs !iss#tis%#ction /ith the /ork o% the "rinceton >#!io >ese#rch "roOect /oul! e-entu#lly moti-#te him to %urther !e-elop the i!e# o% the culture in!ustry. 2ec#use o% the rel#tionship bet/een the 1nstitute %or .oci#l >ese#rch #n! Columbi# (ni-ersity, 7orkheimer, /ho h#! #lre#!y mo-e! to C#li%orni#, coul! not bring 3!orno to the West Co#st until 'o-ember ,J4,. When 3!orno /#s %in#lly #ble to reloc#te, he Ooine! #n exp#tri#te community th#t inclu!e! Frit? *#ng, 3rnol! .choenberg, 7#ns Bisler, hom#s #n! 7einrich F#nn, 3l%re! )Tblin, #n! 2ertolt 2recht, se-er#l o% /hich %oun! /ork in the 7olly/oo! mo-ie in!ustry. he %#ct th#t 3!orno /#s p#rt o% this intellectu#l community /hose members /ere in-ol-e! in the pro!uction o% 7olly/oo! mo-ies must h#-e h#! some in%luence in !e-eloping his thoughts on culture, since the 7olly/oo! system inhibite! the cre#ti-e %ree!om th#t m#ny o% the exp#tri#tes h#! enOoye! in Weim#r &erm#ny. 3ccor!ing to )ougl#s <ellner, F#x 7orkheimer /#nte! to /rite # Qgre#t book on !i#lectics,R #n! 7erbert F#rcuse, /ho h#! been #!mitte! to the 1nstitute in ,JG2, /#s e#ger to /ork on the proOect. While 7orkheimer 8#n! l#ter 3!orno9 mo-e! to C#li%orni#, F#rcuse /ent to /ork %or the C%%ice o% .tr#tegic .er-ices 8the precursor to the Centr#l 1ntelligence 3gency9, #n! l#ter the .t#te )ep#rtment. hus it /#s 3!orno #n! not F#rcuse /ho bec#me 7orkheimerSs co-#uthor on the proOect on !i#lectics 8<ellner, ,JJ,, p. x-iii9. he /ork th#t resulte! /#s The *ialectic of Enlightenment, /ith its section title! Q he Culture 1n!ustry6 Bnlightenment #s F#ss )eceptionR !r#%te! by 3!orno. hese precon!itions^3!ornoSs interest in music, his %rien!ship /ith 2enO#min, #n! his /ork on the "rinceton >#!io "roOect, #s /ell #s in-ol-ement /ith the exp#tri#te community in C#li%orni# #n! the rel#tionship o% se-er#l o% these to the 7olly/oo! %ilm in!ustry^#re #ll import#nt to #n un!erst#n!ing o% his concern %or the i!e# o% the culture in!ustry.

8The Culture Industry" Enlighten!ent as Mass (e eption9

For 3!orno, popul#r culture on %ilm #n! r#!io !i! not bother to present itsel% #s #rt. hey /ere inste#! # business, #n! this in turn bec#me #n i!eology Qto legitimi?e the tr#sh they intention#lly pro!uceR 87orkheimer #n! 3!orno, 2002, p. JH9. his business /#s b#se! on /h#t 3!orno re%erre! to #s QFor!ist c#pit#lism,R in /hich m#ss pro!uction b#se! on the techniKues use! by 7enry For! /ere implemente! in the cultur#l sphere, inso%#r #s these ten!encies /ere b#se! on centr#li?#tion #n! hier#rchy 87ohen!#hl, ,JJH, p. ,429. Bx#mples o% this^not speci%ie! by 3!orno^/ere the 7olly/oo! pro!uction system, or the C2. r#!io net/ork th#t h#! been #ssoci#te! /ith the "rinceton >#!io >ese#rch "roOect. Fo-ies #n! hit songs /ere b#se! on %ormul#s, #n! Qthe %ormul# suppl#nts the /orkR 87orkheimer #n! 3!orno, 2002, p. JJ9. Fech#nic#l repro!uction ensure! th#t there /oul! not be #ny re#l ch#nge to the system, #n! th#t nothing truly #!-ers#ri#l to the system /oul! emerge 87orkheimer #n! 3!orno, 2002, p. ,06-D9. "#r#!oxic#lly, #ny inno-#tion /oul! only re#%%irm the system, #n! 3!orno cite! Crson Welles #s #n ex#mple o% someone /ho /#s #llo/e! to bre#k the rules. he el#sticity in the system /oul! #llo/ it to #ssume the st#nce o% #ny opposition #n! m#ke it its o/n, Wikibooks M 40

Ch#pter 6 ultim#tely ren!ering it ine%%ectu#l 8Frie!m#n, ,JI,, p. ,6H9. *ike religion #n! other institutions, the culture in!ustry /#s #n instrument o% soci#l control 87orkheimer #n! 3!orno, 2002, p. ,209, but %ree!om to choose in # system o% economic coercion ultim#tely me#nt the Q%ree!om to be the s#meR 87orkheimer #n! 3!orno, 2002, p. ,G69. .ince 3!orno h#! been, in his ess#ys on music #n! r#!io, #n #pp#rent !e%en!er o% high #rt, Q he Culture 1n!ustryR h#s been critici?e! #s being # !e%ense o% high #rt, #s oppose! to popul#r culture. 3!orno speci%ic#lly !e%ines #-#nt-g#r!e #rt #s the #!-ers#ry o% the culture in!ustry 87orkheimer #n! 3!orno, 2002, p. ,0,9. 1t /#s not high #rt th#t 3!orno /#s presenting #s #n #ltern#ti-e to the culture in!ustry, but mo!ernism. 3lthough he pro-i!es the i!e# o% #n opposing %orce to the culture in!ustry, 3!orno pro-i!es no o-ert F#rxist #n#lysis. 1nste#!, he notes in p#ssing th#t the !omin#nt system utili?e! c#p#cities %or m#ss consumption %or entert#inment or #musement, but re%use! to !o so /hen it /#s # Kuestion o% #bolishing hunger 87orkheimer #n! 3!orno, 2002, p. ,,,9. *ialectic of Enlightenment /#s issue! in mimeogr#ph %orm in ,J44, in &erm#n, #n! thus /oul! h#-e limite! imp#ct outsi!e o% the exp#tri#te community. 1n the me#ntime 3!orno beg#n /orking, #long /ith Blse Frenkel-2runs/ik, )#niel *e-inson, #n! >. 'e-itt .#n%or!, on #n empiric#l in-estig#tion into preOu!ice title! The Authoritarian Personality. 7e /rote inima oralia+ Reflections on *amaged (ife in ,J4H, #n! this /ork, upon its public#tion in &erm#ny in ,JH,, /oul! m#rk the beginning o% his imp#ct in &erm#ny 8;_ger, 2004, p. ,6D9. 3!orno /oul! #lso co-#uthor Composing for the 2ilms /ith 7#ns Bisler, #n! in this text 3!orno m#!e it cle#r th#t the culture in!ustry is not i!entic#l /ith high or lo/ #rt 87ohen!#hl, ,JJH, p. ,G49. his is perh#ps the %irst o% se-er#l o% 3!ornoSs #ttempts #t re!e%ining the culture in!ustry to #n #u!ience th#t in #ll prob#bility h#! no exposure to the concept #s it /#s !et#ile! in the origin#l ess#y.

Return to 5er!any
*ialectic of Enlightenment /#s publishe! in 3mster!#m in &erm#n in ,J4D /ith # number o% -#ri#nts, exclu!ing /or!s #n! phr#ses in the publishe! e!ition th#t coul! be construe! #s being F#rxist 8Forris, 200,, p. 4I9. heir #pp#rent intent /#s to not #ttr#ct the #ttention o% the 3meric#n occup#tion #uthorities in &erm#ny. Cne o% the m#in re#sons %or this is th#t 7orkheimer /#nte! to return the 1nstitute %or .oci#l >ese#rch to &erm#ny, not only bec#use o% the !esire to return to Fr#nk%urt but #lso bec#use # committee #t Columbi# (ni-ersity h#! e-#lu#te! the /ork o% the 1nstitute #n! recommen!e! th#t the 1nstitute become # !ep#rtment o% "#ul *#?#rs%el!Ss 2ure#u o% 3pplie! .oci#l >ese#rch #t Columbi# 8;_ger, 2004, p. ,4J9. F#rcuse, /ho h#! been pro!ucing prop#g#n!# %or the C.. !uring the /#r b#se! on his expert kno/le!ge o% &erm#ny, publishe! re-olution#ry theses in # Oourn#l in ,J4D, #n! these theses coul! not be reconcile! /ith the !irection o% the 1nstitute !ue to #n #pp#rent ch#nge in 7orkheimerSs #ttitu!e to/#r!s F#rxism. hus, /hen excerpts %rom *ialectic of Enlightenment /ere publishe! /ithout their permission in ,J4J, 7orkheimer #n! 3!orno proteste!, !ist#ncing themsel-es %rom their o/n /ork, in or!er not to Oeop#r!i?e their return to &erm#ny. 1n the l#te ,J40s the 1nstitute reloc#te! to Fr#nk%urt, #n! opene! in its ne/ premises in ,JH,. 7orkheimer bec#me the +iceCh#ncellor o% the (ni-ersity o% Fr#nk%urt. 1n ,JH4 3!orno publishe! #n ess#y entitle! Q7o/ to *ook #t ele-isionR th#t /#s the result o% # stu!y th#t h#! been !one %or the 7#cker Foun!#tion, /ith the in-ol-ement o% &eorge &erbner #n! others. 1n this ess#y 3!orno /#rne!, Qrigi! institution#li?#tion tr#ns%orms mo!ern m#ss culture into # me!ium o% un!re#me! o% psychologic#l controlR 83!orno, 200,#, p. ,609. 1t /#s one o% the %e/ occ#sions in the ,JH0s th#t 3!orno /oul! !iscuss the implic#tions o% m#ss culture. 3t le#st one 44 M Communic#tion heory

he Fr#nk%urt .chool obser-er %oun! it str#nge th#t Qthe le#!ing cultur#l theorist o% his !#yR !i! not t#ke p#rt in cultur#l !e-elopments o% the %i%ties 8;_ger, 2004, p. ,J,9. 3!orno /oul! nonetheless on occ#sion #ttempt to resh#pe his thought on the culture in!ustry. For ex#mple, in ,JHJ he /rote o% # Quni-ers#l pseu!ocultureR in the (nite! .t#tes 83!orno, ,JJG, p. 2,9, #n! g#-e # r#!io t#lk in &erm#ny in ,J6G on Q he Culture 1n!ustry >econsi!ere!.R 1n ,J66, /hen /riting the ess#y Q r#nsp#rencies on Film,R 3!orno conce!e! th#t %ilm-m#king might be #n #ccept#ble cultur#l pr#ctice in opposition to the culture in!ustry, /ithin the context o% mo!ernism 87ohen!#hl, ,JJH, p. ,G,9.

One/(i!ensional Man$ and 6uppression o' 8The Culture Industry9

3!orno took o-er running the 1nstitute in ,J60, #n! his prim#ry philosophic#l concern in the ,J60s /#s his critic#l eng#gement /ith F#rtin 7ei!egger, especi#lly 7ei!eggerSs l#ngu#ge, #s !et#ile! in the book The %argon of Authenticity. 1n the me#ntime, F#rcuse h#! !e-elope! # critiKue o% .t#linism, #n! /#s !e-eloping # critiKue o% soci#l con!itions in Western !emocr#cies, in p#rt b#se! on his %#mili#rity /ith 3!ornoLs /ork. 7e /#s, %or ex#mple, connecting Qthe #n#lysis #n! critiKue o% %#lse nee!s to # critic#l theory o% m#ss me!i# #n! popul#r cultureR 83gger, ,JJH, p. G49. F#rcuse !i! not oppose popul#r culture #s completely #s 3!orno, ho/e-er, recogni?ing Q%issures in the e!i%ice o% m#instre#m m#ss culture /hich coul! be prie! open still %urtherR 83gger, ,JJH, p. G49. 1n /ne;*imensional an F#rcuse put #n #n#lysis Qo% l#te c#pit#list society into # system#tic context,R #s oppose! to other /riters in the Fr#nk%urt .chool 8Wiggersh#us, ,JJ4, p. 60J9. 1nste#! o% culture ser-ing i!eologic#l en!s, %or F#rcuse Qsoci#l control mech#nisms in #!-#nce! in!ustri#l society ensure the /holes#le integr#tion o% the in!i-i!u#l into m#ss societyR 8>eit?, 2000, p. ,449. C#pit#list pro!uction #n! the tremen!ous /e#lth th#t resulte! %rom it %orme! # Qsystem o% repressi-e #%%luenceR th#t kept elements o% society s#tis%ie! #n! Kuiescent 83l/#y, ,JJH, p. IG9. he entirety o% society h#! become org#ni?e! #roun! #n i!eology /hose m#in obOecti-es /ere to m#int#in soci#l control #n! continue to perpetu#te the i!eology th#t m#int#ine! th#t control. Bchoing 3!orno, F#rcuse /on!ere! /hether the in%orm#tion #n! entert#inment #spects o% m#ss me!i# coul! be !i%%erenti#te! %rom their m#nipul#tion #n! in!octrin#tion %unctions 8F#rcuse, ,JJ,, p. I9. 7o/e-er, it is !i%%icult in F#rcuseLs #rgument to sep#r#te culture or m#ss me!i# %rom society #s # /hole bec#use F#rcuse !i! not !istinguish culture or m#ss me!i# #s entities sep#r#te %rom the tot#lity o% !omin#nt i!eology in the s#me /#y th#t 3!orno h#! !one. 1n the en! F#rcuseSs #n#lysis o% society #llo/e! %or no opposition to the !omin#nt i!eology. F#rcuse /rote, 4ho/ c#n the #!ministere! in!i-i!u#ls^/ho h#-e m#!e their mutil#tion into their o/n liberties #n! s#tis%#ctions, #n! thus repro!uce it on #n enl#rge! sc#le^liber#te themsel-es %rom themsel-es #s /ell #s %rom their m#stersA 7o/ is it e-en think#ble th#t the -icious circle be brokenAR 8F#rcuse, ,JJ,, p. 2H,9. &i-en the pessimistic tone o% the book, it is some/h#t ironic th#t l#rgely bec#use o% it he /oul! be percei-e! #s #n icon %or le%tist mo-ements o% the ,J60s in the (... #n! &erm#ny th#t !e-elope! #n opposition#l st#nce. 1n spite o% this, F#rcuse m#int#ine! th#t he /#s # philosopher, #n! not #n #cti-ist. *ike others #ssoci#te! /ith the Fr#nk%urt .chool, he /#s /#ry o% the i!e# th#t theory coul! be tr#nsl#te! into pr#ctice 8Ch#mbers, 2004, p. 2269. While F#rcuse /#s /riting # /ork th#t /oul! become essenti#l to stu!ent mo-ements in the ,J60s, in ,J6, 3!orno #n! 7orkheimer resiste! the reissue o% *ialectic of Enlightenment th#t h#! been propose! to them by the publishing house o% Fischer. he publisher %elt th#t the book coul! be re#! #s # !escription o% pre-#iling con!itions in &erm#ny. F#rcuse enthusi#stic#lly supporte! the reissue o% the Wikibooks M 4(

Ch#pter 6 book in ,J62, but 3!orno #n! 7orkheimer /ithhel! their consent 8;_ger, 2004, p. ,J49. he re#sons th#t 7orkheimer #n! 3!orno trie! to keep *ialectic of Enlightenment %rom re#ching # /i!er #u!ience #re not entirely cle#r. 1n re-ie/ing the text in ,J6,, Frie!rich "oll#ck reporte! to 3!orno #n! 7orkheimer th#t the /ork reKuire! too much re-ision to recei-e m#ss !issemin#tion. he t/o #uthors continue! to negoti#te /ith the Fischer publishing house until ,J6J, #n! m#y h#-e only #gree! to republish the /ork since pir#te copies h#! #lre#!y been !issemin#te! by in!i-i!u#ls in the &erm#n stu!ent mo-ement. .tu!ents #lso beg#n posting snippets o% the text #s h#n!bills. While stu!ent mo-ements in the (nite! .t#tes #n! &erm#ny looke! to 7erbert F#rcuse #s their i!ol, the situ#tion in Fr#nk%urt !egener#te! to the point #t /hich 3!orno coul! no longer e%%ecti-ely con!uct cl#sses. 7e compl#ine! to the !e#n #bout the r#!ic#l stu!ents in his cl#sses /ho /ere m#king te#ching impossible. 1n the /inter term o% ,J6I-6J stu!ents occupie! # number o% buil!ings #t the (ni-ersity #t Fr#nk%urt, inclu!ing the 1nstitute %or .oci#l >ese#rch. 3%ter the strike en!e!, 3!orno returne! to te#ching, but his lectures continue! to be !isrupte!, inclu!ing one Qt#steless !emonstr#tionR in /hich three %em#les b#re! their bre#sts. 3!orno !ie! # %e/ months l#ter 8;_ger, 2004, p. 20,-0I9.

Criti al Response to 8The Culture Industry9

he ,JD2 Bnglish-l#ngu#ge tr#nsl#tion m#rke! the %irst re#l #ppe#r#nce o% the i!e# o% the culture in!ustry outsi!e o% # &erm#n context. 1n the ye#rs since there h#-e been numerous criticisms o% the text, not le#st since 3!orno m#!e s/eeping gener#li?#tions #bout Qthe commo!i%ie! #n! %etishi?e! ch#r#cter o% #ll cultur#l goo!sR 8Cook, ,JJ6, p. ,,G9. For the gener#lly symp#thetic )ebor#h Cook, 3!orno erre! in not !iscussing the processes o% cultur#l pro!uction, #n! %#ile! to ex#mine the culture in!ustrySs economic !epen!ence on other business sectors, inclu!ing m#rketing #n! #!-ertising 8Cook, ,JJ6, p. 4I9. For erry B#gleton, both 3!orno #n! F#rcuse o-erestim#te! the !omin#nt i!eology, belie-ing th#t Qc#pit#list society l#nguishes in the grip o% #n #ll-per-#si-e rei%ic#tionR 8B#gleton, ,JJ,, p. 469. .till, B#gleton conce!e! th#t Qthe !i%%usion o% !omin#nt -#lues #n! belie%s #mong oppresse! peoples in society h#s some p#rt to pl#y in the repro!uction o% the system #s # /holeR 8B#gleton, ,JJ,, p. G69. Fre!ric ;#meson pointe! out th#t 3!ornoSs i!e# o% # culture in!ustry /#s historic#lly limite!, since the society th#t !e-elope! in the ,J60s #n! ,JD0s /ith ne/ me!i# /ent beyon! the cultur#l possibilities #-#il#ble !uring the ,J40s. While the i!e# o% the culture in!ustry c#n be !e%en!e! #s # use%ul theory %or in!ustri#l societies bet/een ,J20 #n! ,JD0, trying to use it to!#y /e#kens its e%%ecti-eness 87ohen!#hl, ,JJH, p. ,46-4I9. hus, %or # some critics, the -#lue o% the i!e# o% the culture in!ustry /oul! #ppe#r to be merely historic#l, i% they in %#ct conce!e! th#t it h#! #ny -#lue #t #ll. 3ccor!ing to 7ohen!#hl, %or m#ny postmo!ern critics the ess#y on the culture in!ustry is problem#tic bec#use they con%use the !e%ense o% mo!ernist #rt /ith # !e%ense o% high culture, #g#inst popul#r culture. 1n the context o% *ialectic of Enlightenment it is the !estruction o% tr#!ition#l culture th#t is in Kuestion, #long /ith its repl#cement /ith ne/ %orms !epen!ing on commo!ity exch#nge 87ohen!#hl, ,JJH, p. ,GD9. 1n rel#tion to this )ebor#h Cook cites such #rtists #s .choenberg, 2eckett, #n! <#%k# #s cultur#l pro!ucers /ho #re not entirely subOect to commo!i%ic#tion, #n! notes th#t ;#meson is in #greement th#t mo!ernism is the Q!i#lectic#l opposite o% m#ss cultureR 8Cook, ,JJ6, p. ,0D9. hus %or some critics mo!ernist /orks /oul! be counter#cting %orces #g#inst the !omin#nt i!eology. 3s note! in the ex#mple o% Crson Welles, ho/e-er, it m#y be the c#se th#t the !omin#nt i!eology c#n co-opt mo!ernist /orks %or its o/n en!s.

4) M Communic#tion heory

he Fr#nk%urt .chool he i!e# o% the culture in!ustry h#s h#! #n import#nce in critic#l theory since its #ppe#r#nce in the ,J40s, in th#t it h#s le! to thought #bout the role o% m#ss communic#tions in rel#tion to i!eology, #n! hence, society. .ince 3!orno m#!e s/eeping gener#li?#tions #bout the imp#ct o% the culture in!ustry, #n! since he !i! not system#tic#lly explore ho/ the culture in!ustry oper#te!, it h#s been gener#lly e#sy %or some to !ismiss the i!e# o% # culture in!ustry. 1t is nonetheless the c#se th#t motion pictures #re still m#!e by l#rge comp#nies #n! th#t their mo-ies l#rgely rely on %ormul#ic plots. 1t is #lso the c#se th#t r#!io is incre#singly controlle! by # sm#ll number o% comp#nies, /hich ten! to impose restrictions on ho/ st#tions oper#te. 3s # bro#!c#st me!ium, tele-ision is -ery much rel#te! to both r#!io #n! %ilm, #n! sh#res /ith them Ku#lities th#t situ#tion it in the culture in!ustry. While there is # !emocr#ti?ing #spect to the 1nternet 8in th#t #nyone c#n cre#te # /eb site9, it h#ppens th#t the commerci#l comp#nies oper#ting on the 1nternet continue to m#int#in #n i!eologic#l %unction. For ex#mple, one sel!om sees ne/ stories on F.'2C or =#hoo th#t /oul! Kuestion the prerog#ti-es o% corpor#te 3meric#. 3 reex#min#tion o% the i!e# o% the culture in!ustry m#y be necess#ry in or!er to theori?e on ho/ m#ss communic#tion me!i# prop#g#te !omin#nt i!eologies.

Wikibooks M 4-

Ch#pter D

- S 1MIOTICS

AND

M 2TH

Roland Barthes
li-e -ersion N !iscussion N e!it lesson N comment N report #n error N #sk # Kuestion

#etween Intelligen e and Creativity

=a thesGs 5i.e
4Who !oes not %eel ho/ n#tur#l it is, in Fr#nce, to be C#tholic, m#rrie!, #n! /ell Ku#li%ie! #c#!emic#llyA4 8 ho!y, p., ,JDD, p. H9 his sentence--%oun! in the book Roland -arthes par Roland -arthes, # collection o% >ol#n! 2#rthesLs #utobiogr#phic#l ess#ys--enc#psul#tes his gener#l cynicism #bout 4the n#tur#l.4 his semi-ironic Kuestion might h#-e origin#te! %rom his o/n uniKue li%e0 he /#s # "rotest#nt in # pre!omin#ntly C#tholic n#tion, #n unm#rrie! homosexu#l, #n! # pro%essor /ithout # !octor#l !egree. 2#rthes /#s born in ,J,H. 7is %#ther, # n#-#l o%%icer, !ie! in #ction !uring the First Worl! W#r, be%ore 2#rthesL %irst birth!#y. From ,JG4 to ,J4D 2#rthes su%%ere! %rom pulmon#ry tuberculosis, #n! /#s hospit#li?e! %or exten!e! perio!s. 2#rthes coul! not compete %or his #greg#tion ex#min#tions !ue to his tuberculosis, #n! this h#mpere! his #c#!emic c#reer. 1n ,JGD, he /#s exclu!e! %rom reKuire! milit#ry ser-ice. Foreo-er, su%%ering %rom # secon! bout o% tuberculosis in ,J4,, he /#s not #ble to %inish his !octor#te. hese #ccumul#te! exclusions %rom the li%e #n! experience o% Frenchmen o% his o/n gener#tion ser-e #s b#ckgroun! to 2#rthesLs thought 8 ho!y, ,JDD, pp. ,-H9. 1n ,J4I he returne! to the #c#!emic %iel!. 7e hel! positions #t the 1nstitute Fr#nc#is in 2uch#rest in ,J4I #n! #t the (ni-ersity o% 3lex#n!ri# in Bgypt in ,J4J. he perio! #t the (ni-ersity o% 3lex#n!ri# is import#nt in th#t it in%luence! his e#rly c#reer #s # structur#list. here, he le#rne! #bout structur#l linguistics %rom 3.;. &rem#s, # speci#list in sem#ntics, #n! h#! his 4linguistic initi#tion4 8Wesserm#n, ,JI,, p.,69.

W itin7 De7 ee He o
3s o!oro- 8,JI,9 /rites 41t /#s -ery !i%%icult to c#tegori?e 2#rthesLs texts #s belonging to one o% the princip#l types o% !iscourse /ith /hich /e #re %#mili#r, #n! /hich our society t#kes #s gi-en,4 8in ). <night, p. ,249. 1t is !i%%icult to !e%ine the c#tegory or c#tegories in /hich he /oul! %it. First o% #ll, he is %reKuently seen #s # liter#ry critic. Fuch o% his e#rly #c#!emic #chie-ement is compose! o% /orks o% liter#ry criticism /ritten /ith # semiotic #ppro#ch. 7is l#ter /ork /oul! re%lect his re#!ing o% <riste-#, )erri!#, #n! others, #n! re%lect more o% # post-structur#l position. he post-structur#l critiKues %in! his most represent#ti-e theme, #n #rgument reg#r!ing 4the !e#th o% #uthor4 82#rthes, ,JDD9. 7is books /n Racine, Critical Essays, #n! &ade, 2ourier, (oyola #re /orks th#t #!-#nce his thought on liter#ture. o some !egree his liter#ry criticism /#s in%luence! by ;e#n-"#ul .#rtre. 4/ M Communic#tion heory he %irst book th#t

.emiotics #n! Fyth 2#rthes /rote, tr#nsl#te! into Bnglish #s 'riting *egree <ero, is in p#rt # response to .#rtreLs 'hat is (iterature= his is import#nt inso%#r #s it /oul! l#rgely !e%ine 2#rthesLs #ppro#ch not only to liter#ture, but to other me!i#, #s /ell #s culture in gener#l. 1n brie%, in 'hat is (iterature .#rtre c#lle! upon the /riterLs #n! re#!erLs commitment to not only their o/n, but #lso the hum#n %ree!om but o% others. 1n 'riting *egree <ero 2#rthes explore! this i!e# o% commitment through # concern /ith %orm. 2#rthesLs 4notion o% /riting concerns th#t /hich is communic#te! outsi!e or beyon! #ny mess#ge or content4 83llen, 200G, ,69. For 2#rthes, /riting in its extreme %orm is 4#nticommunic#tion.4 2#rthes /#s #lso # cultur#l theorist. 7is thoughts #re #%%ecte! by existenti#lism, F#rxism, structur#lism #n! psycho#n#lysis. 7e !e-elope! these philosophic#l i!e#s #n! theories, #n! in turn h#! in%luence on l#ter theorists. 7e /#s impresse! in p#rticul#r by .#ussure, *e-i-.tr#uss, F#rx, #n! ;#cKues *#c#n. 3s Fori#rty 8,JJ,9 s#ys, the l#bel 4theorist4 #s #pplie! to 2#rthes is still re!ucti-e. With Oourn#listic p#ssion, his #cti-ity #s # theorist o% semiology mo-es into popul#r culture. 7is style #s #n ess#yist #!opte! other %orms. 7e e-ol-e! # /riting style th#t #!opte! both no-elistic styles #n! critic#l or politic#l !iscourse. B-en i% his /ritings !o not resemble # typic#l no-el, they o%%er e-erything the re#!er might !esire %rom # no-el. 8Fori#rty, ,JJ,, p.H9 2#rthes !i! not est#blish #ny speci%ic theory, but he c#n be consi!ere! #s #n import#nt thinker positione! bet/een structur#lism #n! post-structur#lism. 1t is not only bec#use o% his multil#ter#l intellectu#l #cti-ities but #lso his continuous re%lexi-e #n! critic#l consciousness #bout 4right here4 /here he belonge!0 #s # 4'e/ *e%tist4 he s#i! th#t he /#s both 4.#rtri#n #n! F#rxist,4 /hich me#ns 4existenti#l F#rxist4 8W#sserm#n, &., ,JI,, p. ,D9. 7e /#s critic#l #bout the pl#titu!inous #n! !epthless criticism #g#inst bourgeois liter#ture0 #s # poststructur#list, he trie! to o-ercome the limit#tions in structur#lism.

In'luen ed %y 6aussure and L:vi/6trauss

Saussu e an% =a thes
*ike m#ny other structur#list schol#rs, 2#rthes /#s in%luence! by .#ussureLs structur#l linguistics. o .#ussure, the linguistic mech#nism oper#tes on t/o le-els, the system#tic system #n! the -#ri#tion by spe#king #ctors. he %ormer is c#lle! l#ngue #n! the l#tter p#role. 4*#ngue is the system#ti?e! set o% con-entions necess#ry to communic#tion, in!i%%erent to the m#teri#l o% the sign#l /hich compose it0 #s oppose! to it, speech 8p#role9 is co-ers the purely in!i-i!u#l p#rt o% l#ngu#ge4 82#rthes, ,J6D, p.,G9. 2#rthes interprets .#ussureLs linguistic system /ithin the soci#l !imension. he structure le-el, l#ngue, is the soci#l con-ention or -#lue sh#re! through # society /hich is st#bili?e! #n! st#n!#r!i?e!. Cn the contr#ry, p#role is %lexible bec#use it is the #ctu#l expression #t the in!i-i!u#l le-el. 7o/e-er, it is consi!ere! Lrel#ti-elyL %lexible !ue to the %#ct th#t speech by #n in!i-i!u#l c#nnot be %ree %rom the sh#re! con-ention, the structure.
3 l#ngu#ge is there%ore, # soci#l institution #n! # system o% -#lues. 1t is the soci#l p#rt o% l#ngu#ge, it is essenti#lly # collecti-e contr#ct /hich one must #ccept in its entirety i% one /ishes to communic#te. 1t is bec#use # l#ngu#ge is # system o% contr#ctu#l -#lues th#t it resists the mo!i%ic#tions coming %rom # single

Wikibooks M 43

Ch#pter D
in!i-i!u#l #n! is conseKuently # soci#l institution. 1n contr#st to l#ngu#ge, /hich is both institution #n! system, speech is essenti#lly #n in!i-i!u#l #ct o% selection #n! #ctu#li?#tion. he spe#king subOect c#n use the co!e o% the l#ngu#ge /ith # -ie/ to expressing his person#l thought. 1t is bec#use speech is essenti#lly # combin#ti-e #cti-ity th#t it correspon!s to #n! in!i-i!u#l #ct #n! not to # pure cre#tion. 82#rthes, ,J6D, pp. ,4-,H9

Focusing on the system#tic le-el, .#usurre !istinguishes the l#ngu#ge system into t/o p#rts, the signi%ie! #n! the signi%ier. he signi%ie! is # concept or me#ning /hich is expresse! through the %orm. he %orm is c#lle! the signi%ier, /hich is the extern#l p#rt o% l#ngu#ge. For ex#mple, both the /or! L!ogL in Bnglish or Lg#eL in <ore#n #re the extern#l %orms expressing the #ctu#l #nim#l !og. 7ere, the #ctu#l #nim#l, the concept in Kuestion, becomes the signi%ie!. 41 propose to ret#in the /or! sign 8signe9 to !esign#te the /hole #n! to repl#ce concept #n! soun!-im#ge respecti-ely by signi%ie! 8signi%i`9 #n! signi%ier 8signi%ic#nt90 the l#st t/o terms h#-e the #!-#nt#ge o% in!ic#ting the opposition th#t sep#r#tes them %rom e#ch other #n! %rom the /hole o% /hich they #re p#rts4 8.#ussure, ,JHJ, in >. 1nnis 8e!.9, p. GD9. he correspon!ence o% the concept$me#ning to the extern#l %orm is not in the !estine! rel#tion, but r#ther, in the #rbitr#ry rel#tion. 1t is not the ine-it#ble intern#l rel#tion but the !i%%erence bet/een the signs th#t oper#tes the signi%ying system. .#ussure 8,J609 #rgues th#t 4l#ngu#ge !oes not re%lect # preexistent #n! extern#l re#lity o% in!epen!ent obOects, but constructs me#ning %rom /ithin itsel% through # series o% conceptu#l #n! phonic !i%%erences4 82#rker, 2000. p. 6D9. 3ccor!ing to .#ussure, 4me#ning is pro!uce! through # process o% selection #n! combin#tion o% signs #long t/o #xes, the synt#gm#tic 8e.g. # sentence9 #n! the p#r#!igm#tic 8e.g. synonyms9, org#ni?e! into # signi%ying system4 82#rker, 2002, p. 2J9. 3s # gr#mm#tic#l set o% signs or the un!erlying system#tic or!er, the synt#gm#tic comprises # sentence, #n! the p#r#!igm#tic me#ns # %iel! o% possible signs th#t c#n be repl#ce! /ith one #nother. )espite -#rious possibilities in selecting the signs /ithin the s#me p#r#!igm#tic, the selection is #lso regul#te! by the consensus o% linguistic community members. For #n ex#mple o% the synt#gm#tic #n! the p#r#!igm#tic, letLs consi!er the %ollo/ing sentence6 41 /ent to # the#ter /ith my girl%rien!.4 his sentence is est#blishe! through the line#r combin#tion o% signs. he signs /ithin the ex#mple, such #s 1 the#ter, my, #n! girl%rien! c#n be substitute! %or by other signs in the p#r#!igm#tic, such #s 4.he /ent to # rest#ur#nt /ith her mother.4 hrough the synt#gm#tic #n! the p#r#!igm#tic, .#ussure tells us th#t signs #re oper#te! only /hen they #re rel#te! to e#ch other. 4Cruci#lly, signs !o not m#ke sense by -irtue o% re%erence to entities in #n in!epen!ent obOect /orl!0 r#ther, they gener#te me#ning by re%erence to e#ch other. hus, me#ning is un!erstoo! #s # soci#l con-ention org#ni?e! through the rel#tions bet/een signs4 82#rker, C., 2002, p. 2J9. 41t is centr#l to .#ussureLs #rgument th#t re! is me#ning%ul in rel#tion to the !i%%erence bet/een re!, green, #mber, etc. hese signs #re then org#ni?e! into # seKuence /hich gener#tes me#ning through the cultur#l con-entions o% their us#ge /ithin # p#rticul#r context. hus, tr#%%ic lights !eploy Lre!L to signi%y Lstop,L #n! LgreenL to signi%y Lgo.L his is the cultur#l co!e o% tr#%%ic systems /hich tempor#lly %ixes the rel#tionship bet/een colours #n! me#nings. .igns become n#tur#li?e! co!es. he #pp#rent tr#nsp#rency o% me#ning 8/e kno/ /hen to stop or go9 is #n outcome o% cultur#l h#bitu#tion, the e%%ect o% /hich is to conce#l the pr#ctices o% cultur#l co!ing4 82#rker, C., 2000. p. 6I9. 3s 2#rker expl#ins, e-en though there might be in%inte possibilities to ch#nge the rel#tion bet/een the signi%ie! #n! the signi%ier !ue to its #rbitr#riness, this rel#tionship is limite! #n! st#bili?e! through consensus /ithin the p#rticul#r soci#l #n! historic#l contexts. B-en though .#ussureLs stu!y itsel% is limite! to linguistics, it suggests the possibility o% the stu!y o% culture #s signs. 2#rthes is one o% the most popul#r schol#rs /ho exp#n!e! .#ussureLs concepts to interpreting cultur#l phenomenon #s 4co!es.4 (4 M Communic#tion heory

.emiotics #n! Fyth

5I#i9St auss
*`-i-.tr#uss is #nother structur#list /ho in%luence! 2#rthes. *`-i-.tr#uss /#s #n #nthropologist /ho #pplie! .#ussureLs theory to #nthropologic#l #re#s o% stu!y, such #s kinship. 43lthough they belong to #nother or!er o% re#lity, kinship phenomen# #re o% the s#me type #s linguistic phenomen#4 8*`-i-.tru#ss, ,J6G, in >. 1nnis, p.,,G9. *`-i-.tr#uss #ccepte! .#ussureLs i!e# th#t 4*#ngu#ge 8l#ngue9, on the contr#ry to speech 8l#ng#ge9, is # sel%-cont#ine! /hole #n! # principle o% cl#ssi%ic#tion. 3s soon #s /e gi-e l#ngu#ge %irst pl#ce #mong the %#cts o% speech, /e intro!uce # n#tur#l or!er into # m#ss th#t len!s itsel% to no other cl#ssi%ic#tion the norm o% #ll other m#ni%est#tions o% speech4 8.#ussure, ,JHJ, in >. 1nnis 8e!.9, p.2J9. 7e /ent %urther, ho/e-er, by conceptu#li?ing l#ngu#ge itsel% #s the pro!uction o% its society. *ike .#ussure, *`-i-.tr#uss %ocuse! on the structure o% l#ngu#ge, #n! sought to %in! the hi!!en structures th#t he belie-e! to exist in #rchetypes. 2#se! on the l#/s o% l#ngu#ge un!erlying speech, he speci%ic#lly trie! to unco-er the un!erlying substructure o% -#rious cultur#l phenomen# such #s customs, rites, h#bits, #n! gestures - 4phenomen# /hich themsel-es s#i! to be intrinsic to the cre#tion o% l#ngu#ge4 8<ur?/eil, ,JI2, p. 649. 7e #lso ex#mine! the un!erlying structure o% the myth. 41ts subst#nce !oes not lie in its style, its origin#l music, or its synt#x, but in the story /hich it tells. Fyth is l#ngu#ge, %unctioning on #n especi#lly high le-el /here me#ning succee!s pr#ctic#lly #t Lt#king o%%L %rom the linguistic groun! on /hich it keeps on rolling4 8*`-i-.tr#uss, ,JHH, in 7. 3!#ms E *. .e#rle 8B!s.9, p. I,,9. <ur?/eil 8,JI29 in!ic#tes th#t 2#rthes Kuestione! /hy the !imensions o% time o%ten become irrele-#nt %or cre#ti-e /riters. his Kuestion is -ery simil#r to th#t o% *`-i-.tr#uss, /ho /rote, 4With myth, e-erything becomes possible. 2ut on the other h#n!, this #pp#rent #rbitr#riness is belie! by the #stoun!ing simil#rity bet/een myths collecte! in /i!ely !i%%erent regions.4 *`-i-.tr#uss 8,JHH9 expl#ins this problem, 4 here%ore the problem6 1% the content o% # myth is contingent, ho/ #re /e going to expl#in the %#ct th#t myths throughout the /orl! #re so simil#rA4 8p. I,09. 1t seems n#tur#l th#t 2#rthes /#s #ttr#cte! to *`-i-.tr#ussLs %in!ings o% the simil#rities bet/een trib#l myths in !iscrete cultures, #s /ell #s bet/een structur#l elements in the li-es #n! t#les o% !i-erse tribes. hrough his /ork, *`-i-.tr#uss belie-e! th#t there /oul! be one uni-ers#l system connecting #ll myths #n! #ll societies. 2#rthes, !espite not being # F#rxist, but /orking #s # schol#r /ho /#nte! to re-e#l the %#lse notions in petite-bourgeois i!eology, #!opte! *e-i-.tr#ussLs systemic #ppro#ch 8<ur?/eil, B., ,JI2, p. 64-6J9. 7e expecte! to #n#ly?e #ll p#st #n! %uture cre#ti-e #cts #n! /orks through the l#ngu#ge their #uthors use!, #n! #rgue! th#t these #uthors /ere no more th#n expressions o% their times #n! societies 8<ur?/eil, B., ,JI2, pp. 64-6J9.

=a thes 7oes .u the

2#rthes /#s #ble to exp#n! upon the /ork o% these schol#rs. 7is cl#ssi%ie! concepts, such #s *#ngu#ge #n! .peech, .igni%ie! #n! .igni%ier, .ynt#gm #n! .ystem, )enot#tion #n! Connot#tion 82#rthes, ,J6I, tr#ns. C#pe, ;., p. ,29 exp#n!e! on .#ussureLs /ork. For ex#mple, he #!!e! the concept o% 4the moti-#te!4 #s the mi!!le concept bet/een 4the icon4 #s only one %unction#l me#ning #n! 4the #rbitr#ry4 #s in%inite possible me#nings. 4 he moti-#te! is c#re%ully !e%ine! by #ccepte! con-entions0 n#tion#l %l#gs or uni%orms #re begin to merge into the moti-#te! /hen they gi-e rise to the /e#ring o% ci-ili#n clothes th#t h#-e # complex but ne-ertheless -ery cle#r set o% #ssoci#tions in the p#rticul#r society in /hich they h#-e gro/n up.4 8 ho!y, "., ,JJD, p.GD9 Wikibooks M (1

Ch#pter D 3lso, /hile *`-i-.tr#uss sought %or the uni-ers#lity throughout #ll !i%%erent kin!s o% myths, 2#rthes emph#si?e! on the potenti#l o% !i%%erence #s # role o% l#ngu#ge, especi#lly in his l#ter thought. 2#rthes thus becomes # link bet/een structur#lism #n! post-structur#lism.

#arthes and !ass o!!uni ation

1n Communic#tion .tu!ies, the re#son >ol#n! 2#rthes c#n be consi!ere! #n import#nt schol#r is th#t he #pplie! linguistic rules to gener#l cultur#l co!es, %rom # m#g#?ine 4text4 to #n 4im#ge4 in #!-ertisements. 7is #ppro#ch to cultur#l pro!ucts becomes # goo! ex#mple in to!#yLs Cultur#l .tu!ies, Critic#l Communic#tion #n! -#rious semiotic #n#lyses o% me!i# progr#ms or in +isu#l Communic#tion %iel!. 2ooks most rel#te! to me!i# culture #mong 2#rthesLs /ritings #re Blements o% .emiology 8,J649, the F#shion .ystem 8,J6D9 #n! Fythologies 8,JHD9. hese #re perh#ps the most 4structur#listic4 o% his /orks.

1!ements o. Semio!o7&
Elements of &emiology !oes not #n#ly?e popul#r culture !irectly. >#ther, 2#rthes sho/s his critic#l interest in m#ss culture, /riting #bout the -#lue o% semiologic#l #n#lyses o% m#ss cultur#l pro!ucts in #n er# o% m#ss communic#tion. 4 he !e-elopment o% m#ss communic#tions con%ers p#rticul#r rele-#nce to!#y upon the -#st %iel! o% signi%ying me!i#, Oust /hen the success o% !isciplines such #s linguistics, in%orm#tion theory, %orm#l logic #n! structur#l #nthropology pro-i!e sem#ntic #n#lysis /ith ne/ instruments4 82#rthes, ,J64, p. J9. With Elements of &emiology, 2#rthes intro!uce! %our cl#ssi%ic#tions o% the elements th#t cre#te the process o% semiologic#l #n#lysis. hese cl#ssi%ic#tions #re borro/e! %rom structur#l linguistics, #n! consist o% the c#tegories o% l#ngu#ge #n! speech, signi%ie! #n! signi%ier, synt#gm #n! system, #n! !enot#tion #n! connot#tion 82#rthes, ,J649. 5an7ua7e an% S"eech 2#rthes 8,J649 #pplie! the concepts o% l#ngu#ge, or the p#rt o% the semiologic#l system /hich is #gree! upon by society, #n! speech, or the in!i-i!u#l selection o% symbols, to semiologic#l systems. he #pplic#tion o% these concepts c#n be #pplie! to the semiologic#l stu!y o% the %oo! system. 3ccor!ing to 2#rthes 8,J649, # person is %ree to cre#te their o/n menu, using person#l -#ri#tions in %oo! combin#tions, #n! this /ill become their speech or mess#ge. his is !one /ith the o-er#ll n#tion#l, region#l, #n! soci#l structures o% the l#ngu#ge o% %oo! in min! 82#rthes, ,J649. 2#rthes 8,J649 then exp#n!e! on .#ussureSs terms, by expl#ining th#t l#ngu#ge is not re#lly soci#lly !etermine! by the m#sses, but is sometimes !etermine! by # sm#ll group o% in!i-i!u#ls, some/h#t ch#nging the rel#tionship o% l#ngu#ge #n! speech. 2#rthes 8,J649 cl#ims th#t # semiologic#l system c#n essenti#lly exist in /hich there is l#ngu#ge, but little or no speech. 1n this c#se, 2#rthes 8,J649 belie-es th#t # thir! element c#lle! m#tter, /hich /oul! pro-i!e signi%ic#tion, /oul! nee! to be #!!e! to the l#ngu#ge$speech system. Si7ni.ie an% Si7ni.ie% For .#ussure 8,JHJ9, the signi%ie! /#s # represent#tion o% # concept, /hile the signi%ier /#s use! to represent the soun!-im#ge o% th#t concept. 2#rthes 8,J649 points out th#t the import#nce o% (2 M Communic#tion heory

.emiotics #n! Fyth both the signi%ie! #n! the signi%ier is the rel#tionship bet/een them0 it is /ithin this rel#tionship th#t me#ning is cre#te!. QXth#t the /or!s in the %iel! !eri-e their me#ning only %rom their opposition to one #nother 8usu#lly in p#irs9, #n! th#t i% these oppositions #re preser-e!, the me#ning is un#mbiguousR 82#rthes, ,J64, p. GI9. Cut o% this rel#tionship, the sign is cre#te!. .#ussure 8,JHJ9 consi!ere! the sign to be #rbitr#ry in n#ture, b#se! prim#rily on the rel#tionship bet/een the signi%ie! #n! the signi%ier. 2#rthes 8,J649 expl#ine! th#t the sign c#n no longer be #rbitr#ry /hen semiologic#l systems #re consi!ere!. 1nste#!, 2#rthes sho/s th#t once # sign t#kes on # %unction or use, it /ill g#in its o/n me#ning in the process. QX#s soon #s there is # society, e-ery us#ge is con-erte! into # sign o% itsel%R 82#rthes, ,J64, p. 4,9. he sign c#n #ctu#lly lose its #rbitr#ry n#ture #n! become moti-#te! 82#rthes, ,J649. S&nta7m an% S&stem 2#rthes 8,J649 !e%ines the synt#gm #s # line#r combin#tion o% signs. Within sem#ntic #n#lyses, this /oul! be something like # sentence, /here e#ch term is rel#te! to the other terms /ithin the phr#se 82#rthes, ,J649. he synt#gm is comp#re! to the system, /hich expl#ins #ssoci#tions on the s#me le-el, such #s ho/ cert#in /or!s rel#te to the me#ning o% other /or!s /ithin our min!s, #s in the c#se o% the rel#tions bet/een Qe!uc#tionR #n! Qtr#iningR 82#rthes, ,J64, p. HI9. 2#rthes exp#n!s upon these i!e#s by #pplying them semiologic#lly to -#rious systems, inclu!ing %oo!. With %oo!, the system#tic le-el becomes the -#rious !ishes /ithin # p#rticul#r c#tegory 8i.e. types o% !esserts9, /here#s the synt#gm#tic le-el becomes the menu choices selecte! %or # %ull me#l 82#rthes, ,J649. Denotation an% Connotation he terms !enot#tion #n! connot#tion /ere use! by 2#rthes %or ex#mining the rel#tionships bet/een systems. B#ch semiologic#l system c#n be thought o% #s consisting o% #n expression, # pl#ne o% content, #n! # rel#tion bet/een the t/o 82#rthes, ,J649. 3 connot#tion then ex#mines ho/ one system c#n #ct #s # signi%ier o% this %irst rel#tion, speci%ic#lly ho/ it represents the expression /ithin the %irst system 82#rthes, ,J649. hese elements /ere p#rticul#rly use%ul %or ex#mining rel#tions bet/een systems o% symbols, r#ther th#n Oust rel#tions bet/een elements. )espite the theoretic#l !iscussion, Elements of &emiology o%%ers 2#rthesLs o/n interpret#tion #bout the politic#l or existenti#l con!itions. 7e recommen!s # 4tot#l i!eologic#l !escription4 82#rthes, ,J64, p. 469 o% the culture to 4re!isco-er the #rticul#tions /hich men impose on re#lity4 82#rthes, ,J64, p.HD9. 4.emiology /ill !escribe ho/ re#lity is !i-i!e! up, gi-en me#ning #n! then Ln#tur#li?e!L 82#rthes, pp. 6G-49, #s i% culture /ere n#ture itsel%.4 8>yl#nce, ,JJ4, p. GI9

The 6ashion S&stem

2#rthes most bitterly !enounces consumerism in the F#shion .ystem. 41n the F#shion .ystem, he #ske! ho/ the %#shion mo!el proOects /h#t clothes #re to be /orn 8#n! bought90 /h#t e%%ect 8o% luxury #n! #-#il#bility to #ll9 the expensi-e pro!uction o% the m#g#?ines themsel-es pro!uces on re#!ers0 ho/ color, texture, belts, or h#ts, !epen!ing upon their combin#tion, tr#nsmit mess#ges in rel#tion to morning or e-ening #cti-ities0 #n! ho/ /e thereby le#rn th#t there #re rules o% !ress %or e-ery occ#sion-rules th#t p#r#llel the tr#ns%orm#tions #n! oppositions /e kno/ in l#ngu#ge. 2#rthes expecte! to reconstruct #ll the soci#l implic#tions, co!es, #n! mess#ges hi!!en in the liter#ture on %#shion4 8<ur?/eil, B., ,JI2, p. D29. 3lthough this /ork is /orth/hile in th#t the %#shion m#g#?ine o% m#ss culture c#n be #n#ly?e! Wikibooks M (0

Ch#pter D /ith the s#me metho! #s the so-c#lle! high culture is, 2#rthes %#ile! to !istinguish the commerci#l #n! the popul#r. <ur?/eil 8,JI29 in!ic#tes th#t 2#rthes #lso %#ile! to !istinguish bet/een /h#t is Oust sol! #n! /h#t people #ctu#lly !o /ith it, i.e., /h#t people !o /ith consumer goo!s, #p#rt %rom buying them.8p.DH9 his neg#ti-e #ttitu!e to/#r! m#ss culture #n! consumerism /#s # common ten!ency o% le%tist intellectu#ls in Burope #t th#t time. 1t #lso helps expl#in /hy intellectu#ls #t th#t time c#lle! cultur#l pro!ucts m#ss culture, #n! not popul#r culture.

M&tho!o7ies
ythologies is # compil#tion o% # series o% #rticles, /hich /ere origin#lly publishe! in the m#g#?ine (es (ettre .ouvelles bet/een ,JHG #n! ,JH6. B-en i% it is not # theoretic#l /ork, it is perh#ps the most in%luenti#l o% #ll 2#rthesLs /ritings, p#rticul#rly in rel#tion to Communic#tion .tu!ies. 2#rthesLs biogr#pher e-en suggests th#t in Fr#nce, ythologies in%luence! not Oust Oourn#lists #n! critics, but no-elists #n! the %ilm-m#kers o% the 4'e/ W#-e,4 especi#lly &o!#r! 8>yl#nce, >., ,JJ4, p.4G9. 1n ythologies, inconsistent subOects, such #s /restling, photogr#phs, %ilm or /ine #re #ll tre#te! #s myth. hese !i-erse subOects c#n be boun! together, #s 2#rthes !i! not inten! to t#lk #bout the subOects themsel-es, but to sho/ ho/ their un!erlying mess#ges c#n be circul#te! #n! n#tur#li?e!. he subOects tre#te! in ythologies sh#re # simil#r circul#tion process /ithin m#ss culture. For ex#mple, pro%ession#l /restling c#rries t/o mess#ges, 4/restling #s sport4 #n! 4/restling #s spect#cle48 ho!y, "., ,JJD9. 2#rthes comp#res pro%ession#l /restling /ith &reek the#ter to !emonstr#te th#t #u!iences #re not so much intereste! in #thletic contests #s they #re in # c#th#rtic, F#niche#n per%orm#nce. hese !ouble mess#ges #re sh#re! by the #u!ience #s /ell. 3u!iences #re not only #ccustome! to the con-entions o% /restling but #lso t#ke ple#sure out o% the !ouble n#ture o% /restling. 2#rthes re%lects th#t # /restling m#tch is not merely #n #esthetic #ct but h#s i!eologic#l signi%ic#nce #s /ell, Oust #s is the c#se /ith the re#listic #rt enOoye! by the petit-bourgeois. 1n the c#se o% /ine, he #rgues th#t the /ine is signi%ie! #s o% Frenchness or o% -irility in French culture but in %#ct, the im#ge o% /ine is # mysti%ic#tion. <no/le!ge #bout types o% /ine obscures the %#ct th#t /ine is not so !i%%erent %rom other commo!ities pro!uce! un!er c#pit#lism, #n! l#n!s in 'orth 3%ric# #n! Fuslim l#borers, neither o% /hich #re o% Frenchness, #re exploite! in its pro!uction. 2#rthes 8,JD29 #lso ex#mpli%ie! the #!-ertisement o% so#p in or!er to sho/ such mysti%ic#tion he #!-ertisement comp#res t/o br#n!s /ith e#ch other #n! she!s light on the issue o% selection bet/een t/o br#n!s #s # m#tter o% import#nce. 1t blurs the %#ct th#t both br#n!s #re #ctu#lly pro!uce! by the s#me multin#tion#l comp#ny. hrough these ex#mples in m#ss culture, he suggests the consistent #rgument th#t 4# mess#ge is re#! into some subst#nce, custom or #ttitu!e th#t seeme! to c#rry its o/n Ousti%ic#tion in terms purely o% pr#ctic#l use. he mess#ge thus re-e#le! turns out to be conce#ling the oper#tion o% socio-economic structures th#t reKuire to be !enounce!, both bec#use they #re conce#ling their i!entity #n! bec#use th#t i!entity is inherently exploit#ti-e4 8Forti#ry, ,JJ,, p. 2,9.

*M&th To%a&* in Mythologies

3s the conclu!ing ch#pter in ythologies, 4Fyth o!#y4 combines the -#rious c#ses into # uni%ie! theoretic#l i!e#. 7ere, 2#rthes conceptu#li?es myth #s 4# system o% communic#tion, th#t it is # mess#ge (4 M Communic#tion heory

.emiotics #n! Fyth c#nnot be possibly be #n obOect, # concept, or #n i!e#0 it is # mo!e o% signi%ic#tion, # %orm4 82#rthes, ,JD2, p. ,0J9 3lso, he #n#ly?es the process o% myth concretely, presenting speci%ic ex#mples. 2#se! on .#ussureLs !e%initions, 2#rthes #rgues th#t signi%ic#tion c#n be sep#r#te! into !enot#tion #n! connot#tion. 4)enot#tion is the !escripti-e #n! liter#l le-el o% me#ning sh#re! by most o% members /ithin # culture0 connot#tion, on the other h#n!, is the me#ning gener#te! by connecting signi%iers to the /i!er cultur#l concerns, such #s the belie%s, #ttitu!es, %r#me/orks #n! i!eologies o% # soci#l %orm#tion.4 82#rker, 2000, 6J9 Fyth is the signi%ic#tion in connot#ti-e le-el. 4Where connot#tion h#s become n#tur#li?e! #s hegemonic, th#t is, #ccepte! #s norm#l #n! n#tur#l, is #cts #s conceptu#l m#ps o% me#ning by /hich to m#ke sense o% the /orl!. hese #re myth.4 82#rker, 2000, p. 6J9 1% # cert#in sign is #!opte! repetitiously in the synt#gm#tic#l !imension, this p#rticul#r #!option is seen #s more suit#ble th#n #pplic#tions o% other #ltern#ti-es in the p#r#!igm#tic. hen, the connot#tion o% the sign becomes n#tur#li?e! #n! norm#li?e!. 'tur#li?#tion o% myth is nothing but # cultur#l construct. Fyth is 4# secon!-or!er semiologic#l system. h#t /hich is # sign in the %irst system 8n#mely the #ssoci#ti-e tot#l o% # concept #n! #n im#ge9 becomes # mere signi%ier in the secon!4 82#rthes, ,JD2, p. ,,49 2#rthes !e%ines the sign in the %irst-or!er system, or l#ngu#ge, #s the l#ngu#ge-obOect, #n! the myth #s met#l#ngu#ge. 1n or!er to #!-#nce his #rgument, he uses t/o ex#mples, th#t o% # sentence in *#tin gr#mm#r textbook #n! # photogr#ph o% # bl#ck sol!ier. he signi%ie! o% the sentence #n! the photogr#ph in the %irst-or!er system !is#ppe#rs /hen the sign becomes the %orm %or the concept in the secon!-or!er system. he sentence loses its o/n story #n! becomes Oust # gr#mm#tic#l ex#mple. he %#ctu#l !iscourse #bout the young bl#ck sol!ier is #lso obscure! by the l#ck o% context concerning French imperi#lism. 3ccor!ing to 2#rthesLs t#ble 82#rthes, ,JD2, tr#ns. 3. *e#-ers, p. ,,H9, the ex#mples c#n be !r#/n like belo/. tab!e 1< =a thesGs mo%e! ,.signi%ier 2.signi%ie! *#ngu#ge G. sign .1&'1F1B> 8FC>F9 .1&'1F1B)8CC'CB" 9 F= 7 .1&' 8.1&'1F1C3 1C'9 tab!e 2< e+am"!e 1> 5atin 7 amma *Euia e7o nomino !eo* ,. signi%ie! 2. signi%ie! *#ngu#ge 8Kui# ego nominor leo9 8bec#use my n#me is lion9 G. sign .1&'1F1B> 8FC>F9 .1&'1F1B) 8CC'CB" 9 F= 7 8bec#use my n#me is lion9 81 #m # gr#mm#tic#l ex#mple9 .1&' 8.1&'1F1C3 1C'9 tab!e 0< e+am"!e> "hoto7 a"h *#ngu#ge ,. signi%ier 2. signi%ie! Wikibooks M ((

Ch#pter D 83 bl#ck sol!ier is gi-ing the French s#lute9 G. sign .1&'1F1B> 8FC>F9 .1&'1F1B) 8CC'CB" 9 83 bl#ck sol!ier is 8&re#t French empire, F= 7 gi-ing the French s#lute9 #ll her sons eKu#l, etc.9 .1&' 8.1&'1F1C3 1C'9 he signi%ic#tion o% myth !eletes the history or n#rr#ti-e o% the sign #n! %ills up the empty sp#ce /ith the intentione! ne/ me#ning. 4Fyth is thus not Oust # mess#ge, but # mess#ge th#t is politic#l by !epolitici?ing. 1t turns history into essence, culture into '#ture, #n! obscures the role o% hum#n beings in pro!ucing the structures they inh#bit #n! thus their c#p#city to ch#nge them4 8Fori#rty, ,JJ,, p. 2I9 8photogr#pho% b#lck sol!ier s#luting9

Rheto ic o. the Ima7e

3s 2#rthes s#ys in Fythologies, 4We must here rec#ll th#t the m#teri#ls o% mythic#l speech 8the l#ngu#ge itsel%, photogr#phy, p#inting, posters, ritu#ls, obOects, etc.9, ho/e-er !i%%erent #t the st#rt, #re re!uce! to # pure signi%ying %unction #s soon #s they #re c#ught by myth4 82#rthes, ,JD2, p. ,,49. 7e #pplies his semiologic#l #n#lysis into other -isu#l m#teri#ls. For inst#nce, in the "#n?#ni #!-ertisement #n#ly?e! in 4>hetoric o% the 1m#ge,4 he #n#ly?es three kin!s o% mess#ge6 # linguistic mess#ge, # co!e! iconic mess#ge, #n! # non-co!e! iconic mess#ge 8the cultur#l mess#ge9. 7e #lso re%lects #bout the rel#tionship bet/een linguistic mess#ge #n! im#ge. 7e !e-ise! the concepts o% 4#nchor#ge4 /hich is the %#culty %or the linguistic mess#ge to control the me#ning o% the im#ge, #n! 4rel#y,4 the supporti-e rel#tionship o% text #n! im#ge. 3nchor#ge #n! rel#y #re use%ul conceptu#l tools in #n#ly?ing me!i# pro!ucts such #s ne/s, #!-ertisements, or so#p oper#s.

;Lived in the plural;

Shi.t to "ost9st uctu a!ism
3ccor!ing to m#ny comment#tors, by the en! o% the ,J60s, 2#rthesLs /ork shi%te! %rom structur#lism to post-structur#lism. 3lthough it c#n be -#lue! in th#t it turns theoretic#l reorient#tion %rom the -#lue o% the in!i-i!u#l unit to/#r!s system, %unction #n! structure, structur#lism h#s been critici?e! !ue to its metho!ologic#l limit#tions. /o o% the m#in problems o% structur#lism /ere th#t the o-eremph#sis on ho/ to %unction results in the negligence o% re%lection on history or -#lueOu!gment, #n! #lso th#t it ignores the in!i-i!u#l #gency-p#role, pr#gm#tic etc., %ocusing too much on structure or system-l#ngue, synt#gm#tic. 3s # result, the post-structur#lism school beg#n to ch#llenge the 4obOecti-ity4 /hich /#s #ssume! in l#ngu#ge #s 4# reli#ble y#r!stick %or the me#surement o% other signi%ying system,4 e-en though they #gree! /ith the #rgument o% structur#lism th#t 4#n#lysis o% l#ngu#ge is centr#l to #ny mo!ern intellectu#l proOect4 8>yl#nce, ,JJ4, p. 669 3s >yl#nce 8,JJ49 s#ys, 42#rthesLs structur#lism, #s /ell #s resuming e#rlier themes, cont#ins # number o% his l#ter #nti-structur#list positions.48p.G29 For ex#mple, 4!espite his #greement /ith .#ussureLs concepts, Ll#ngueL #n! Lp#roleL in Elements of &emiology 8,J649, 2#rthes c#sts !oubt on their limit#tion0 he re#li?es th#t it #lso !o/ngr#!es in!i-i!u#l l#ngu#ge use #n! the mo!el is un!e-i#tingly controlling /hich l#ngue controls p#role, #sking Li% e-erything in l#ngue is so rigi!, ho/ !oes ch#nge or () M Communic#tion heory

.emiotics #n! Fyth ne/ /ork come #boutAL4 8>yl#nce, ,JJ,, p. 409. 2#rthes /#s consistently #/#re o% problems o% structur#lism #n! e-entu#lly g#-e up p#rts o% it in his l#ter /orks. 41nste#! o% h#-ing one st#ble !enoti-e me#ning, signs #re s#i! by the l#ter 2#rthes to be polysemic, th#t is, they c#rry m#ny potenti#l me#nings.4 82#rker, 2000, p. D,9 1n his l#ter !#ys, 2#rthes !i%initely emph#si?e! in the !i%%erence r#ther th#n %ocusing on repetition. 7e %ocuses more on the text, #/#re o% the cle#-#ge bet/een /riter #n! /riting. 7is shi%t c#n be un!erstoo! #s # rethinking o% the bi#se! preposition o% the l#ngu#ge systems. 4)espite his #nti-i!e#list -ie/ o% the subOect #s # pro!uct o% cultur#l %orces r#ther th#n #n origin, his he!onistic i!e# o% the bo!y in "le#sure o% the ext 8,JDH9 re-centers the sel% #s # tr#nshistoric#l source o% me#ning.4 87#ney, ,JIJ, in .emiotic#, p. G,G9 his #!mits the rel#ti-e #utonomy o% the p#role %rom the l#ngue. 3t the s#me time, it opens the plur#lity o% me#ning. his is re-e#le! in his !iscussion #bout /riting #n! re#!ing.

W itin7 an% Rea%in7

2#rthes #rgues th#t /riting lies in bet/een the historic#l #n! the person#l. he text is thus the interpl#y bet/een the /riterLs %ree!om #n! society. 43 l#ngu#ge #n! # style #re !#t# prior to #ll problem#tic o% l#ngu#gea but the %orm#l i!entity o% the /riter is truly est#blishe! only outsi!e o% perm#nence o% gr#mm#tic#l norms #n! stylistic constr#ints. 1t thus commits the /riter to m#ni%est #n! communic#te # st#te o% h#ppiness or m#l#ise, #n! links the %orm o% his utter#nce, /hich is #t once norm#l #n! singul#r, to the -#st 7istory o% the Cthers4 82#rthes, ,J6I, p.,40 7#ney, W. ,JIJ, p. G,J9 7is thought #bout re#!ing %uther exp#n!s the potenti#l o% me#ning. 7e sep#r#tes re#!ing into t/o c#tegories, the 4/riterly$script#ble4 #n! the 4re#!erly$ligible.4 he /riterly re#!ing me#ns th#t # re#!er p#rticip#tes #cti-ely in pro!ucing me#nings #s i% he$she re-/rites the text. 4 he text /hich m#kes this #cti-ity possible resists being #ppropri#te! by p#r#phr#se or critic#l comment#ry bec#use it esc#pes con-ention#l c#tegories o% genre, #n! hence c#nnot be re#! #s # represent#tion, c#nnot e-en be re!uce! to # structure.4 8Fori#rty, ,JJ,, p. ,,I9 3 re#!er %in!s ple#sure %rom re#!ing the /riterly text. he re#!erly text is opposite to the /riterly, /hich m#kes the re#!er p#ssi-e in interpreting the text.

Came a 5uci%a
he ple#sure o% interpret#tion by the interpl#y bet/een l#ngue #n! p#role or the history #n! the in!i-i!u#l cre#tion is #lso #pplie! to his specul#tion #bout photogr#phy. Camera (ucida # me!it#tion on the photogr#phic, /#s to be his l#st /ork. 1n this 2#rthes ex#mine! t/o elements th#t %or him comprise! the me#ning o% im#ge, the st#!ium #n! the punctum. he stu!ium o% # photogr#ph presents me#nings /hich #re cultur#lly co!e!, #n! correspon!s to the photogr#phLs symbolic me#ning. he punctum, on the other h#n!, !isturbs the ob-ious me#ning in photogr#phs. 1t 4puntu#tes4 the me#ning o% the photogr#ph. For ex#mple, in # *e/is 7ine photo, 2#rthes points to # girlLs b#n!#ge! %inger, #n! # boyLs coll#r. he problem, #s 2#rthes /#s #/#re, is th#t /hen 2#rthes points out these !et#ils, they mo-e %rom the st#tus o% punctum to th#t o% stu!ium 83llen, 20G, pp. ,26-2D9. 3s the /riterly re#!ing touches the cre#ti-e p#rticip#tion o% re#!ers in interpreting the text, the im#ge #lso c#n be the /riterly text /hich #rouses the ple#sure o% interpret#tion o% #ppreci#tor th#nks to puctum. 3ccor!ing to 2#rthes, stu!ium is #l/#ys co!e!, /hile punctum is not. Wikibooks M (-

Ch#pter D B-en though they ret#in their heterogeneity to e#ch other, they #re not oppose! to e#ch other. he 4subtle beyon!4 o% the punctum, the unco!e! beyon!, exists /ith the 4#l/#ys co!e!4 o% the st#!ium. 8)erri!#, ,JI,, in <night, 2000, pp. ,G0-,G,9

Con lusion
>ol#n! 2#rthes h#! li-e! /ith his mother %or much o% his li%e. 3%ter her !e#th in ,JDD he re%lecte!, 4From no/ on 1 coul! !o no more th#n #/#it my tot#l, un!i#lectic#l !e#th4 8cite! in 3llen, 200G, ,G49. 1n F#rch o% ,JI0 he /#s struck by # l#un!ry truck, #n! !ie! #%ter # month in hospit#l. 2#rthesLs thought is inter-rel#te! /ith the #rguments o% other post-structur#lists. *#ter in his c#reer 2#rthes sought to !e%ine l#ngue #n! p#role #s !iscrete but intermingle! entities. he interpl#y o% the contr#!ictory elements h#ppens bet/een /riter #n! history, text #n! #u!ience, or the structure! #n! the #brupt /i!ens the hori?on o% me#ning. 2#rthes is enigm#tic in th#t both the %ocus o% his /ork #n! /riting style #re h#r! to concretely !e%ine. 7e 4li-e! in the plur#l4 8)erri!#, ,JI,, in ). <night, 8e!.9, p. ,G29 3s o!oro- 8,JI,9 commente!, 4'o one /oul! e-er #g#in think o% 2#rthes #s # semiologist, # sociologist, # linguist, e-en though he might h#-e lent his -oice to e#ch o% those %igures in succession0 nor /oul! they think o% him #s philosopher or # LtheoristL4 8in ). <night 8e!.9 p. ,2H9. 2#rthes nonetheless /#s # semiologist, sociologist, linguist #n! # theorist. 2#rthes is import#nt to the %iel! o% Critic#l Communic#tion in th#t he #pplie! # semiologic#l #ppro#ch to me!i# culture. 7is thought c#n #lso be reg#r!e! #s # %oun!#tion %or empiric#l rese#rch #bout the rel#tionship bet/een mess#ges #n! #u!iences, in th#t he #rgue! %or the plur#lity o% the mess#ge me#ning pro!uce! through the inter/ork o% structure #n! #gency.

(/ M Communic#tion heory

Cr#lity #n! *iter#cy

/ O RA5IT2

AND

5 IT1RAC2

Walter %ng
li-e -ersion N !iscussion N e!it lesson N comment N report #n error N #sk # Kuestion his p#per ser-es #s #n #n#lysis o% the contribution o% W#lter ;. Cng, .. ;. 1t ser-es #s #n o-er-ie/ o% his /ork #s it rel#tes to the !iscipline o% Communic#tion. he ch#pter !r#/s he#-ily %rom the /ork o% .oukup 820049 #n! F#rrell 820009 #s their contribution to the schol#r is impressi-e #n! thorough. .peci%ic#lly, the ch#pter !r#/s %rom the %r#me/ork o% contribution %rom .oukupSs 820049 #rticle, /hich i!enti%ies CngSs contribution in %i-e speci%ic /#ys throughout # 60 ye#r #c#!emic c#reer. 1n #!!ition to CngSs contribution to the !iscipline, the p#per #lso ser-es to ex#mine the in%luence /iel!e! by Cng o-er his c#reer on other schol#rs. 1t #lso ser-es to ex#mine the in%luence peers on CngSs c#reer.

An Histori al Review o' Ong

he !iscipline o% Communic#tion is %ille! /ith schol#rs /ho h#-e m#!e # signi%ic#nt contribution to #!-#ncing the %iel!. W#lter ;. Cng, .. ;. /oul! cert#inly h#-e to be mentione! #s being one in such # c#tegory o% schol#rs. 1n or!er to !e-elop #n #ppreci#tion %or him #s # schol#r it is import#nt to kno/ /here he c#me %rom. here #re %e/ /ho h#-e such # uniKue b#ckgroun!. 7e /#s # schol#r /ho not only pursue! the #c#!emic en! o% e!uc#tion, but #lso pursue! # %orm#l spiritu#l e!uc#tion. 7is b#ckgroun! is impressi-e to re#! #c#!emic#lly6 2. 3. in Cl#ssics 8>ockhurst College, ,JGG90 2. 3. in "hilosophy 8.t. *ouis (ni-ersity, ,J4,90 heology !egree 8.t. *ouis (ni-ersity, ,J4I90 F. 3. in Bnglish 8.t. *ouis (ni-ersity, ,J4,90 "h. ). in Bnglish 87#r-#r!, ,JH49 8.oukup, 20049. he resume o% !egrees is /orth mentioning bec#use it pro-i!es # b#ck!rop o% the !i-ersity o% %orm#l e!uc#tion th#t Cng h#! #chie-e! throughout his li%etime. 3ccor!ing to Wikipe!i#, >e-eren! Cng /#s, Q# /orl!-cl#ss thinker kno/n to!#y #s #n honor#ry guru #mong technophiles, /#s # ;esuit priest, pro%essor o% Bnglish liter#ture, cultur#l #n! religions histori#n, linguist, #n! philosopherR 8>etrie-e! .eptember G0, 200H, %rom http6$$en./ikipe!i#.org$/iki$W#lter@Cng9. White 8#s cite! in F#rrell, 20009 %urther i!enti%ie! th#t CngSs contribution to schol#rship touche! on %i-e speci%ic #re#s6 liter#ry stu!ies, communic#tion, theology #n! religious stu!ies, psychology, intellectu#l history, #n! linguistics. he bro#! spectrum o% kno/le!ge pro!uce! by such # uniKue in!i-i!u#l is /h#t %urther promotes con-ers#tion #bout his in%luence #n! his leg#cy o-er time.

4ra!ing the Chapter

CngSs m#ny contributions to the !iscipline o-er his 60-ye#r c#reer c#nnot be e#sily con!ense! into # brie% ch#pter. .oukup 820049 i!enti%ie! %i-e speci%ic p#r#meters o% his contribution th#t this ch#pter /ill #!opt %or %r#ming purposes6 historic#l stu!ies o% rhetoric0 -isu#l im#ges #n! h#bits o% thought0 the /or!0 st#ges o% communic#tion me!i#0 #n! %in#lly, !igit#l me!i# #n! hermeneutics. hese contributions tie into the stu!y o% communic#tion. 1n #!!ition to the /ork o% .oukup, the ch#pter /ill #lso !r#/ %rom the insight o% F#rrell 820009. 2oth schol#rs pro-i!e excellent comment#ry on Cng #n! his in%luence on communic#tion #n! rel#te! !isciplines. 1nter/o-en /ithin the ch#pter /ill be the mention o% other schol#rs /ho /ere seen to be in%luences, peers, #n! un!erstu!ies o% Cng. he re#lity o% CngSs leg#cy is Wikibooks M (3

Ch#pter I # strong test#ment to # soli! c#reer in schol#rship.

Ong and His Histori al 6tudies o' Rhetori

1n #n inter-ie/ /ith .oukup 8person#l communic#tion, .eptember ,6, 200H9 it is cle#r th#t the %r#me! p#r#meters o% CngSs contribution to the !iscipline #re connecte! to the !e-elopment o% his #c#!emic c#reer. 1t is import#nt to note #t this point th#t m#pping CngSs c#reer #c#!emic#lly through #n historic p#r#!igm /oul! ser-e the re#!er best. Cne c#n get # better %eel %or the !e-elopment o% his thought processes o-er time #s /ell #s #n un!erst#n!ing o% those /ho in%luence! 8or /ere in%luence! by him9 #long the /#y. 3 st#rting point /oul! bring us to CngSs ex#min#tion o% rhetoric through historic#l %r#mes. CngSs 7#r-#r! !issert#tion %ocuse! on schol#r "eter >#mus 8,H,H-,HD29, # ,6th century "#risi#n pro%essor #n! e!uc#tion#l re%ormer 8.oukup, 20049. While #t 7#r-#r!, Cng %ocuse! on >#musS interest in the !e-elopment o% the printing press #n! his %ocus on the Kuestion o% i% /e shoul! be re-thinking the /#y in /hich rhetoric /#s t#ught. .oukup summ#ri?e! CngLs %ocus on >#mus #n! his stu!ies o% rhetoric6
he stu!y o% >#mus pl#ys # centr#l role in CngSs thinking #bout communic#tion, one th#t exten!s %#r beyon! the history o% rhetoric. From cl#ssic#l times through the >en#iss#nce, rhetoric !e%ine! not only ho/ people spoke, but ho/ people #n#ly?e! #n! sol-e! problems. 1n m#ny /#ys, bec#use rhetoric more or less !e%ine! e!uc#tion, it !e%ine!, through e!uc#tion, the !omin#nt /#ys o% thinking. .e-er#l ch#nges occurre! shortly be%ore or !uring >#musSs li%etime. Cng notice! t/o key ch#nges in /estern thought, m#ni%est in >#musSs /riting6 # shi%t #/#y %rom rhetoric 8/ith its emph#sis on prob#ble kno/le!ge9 to logic 8/ith its emph#sis on proo%s #n! truth90 # shi%t %rom he#ring spoken #rgument#tion to see # /ritten !emonstr#tion. 3n! Cng notice! ho/ printing ch#nge! the school en-ironment. 1t /#s here th#t Cng %irst m#!e the connection bet/een communic#tion %orm 8he#ring, seeing9, communic#tion me!i#, #n! thought processes. 82004, p. 49

>#mus /#s # p#rt o% something th#t Cng %oun! interesting. Western thought /#s m#king # tr#nsition #/#y %rom rhetoric th#t coul! be seen in terms o% logic#l prob#bility in !iscussion, to logic th#t /#s groun!e! more in seeking concrete truth #n! proo% %or re#soning. 3 goo! resource concerning the history o% rhetoric #n! Western thinking comes %rom the /ork o% the e!itors &ol!en, 2erKuist, Colem#n E .proule 820049. he text m#ps the !e-elopment o% rhetoric /ithin # /estern context o% thinking, pro-i!ing # gre#t o-er-ie/ o% the history o% rhetoric in the /est. Further, the i!e# o% /ritten !emonstr#tion #s oppose! to spoken #rgument#tion /#s in some /#ys # shi%t o% pre%erence. 3 re-ie/ o% >#mist >hetoric %rom Cng 8,JHI#9 !emonstr#te! # sort o% m#ppe! expl#n#tion o% the tr#nsition o% rhetoric 8speci%ic#lly, >#mist >hetoric is Ch#pter /el-e9. .oukup 820049 mentione! it extensi-ely. he tr#nsition#l !e-elopment o% rhetoric in comp#rison to logic /#s #nything but # source o% #bsolute cl#rity. F#rrell 820009 %urther note! th#t such #n #n#lysis %rom Cng /#s %ocuse! on the contr#st o% expression th#t !e#lt /ith both soun! #n! sight. 1t /oul! be %oolish to consi!er the tr#nsition smooth #n! m#rke!. he shi%t in cultur#l le#rning is one th#t m#ppe! o-er time. 1t /#s more # process th#n # m#rke! ch#sm or !i-i!e. Cng 8,JD,#9 st#te! th#t, Qthere is no tot#l theoretic#l st#tement o% the n#ture o% either rhetoric or logic, much less their interrel#tion. Concei-#bly such # st#tement might %in#lly be #chie-e! #t the en! o% history, /hen rhetoric #n! logic /oul! be outmo!e!R 8p. D9. CngSs comment seeme! more in line /ith the i!e# th#t hin!sight #n! retrospect /ill h#-e the %in#l s#y /hen either o% the #ppro#ches to kno/le!ge #n! le#rning /oul! seem obsolete. 7istoric#lly, >#mus !eri-e! # goo! !e#l o% thought strongly rel#ti-e to the tr#nsition#l shi%t %rom th#t o% logic to proo%. 1n some respects, Cng s#/ >#mus #s # pro!uct o% the times in /hich he li-e!. .oukup 820049 commente!6
>#mus /#s #bo-e #ll # te#cher #n! th#t sh#pe! his #ppro#ch to !e-eloping both his !i#lectic #n! his rhetoric

)4 M Communic#tion heory

Cr#lity #n! *iter#cy

in #n #ge /hen printing ch#nge! the school en-ironment. 7e li-e! #t # time /hen science #lso ch#nge! the le#rning en-ironment. 8p.69

Cng 8,JHI#, ,JHIb9 note! the tr#nsition o% >#mus #/#y %rom kno/le!ge through the tr#!ition#l %orm o% instruction#l te#ching to th#t o% obOects #n! !i#gr#ms. he thought o% kno/le!ge !eri-e! through !i#gr#ms #n! obOects is the !irection th#t >#mus seeme! he#!e! to/#r!. 1nclusi-e /ithin this shi%t is the #/#reness o% ho/ /e #rri-e #t kno/le!ge. he pe!#gogic#l shi%t here is import#nt. 1n the tr#nsition, kno/le!ge c#n be !eri-e! %rom the -isu#l perspecti-e #s /ell #s th#t o% the or#l perspecti-e. .eeing !i#gr#ms, obOects, #n! symbols in print to #rri-e #t kno/le!ge is /h#t ultim#tely /h#t Cng %ocuse! in on. Fuch o% this c#n be #ttribute! to the !e-elopment #n in-ention th#t rocke! society in its #bility to le#rn, !istribute, #n! store kno/le!ge in >#musSs li%etime^the printing press. "rinting /#s ch#nging ho/ people le#rne!, #n! it /#s h#ppening in >#musSs li%etime. 1n terms o% /hy Cng %ocuse! in on this p#rticul#r #spect, something %rom his cultur#l$spiritu#l b#ckgroun! beg#n to emerge. Cng h#! # b#ckgroun! in biblic#l stu!ies 8he /#s # >om#n C#tholic priest9. 7e /#s intereste! /ith the !i%%erence in le#rning #ttribute! to 7ebre/ culture #n! to &reek #n! *#tin culture 8". .oukup, person#l communic#tion, .eptember ,6, 200H9. .oukup commente! on the i!e# th#t 7ebre/ culture /#s much more %ocuse! on soun! #n! the spoken /or!. 7e %urther mentione! th#t the &reek #n! *#tin culture o% le#rning /#s more -isu#l, %ocuse! on im#ge. Cng %ocuse! in on ho/ >#mus #n#ly?e! the tr#nsition #/#y %rom or#l #s # prim#ry %orm o% comprehension to liter#te #n! the incorpor#tion o% -isu#l im#ges. >#mus bec#me entrenche! /ith the #spect o% printing #n! /#s /i!ely seen #s # publishing #n! pe!#gogic#l guru 8.oukup, 20049. his %ocus o% tr#ns%orm#tion o% kno/le!ge bec#me # continue! theme th#t he /oul! /ork closely /ith #n! !e-elop %urther throughout his c#reer. 3 brie% Kuote %rom Cng 8,J6I9 m#!e this #pp#rent6
We h#-e re#che! # perio! to!#y /hen the #ccumul#tion o% kno/le!ge h#s m#!e possible insights o% ne/ cl#rity #n! !epth into the history o% kno/le!ge itsel%. &ro/th o% kno/le!ge soon pro!uces gro/th in kno/le!ge #bout kno/le!ge, its constitution, #n! its history, %or kno/le!ge is o% itsel% re%lecti-e. &i-en time, it /ill try to expl#in not only the /orl! but itsel% more #n! more. 8p. I9

CngLs #ssessment o% >#mus is exh#usti-e. 1t is strongly encour#ge! th#t i% the re#!er %in!s # gre#ter interest in this p#rticul#r #re# o% comment#ry, they shoul! seek out .oukupSs 820049 #rticle #s /ell #s # copy o% CngSs !issert#tion #n! #!!ition#l comment#ry. 7is contribution to the ex#min#tion o% rhetoric is #m#?ing. Cng /#s impressi-e in his #n#lysis o% >#mus #n! the contribution he m#!e to the !e-elopment o% kno/le!ge, prim#rily through # tr#nsition %rom or#lity to liter#cy -i# the signi%ic#nt !e-elopment o% the printing press. .o po/er%ul #n! striking /#s CngSs #n#lysis o% >#mus th#t Fc*uh#n 8,J629 cite! him extensi-ely in his in%luenti#l book, The 0uten#erg 0ala>y+ The a$ing of Typographic an. Fc*uh#n is # centr#l %igure in the !iscipline, #n! /#s instrument#l in gui!ing Cng in the mo-e to 7#r-#r! /here he pursue! his "h.). in Bnglish. >e%er to the /ork Fc*uh#n 8,J62, ,J649 #n! 'eil 8,JJG9 reg#r!ing Fc*uh#n, #s he is /i!ely instrument#l in #!-#ncing the %iel!. he in%luence o% CngSs thoughts rel#ti-e to the history o% rhetoric c#n be %elt e-en to!#y. he /ork o% "oster 820009, Foss 820049, =oungkin 8,JJH9, <#u%er E 2utler 8,JJ69 ser-e #s ex#mples o% m#ny schol#rs /ho h#-e %ollo/e! #n! contribute! %urther to CngSs #ssessment o% rhetoric. here is much more th#t coul! be s#i! reg#r!ing this section o% CngSs in%luence #n! schol#rship. 7o/e-er, there is more th#t must be s#i! in !i%%erent #re#s reg#r!ing CngSs in%luence in 60 ye#rs o% /ork.

Wikibooks M )1

Ch#pter I

<isual I!ages and Ha%its o' Thought

Cng /ent on %rom his !issert#tion to le#-e # r#ther l#rge impression on the !iscipline. 3s touche! upon brie%ly in the comment#ry o% his #n#lysis o% >#mus, Cng beg#n to %ocus on the shi%t %rom or#l to -isu#l in le#rning. 3s .oukup 820049 notes, rhetoric sh#pe! the thought process o% society through its use in e!uc#tion. 3s # pe!#gogic#l tool, it helpe! people cre#te #n! tr#nsmit kno/le!ge. C-er time ho/e-er, the process o% le#rning #n! obt#ining kno/le!ge #n! in%orm#tion beg#n to look !i%%erent. his section /ill %ocus on the tr#ns%orm#tion o% le#rning #n! kno/le!ge throughout time. C-er time, the /#y /e le#rn h#s ch#nge!. Cng 8,J62#9 /#s -ery intereste! in this, p#rticul#rly /hen it c#me to #n#ly?ing # tr#ns%orm#tion o% kno/le!ge %rom th#t o% spoken /or! to th#t o% text6
1n m#ny /#ys, the gre#test shi%t in the /#y o% concei-ing kno/le!ge bet/een the #ncient #n! the mo!ern /orl! t#kes pl#ce in the mo-ement %rom # pole /here kno/le!ge is concei-e! o% in terms o% !iscourse #n! he#ring #n! persons to one /here it is concei-e! o% in terms o% obser-#tion #n! sight #n! obOects. his shi%t !omin#tes #ll others in Western intellectu#l history, #n! #s comp#re! to it, the suppose! shi%t %rom # !e!ucti-e to #n in!ucti-e metho! p#les into insigni%ic#nce. For, in terms o% this shi%t, the coming into prominence o% !e!uction, /hich must be thought o% in terms o% -isu#l, not #u!itory, #n#logies^the [!r#/ingS o% conclusions, #n! so on, not the [he#ringS o% # m#ster^is #lre#!y # shi%t to/#r! the -isu#l #n! # prep#r#tory step %or in!uction, %rom /hich !e!uction /#s ne-er entirely sep#r#te! #nyho/. .tress on in!uction %ollo/s the stress on !e!uction #s m#ni%esting # still %urther -isu#li?#tion in the #ppro#ch to kno/le!ge, /ith t#ctics b#se! on [obser-#tion,S #n! #ppro#ch pre%er#bly through sight. 8pp. D0-D,9

*e#rning in the Western tr#!ition shi%te! %rom being centere! on !iscourse to obser-#tion #n! sight, bringing rhetoric #n! logic together. >hetoric#l pe!ogogy relie! on !iscourse #n! #pprenticeship /ith # m#ster te#cher. he shi%t to obser-#tion#l #ppro#ches #llo/e! %or collecti-e gro/th o% kno/le!ge, r#ther th#n reli#nce on # group o% e#rlier 4m#sters.4 3s the process o% le#rning !e-elops, the #bility %or those to not simply le#rn %rom # m#ster, but to le#rn %rom obser-#tion #n! !r#/ing conclusions promotes logic r#ther th#n !iscourse. *ike/ise, there e-ol-es # shi%t in %ocus %rom the gui!ing te#cher to the #utonomous le#rner. his #n#lysis /#s only one o% # number o% re%ormist critiKues o% e!uc#tion0 such re%orms #re common throughout history. 3s Cng 8,J62b9 pointe! out6
B-erybo!y to!#y, it seems, /#nts to re%orm e!uc#tion. 1t /oul! be interesting i% this #mbition /ere # m#rk o% our times. 2ut it is not, %or #n #mbition to re%orm e!uc#tion is %oun! in most o% the #ges kno/n to ci-ili?#tion. 8p. ,4J9

When Cng #n#ly?e! >#mus in terms o% the tr#nsition o% kno/le!ge %rom th#t o% rhetoric to logic, there is # sense o% un!erst#n!ing th#t kno/le!ge %r#me! in rhetoric must c#use the le#rning culture to remember /or!s. 1n other /or!s, /hen cultures #re prim#rily le#rning through /or!s, the import#nce o% hol!ing to /or!s is imper#ti-e. 7#-elock 8,J6G9, # contempor#ry o% Cng, commente! on repetition #s o% extreme import#nce in or#l culture. Cng /oul! #gree /ith 7#-elockSs #ssessment 8.oukup, 20049. When cultures emph#si?e rhetoric #s the prim#ry %orm o% le#rning, it is o% #bsolute import#nce th#t the /or!s o% import#nce be sei?e! upon #n! remembere!, %or th#t is /here le#rning t#kes pl#ce. 3n #n#lysis o% /here Cng !r#/s this tr#nsition o% le#rning seems most prominent in the >en#iss#nce 8 h#t this is # comment#ry on Western le#rning. he /riter #ckno/le!ges # -#riety o% other types o% le#rning, but CngSs comment#ry on the >en#iss#nce %ocuses on Western le#rning9. he m#in tr#nsition o% le#rning th#t t#kes pl#ce here is one %rom the emph#sis o% rec#ll to the #bility to re%er to text 8.oukup, 20049. he emph#sis on text #s oppose! to or#l rec#ll coul! ser-e to exp#n! the b#se o% kno/le!ge in #n exponenti#l /#y. he process o% communic#ting #n! ret#ining in%orm#tion /#s not #bout /h#t one might be #ble to store /ithin the in!i-i!u#l min!, but the i!e# o% re%erring to text #s # source o% in%orm#tion #n! kno/le!ge truly ser-e! to ch#nge # culture m#king such # tr#nsition. his )2 M Communic#tion heory

Cr#lity #n! *iter#cy /#s the c#se o% the >en#iss#nce. *e#rning took on ne/ %orms o% -isu#l recognition #n! rec#ll /hich Cng 8,JDD#9 el#bor#te! on %urther #n! terme! #s being # sort o% -isu#l retrie-#l. 3s the #bility to obt#in kno/le!ge #n! to le#rn ch#nge! in such # /#y #s mentione! #bo-e the b#se r#te #t /hich kno/le!ge /#s obt#ine! ch#nge!. he #ppro#ch to obt#ining in%orm#tion /#s !i%%erent. 'o longer !i! pressure resi!e /ithin in!i-i!u#l rec#ll, but the #bility to rec#ll text bec#me more o% # %ocus. 1n essence, the >en#iss#nce m#!e # signi%ic#nt ch#nge in the #ppro#ch to le#rning #n! the !issemin#tion o% kno/le!ge. 1n # r#ther interesting sort o% comment#ry, Cng 8,JDDb9 /rote #bout ho/ our expression o% /or!s h#s ch#nge! to in!ic#te th#t /e #re more o% # -isu#l culture. .oukup 820049 st#te!6
Cng summ#ri?es the e%%ects o% -isu#lism on thinking, going so %#r #s to sho/ its history in the -oc#bul#ries /e use. 3s /ith rhetoric, the /#y /e t#lk re-e#ls, in some /#ys the /#y /e think. 7is list o% -isu#l /or!s [use! in thinking o% intellect #n! its /orkS inclu!es [insight, intuition, theory, i!e#, e-i!ence, species, specul#tion, suspicion, cle#r, m#ke out, obser-e, represent, sho/, explic#te, #n#ly?e, !iscern, !istinct, %orm, outline, pl#n, %iel! o% kno/le!ge, obOectS #n! m#ny others. 8p. I9

he use o% such /or!s re%lects the -isu#l #n! logic#l %r#me o% le#rning in Western society. he /or!s #re m#rke! /ith -isu#l represent#tion o% obt#ining kno/le!ge. hey re%lect # sort o% m#pping out th#t t#kes pl#ce in pro-i!ing # %r#me/ork o% le#rning #n! comprehension. >e#li?ing the thought process th#t goes into m#pping this sort o% !i%%erenti#tion in le#rning #n! %ostering kno/le!ge c#uses one to #ppreci#te the min! th#t Cng possesse! in coming to such # conclusion. F#igley 8,JJI9 mentione! Cng #n! the /orks o% others m#ppe! to the !e-elopment o% -isu#l thought #n! the !ichotomy o% or#l -ersus -isu#l. Within the #rticle, F#igley cite! the /orks o% other schol#rs linke! to Cng #n! this p#rticul#r subOect m#tter /orth noting. he /ork o% &oo!y 8,JDD9, &oo!y E W#tt 8,J6G9, 1nnis 8,JH,9, #n! 7#-elock 8,JI29 #re /orth noting. When it comes to i!e# o% the communic#tion #n! le#rning 8p#rticul#rly the !e-elopment o% the -isu#l9, &oo!y, 1nnis, #n! 7#-elock come up #s /ell #n! coul! be seen #s peers /orking in #n! #roun! the s#me time #s one #nother in these p#rticul#r #re#s. he /ork #ttribute! to the schol#rs #bo-e syncs /ell /ith the !e-elopment o% culture %rom or#l 8le#rning through soun!9 to liter#te 8le#rning through sight #n! print9, /hich is #t the he#rt o% CngSs 8,JI29 text.

The *ord
While much o% the %ocus in the %irst couple o% sections o% this ch#pter %ocuses in on # sort o% tr#ns%orm#tion %rom or#l to -isu#l, Cng m#int#ine! # ste#!%#st #ppreci#tion %or the import#nce o% the /or! #n! /h#t surroun!s it. he soun! #ssoci#te! /ith our use o% /or!s is still # %oc#l point o% schol#rship. Cng /#s Kuite p#rticul#r in %ocusing on /or!s, their soun!, #n! /h#t they in %#ct seeme! to re-e#l #bout the interior con!ition o% the in!i-i!u#l 8.oukup, 20049. Cng 8,J62c9 st#te!6
here is, in!ee!, no /#y %or # cry to completely exteriori?e itsel%. 3 m#rk m#!e by our h#n! /ill rem#in /hen /e #re gone. 2ut /hen the interior^e-en the physic#l, corpore#l interior, #s /ell #s the spiritu#l interior o% consciousness^%rom /hich # cry is emitte! ce#ses to %unction #s #n interior, the cry itsel% h#s perishe!. o #pprehen! /h#t # person h#s pro!uce! in sp#ce^# bit o% /riting, # picture^is not #t #ll to be sure th#t he is #li-e. o he#r his -oice 8pro-i!e! it is not repro!uce! %rom # %ro?en sp#ti#l !esign on # phonogr#ph !isc or t#pe9 is to be sure. 8p. 2I9

.oukup 820049 pointe! out the signi%ic#nce o% the interior #s it rel#te! to Cng. Bssenti#lly, the interior re%ers to /h#t is h#ppening /ithin the in!i-i!u#l. 3 glimpse o% the interior c#n be re-e#le! to Wikibooks M )0

Ch#pter I us #s # society through the /or!s #n! soun!s coming up %rom out o% the in!i-i!u#l. 1t m#y not completely re%lect the con!ition /ithin the in!i-i!u#l, but it ser-es to gi-e us insight. CngSs comment#ry o% the /or! is occurre! !uring # perio! o% time /hen other schol#rs /ere touching on simil#r i!e#s. *or! 8,J609 #n! 7#-elock 8,J6G9 /ere mentione! in F#rrellSs 820009 comment#ry o% Cng, seeing him #s # sort o% cultur#l rel#ti-ist. *or! 8,J609 -isite! the issue o% per%orm#nce rel#ti-e to storytelling in #n or#l tr#!ition. 7#-elockSs 8,J6G9 /ork !e#lt /ith issues -ery simil#r to Cng #n! the /or!, but more #pplie! to the #re# o% poetics. 7e#-ily entrenche! in the /ork is #n emph#sis on the or#l, /hich rel#tes to CngSs comment#ry #bout the /or!. .oukup 820049 mentione! th#t Cng 8,J62#9 pro!uce! striking comment#ry on the hum#n -oice #s being one o% #n in-#sion into the #tmosphere. he thought o% the -oice #n! /or! through this line o% thinking is one th#t is r#ther sel%-re-e#ling. Bssenti#lly, the -oice coming %rom out o% the interior o% the in!i-i!u#l re-e#ls something o% th#t person. 1t is through such re-e#ling th#t in!i-i!u#ls connect /ith one #nother. his is #n import#nt #spect th#t Cng /oul! not h#-e us miss. his comment#ry o% interiority #n! soun! o% the /or! probes the issue o% #uthenticity. 7o/ something comes out is telling o% the %eeling or moo! #ssoci#te! /ith the /or!. When consi!ering prior Cng comment#ry rel#ti-e to >#mus #n! the !e-elopment o% le#rning %rom soun! to -isu#l, it is interesting to see th#t Cng /ent b#ck to the perspecti-e o% l#ngu#ge #n! soun! #n! stresse! the import#nce o% in-estig#ting soun! #ssoci#te! /ith the /or!. his is # goo! remin!er o% the i!e# th#t soun! is still # rele-#nt #n! import#nt point o% stu!y. While stressing th#t such %ocus is not sem#ntics or /or!pl#y, Cng #ckno/le!ge! th#t /hile one c#n !r#/ out # lot %rom the process #n! experience o% communic#tion through in-estig#ting soun!, -oice, /or!, #n! interiority, the %#ct th#t there coul! be more going on th#n /h#t he coul! conclu!e is something th#t he sense! 8.oukup, 20049. his #re# o% %ocus %or Cng re-e#le! his linguistic si!e o% schol#rship. &i-en !iscipline cross-o-er in communic#tion, it still ser-es #s # rele-#nt piece o% !iscussion #n! contribution. Further #!-#ncing the concept o% /or! #n! soun!, Cng beg#n to !r#/ %rom # couple o% schol#rs 8some #lre#!y mentione! #bo-e9 /ho /oul! pro-e to be peers. he /ork o% 7#-elock 8,J6G9 #n! *or! 8,J609 /#s mentione! e#rlier, but it is #lso /orth noting CngSs !r#/ %rom Fc*uh#n 8,J629 #n! "#rry 8,J2I9. .oukup 820049 i!enti%ie! the contribution o% such schol#rs to CngSs /ork. 7#-elock 8,J6G9 rein%orce! CngSs #ssessment o% the !e-elopment o% le#rning in his #n#lysis o% >#mus. he i!e# th#t the tr#nsition o% le#rning /ent %rom th#t o% or#l to /ritten is something th#t 7#-elock notice!. From th#t, he commente! on ho/ th#t essenti#lly ch#nge! the p#ttern o% thought process. his i!e# ties b#ck into CngSs 8,JHI#9 #ssessment o% the tr#nsition#l !e-elopment o% rhetoric to logic. While the shi%t seeme! to be # gr#!u#l one /ithout #n #bsolute m#rk o% !istinction, it still imp#cte! the process o% thought. "#rry 8,J2I9 #n! *or! 8,J609 stu!ie! the process o% thought #n! rec#ll in poetics, the /#y in /hich Cng stu!ie! rhetoric 8.oukup, 20049. Fin#lly, #s # test#ment to Cng e#rning the respect o% %ello/ schol#rs, Fc*uh#n 8,J649 !re/ he#-ily %rom CngSs 8,JHI#9 /ork on >#mus. Fentione! brie%ly e#rlier in the ch#pter, Fc*uh#n is /i!ely seen #s #n in%luenti#l schol#r in the !iscipline o% Communic#tion. Fc*uh#n, in some respects, /#s #n in%luenti#l %#ctor in pushing Cng %or/#r! in his rese#rch en!e#-ors. 1n tr#cing the schol#rship o% Cng, his input on the /ork o% Fc*uh#n 8Cng, ,JH29 /#s subst#nti#l. Fc*uh#n s#/ # goo! !e#l o% potenti#l in the /ork o% Cng. 7e super-ise! CngSs thesis #n! #t the beginning o% CngSs 8,JHIb9 close %ollo/-up to his !issert#tion, he p#ys tribute to Fc*uh#n by /riting, QFor 7erbert F#rsh#ll Fc*uh#n /ho st#rte! #ll thisR 8!e!ic#tion9. While they /ere simil#r in #ge, Fc*uh#n /#s seen #s #n in%luenti#l %#ctor in encour#ging Cng in the !irection th#t he !i! 8". .oukup, person#l communic#tion, .eptember ,6, 200H9. Cng continue! %urther in his comment#ry on the /or!. 3s he probe! the /or! #n! in-estig#te! %urther, .oukup 820049 pointe! out th#t he intro!uce! the concept o% Qthe sensorium.R Bssenti#lly, this !e#lt /ith using hum#n senses #n! experience to communic#te. his /#s intro!uce! by Cng 8,J6D#9 in /h#t /#s kno/n #s his erry *ectures #t =#le (ni-ersity. he lectures 8or#l9 /ere boun! #n! put into print. 1n some respects, th#t st#tement is # humorous sort o% irony. he %ocus o% Cng 8,J6Db9 /#s to set )4 M Communic#tion heory

Cr#lity #n! *iter#cy #p#rt the or#l /hen consi!ering hum#n senses #n! communic#tion. Cng %urther exercise! # comment#ry #bout cultur#l #/#reness. 7e #ckno/le!ge! the i!e# th#t /hen it comes to expression, speci%ic#lly /ith the or#l, it looks !i%%erent /ithin other cultures6
Cultures -#ry gre#tly in their exploit#tion o% the -#rious senses #n! in the /#y in /hich they rel#te to their conceptu#l #pp#r#tus to the -#rious senses. 1t h#s been # commonpl#ce th#t the #ncient 7ebre/s #n! the #ncient &reeks !i%%ere! in the -#lue they set on the #u!itory. he 7ebre/s ten!e! to think o% un!erst#n!ing #s # kin! o% he#ring, /here#s the &reeks thought o% it more #s # kin! o% seeing, #lthough %#r less exclusi-ely #s seeing th#n post-C#rtesi#n Western m#n gener#lly h#s ten!e! to !o. 8pp. G-49

While this /#s the c#se %or Cng in #ssessing Western culture, he cle#rly pointe! out th#t not #ll cultures #!here to #n or#l st#n!#r! o% such import#nce. Continuing /ith the /or!, there #re t/o other #spects to touch on rel#ti-e to Cng^the use o% /or!s #n! st#ges o% communic#tion consciousness. CngSs %ocus on the use o% /or!s %or !eb#te #n! #rgument#tion #re /orth noting. 1n some respects, #n in-estig#tion o% Cng #n! pe!#gogy re-e#ls the setup o% the e!uc#tion system /ith reg#r! to !eb#te #n! #rgument#tion #s being structure! more %or men th#n %or /omen. .uch #n #n#lysis m#kes sense /hen one consi!ers the history o% the system o% Western e!uc#tion. 3s touche! upon in .oukup 820049, CngSs 8,J6D#9 /ork on the /or! re-e#le! th#t people /ithin or#l cultures use /or!s #s # potenti#l #ltern#ti-e to c#lling up #rms #g#inst one #nother. 1n essence, /or!s insert themsel-es into # sort o% comb#t. Cne coul! !r#/ %rom this the stu!y o% #rgument#tion #n! !eb#te. 1n m#ny respects, this coul! be seen #s #n! #!-#nt#ge to !e-eloping #s #n or#l culture. For more comment#ry rel#ti-e to this p#rticul#r #re#, see .oukup 820049. Communic#tion #n! consciousness is the l#st #re# to touch upon in !e#ling /ith Cng #n! the /or!. 1n m#ny respects, this is /here one o% CngSs most %#mous /orks, Cr#lity #n! *iter#cy6 he echnologi?ing o% the Wor! 8,JI29 is consi!ere!. Cng note! the !e-elopment o% consciousness through st#ges /ithin culture. 1nclusi-e /ithin this consciousness is the i!e# o% kno/le!ge #n! le#rning. 7o/ cultures !e-elop in the #re# o% consciousness is /h#t Cng sought to pro-i!e comment#ry on in the text. (ltim#tely, Cng sees communic#tion gr#!u#lly !e-eloping %rom #n or#l st#ge into # st#ge o% print. 1n his thought on Western society, Cng note! the !e-elopment o% # thir! st#ge o% communic#tion consciousness kno/n #s electronic communic#tion 8.oukup, 20049. CngSs 8,JI29 book is cert#inly popul#r, but !oes not pro-i!e #n #ccur#te picture o% the -#st #mount o% /ork co-ere! o-er his c#reer. F#rrell 820009 note! th#t it !oes not ser-e to pro-i!e # gener#l o-er-ie/ o% the schol#r. here is much more to his line o% thought th#n simply this one text. While there #re m#ny to #ppl#u! the comment#ry o% Cng in this p#rticul#r text, there #re #lso those /ho see it #s l#cking. Fontenyohl 8,JJH9 took Cng to t#sk, citing # sort o% gener#li?#tion #bout or#lity th#t /#s not com%ort#ble to him #s # schol#r. F#rrell 820009 !e%en!e! Cng %rom FontenyohlSs criticism, citing th#t he /#s not sure th#t Fontenyohl h#! !one enough b#ckgroun! rese#rch on Cng to pro-i!e Oust criticism o% his /ork. With such # success%ul text #s CngSs 8,JI29 /#s, it is h#r! %or m#ny not to simply re#! the text #n! see it #s # %#ir represent#tion o% #ll o% CngSs /ork. o b#ck F#rrell, simply re#!ing Cng 8,JI29 !oes #n inOustice to the -#st #mount o% /ork th#t he h#! contribute! o-er # long c#reer. While it is #n excellent book #n! pro-i!es subst#nti#l comment#ry %or !iscussion, Cng !i! much more #s # schol#r ye#rs be%ore penning th#t text in the l#ter p#rt o% his #c#!emic c#reer. 3n ex#min#tion o% the /or! rel#ti-e to Cng !eser-es e-en %urther in-estig#tion. 7o/e-er, the go#l o% the ch#pter is to consi!er the imp#ct o% # p#rticul#r schol#r in communic#tion, in terms o% both schol#rship #n! in in%luencing schol#rs. 1% the interest in Cng is pe#ke! #t this point, it is strongly encour#ge! th#t the re#!er in-estig#tes the /ork o% F#rrell 820009, .oukup 820049 %or comment#ry.

Wikibooks M )(

Ch#pter I

6tages o' Co!!uni ation Media$ Cons iousness$ (igital Media and Her!eneuti s
While mentioning the !e-elopment o% communic#tion in st#ges in the prior section, there is %urther comment#ry th#t Cng pro!uce!. 7e bec#me intereste! in the #spect o% technology #n! its #pplic#tion to the i!e# o% its p#rticul#r st#ge in communic#tion. here h#! been the !e-elopment in Western culture %rom or#l to liter#te, but /h#t c#me nextA Cng 8,JD,, ,JI29 !irecte! his %ocus to the concept o% secon!#ry or#lity. .oukup 820049 #n! F#rrell 820009 touche! upon this. he %ocus /#s !irecte! to/#r! me!iums o% communic#tion in liter#te cultures like th#t o% r#!io, tele-ision, #n! telephones in p#rticul#r. 2#sic#lly, one begins to ex#mine the me!iums o% communic#tion th#t #re or#l, but set /ithin # liter#te culture. 'e/ %orms o% communic#tion buil! on ol! %orms. Wh#t is the e%%ectA Cng /#s intereste! in such # Kuestion. here #re m#ny schol#rs /ho h#-e %ollo/e! Cng in #sking this Kuestion, speci%ic#lly #s it rel#tes to secon!#ry or#lity. &ronbeck 8,JJ,9 ex#mine! the #spect o% consciousness /ithin # culture. 7e #lso ex#mine! rhetoric gets #pplie! o-er !i%%erent me!iums, speci%ic#lly %ocuse! on the i!e# o% # one-tom#ny type o% communic#tion. F#rrell 8,JJ,9 ex#mine! the issue o% secon!#ry or#lity #n! consciousness. .il-erstone 8,JJ,9 !e-elope! # slightly !i%%erent #rticle rel#ti-e to me!i# stu!ies in ex#mining tele-ision, rhetoric, #n! the unconscious #s it rel#te! to secon!#ry or#ltiy. Fe!i# .tu!ies is #n #re# o% stu!y th#t h#s t#ken # goo! look #t Cng #n! secon!#ry or#lity. 1n keeping /ith Fe!i# .tu!ies, .reberny-Foh#mm#!i 8,JJ,9 pro-i!e! # uniKue perspecti-e /hen ex#mining the integr#tion o% me!i# into 1r#n. 'ot only /#s the issue o% me!i# integr#tion %ocuse! on, consciousness /#s p#rt o% the ex#min#tion #s /ell. Consciousness is #n #re# o% %ocus #s /ell, th#t ties into Cng. 3 number o% schol#rs stu!y consciousness #n! h#-e, in some /#ys, been in%luence! by Cng. ./e#ringen 8,JJ,9 looke! #t CngSs contribution to Feminist .tu!ies. "#yne 8,JJ,9 ex#mine! the consciousness o% me!i# #n! rhetoric /hile ex#mining ch#r#cterology. Fin#lly, Bl .#%%#r 8,JJ,9 ex#mine! the issue o% consciousness #s it rel#te! to l#ngu#ge #n! i!entity. he st#ges #t /hich cultures !e-elope! /ere o% p#rticul#r interest to Cng. >eg#r!less o% the tr#nsition %rom one st#ge to #nother, Cng keye! in on Kuestions o% tr#ns%orm#tion, me!ium incorpor#tion 8speci%ic#lly #s it rel#te! to secon!#ry or#lity9, #n! consciousness. 3s /e conclu!e the #re#s o% in%luence #ttribute! to Cng, /e close /ith one Kuite rel#ti-e to the #!-ent #n! exponenti#l gro/th o% ne/ technology. )igit#l or computer-b#se! communic#tion /#s #n #re# th#t c#ught CngSs eye, p#rticul#rly #t the l#tter st#ges o% his #c#!emic c#reer. .oukup 820049 commente!6
Fo!ern, electronic communic#tions help us in yet #nother /#y to un!erst#n! /h#t is going on /ith texts. he sense o% imme!i#cy o% electronics gi-es re#!ers # sense o% proximity to e-ents reporte!. h#t too, occurs /ith texts. With # text th#t /orks /ell, re#!ers enter into the text, [into the imme!i#cy o% the /riterSs experienceS 8p.4JJ9. 2ut electronic communic#tion #lso re-e#ls th#t this imme!i#cy is highly me!i#te! #n! thus some/h#t #rti%ici#l. 8pp. ,I-,J9

.oukup 820049 %urther note! th#t un!erst#n!ing co!e #n! spee! o% tr#nsmission helps us to un!erst#n! ho/ communic#tion /orks in # !igit#l re#lm. F#ny shy #/#y %rom un!erst#n!ing tr#nsmission, /hich, ironic#lly touches on the issue o% consciousness 8or l#ck o%9. Welch 8,JJJ9 /rote #bout electronic rhetoric #n! ne/ liter#cy #s it speci%ic#lly to computers #n! their implement#tion into )) M Communic#tion heory

Cr#lity #n! *iter#cy society #n! looke! #t un!erst#n!ing their imp#ct. Fost import#nt /ithin this %in#l section is the issue o% interpret#tion #n! comprehension. 3s /e continue to emerge in #n #ge o% !igit#l tr#nsmission o% in%orm#tion, the /or! hermeneutics comes up continuously /ithin CngSs /ork. We h#-e technologies gro/ing #t r#ther Kuick r#tes th#t tr#nsmit !#t# !igit#lly. While /e un!erst#n! much o% /h#t /e see on the %ront en! o% # technology, the #bility to un!erst#n! ho/ /e #rri-e #t tr#nsmitting such in%orm#tion is o% import#nce %or Cng. 1t is # ch#llenge, but the process o% enco!ing #n! !eco!ing in%orm#tion is something to be interprete! #n! un!erstoo!. C#purro 820009 %ocuse! on the subOect o% hermeneutics #n! the process o% stor#ge #n! retrie-#l o% in%orm#tion. While un!erst#n!ing th#t # technologic#l structure emerges in the subOect o% !igit#l communic#tion, Cng #lso note! th#t there is still # nee! to !e#l /ith soci#l structure #s /ell 8.oukup, 20049. Bssenti#lly, un!erst#n! the technology #n! un!erst#n! soci#l structure. he reKuirement to !o so is interpret#tion. .oukup 820049 note! th#t the process o% interpret#tion summ#ri?e! much o% CngSs thoughts #bout communic#tion. his h#s to !o /ith e-erything, p#rticul#rly in !e#ling /ith or#lity, liter#cy, secon!#ry or#lity, #n! !igit#l communic#tion.

Con lusion
he imp#ct o% W#lter Cng is signi%ic#nt. 'ot only !i! he pro!uce excellent schol#rship in the #re#s mentione! #bo-e, he m#!e # signi%ic#nt imp#ct on schol#rs. From his e#rly rese#rch o% the history o% rhetoric to his #n#lysis o% !igit#l hermeneutics, his thoughts pro-oke! %urther schol#rship %rom those mentione! #bo-e. 1t is /orth noting th#t m#ny others h#-e been in%luence! by the contribution o% Cng. For the purpose o% this ch#pter, the selection o% schol#rs touche! by his schol#rship h#! to be limite!. >e%er to the re%erences list belo/ %or %urther inKuiry into the #bo-e concepts. With #ll th#t h#! been #ccomplishe! in his c#reer, it is cle#r th#t Cng /#s cle#rly #n in%luenti#l schol#r in the t/entieth century. Further rese#rch continues in m#ny #re#s rel#ti-e to the tr#il p#-e! by schol#rs like Cng.

Wikibooks M )-

Ch#pter J

3 D I66USION

O6

I NNO$ATIONS

&abriel 'arde, E(erett Rogers

li-e -ersion N !iscussion N e!it lesson N comment N report #n error N #sk # Kuestion

Origins o' the di''usion paradig!

ccor!ing to >ogers 8,JJH9, the stu!y o% the !i%%usion o% inno-#tions c#n be tr#ce! b#ck to the in-estig#tions o% French sociologist &#briel #r!e 8p. H29. #r!e #ttempte! to expl#in /hy some inno-#tions #re #!opte! #n! spre#! throughout # society, /hile others #re ignore!. 3t the beginning o% the t/entieth century, #r!e /#s /itness to the !e-elopment o% m#ny ne/ in-entions, m#ny o% /hich le! to soci#l #n! cultur#l ch#nge. 1n his book The (aws of Imitation 8,J0G9, #r!e intro!uce! the .sh#pe! cur-e #n! opinion le#!ership, %ocusing on the role o% socioeconomic st#tus 8%or ex#mple, # cosmopolit#n in!i-i!u#l is more likely to #!opt ne/ pro!ucts9. B-en though he !i! not speci%y #n! cl#ri%y key !i%%usion concepts, his insights #%%ecte! the !e-elopment o% m#ny soci#l scienti%ic !isciplines such #s geogr#phy, economics, #n! #nthropology. .ociologist F. .tu#rt Ch#pin, %or ex#mple, stu!ie! longitu!in#l gro/th p#tterns in -#rious soci#l institutions, #n! %oun! th#t .-sh#pe! cur-es best !escribe! the #!option o% phenomen# such #s the commission %orm o% city go-ernment 8*o/ery E )e%leur, ,JJH, p. ,,I9.

The %asi resear h paradig! 'or the di''usion o' innovations

he %un!#ment#l rese#rch p#r#!igm %or the !i%%usion o% inno-#tions c#n be tr#ce! to the 1o/# stu!y o% hybri! see! corn. 2ryce >y#n #n! 'e#l C. &ross 8,J4G9 in-estig#te! the !i%%usion o% hybri! see! corn #mong 1o/# %#rmers. 3ccor!ing to *o/ery #n! )eFleur 8,JJH9, the b#ckgroun! o% rur#l sociology shoul! %irst be un!erstoo! be%ore one c#n !iscuss ho/ #n! /hy the hybri! see! corn stu!y /#s con!ucte!. he Forrill 3ct helpe! Qthe st#tes est#blish e!uc#tion#l institutions th#t /oul! be o% speci#l bene%it to rur#l youthR 8p. ,209. Fe!er#l %un!s #n! other %in#nci#l supports /ere gi-en to these l#n!-gr#nt institutions in or!er to incre#se the !e-elopment o% the n#tionSs #gricultur#l in!ustry 8p. ,209. 3%ter Worl! W#r 11, rur#l sociologists ch#nge! their rese#rch %ocus on hum#n problems #mong %#rmers bec#use ne/ #gricultur#l technology such #s ne/ pestici!es, ne/ %#rm m#chine, #n! hybri! see! corn #ppe#re!. 2ut in spite o% these !e-elopments, some %#rmers ignore! or resiste! these ne/ inno-#tions. >ur#l sociologists #t l#n!-gr#nt uni-ersities in the Fi!/estern (nite! .t#tes such #s 1o/# .t#te, Fichig#n .t#te, #n! Chio .t#te (ni-ersities, per%orme! m#ny !i%%usion stu!ies to %in! out the c#uses o% #!option o% inno-#tions. Cne o% these e%%orts /#s the hybri! see! corn stu!y con!ucte! by >y#n #n! &ross 8,J4G9. hese rese#rchers #ttempte! to expl#in /hy some %#rmers #!opte! the hybri! see! corn, /hile others !i! not.

#ry e Ryan and Neal C= 5ross

2ryce >y#n e#rne! # "h. ) in sociology #t 7#r-#r! (ni-ersity. )uring his !octor#l stu!ies, >y#n )/ M Communic#tion heory

)i%%usion o% 1nno-#tions /#s reKuire! to t#ke inter!isciplin#ry courses in economics, #nthropology, #n! soci#l psychology. his intellectu#l b#ckgroun! helpe! him con!uct the !i%%usion stu!ies. 1n ,JGI, >y#n bec#me # pro%essor #t 1o/# .t#te (ni-ersity /hich is kno/n %or its #gricultur#l %ocus. 3t th#t time, 1o/# .t#te #!ministr#tors /ere /orrie! #bout the slo/ r#te #t /hich the hybri! see! corn /#s being #!opte!. )espite the %#ct th#t the use o% this ne/ inno-#tion coul! le#! to #n incre#se in Ku#lity #n! pro!uction, #n #!-#nt#geous #!option by 1o/# F#rmers /#s slo/. >y#n propose! the stu!y o% the !i%%usion o% the hybri! see! corn #n! recei-e! %un!ing %rom 1o/# 3gricultur#l Bxperiment .t#tion, 1o/# .t#te (ni-ersitySs rese#rch #n! !e-elopment org#ni?#tion. Contr#ry to pre-ious rese#rch, /hich employe! #nthropologic#l style #ppro#ches using Ku#lit#ti-e metho!s, >y#n employe! # Ku#ntit#ti-e sur-ey metho! in his stu!y. 3ccor!ing to >ogers 8,JJ69, >y#n /#s encour#ge! to use this Ku#ntit#ti-e metho! by Qpro%essors in the )ep#rtment o% .t#tistics, such #s "#ul &. 7omemeyer, >#y ;. ;essen, #n! .ne!ecorR 8p. 4,H9. When >y#n #rri-e! #t 1o/# .t#te (ni-ersity, 'e#l C. &ross /#s # gr#!u#te stu!ent /ho /#s soon #ssigne! #s >y#nSs rese#rch #ssist#nt. >y#n #ske! him to con!uct inter-ie/s /ith 1o/# %#rmers through sur-ey rese#rch. &ross g#there! the !#t# %rom the 1o/# communities o% ;e%%erson #n! &r#n! ;unction. >ogers 8,JJ69 mentione! th#t Qby coinci!ence, these communities /ere loc#te! /ithin G0 miles o% /here he gre/ up on # %#rmR 8p. 4,H9. 1t is #lso interesting to note th#t >ogers e#rne! # "h. ). in sociology #n! st#tistics #t 1o/# .t#te (ni-ersity in ,JHD.

The Iowa 6tudy o' Hy%rid 6eed Corn" The Adoption o' Innovation
3s note! #bo-e, the hybri! see! corn h#! m#ny #!-#nt#ges comp#re! to tr#!ition#l see!, such #s the hybri! see!Ls -igor #n! resist#nce to !rought #n! !ise#se. 7o/e-er, there /ere some b#rriers to pre-ent 1o/# %#rmers %rom #!opting the hybri! see! corn. Cne problem /#s th#t the hybri! see! corn coul! not repro!uce 8p. ,229. his me#nt th#t the hybri! see! /#s rel#ti-ely expensi-e %or 1o/# %#rmers, especi#lly #t the time o% the )epression. here%ore, it is re#son#ble to #ssume th#t, !espite the economic pro%it th#t the hybri! see! corn brought, its high price m#!e # #!option #mong 1o/# %#rmers rem#in slo/. 3ccor!ing to *o/ery #n! )eFleur 8,JJH9, >y#n #n! &ross sought to expl#in ho/ the hybri! see! corn c#me to #ttention #n! /hich o% t/o ch#nnels 8i.e., m#ss communic#tion #n! interperson#l communic#tion /ith peers9 le! %#rmers to #!opt the ne/ inno-#tion. hey %oun! th#t e#ch ch#nnel h#s !i%%erent %unctions. F#ss communic#tion %unctione! #s the source o% initi#l in%orm#tion, /hile interperson#l net/orks %unctione! #s the in%luence o-er the %#rmersS !ecisions to #!opt 8p. ,2H9. Cne o% the most import#nt %in!ings in this stu!y is th#t Qthe #!option o% inno-#tion !epen!s on some combin#tion o% /ell-est#blishe! interperson#l ties #n! h#bitu#l exposure to m#ss communic#tionR 8p. ,2D9. >y#n #n! &ross #lso %oun! th#t the r#te o% #!option o% hybri! see! corn %ollo/e! #n .-sh#pe! cur-e, #n! th#t there /ere %our !i%%erent types o% #!opters. 3ccor!ing to >ogers 8,JJH9, >y#n #n! &ross #lso m#!e # contribution by i!enti%ying the %i-e m#Oor st#ges in the #!option process, /hich /ere #/#reness, interest, e-#lu#tion, tri#l, #n! #!option. 3%ter >y#n #n! &rossSs hybri! corn stu!y, #bout H,000 p#pers #bout !i%%usion /ere publishe! in ,JJ4 8>ogers, ,JJH9.

Wikibooks M )3

Ch#pter J

Medi al innovation" (i''usion o' a !edi al drug a!ong do tors

3ccor!ing to >ogers 8,JJ69, !i%%usion theory bec#me more /i!ely #ccepte! #%ter ;#mes .. Colem#n, Blihu <#t?, #n! 7erbert Fen?el con!ucte! # stu!y on the !i%%usion o% tetr#cycline, # ne/ me!ic#l !rug, in ,J66. he "%i?er !rug comp#ny in-ente! this success%ul ne/ !rug #n! /#nte! to in-estig#te the e%%ecti-eness o% their tetr#cycline #!-ertisements, /hich /ere pl#ce! in me!ic#l Oourn#ls. he comp#ny #ske! three pro%essors #t Columbi# (ni-ersity to %in! out ho/ physici#ns #!opte! the ne/ inno-#tion #n! ho/ m#ss communic#tion in%luence! this #!option process. hey con!ucte! # sur-ey to g#ther #ccur#te #n! reli#ble !#t#. )i%%erent /ith pre-ious !i%%usion rese#rch th#t relie! on respon!entsS rec#ll o% ho/ they #!opte! ne/ technology, this stu!y g#there! !#t# both %rom physici#nsL responses #n! ph#rm#ciesL prescription. 1n #!!ition to this, Colem#n et #l. 8,J669 #ske! their respon!ents to list their interperson#l connections in or!er to in-estig#te the e%%ect o% interperson#l net/ork links /ith the ne/ !rug #!option. he result sho/s th#t the percent#ge o% #!option o% the ne/ !rug %ollo/e! #n .-sh#pe! cur-e, but th#t the r#te o% tetr#cycline #!option /#s %#ster th#n the r#te o% other inno-#tions #!option. he rese#rchers #lso %oun! th#t !octors /ho #re cosmopolite /ere likely to #!opt the ne/ !rug. Cne o% the most import#nt %in!ings /#s th#t !octors /ho h#! more interperson#l net/orks #!opte! the ne/ me!ic#l !rug more Kuickly th#n those th#t !i! not. his me#nt th#t interperson#l communic#tion ch#nnels /ith peers h#! # strong in%luence on the #!option process. >ogers 8,JJ69 note! th#t this Columbi# (ni-ersity stu!y is Qone o% the most in%luenti#l !i%%usion stu!ies in sho/ing th#t the !i%%usion o% #n inno-#tion is essenti#lly # soci#l process th#t occurs through interperson#l net/orksR 8p. 4,J9. 1n %#ct, >ogers 8,JJ69 mentione! th#t e-en though the stu!y o% >y#n #n! &ross bec#me # milestone in !i%%usion p#r#!igm, they !i! not me#sure the interperson#l net/ork links #mong %#rmers. 1n this c#se, the Columbi# (ni-ersity )rug .tu!y m#!e # contribution to i!enti%y the import#nce o% soci#l net/orks in the !i%%usion process.

Everett M= Rogers
>ogers /#s born in C#rroll, 1o/# in ,JG,. 7e e#rne! his 2.3., F.3., #n! "h.). !egrees %rom 1o/# .t#te (ni-ersity. For t/o ye#rs !uring the <ore#n W#r, he ser-e! in the (... 3ir Force. 1nterestingly, in ,J66, he /orke! on some %#mily pl#nning communic#tion proOects in <ore#. Cne interesting thing /orthy mentioning is th#t >ogersS %#ther /#s # %#rmer /ho resiste! #!opting the hybri! see! corn 83.ingh#l, 200H, p.2ID9. )ue to the !rought in 1o/# in ,JG6, the >ogersS %#rm /ithere!, /hich m#!e >ogers person#lly in-ol-e! in the !i%%usion rese#rch. 1n the ,JH0Ls, 1o/# .t#te (ni-ersity /#s # per%ect pl#ce %or stu!ying the !i%%usion o% inno-#tions, #s the schoolLs progr#m %ocuse! on # rur#l sociology, #griculture, #n! st#tistics. he experience there le! >ogers to !i-e into the rese#rch #bout /hy some inno-#tions #re #!opte! /hile others #re ignore!. Bmploye! by Fichig#n .t#te (ni-ersity in ,J62, >ogers obt#ine! opportunity to stu!y !i%%usion in !e-eloping n#tions such #s 3si#, *#tin 3meric#, #n! 3%ric#. Fe#n/hile, he publishe! the book, *iffusion of Innovations, /hich e#rne! him his #c#!emic reput#tion. >ogersS comprehensi-e insights in the book helpe! to exp#n! !i%%usion theory. he book h#s become the st#n!#r! textbook on !i%%usion theory #n! it cre#ts #pplic#tions o% !i%%usion theory in such %iel!s #s geogr#phy, economics, psychology, politic#l science, #n!, #s pre-iously mentione!, communic#tion. >ogers retire! %rom (ni-ersity o% 'e/ Fexico in 2004 bec#use he /#s su%%ering %rom ki!ney !ise#se. 7e !ie! on Cctober 2,, 200H.

-4 M Communic#tion heory

)i%%usion o% 1nno-#tions

Overview o' the (i''usion o' Innovations

3ccor!ing to >ogers 8,JJ69, !i%%usion re%ers to Qthe process by /hich #n inno-#tion is communic#te! through cert#in ch#nnels o-er time #mong the members o% # soci#l system. 3n 1nno-#tion is #n i!e#, pr#ctice or obOect percei-e! #s ne/ by #n in!i-i!u#l or other unit o% #!option. he !i%%usion o% inno-#tions in-ol-es both m#ss me!i# #n! interperson#l communic#tion ch#nnelsR 8p. 40J9. h#t is, by sh#ring communic#tion ch#nnels such #s interperson#l communic#tion or m#ss communic#tion people c#n get in%orm#tion o% #n inno-#tion #n! percei-e its inno-#tion #s use%ul. *#ss/ell 8,J4I9 presente! # /ell-kno/n mo!el o% communic#tion th#t is #n#ly?e! #s %i-e p#rts, .-FC->-B 8e.g., sen!er-mess#ge-ch#nnel-recei-er-e%%ect9. >ogers 8,JJH9 mentione!, Qthis .-F-C->-B communic#tion mo!el correspon!s closely to the elements o% !i%%usionR 8p. ,J9. .peci%ic#lly, 8,9 sen!er c#n be in-entors or opinion le#!ers, 829 mess#ge c#n be # ne/ i!e# or pro!uct, 8G9 ch#nnels c#n be interperson#l or m#ss communic#tion, 849 recei-ers c#n be members o% # soci#l system, #n! %in#lly 8H9 the e%%ects c#n be in!i-i!u#lSs #!option or soci#l ch#nge. 1n the !i%%usion theory, [ imeS -#ri#ble is # -ery import#nt %#ctor. 3ccor!ing to >ogers 8,JJH9, time -#ri#ble is in-ol-e! in !i%%usion in 8,9 the inno-#tion-!ecision process0 829 inno-#ti-eness0 8G9 #n inno-#tionSs r#te o% #!option. Fost inno-#tions h#-e #n .-sh#pe! r#te o% #!option. )i%%usion rese#rch h#s #ttempte! to expl#in the -#ri#bles th#t in%luence ho/ #n! /hy users #n! #u!ience #!opt # ne/ in%orm#tion me!ium, such #s the 1nternet. 3ccor!ing to e-olution o% me!i# technology, interperson#l in%luences #re import#nt e-en though in the p#st the in!i-i!u#l is usu#lly the unit o% #n#lysis. 3lso, critic#l m#ss becomes #n import#nt %#ctor in #!opting ne/ me!i# bec#use ne/ me!i# #re inter#cti-e tools #n! thus #re reKuire! by m#ny users to g#in e%%iciency. h#t is, the more people use, the more people get bene%its. 1n this sense, !i%%usion theory not only c#n #pply to pr#ctic#l things, but #lso c#n be rel#te! to !igit#l !i-i!e. here #re %i-e !i%%erent types o% #!opters in the !i%%usion process, #ccor!ing to 1nno-#ti-eness6 Q8,9 1nno-#tors 8-enturesome9, 829 B#rly 3!opters 8respect#ble9, 8G9 B#rly F#Oority 8)eliber#te9, 849 *#te F#Oority 8skeptic#l9, #n! 8H9 *#gg#r!s 8tr#!ition#l9R 8>ogers, ,JJH, pp. ,IG-,IH9. >ogers !e%ine! this term #s Qthe !egree to /hich #n in!i-i!u#l is rel#ti-ely e#rlier in #!opting ne/ i!e#s th#n other members o% his soci#l systemR 8>ogers, ,JJH, p. 409. .ource by ///2.gsu.e!u$b///itr$!ocs$!i%%usion$ .ource by6 ///.mitsue.co.Op$english$c#se$concept$02.html When it comes to the process o% inno-#tion-!ecisions, >ogers 8,JJH9 mentione! th#t there #re %i-e st#ges. 8,9 <no/le!ge Z or 8selecti-e exposure or #/#reness o% ne/s9 829 3ttitu!es Z or8people h#-e positi-e or neg#ti-e #ttitu!e to/#r! inno-#tions9 8G9 3!option 8)ecision96 people !eci!e to #!opt the inno-#tion 849 1mplement#tion 8regul#r or st#n!#r! pr#ctice9 8H9 Con%irm#tion 8comp#ring #n! e-#lu#ting9 >ogers intro!uce! percei-e! ch#r#cteristics o% inno-#tions th#t consist o% 8,9 rel#ti-e #!-#nt#ge 829 comp#tibility 8G9 complexity 849 tri#bility 8H9 obser-#bility. 2#se! on these %i-e criteri#, in!i-i!u#ls percei-e #n inno-#tion #s ne/ or use%ul #n! !eci!e to #!opt it. For ex#mple, >ogers 8,JJH9 !e%ine! rel#ti-e #!-#nt#ge #s Qthe !egree to /hich #n inno-#tion is percei-e! #s better th#n the i!e# it superse!esR 8p.,H9.R 'e/ me!i# such #s the mpG /ill !ispl#ce con-ention#l me!i# such #s C)s or t#pes /hen people percei-e ne/ me!i# #s #!-#nt#geous 8e.g., lo/ cost or me#ns to be cool9. When #n Wikibooks M -1

Ch#pter J in!i-i!u#l !eci!es to #!opt ne/ me!i# or s/itch ol! me!i# /ith ne/ me!i#, the percei-e! ch#r#cteristics o% inno-#tions pl#y #n import#nt role in re!ucing some uncert#inty #bout the inno-#tions.

Unit o' analysis on di''usion theory

)i%%usion o% inno-#tion theory #ttempts to expl#in ho/ #n inno-#tion is spre#! #n! /hy it is #!opte! #t both the micro #n! m#cro le-els o% #n#lysis. >ogers 8,JJ69 mentione!, Qthe in!i-i!u#l is usu#lly the unit o% #n#lysis, #lthough in recent ye#rs # number o% stu!ies h#-e been con!ucte! in /hich #n in!i-i!u#l org#ni?#tion is the unit o% #n#lysis 8Wil!emuth, ,JJ20 c#ltm#n, )unc#n, E 7olbek, ,JDG9R 8p. 4,I9. his ch#r#cteristic o% unit o% #n#lysis is !ue to rese#rch metho!s, such #s utili?ing # sur-ey to stu!y !i%%usion. F#ny stu!ies h#-e %ocuse! on in!i-i!u#l !ecisions or #!option. 1n contr#st, !i%%usion theory consi!ers #n#lysis #t both the micro-in!i-i!u#l #n! m#cro-soci#l le-els. his is bec#use stu!ies o% !i%%usion inclu!e both #n inno-#tion #t the micro le-el, #s /ell #s its in%luence, such #s soci#l ch#nge, #t the m#cro le-el. >ogers 8,JJH9 suggeste! th#t the %our m#in elements in the !i%%usion o% inno-#tion process /ere inno-#tion, communic#tion ch#nnels, time, #n! soci#l system. 1n!i-i!u#lsS inno-#ti-eness, or psychologic#l %#ctors such #s communic#tion nee!s, #re #n#ly?e! #s micro-in!epen!ent -#ri#bles. 3t the m#cro-soci#l le-el, this theory #ssumes th#t soci#l systems, such #s norms, c#n #%%ect #n in!i-i!u#lSs #!option or use o% #n inno-#tion. 1n terms o% communic#tion ch#nnels, !i%%usion o% #n inno-#tion in-ol-es both interperson#l ch#nnels 8micro9 #n! m#ss communic#tion ch#nnels 8m#cro9. 2y utili?ing both m#ss #n! interperson#l communic#tion ch#nnels, people c#n get in%orm#tion #bout #n inno-#tion #n! percei-e its use%ulness. here%ore, !i%%usion theory reKuires both micro-in!i-i!u#l #n! m#cro-soci#l #n#lysis.

6everal di''usion resear h strea!s

3ccor!ing to >ice E Webster 820029, /e c#n cl#ssi%y !i%%usion rese#rch #n! mo!els into three c#tegories6 8,9 !i%%usion o% inno-#tions 8e.g., >ogers, ,JJH9, 829 me!i# choice 8e.g., )#%t E *engel, ,JI69, #n! 8G9 implement#tion o% in%orm#tion systems 8e.g., .#g# E cmu!, ,JJ49. #ble , sho/s th#t e#ch !epen!ent -#ri#ble, #ccor!ing to three prim#ry stre#ms o% !i%%usion stu!ies. h#t is, the [!i%%usion o% inno-#tionsS stu!ies emph#si?e ch#r#cteristics o% #n inno-#tion #n! the role o% communic#tion ch#nnels in #!opting the inno-#tion, the [me!i# choiceS stu!ies %ocus on the inter#ction bet/een in!i-i!u#l ch#r#cteristics #n! soci#l in%luences in choosing some inno-#tions, #n! the [implement#tionS stu!ies #ssume th#t the -#ri#bles such #s technology !esign or e#se o% use /ill #%%ect me!i# use 8>ice E Webster, 2002, p.,J29. he !i%%usion tr#!ition h#s cl#ssi%ie! people, in terms o% !emogr#phics, in expl#ining the -#ri#bles th#t in%luence the #!option o% #n inno-#tion. For th#t re#son, some schol#rs o%ten critici?e th#t this theory m#y not pro-i!e # c#us#l expl#n#tion o% /hy #n! ho/ people #!opt cert#in technologies. 'e-ertheless, /hen it comes to the use #n! choice o% ol! #n! ne/ me!i#, !i%%usion theory /ill be suite! %or expl#ining /hy some people pre%er to use the ol! me!i# or ne/ me!i#, bec#use this theory pro-i!es some conceptu#l gui!#nce %or un!erst#n!ing the #!option o% some technologies or inno-#tions. 3ccor!ing to e-olution o% me!i# technology, interperson#l in%luences or ch#nnels #re import#nt e-en though in the p#st the in!i-i!u#l is usu#lly the unit o% #n#lysis. 3lso, critic#l m#ss becomes #n -2 M Communic#tion heory

)i%%usion o% 1nno-#tions import#nt %#ctor in #!opting ne/ me!i# bec#use ne/ me!i# #re inter#cti-e tools #n! thus #re reKuire! to m#ny users %or getting e%%iciency. h#t is, the more people use, the more people get bene%its. F#rkus 8,JID9 propose! th#t the -#lue o% #n inter#cti-e communic#tion me!ium is #ssoci#te! /ith the number o% other users. For ex#mple, in the c#se o% the mpG, # soci#l in%luence such #s peer pressure th#t inter#cts /ith young gener#tion nee!s to be cool or to g#in st#tus !ri-es young people to #!opt the mpG #s #n inno-#tion. 2esi!es, /hen it comes to the emergence o% inter#cti-e communic#tion such #s the ne/ communic#tion technologies, >ogers 8,JJ69 mentione!, Q# critic#l m#ss occurs /hen the !i%%usion process becomes sel%-sust#ining. 3%ter the critic#l m#ss point, in!i-i!u#ls in # system percei-e th#t Qe-erybo!y elseR h#s #!opte! the inter#cti-e inno-#tion. With e#ch successi-e #!opter o% #n inter#cti-e inno-#tion, the ne/ i!e# becomes more -#lu#ble not only %or e#ch %uture #!opter, but #lso %or e#ch pre-ious #!opterR 8p. 4,I-4,J9. When it comes to the %uture o% !i%%usion theory, /e expect th#t the popul#rity o% !i%%usion rese#rch /ill incre#se bec#use #s in recent ye#rs, ne/ communic#tion technologies h#-e incre#se! #n! proli%er#te!.

(i''usion study and Two/6tep 4low study

3ccor!ing to *o/ery #n! )e%leur 8,JJH9, since !i%%usion stu!y emph#si?es the role o% interperson#l communic#tions, the !i%%usion stu!y by >y#n #n! &ross Qp#r#llels /h#t /#s in!epen!ently %oun! by *#?#rs%el! #n! his #ssoci#tes in the !isco-ery o% the t/o-step %lo/ process in the -ery !i%%erent setting o% he "eopleSs ChoiceR 8p. ,G29. 4 he "eopleSs ChoiceR sho/e! th#t #u!iences #re not po/erless #n! p#ssi-e. he stu!y sho/e! th#t interperson#l ch#nnels, such #s opinion le#!ers, #re more import#nt th#n the m#ss me!i#. (nlike m#gic bullet theory, both o% these stu!ies emph#si?e! the role o% the opinion le#!ers #n! interperson#l communic#tion, such #s %#ce-to-%#ce inter#ctions in%luencing !ecision-m#king.

Wikibooks M -0

Ch#pter ,0

14 S OCIO5OCICA5 S 2ST1MS
)iklas Luhmann
li-e -ersion N !iscussion N e!it lesson N comment N report #n error N #sk # Kuestion

hen the secon! Worl! W#r en!e! in Burope, se-enteen-ye#r-ol! 'ikl#s *uhm#nn h#! been ser-ing #s #n #nti-#ircr#%t #uxill#ry in the &erm#n #rmy. 7e /#s brie%ly !et#ine! by the 3meric#ns. When #ske! in ,JID to !escribe this experience, he replie!6
2e%ore ,J4H, the hope /#s th#t #%ter the !e%e#t o% the compulsory #pp#r#tus e-erything /oul! be right by itsel%. =et the %irst thing 1 experience! in 3meric#n c#pti-ity /#s th#t my /#tch /#s t#ken o%% my #rm #n! th#t 1 /#s be#ten up. .o it /#s not #t #ll #s 1 h#! thought it /oul! be. .oon you coul! see th#t one coul! not comp#re politic#l regimes #ccor!ing to # scheme o% dgoo!L -ersus db#!L, but th#t you h#! to Ou!ge the %igures #ccor!ing to # boun!e! re#lity. C% course 1 !onLt /#nt to s#y th#t the time o% the '#?i-regime #n! the time #%ter ,J4H #re to be Ou!ge! on eKu#l terms. =et 1 /#s simply !is#ppointe! in ,J4H. =et is th#t re#lly import#ntA 1n #ny c#se the experience o% the '#?i-regime %or me h#s not been # mor#l one, but #n experience o% the #rbitr#ry, o% po/er, o% the t#ctics to #-oi! the regime use! by the m#n o% the people. 8*uhm#nn Kt!. in 2#ecker, 200H9

he re#li?#tion th#t hum#n re#lities /ere subOecti-e #ppe#rs to h#-e in%luence! the %#mous sociologist throughout the rest o% his li%e. his ch#pter /ill intro!uce *uhm#nn #n! # %e/ rem#rk#ble #spects o% his theory.

Introdu tion
he type o% communic#tion theory 1 #m trying to #!-ise there%ore st#rts %rom the premise th#t communic#tion is improb#ble, !espite the %#ct th#t /e experience #n! pr#ctice it e-ery !#y o% our li-es #n! /oul! not exist /ithout it. his improb#bility o% /hich /e h#-e become un#/#re must %irst be un!erstoo!, #n! to !o so reKuires /h#t might be !escribe! #s # contr#-phenomenologic#l e%%ort, -ie/ing communic#tion not #s # phenomenon but #s # problem0 thus, inste#! o% looking %or the most #ppropri#te concept to co-er the %#cts, /e must %irst #sk ho/ communic#tion is possible #t #ll. 8*uhm#nn ,JJ0, p. ID9

he bo!y o% /ork pro!uce! by &erm#n sociologist 'ikl#s *uhm#nn prob#bly represents historySs most comprehensi-e #ttempt by one m#n to expl#in the /hole o% soci#l existence. he #bo-e Kuot#tion hints #t the essenti#l n#ture o% *uhm#nnSs thought no Q#ccepte! /is!omR o% the soci#l science tr#!ition coul! be le%t unex#mine!. hrough more th#n H0 books #n! 400 #rticles, *uhm#nn #pplie! his sociologic#l systems theory to #re#s inclu!ing l#/, science, religion, economics, politics, lo-e, #n! #rt. .ociologic#l systems h#-e become one o% the most popul#r theoretic#l mo!els in contempor#ry &erm#n sociology, #n! #re #lso /i!ely #pplie! in %iel!s such #s psychology, m#n#gement science, #n! liter#ry stu!ies. 3 prim#ry !istinction o% *uhm#nnSs soci#l systems theory is th#t its %ocus o% #n#lysis is not in!i-i!u#ls, groups, beh#-iors, or institutions, but the communic#tion th#t occurs /ithin systems. )irk 2#ecker, # stu!ent o% *uhm#nnSs expl#ins th#t the systems theory Q!oes #/#y /ith the notion o% system in #ll its tr#!ition#l /or!ingR #n! c#n c#re%ully ex#mine Qe-ery possible #ssumption o% org#nism, mech#nism, #n! in%orm#tionR e-en, recursi-ely, its o/n structure 82#ecker 200,, p. D29. his re#lignment to/#r!s communic#tion represents # signi%ic#nt bre#k /ith soci#l science tr#!ition. 3lthough *uhm#nnSs theory 8or %or th#t m#tter, most systems theories9 !o not len! themsel-es /ell to re!uction, this ch#pter /ill #ttempt to present #n o-er-ie/ o% the subOect.

-4 M Communic#tion heory

.ociologic#l .ystems

Li'e in #rie'
'ikl#s *uhm#nn /#s born in ,J2D. Follo/ing his teen#ge stint in the #rmy, he /ent on to stu!y l#/ #t the (ni-ersit_t Freiburg %rom ,J46-,J4J 8F]ller 200H9. 7e tr#ine! #s # l#/yer, but %oun! the intellectu#l constr#ints o% pr#cticing l#/ not to his liking. 7e !eci!e! to go into public #!ministr#tion, #s it promise! him more %ree!om to pursue his o/n i!e#s 87ornung ,JJI9. *uhm#nn bec#me # ci-il ser-#nt %or the to/n o% *]neburg in ,JH4. 3lthough he enOoye! his /ork, he #ccepte! the opportunity to t#ke # s#bb#tic#l le#-e to stu!y #!ministr#ti-e science #t 7#r-#r! (ni-ersity in ,J60. 7ere *uhm#nn bec#me # stu!ent o% systems theorist #lcott "#rsons, # thinker /ho /oul! h#-e # gre#t imp#ct on the !e-elopment o% *uhm#nnSs theories. 3%ter returning to &erm#ny in ,J6,, *uhm#nn tr#ns%erre! to # rese#rch institute #t the 7ochschule %]r +er/#ltungs/issensch#%ten 8.chool o% "ublic 3!ministr#tion9 in .peyer. 7ere he /#s #%%or!e! the %ree!om to pursue his scienti%ic interests, #n! beg#n his rese#rch o% soci#l structure. 1n ,J6H, *uhm#nn stu!ie! .ociology %or # single semester #t the (ni-ersit_t F]nster. 7e /#s #/#r!e! # "h) #n! 7#bilit#tion 8# post!octor#l Ku#li%ic#tion en#bling one to te#ch #t the uni-ersity le-el9 %or t/o books pre-iously publishe!. 3%ter brie%ly occupying heo!or 3!ornoSs %ormer ch#ir #t the (ni-ersit_t Fr#nk%urt, 8/here he t#ught # poorly-#tten!e! semin#r on the sociology o% lo-e9, he #ccepte! # position #t the ne/ly-%oun!e! >e%ormuni-ersit_t 2iele%el! 82#ecker, 200H9. 1n ,JDG he eng#ge! in # !eb#te /ith theorist ;]rgen 7#berm#s #bout the role o% soci#l theory. his !eb#te /#s l#ter publishe! #s # series o% ess#ys in Theorie der 0esellschaft oder &o?ialtechnologie+ 'as leistet die &ystemforschung= 8Theory of &ociety or &ocial Technology+ 'hat can &ystems Research Accomplish=9 8,JDG9. he !eb#te /ith 7#berm#s 8/hose theory recei-es # much /i!er #ccept#nce outsi!e o% &erm#ny9 ser-e! #s the 3nglophonic /orl!Ss m#Oor intro!uction to *uhm#nnSs thought. *uhm#nn publishe! pro%usely throughout his c#reer, /ith e#ch book #n! ess#y buil!ing # %oun!#tion %or his %in#l theory o% society. 7e retire! %rom this position in ,JJG, but continue! to publish. 7is m#gnum opus, *ie 0esellschaft der 0esellschaft 8The &ociety of the &ociety9 /#s publishe! # ye#r be%ore his !e#th in ,JJD.

Early In'luen es
2y the en! o% the ,Jth century, in!ustri#li?#tion h#! pro%oun!ly ch#nge! the Western /orl!. .ociology h#! come into its o/n #s # science6 <#rl F#rx publishe! pro%usely throughout the mi!,I00s. Fer!in#n! Tnnies 8,IID9 !escribe! soci#l %lo/s %rom &emeinsch#%t 8community, rel#tionship oriente! #ssoci#tion9 to/#r! &esellsch#%t 8sel% interest oriente! society9 in ,IID. Bmile )urkheim 8,IJG9 explore! the !i-ision o% l#bor # %e/ ye#rs l#ter, #n! opene! the %irst Burope#n sociology !ep#rtment in ,IJ6. F#x Weber !e-elope! ne/ metho!ologic#l #ppro#ches #n! #lso %oun!e! # sociology !ep#rtment by ,J20. While these %#thers o% the !iscipline !i%%ere! gre#tly in their rese#rch #n! philosophy o% society, they #ll recogni?e! th#t the %unction #n! !ys%unction o% society is linke! to the %unction #n! !ys%unction o% !i%%erent soci#l components such #s cl#sses, institutions, technologies, or in!i-i!u#ls.

Wikibooks M -(

Ch#pter ,0

Du kheimJs 6unctiona!ism
)urkheimSs theory o% %unction#lism, in p#rticul#r, h#! # l#sting imp#ct upon the soci#l sciences. )urkheim #rgue! th#t Qsoci#l %#ctsR existe! in!epen!ent o% in!i-i!u#ls #n! institutions, #n! th#t these %#cts /ere the most pro!ucti-e subOect %or empiric#l sociologic#l rese#rch. .oci#l %#cts 8such #s suici!e r#tes 8)urkheim ,JH,9, policies, or church #tten!#nce9 c#n be me#sure!, interprete!, #n! teste!. .oci#l theories !eri-e! %rom these #n#lyses c#n then be use! to expl#in soci#l %unctioning.
he !etermin#tion o% %unction is . . . necess#ry %or the complete expl#n#tion o% the phenomen#. . . . o expl#in # soci#l %#ct it is not enough to sho/ the c#use on /hich it !epen!s0 /e must #lso, #t le#st in most c#ses, sho/ its %unction in the est#blishment o% soci#l or!er. 8,JH0, p. JD9

)urkheimSs %unction#lism me#sure! soci#l e%%ects /ithin the context o% # l#rger soci#l en-ironment. )urkheimSs ,IJG book he )i-ision o% *#bor in .ociety %ocuse! on l#bor !i-ision in #n #ttempt to !escribe #n! expl#in soci#l or!er. 7e el#bor#te! on the m#nner in /hich incre#sing l#bor !i-ision #%%ects the e-olution o% societies.

'a sonian Socia! S&stems

#lcott "#rsons, /ho /oul! become 3meric#Ss preeminent soci#l theorist throughout the mi!-20th century, !re/ on )urkheimSs %unction#lism in the !e-elopment o% his theory o% soci#l #ction. 7e /#s #lso #ble to integr#te concepts %rom the burgeoning %iel!s o% gener#l systems theory 8-on 2ert#l#n%%y, ,JH00 ,JD69, in%orm#tion theory 8.h#nnon E We#-er, ,J4J9, #n! soci#l cybernetics 8Wiener, ,J4I0 ,JH09. Where#s )urkheim /#s content to !e-elop sociology #s # !iscipline #longsi!e the other soci#l sciences, "#rsons bec#me the #!-oc#te o% # Qgr#n! theoryR th#t coul! subsume the other soci#l sciences. )r#/ing he#-ily %rom WeberSs /ritings on #ction 8/hich "#rsons tr#nsl#te! himsel%9, "#rsonsS %unction#lism /#s !e-elope! #s # theory o% #ction. 1n!i-i!u#ls /ere un!erstoo! #s #cting o% their o/n -olition, in%luence! in their beh#-ior by extern#l %orces. 3s # component o% this l#rger theory, "#rsons !e-elope! the theory o% the soci#l system. 7is Qsoci#l systemR is gener#lly synonymous /ith the term QsocietyR #n! emerges %rom the inter#ction o% in!i-i!u#ls 8"#rsons, ,JH,9. For the purposes o% this ch#pter only # %e/ %e#tures o% "#rsonSs theory c#n be !iscusse!. hese /ill inclu!e his conceptions o% the %unction#l imper#ti-es o% #ction #n! the notion o% eKuilibrium. 1Eui!ib ium "#rsonsS soci#l eKuilibrium is the or!erly, smoothly %unctioning society. 1t is the result o% in!i-i!u#lsL #cting #ccor!ing to the norms #n! -#lues th#t h#-e been pro-i!e! in their soci#l en-ironment 8"#rsons, ,JH,9. "#rsoni#n soci#l systems ten!e! to/#r!s eKuilibrium, bec#use Qthe #ctions o% the members o% # society #re to # signi%ic#nt !egree oriente! to # single integr#te! system o% ultim#te en!s common to these membersR 8"#rsons Kt!. in 7eyl, ,J6I9. he un!erst#n!ing o% eKuilibrium /ithin !i%%erent societies /#s the prim#ry go#l o% soci#l systems theory, #n! 8#s "#rsons /oul! h#-e it9 sociology #s # /hole. 6unctiona! im"e ati#es o. action "#rsonsS %unction#l imper#ti-es o% #ction /ere !e-elope! #s # /#y to cl#ssi%y the go#ls th#t Q#ction systemsR 8be it in!i-i!u#ls, institutions, or groups9 /oul! pursue to re#ch eKuilibrium. 7is 3&1* mo!el -) M Communic#tion heory

.ociologic#l .ystems 8#!#pt#tion, go#l-#tt#inment, integr#tion, l#tent p#ttern m#inten#nce9 rem#ins one o% his most %#mous %ormul#tions. A - he %unction o% #!#pt#tion #!!resses the %#ct th#t resources in the en-ironment #re sc#rce, #n! the system must secure #n! !istribute these resources. For soci#l systems, soci#l institutions #re employe! to meet these nee!s. he economy is gener#lly i!enti%ie! #s the prim#ry institution th#t meets this nee!. C - he %unction o% go#l-#tt#inment !e#ls /ith the systemSs !esire to use resources to #chie-e speci%ic situ#tion#l en!s. "olitic#l institutions gener#lly %ul%ill this role %or soci#l systems. I 1ntegr#tion is the most complex #n! problem#tic o% the %unction#l imper#ti-es. 1t #!!resses the nee! %or # system to coor!in#te #n! regul#te the -#rious subunits /ithin # system. 1ntegr#tion o% soci#l systems is o%ten #ssoci#te! /ith l#/s #n! norms, #n! Ou!ici#l institutions. 5 Fin#lly, the %unction o% p#ttern m#inten#nce re%ers to # systemSs #bility to m#int#in its o/n st#bility, #n! consists o% t/o !istinct components. For soci#l systems, the %irst component !e#ls /ith the #bility o% the system to moti-#te norm#ti-e beh#-ior o% #ctors. he secon! component is in-ol-e! /ith the tr#nsmission o% soci#l -#lues. his imper#ti-e might be institution#lly s#tis%ie! by e!uc#tion #n! religion 8W#ll#ce E Wol%, ,JJ,9. he #ctions o% #n in!i-i!u#l, %or ex#mple, coul! then be comp#re! to the #ctions o% #n institution /ithin this %r#me/ork. he soci#l system, #lso subOect to these imper#ti-es, is in eKuilibrium bec#use #ll o% its constituent #ctors #re mor#lly impelle! to per%orm soci#lly-expecte! %unctions. 3s might be expecte!, "#rsonsS e#rly /ork /#s %reKuently critici?e! %or %#iling to #ccount %or soci#l ch#nge, the opposite o% soci#l eKuilibrium. "#rsons e-entu#lly !e-elope! #n e-olution#ry mo!el o% soci#l ch#nge th#t !escribe! increment#l #!Oustments occurring through slight !isruptions o% the soci#l systemSs eKuilibrium.

Luh!an and 6o ial 6yste!s

.ociology is stuck in # theory crisis. 8*uhm#nn, ,JJH, p. xl-9

*uhm#nn critici?e! the sociology o% his time #s being irre!eem#bly subOecti-e #n! un#ble to use%ully !escribe re#lity. Q3ction theory is reconstructe! #s structur#l theory, structur#l theory #s linguistic theory, linguistic theory #s textu#l theory, #n! textu#l theory #s #ction theoryR 8*uhm#nn, ,JJH, p. xl-i9. he #cKuisition o% ne/ kno/le!ge, *uhm#nn #rgue!, /#s !eri-e! %rom some recombin#tion o% the /ork o% cl#ssic#l theorists. .oci#l theory spir#le! into higher #n! higher le-els o% complexity, e#ch re%ocusing #n! re#lignment o% cl#ssic#l theory l#ying the %oun!#tion %or e-er more complex theoretic#l iter#tions. *uhm#nn set his person#l t#sk #s no less th#n the complete theoretic#l reconceptu#li?#tion o% the !iscipline /ithin # /holly consistent %r#me/ork. *uhm#nnSs sociologic#l systems theory m#kes only t/o %un!#ment#l #ssumptions6 th#t re#lity exists, #n! th#t systems exist 8*uhm#nn, ,JJH, p. ,29. he theory cont#ins # constructi-ist epistimology, #s it cl#ims th#t kno/le!ge c#n only exist #s # construction o% hum#n consciousness. *uhm#nn !oes not cl#im th#t there is no extern#l re#lity, but th#t our kno/le!ge o% it /ill #l/#ys be subOect to the symbolic system /e use to represent it. From these simple #ssumptions, *uhm#nn #ttempts to buil! # uni-ers#l soci#l theory6
heoryX cl#ims neither to re%lect the complete re#lity o% its obOect, nor to exh#ust #ll the possibilities o%

Wikibooks M --

Ch#pter ,0
kno/ing its obOect. here%ore it !oes not !em#n! exclusi-ity %or its truth cl#ims in rel#tion to other, competing en!e#-ors. 2ut it !oes cl#im uni-ers#lity %or its gr#sp o% its obOect in the sense th#t it !e#ls /ith e-erything soci#l #n! not Oust sections. 8*uhm#nn, ,JJH, p. xl-9

he theory is uni-ers#l bec#use it seeks to !escribe #n! expl#in itsel%, #long /ith #ll other soci#l phenomen#. he theory is sel%-re%erenti#l. *uhm#nn procee!s to cl#ri%y three %un!#ment#l !i%%erences bet/een his theory #n! pre-ious soci#l theories. First, his theory is uni-ers#l #n! c#n be #pplie! to #ll soci#l phenomen#. .econ!, his theory is sel%-re%erenti#l, #n! c#p#ble o% ex#mining itsel% in its o/n terms. hir!, his theory is both complex #n! #bstr#ct enough to #ccomplish the pre-ious t/o go#ls 8*uhm#nn, ,JJH, xl-iii9. here is no !e%#ult entry point to *uhm#nnSs sociologic#l systems theory. he structure o% the theory is systemic. his me#ns th#t the integr#tion o% its components is not line#r #n! #!!iti-e, but circul#r. he components o% the theory !o not buil! upon e#ch other but pro!uce e#ch other. his intro!uction /ill #ttempt to sho/ some o% *uhm#nnSs most inno-#ti-e !e-elopments, inclu!ing his bre#k %rom pre-ious soci#l systems theory.

A theo & o. communication

*uhm#nn %oun! "#rsonsS systems #ppro#ch inspiring, but notice! se-er#l inconsistencies #n! problems. .tich/eh 820009, # stu!ent o% *uhm#nnSs, expl#ins th#t there #re t/o m#Oor str#n!s o% re#soning th#t le! *uhm#nn to b#se his theory on communic#tion r#ther th#n #ction. he %irst issue /#s th#t the #ctions o% psychic systems 8min!s9 #n! o% soci#l systems is !i%%icult to !istinguish using #ction theory. he inter#ction o% the #ctor #n! his en-ironment c#n only be !escribe! /hen the #ctor #n! en-ironment #re pl#ce! on the s#me #n#lytic le-el. 1n *uhm#nnSs theory, the soci#l system emerges %rom the communic#tion bet/een psychic systems 8min!s9, #n! c#nnot be un!erstoo! #s # sep#r#te system Q#ctingR on the in!i-i!u#l. he secon! issue is th#t #ction theory c#nnot !i%%erenti#te bet/een #ction #n! experience. .election 8one o% the components o% *uhm#nnSs !e%inition o% communic#tion, to be outline! belo/9 c#n be -ie/e! #s either #n #ction on the p#rt o% the selecting system, or #s in%orm#tion #bout the st#te o% the selecting systemSs en-ironment. he cl#ssi%ic#tion o% in%orm#tion, *uhm#nn re#sons, is not c#us#lly rel#te! to #ctors, #n! shoul! be cl#ssi%ie! #s experience, not #ction.

In%i#i%ua!s an% the socia! s&stem

Cne #spect o% *uhm#nnSs theory th#t is signi%ic#ntly !i%%erent %rom most soci#l theories is th#t the hum#n in!i-i!u#l is not seen #s %oc#l to un!erst#n!ing society. 1n %#ct, *uhm#nnSs theory st#tes uneKui-oc#lly th#t the in!i-i!u#l is not # constituent p#rt o% society. his counterintuiti-e cl#im begins to m#ke sense i% one rec#lls th#t *uhm#nnSs b#sic soci#l element is communic#tion. 3n in!i-i!u#l is only rele-#nt to society to the extent th#t they communic#te. Wh#te-er !oes not communic#te /ithin the society such #s biologic#l #n! psychic systems is not # p#rt o% the society. "sychic systems, or in!i-i!u#l min!s, c#n think but c#nnot communic#te. 1n the soci#l systems -ie/, in!i-i!u#ls #re only loci %or soci#l communic#tion.

Auto"oietic s&stems
We /ill return to the issue o% the in!i-i!u#l /ithin the soci#l system #%ter %urther !iscussion o% -/ M Communic#tion heory

.ociologic#l .ystems *uhm#nnSs notion o% QsystemR. 3 system is emergent, in th#t it comes into existence #s soon #s # bor!er c#n be !r#/n bet/een # set o% communic#tions #n! the context o% the communic#tion, or the systems en-ironment. 3 system is #l/#ys less complex th#n its en-ironment i% # system !oes not re!uce the complexity in its en-ironment, then it c#nnot per%orm #ny %unction. 3 system e%%ecti-ely !e%ines itsel% by cre#ting #n! m#int#ining # bor!er bet/een itsel% #n! the en-ironment. 1n the c#se o% biologic#l systems, this concept o% systemic sel%-gener#tion /#s %irst i!enti%ie! #n! ex#mine! by F#tur#n# #n! +#rel# 8,JI09. hey terme! the sel%-gener#tion o% biologic#l systems Q#utopoieticR. *uhm#nn belie-e! th#t #utopoiesis coul! be use%ully #pplie! to soci#l systems #s /ell. *uhm#nnSs #utopoietic systems !o more th#n Oust !e%ine their o/n bor!ers. hey #lso pro!uce their o/n components #n! org#ni?#tion#l structures. he m#Oor bene%it o% the #utopoietic perspecti-e on soci#l systems is th#t it presents them /ithout #mbiguity, #n! not #s something th#t c#n be re!uce! to #nything other th#n itsel%, such #s QconsciousnessR or # sum o% #ctions 83n!erson, 200G9. >eturning to the issue o% the in!i-i!u#l, it is #g#in possible to see /hy in!i-i!u#ls c#nnot be components o% soci#l systems soci#l systems #re comprise! o% communic#tions #n! there%ore pro!uce communic#tions, not people 8Q'ikl#s *uhm#nn,R 200H9.

Communication as se!ection
3nother *uhm#nni#n conception th#t might seem counterintuiti-e is his subOectless, #ctionless !e%inition o% communic#tion. QCommunic#tion is coor!in#te! selecti-ity. 1t comes #bout only i% ego %ixes his o/n st#te on the b#sis o% uttere! in%orm#tionR 8*uhm#nn, ,JJH, p. ,H49. *uhm#nn critici?es the Qtr#nsmissionR met#phor o% communic#tion bec#use Qit implies too much ontologyR #n! th#t Qthe entire met#phor or possessing, h#-ing, gi-ing, #n! recei-ingR is unsuit#ble 8,JJH, p. ,GJ9. For *uhm#nn, communic#tion is not #n Q#ctionR per%orme! by #n Q#ctorR but # selection per%orme! by # system. his 4selection4 th#t results in communic#tion is more simil#r to )#r/inSs Qn#tur#l selectionR th#n to the e-ery!#y us#ge o% the term. 3 soci#l system gener#tes communic#tion much #s # n#tur#l en-ironment gener#tes biologic#l tr#its. he selection process th#t *uhm#nn terms communic#tion is #ctu#lly # synthesis o% three sep#r#te selections6 the selection o% in%orm#tion, the selection o% # %orm, #n! the selection o% #n un!erst#n!ing 83n!erson, 200G9. Follo/ing .h#nnon #n! We#-erSs 8,J4J9 theory o% in%orm#tion, *uhm#nn i!enti%ies in%orm#tion #s # selection %rom # Qrepertoire o% possibilitiesR 8,JJH, p.,409. he %orm o% # communic#tion is ho/ the mess#ge is communic#te!. he selection o% un!erst#n!ing re%ers to /h#t shoul! be un!erstoo! #bout the mess#ge. 3 critic#l note here is th#t un!erst#n!ing !oes not re%er to the mess#geSs reception by # psychic system, but r#ther the link#ge o% the mess#ge to subseKuent communic#tions 83n!erson, 200G9. he result o% this selection process is the cre#tion o% me#ning, /hich is the me!ium o% communic#tion in soci#l systems 8*uhm#nn, ,JJH, p. ,409. .oci#l 8#n! psychic9 systems construct #n! sust#in themsel-es in this /#y through communic#tion. Communic#tions c#n only exist #s # pro!uct o% soci#l 8#n! psychic9 systems. .ociety is then # sel%!escripti-e system th#t cont#ins its o/n !escription. *uhm#nn recogni?es th#t this !e%inition is recursi-e #n! #ntithetic#l to cl#ssic#l scienti%ic theory 8Q.o?iologische .ystemtheorieR, 200H9.

Conte!porary so iologi al syste!s resear h

3 -#riety o% schol#rs to!#y employ sociologic#l systems #n#lysis in %iel!s r#nging %rom l#/ to liter#ry theory. he theory is one o% the most popul#r in &erm#n sociology, #n! h#s # signi%ic#nt Wikibooks M -3

Ch#pter ,0 %ollo/ing in continent#l Burope, ;#p#n, #n! else/here 8Q.o?iologische .ystemtheorie,R 200H9. F#ny o% *uhm#nnSs %ormer stu!ents #n! colle#gues, such #s )irk 2#ecker, "eter Fuchs, 3rmin '#ssehi, #n! >u!ol% .tich/eh, continue to !e-elop the theory.

Con lusion
he prece!ing c#n only ser-e #s the brie%est o% intro!uctions to #n enormous bo!y o% origin#l thought. 3 li%etimeSs /ork o% thous#n!s o% p#ges o% publishe! text c#nnot be con!ense! into # %e/ thous#n! /or!s. his ch#pter h#s #ttempte! to tr#ce some o% the m#Oor theoretic#l thre#!s /hich le! to the !e-elopment o% *uhm#nnSs uni-ers#l theory o% sociologic#l systems. 1t presents some o% *uhm#nnSs most eng#ging #n! inno-#ti-e conceptu#l %ormul#tions. 2ec#use *uhm#nnSs theory represents # m#Oor bre#k %rom the cl#ssic#l soci#l sciences in structure #n! content, its comprehension reKuires # signi%ic#nt in-estment o% intellectu#l e%%ort. his e%%ort is /orth/hile, #s *uhm#nnSs meticulous theoretic#l p#r#!igm pro-i!es # use%ul #ltern#ti-e to other soci#l science tr#!itions.

/4 M Communic#tion heory

'et/ork .ociety

11 N 1TWORD S OCI1T2
*anuel Castells
li-e -ersion N !iscussion N e!it lesson N comment N report #n error N #sk # Kuestion

Introdu tion to the Networ7 6o iety

n%orm#tion h#s been # centr#l theme in 2,st century rese#rch, Oust #s c#pit#l /#s in the 20th century. 1t is %reKuently s#i! th#t society is no/ li-ing in #n in%orm#tion #ge, /hich h#s pro-i!e! -#rious in%orm#tion technologies 8i.e. the internet #n! cellul#r phones9. 7o/e-er the 4in%orm#tion #ge4 h#s not been cle#rly !e%ine!. 3lthough m#ny !e%ine the current economy #s #n in%orm#tion economy, there is still no uni-ers#lly #ccepte! !e%inition to re%er to the current society. Currently, o-er thirty !i%%erent l#bels %or re%erring to contempor#ry society #re use! in #c#!emic %iel!s #n! c#su#l con-ers#tion 83l-#re? E <ilbourn, 20029. .ome o% these l#bels inclu!e6 in%orm#tion society, glob#l -ill#ge, !igit#l society, /ire! society, post-in!ustri#l society, #n! net/ork society. .ome o% the terms !escribe the s#me phenomen#, /hile others !o not. 3mong the numerous schol#rs trying to !e%ine this ne/ society, F#nuel C#stells is the most %oremost #n! uniKue, in terms o% #t le#st t/o #spects6 Firstly, he is #n incre!ibly proli%ic #n! energetic theorist on the subOect o% the in%orm#tion #ge. 7e h#s /ritten o-er t/enty books, publishe! o-er one hun!re! #c#!emic Oourn#l #rticles, #n! co-#uthore! o-er %i%teen books. 7e is currently # pro%essor o% .ociology #n! City #n! >egion#l "l#nning #t the (ni-ersity o% C#li%orni#, 2erkeley. 7e h#s #lso ser-e! on m#ny n#tion#l #n! intern#tion#l org#ni?#tions such #s6 the 3!-isory Council to the (nite! '#tions #sk Force on 1n%orm#tion #n! Communic#tion echnology, the 1ntern#tion#l 3!-isory Council to the "resi!ent o% .outh 3%ric# on 1n%orm#tion echnology #n! )e-elopment, the (nite! '#tions .ecret#ry &ener#lLs 7igh *e-el "#nel on &lob#l Ci-il .ociety #n! the (nite! '#tions, #n! ('B.CC. .econ!ly, his critic#l -ie/point to/#r! net/orks #n! the in%orm#tion economy h#s m#!e him more uniKue th#n other in%orm#tion economists #n! sociologists. C#stells is !istinguish#ble %rom Qthe (topi#ns /ho h#-e t#ken o-er the in%orm#tion society c#mpR 8)u%%, ,JJI, p. GDH9, since he belie-es th#t the !#rk si!e o% # ne/ economy is embe!!e! in the intrinsic ch#r#cteristics o% ne/ technologies. hus, C#stells m#int#ins # !eterministic -ie/ o% technology, /here#s the (topi#ns reg#r! in%orm#tion technologies #s instruments %or hum#n e-olution. C#stells h#s become one o% the most in%luenti#l theorists o-er the p#st thirty ye#rs since his /i!e #rr#y o% /orks h#s pro-i!e! # uniKue #n! critic#l %r#me/ork %or ex#mining contempor#ry society. C#stells h#s been c#lle! the %irst gre#t philosopher o% cybersp#ce %or his /ork on the in%orm#tion economy 8&erstner, ,JJJ9. 7is trilogy publishe! bet/een ,JJ6 #n! ,JJI is recogni?e! #s # compen!ium o% his theory #bout the in%orm#tion #ge. 1n the trilogy, consisting o% The .etwor$ &ociety, The Power of Identity, #n! End of illennium, C#stellsL #n#lysis o% the ne/ economy collig#tes se-er#l str#n!s o% the ne/ society6 ne/ technologic#l p#r#!igms, glob#li?#tion, soci#l mo-ements, #n! the !emise o% the so-ereign n#tion-st#te. The .etwor$ &ociety !e#ls /ith the 4ne/ techno-economic system4 8C#stells, 200,, p. 49. The Power of Identity !iscusses soci#l mo-ements #n! politics resisting or #!#pting to the net/ork society. End of illennium, the l#st /ork o% the trilogy, !escribes the results o% the pre-ious t/o %#ctors in the /orl!. his ch#pter thus explores /h#t # C#stelli#n net/ork society is, through explor#tion o% his trilogy #n! other #rticles.

Wikibooks M /1

Ch#pter ,,

New E ono!y
NeA .o ms o. time an% s"ace
he concept o% #n in%orm#tion economy or net/ork economy is un!oubte!ly rel#te! to ne/ in%orm#tion technologies. 3ccor!ing to economists, the !e%inition o% #n in%orm#tion economy c#n me#n not only #n #bun!#nt use o% in%orm#tion technologies, but #lso # ne/ something th#t #%%ects the /#y in!i-i!u#ls /ork, pro!uce, #n! consume. 7um#n processes #re ch#nge! by these technologies. hus, to un!erst#n! the in%orm#tion economy, one shoul! %irst un!erst#n! the ch#r#cteristics o% ne/ in%orm#tion technologies, #n! then stu!y the p#r#!igm shi%t into the net/ork society. C#stells 8,JJ6, ,JJD#, 20009 !e%ine! the net/ork society #s # soci#l structure /hich is ch#r#cteri?e! by net/orke! communic#tions technologies #n! in%orm#tion processing. his inclu!es such soci#l phenomen# #s economic inter!epen!ence #mong n#tions #s /ell #s glob#li?#tion #n! soci#l mo-ements rel#te! to in!i-i!u#l i!entity. 2#se! on this !e%inition, C#stells 820009 hypothesi?e! th#t the net/ork society is org#ni?e! #roun! t/o ne/ %orms o% time #n! sp#ce6 timeless time #n! the sp#ce o% %lo/s. 1n terms o% timeless time, ne/ technologies, such #s biotechnologies #n! communic#tion net/orks, #re bre#king !o/n the biologic#l sense o% time #s /ell #s logic#l seKuences o% time. C#stellsS 8,JJDb9 ex#mple o% ne/ biologic#l repro!ucti-e technologies blur li%e cycle p#tterns in con!itions o% p#renting by either slo/ing !o/n or spee!ing up the li%e cycle. .p#ce o% %lo/ in%ers th#t physic#l !ist#nces #re closer #mong org#ni?#tions in the society, #n! in%orm#tion c#n be e#sily tr#nsmitte! %rom one point to #nother point by ne/ communic#tion technologies. his me#ns the #nnihil#tion o% logic#l concept o% sp#ce. For ex#mple, the hyperlink on /ebp#ge coll#pses succession o% things in time #n! sp#ce sp#n, bec#use it brings one %rom one loc#tion to #nother loc#tion in #n inst#nt. C#stells 820009 st#te!6 Q.p#ce #n! ime, the m#teri#l %oun!#tions o% hum#n experience, h#-e been tr#ns%orme!, #s the sp#ce o% %lo/s !omin#tes the sp#ce o% pl#ces, #n! timeless time superse!es clock time o% the in!ustri#l er#R 8p. ,9.

NeA Techno91conom& 'a a%i7m

C#stells st#te! th#t the ne/ net/ork society is !omin#te! by Q# ne/ techno-economic p#r#!igm b#se! on in%orm#tion net/orks-in%orm#tion#lismR 8C#bot, 200G, p.,,4I9. C#stells 820049 !e%inition o% in%orm#tion#lism is Q# technologic#l p#r#!igm b#se! on the #ugment#tion o% the hum#n c#p#city o% in%orm#tion processing #n! communic#tion m#!e possible by the re-olutions in microelectronics, so%t/#re, #n! genetic engineeringR 8p. ,,9. 1n%orm#tion processing #n! communic#tion, like ne/sp#pers, r#!ios, #n! tele-isions, existe! in history too. 7o/e-er, in%orm#tion technologies /ere not %un!#ment#l m#teri#ls %or !e-elopment in the p#st in!ustri#l economy. he in%orm#tion#l economy !epen!s on the c#p#city o% net/orks. hus, /ithout the c#p#city pro-i!e! by these ne/ technologies, the ne/ economy /oul! not be #ble to oper#te, #s the in!ustri#l society coul! not %ully exp#n! /ithout electricity 8C#stells, 20049. Where#s the in!ustri#l economy /#s b#se! on # -#lue ch#in %rom m#nu%#cturers to ret#ilers, the in%orm#tion economy cre#te! -#rious positions rel#te! to in%orm#tion technologies #n! the net/orks in the -#lue ch#in such #s !esigners, oper#tors, #n! integr#tors. he in%orm#tion economy reKuires # /2 M Communic#tion heory

'et/ork .ociety gre#ter number o% highly intelligent l#borers th#t c#n m#n#ge #n! control the technologies th#n in #n in!ustri#l economy. Foreo-er, there #re comp#r#ti-ely more opportunities to cre#te # pro%it in the net/ork in!ustry or in%orm#tion in!ustry th#n in other in!ustries. )ue to the import#nce o% the net/orks #n! communic#tion technologies in the ne/ economy, net/orks, #s # ne/ m#teri#l %or ne/ economy, beg#n to %ormul#te soci#l po/er, #n! the members exploiting the #bility o% net/orks beg#n to #cKuire soci#l po/er 8&erstner, ,JJJ9. For ex#mple, the net/ork enterprise is the pre-#iling %orm o% business org#ni?#tion in in%orm#tion economy, since it %ollo/s Q# complete tr#ns%orm#tion o% rel#tionships o% pro!uction #n! m#n#gementR 8C#stells, 2000b, p.60D9.

C!oba! 1conom&
.ince the mo!ern !igit#l net/orks th#t the ne/ p#r#!igm emph#si?es h#-e no geogr#phic#l limit#tion, the in%orm#tion economy is l#rgely ch#r#cteristic o% glob#l economy. he glob#l economy c#n be !e%ine! #s Q# net/ork o% %in#nci#l tr#ns#ctions, pro!uction sites, m#rkets, #n! l#bor pools on # pl#net#ry sc#leR 8C#stells, 2000b, p.6JH9. his !e%inition pl#ces emph#sis on the Qlink#ges bet/een economic #gents,R /hich #re essenti#lly hori?ont#l #n! %lexible rel#tionships in /hich the oper#ting economic #gents, #s no!es in net/orks, en#ct # proOect 8Fiel!s, 2002, p.H69. hus, these link#ges #re not re#lly %irms, but inste#! c#n be seen #s net/orking no!es. he n#ture o% technologies #n! net/orks gener#lly #%%ects the structure o% the economy. he %lexibility o% mo!ern business org#ni?#tions re%lects the %lexible n#ture o% ne/ net/orks, so th#t the link#ges #re occ#sion#lly tr#ns%orme! #n! reconstructe! %or its pro%it#bility. .ince current net/orks h#-e %e/ physic#l limit#tions #n! open systems, they c#n Qincre#se their -#lue exponenti#lly #s they #!! no!esR 8C#stells, 2000c, p.6JI9 #n! c#n cre#te in%inite link#ges #mong other #gents %or their go#ls. hus, the structure o% in%orm#tion economy is not constr#ine! by geogr#phic#l restrictions. 3t the !e%inition o% the glob#l economy, the pl#net#ry sc#le !oes not reKuire highly intern#tion#li?e! org#ni?#tions or /i!e geogr#phic#l r#nges. >#ther, in terms o% the sp#ce o% %lo/s m#!e o% bits #n! pieces o% pl#ces, glob#l economy exists in the reconstructe! time #n! sp#ce. &upt# 8200G9 uses the ex#mple o% '3.)35, #n electronic#lly /ire! stock m#rket, %or the c#se o% glob#l economy. he glob#l economy is # concept th#t -#lues the spee! /ith /hich kno/le!ge, goo!s, #n! people #re tr#ns#cte!. .p#ti#l !ist#nce is no longer signi%ic#nt. Cn the contr#ry, r#ils #n! telegr#ph h#-e #lso in%luence! the structure o% the p#st in!ustri#l economy. >ich#r! >. ;one 820009 estim#te! th#t ne/ !igit#l re-olution in the p#st h#l% century is comp#r#ble to the role o% r#ilro#!s #n! telegr#phy in the ,Jth century, in terms o% Qin%orm#tion in%r#structureR 8pp. 6I-I69. 1n the c#se o% the ,Jth century, the r#ilro#! #n! telegr#ph, #s ne/ net/orks, contribute! to compress geogr#phic#l !ist#nce, /hich #cceler#te! in!ustri#l !e-elopment. 7o/e-er, since the net/orks /ere less %lexible un!er their physic#l limit#tions, the in!ustri#l structure, b#se! on the net/orks, /#s less %lexible th#n to!#y. 1n the ,Jth century, the structure o% business /#s gener#lly -ertic#lly integr#te!, relying on m#ss-pro!uction systems, #n! m#ss-!istribution net/orks. 1n sum, ne/ technology #lters the structure o% society #n! in!ustry by its inherent n#ture, so th#t the structure in the ne/ economy is %lexible #n! hori?ont#l /ith pro!uction #n! consumption relying on the ne/ glob#l #n! !igit#l net/orks.

Wikibooks M /0

Ch#pter ,,

Main 4eatures o' New E ono!y

In%i#i%ua!i;ation o. Wo k
1n the ne/ glob#l economy, # cle#-#ge or g#p seems to incre#se bet/een 4Lgeneric l#bourL 8c#su#l substitut#ble l#bour9 #n! Lsel%-reprogr#mm#ble l#bourL 8those /ith the #bility to #!#pt their skills throughout their li-es94 8<#l!or, ,JJI, p. IJJ9. &eneric l#bour re%ers to # person /ho is unskille! or possesses lo/er skills or h#s # lo/ le-el o% e!uc#tion. hese in!i-i!u#ls usu#lly /ork %or lo/-/#ge l#bor, #n! #ccor!ing to C#stells 820049 c#n be, 4!ispos#ble, except i% they #ssert their right to exist #s hum#ns #n! citi?ens through their collecti-e #ction4 8p. 409. Cn the contr#ry, sel%-reprogr#mm#ble l#bour re%ers to highly e!uc#te! people /ho m#n#ge #n! control in%orm#tion /ith high cre#ti-ity. C#stells 820049 st#tes6 4 he more our in%orm#tion systems #re complex, #n! inter#cti-ely connecte! to !#t# b#ses #n! in%orm#tion sources, the more /h#t is reKuire! %rom l#bor is to be #ble o% this se#rching #n! recombining c#p#city. his !em#n!s the #ppropri#te tr#ining, not in terms o% skills, but in terms o% cre#ti-e c#p#city, #n! #bility to e-ol-e /ith org#ni?#tions #n! /ith the #!!ition o% kno/le!ge in society4 8p. 409. .ince the m#tter o% l#bour in the glob#l economy is rel#te! to c#p#city #n! cre#ti-ity, C#stells 8200,9 suggests th#t e!uc#tion is # more import#nt solution to!#y. 3nother problem in the cle#-#ge bet/een both types o% l#bours is th#t l#bor org#ni?#tions c#nnot %unction properly, #n! r#ther !i-i!e the sel%-reprogr#mm#ble l#bour %rom the generic l#bour. 3nother ex#mple o% the cle#-#ge is th#t /ithin the in!ustri#l system, the employment o% 4%lexible /om#n4 incre#se!, but th#t o% 4org#ni?e! m#n4 !ecre#se!, o-er the l#st couple o% !ec#!es. he more -#lu#ble segments in the -#lue ch#in o% glob#l economy c#n sur-i-e. .ince the glob#l economy #llo/s %lexible #n! #rbitr#ry link#ge bet/een no!es, # business org#ni?#tion c#n e#sily re!eploy their l#bour sources %rom one m#rket to the other m#rket in # pl#net#ry scope. hus, glob#li?#tion o% the economic #cti-ities en#bles the situ#tion th#t one l#bour m#rket is supplie! %or #bun!#nt /orks, but, #t the s#me time, one m#rket experiences # serious unemployment. he other problem o% l#bour in glob#l economy is th#t ne/ technologies incre#se the pro!ucti-ity o% blue-coll#r /orker, so th#t the net/ork enterprises !o/nsi?e its o/n system. his is reminiscent o% the m#ss l#yo%%s in the ,Jth century. C#stells 8,JJDb9 -ie/s these tren!s #s 4the re-ers#l tren! o% soci#li?#tion o% l#bour th#t ch#r#cteri?e! the in!ustri#l #ge4 8p. J9. 7e /#rns o% the #lien#tion o% /orkers in the net/ork society by using C#rnoyLs terms o% 4in!i-i!u#li?#tion o% /ork4. 4'et/orking #n! in!i-i!u#li?#tion o% /ork le#-es /orkers to themsel-es. Which is #ll right /hen they #re strong, but becomes # !r#m#tic con!ition /hen they !o not h#-e proper skills, or they %#ll into some o% the tr#ps o% the system 8illness, #!!itions, psychologic#l problems, l#ck o% housing, or o% he#lth insur#nce94 8C#stells, ,JJJ9.

/4 M Communic#tion heory

'et/ork .ociety

IneEua!it& in the C!obe 1conom&

he centr#l point o% C#stellsL in%orm#tion economy is th#t the inherent logic o% the system is exclusion#ry, #n! the g#p is incre#sing 8&erstner, ,JJJ9. C#stells 82000#9 !e%ines the glob#l economy #s Qstill-c#pit#lismR, since the purpose o% pro!uction in the ne/ economy is still %or pro%it #n! the economy system is still b#se! on property rights 8p. GDG9. C#stells 820049 st#tes6 4C#pit#lism h#s not !is#ppe#re!, but it is not, #g#inst the i!eologic#lly suggeste! perception, the only source o% -#lue in the glob#l to/n4 8p. GJ9. C#stells suggests th#t 3%ric#, #s the %ourth /orl!, is Q!ropping %urther #n! %urther behin! the glob#l economy /ith e#ch le#p %or/#r! by the techno-eliteR 8&erstner, ,JJJ9. his is not bec#use o% politic#l purposes, but bec#use o% the inherent n#ture o% technology. Why !oes the ineKu#lity incre#se i% tremen!ous technologic#l #!-#ncements #re supplie! to societyA 'e/ net/orks #n! communic#tion technologies en#ble people or no!es to buil! rel#tions /ith others. 7o/e-er, the !ecision o% m#king rel#tions is up to the comp#r#ti-e -#lue o% e#ch no!e. hus, 3%ric#, /hich h#s no leg#cy %rom #n in!ustri#l er#, is compose! o% less -#lu#ble segments, /hich rem#in isol#te! or utili?e! %or che#p /#ge l#bor in the ne/ economy. "oor chil!ren in 3%ric# #n! *#tin 3meric# #re still exploite! #t /ork by glob#l business org#ni?#tions. he ineKu#lity occurs in in%orm#tion consumption. 3l-in o%%ler #n! 'icol#s 'egroponte belie-e! th#t the ne/ in%orm#tion technologies /oul! le#! # r#!ic#l, positi-e ch#nge in the economy. C#stells %oresees th#t technic#l ch#nges #re not eKu#lly bene%ici#l to e-eryone in the glob#l economy. 7is #ttention is %ocuse! on the !igit#l !i-i!e, /hich re%ers ineKuit#ble !istribution or #ccess to in%orm#tion. Wireless communic#tion, 2ro#!b#n! c#ble, #n! other ne/ technologies m#!e it possible to hyperlink inst#ntly #mong multiple spots. 7o/e-er, the m#Oority o% the popul#tions rem#in un/ire!. 3ccor!ing to C#stells, in%orm#tion, like the c#pit#ls in in!ustri#l economy, is #l/#ys insu%%icient to #ll the people. .ince C#stells consi!ers the ne/ techno-economic p#r#!igm in net/ork society # 4soci#lly embe!!e! process, not #s #n exogenous %#ctor #%%ecting society,4 he c#n be c#tegori?e! #s # technology !eterminist. 7o/e-er, he h#s ne-er bl#me! the technology itsel%, e-en i% he thinks th#t the n#ture o% mo!ern technology incre#ses the ineKuity o% glob#l societies. C#stells st#tes6 4 his is not #n opinion. 1tLs #n empiric#l obser-#tion. 7o/e-er, this is not the %#ult o% technology, it is the /#y /e use it.... (neKu#l, un!emocr#tic, exclusion#ry societies, on the contr#ry, /ill see the po/er o% technology !r#m#tic#lly incre#ses soci#l exclusion4 8&erstner, ,JJJ9.

The %emise o. the So#e ei7n Nation9State

3nother m#in tren! o% the ne/ economy is the Q!emise o% the so-ereign n#tion-st#te4 8C#stells, 2000c, p. 6J49. .ince both glob#l net/orks #n! communic#tion technologies h#-e incre#se! the strength #n! %reKuency o% tr#ns%orming in%orm#tion, c#pit#ls, #n! l#bour #mong other no!es in the net/orks, #ll n#tions #n! st#tes h#-e become more inter!epen!ent. he incre#se! rel#tions stimul#te the necessity o% tr#nsn#tion#l institutions such #s the B(, '3 C, 3.B3', #n! ('. C#stells 8200,9 #rgues th#t the !egree o% %ree!om o% n#tion st#tes h#s shrunk to #n extr#or!in#ry !egree in the l#st ten ye#rs, bec#use o% the Burope#n (nion. Fember n#tions in the Burope#n (nion h#-e !ecentr#li?e! m#rkets in or!er to strengthen their b#rg#ining po/er #n! socio-economic control. ConseKuently, e#ch member st#te in the (nion h#s experience! !iminishing soci#l po/er o-er their n#tion#l issues #n! more complex rel#tions /ith e#ch other. 'o!es in in%orm#tion economies or net/ork economies !o not necess#rily exist in the %orm o% #n org#ni?#tion, but occ#sion#lly exist #s # in!i-i!u#ls, such #s 3l#n Wikibooks M /(

Ch#pter ,, &reensp#n, the Ch#irm#n o% Fe!er#l >eser-e 2o#r! 8C#stells, 200,9. 7o/e-er, the !emise o% so-ereignty %or C#stells !oes not me#n th#t the current n#tions or st#tes /ill !is#ppe#r through glob#l net/orks, but th#t their soci#l po/er shoul! be sh#re! or restricte! by other institutions, n#tions, or st#tes.

67epti is!
C#stellsS theory re-isits F#rxist skepticism reg#r!ing in!ustri#lism. he theory o% the net/prl society uses m#ny concepts #n! -ie/points tr#!ition#lly hel! by F#rxists. C#stells repl#ces the position o% c#pit#l in in!ustri#lism by the concept o% in%orm#tion. 1n his #n#lysis, C#stells recogni?es th#t the rise o% in%orm#tion#lism #n! the n#ture o% net/orks h#s le! glob#l societies to/#r! ineKu#lity #n! soci#l exclusion, /i!ening the cle#-#ge bet/een 4generic l#bour4 #n! 4sel%-reprogr#mm#ble l#bour,4 glob#l city #n! loc#l city, in%orm#tion-rich #n! in%orm#tion-poor. hus, ony &i!!ens, 3l#in our#ine, "eter 7#ll, #n! Chris Freem#n comp#re C#stells to such sociologists o% import#nce #s F#rx #n! Weber 8C#bot, 200G9. )uring the ,JD0s, C#stells exhibite! # F#rxist intellectu#l tr#Oectory, #n! he con%esse! th#t he %elt the nee! o% F#rxism %or probing politic#l ch#nge in in%orm#tion #ge.

Lega y
C#stellLs most import#nt contribution /#s th#t he #ttempte! to buil! # gr#n! theory o% the in%orm#tion #ge in m#cro-perspecti-e. B-en though his /ork is still progressing, his /i!e #rr#nge #n#lysis h#s pro-i!e! #n in-!epth, yet m#cro un!erst#n!ing #bout the in%orm#tion society. he m#Oority o% his #ppro#ch h#s been empiric#l in #n #ttempt to !i#gnose the contempor#ry problems in the in%orm#tion society. C#stells st#tes his high !iss#tis%#ction /ith the super%ici#lity o% the prophet th#t %uturists such #s o%%ler #n! &il!er h#! #nnounce!. 3lthough there #re some criticisms th#t C#stells o-eremph#si?e! the neg#ti-e e%%ects o% the in%orm#tion economy, his #n#lysis %or e#ch c#se, such #s the coll#pse o% .o-iet (nion, /#s empiric#l #n! -ery #ccur#te. 1n #!!ition, C#stells #n#lysis is glob#li?e!, e-en i% he /#rns o% the !#rk si!e o% glob#li?#tion. 3s most in%orm#tion in%r#structures #re centr#li?e! on (... or Western Burope#n n#tions, most o% the #c#!emic #n#lysis on in%orm#tion economy concerns those countries. 7o/e-er, C#stellsS empiric#l stu!ies r#nge %rom the %ourth-/orl! countries to the Burope#n (nion.

/) M Communic#tion heory

7istory E )ocument 'otes

12 H ISTOR2 K D OCUM1NT N OT1S

*i7i%oo7 History
his book /#s cre#te! on 2004-0,-G, #n! /#s !e-elope! on the Wikibooks proOect by the contributors liste! in the next section. he l#test -ersion m#y be %oun! #t http6$$en./ikibooks.org$/iki$Communic#tion@ heory.

3(4 In'or!ation > History

his ")F /#s cre#te! on 2006-0I-,G b#se! on the 2006-0I-,2 -ersion o% the Communic#tion heory Wikibook. 3 tr#nsp#rent copy o% this !ocument is #-#il#ble #t Wikibooks6Communic#tion heory$"rint#ble -ersion. 3n Cpen)ocument ext -ersion o% this ")F !ocument #n! the templ#te %rom /hich it /#s cre#te! is #-#il#ble upon reKuest #t Wikibooks6(ser t#lk67#gin!#?. 3 printer%rien!ly -ersion o% this !ocument is #-#il#ble #t Wikibooks61m#ge6Communic#tion heory print#ble -ersion.p!%.

(o u!ent In'or!ation

"#ges6 ,,I "#r#gr#phs6 ,0DD Wor!s6 H,J22 Ch#r#cters6 GG6GDH

Wikibooks M /-

Ch#pter ,G

10 A UTHORS K I MAC1 C R1DITS

3rin ipal Authors

7#l#-#is 8contributions9 ;oe "etrick 8contributions9 3shley 3nker 8contributions9 C#rolyn 7urley 8contributions9 3lbertin 8contributions9 )erek 8contributions9 <younghee 8contributions9 =ouling *iu 8contributions9 >y#nko?ey 8contributions9

All Authors, number of edits

Int o%uction6 7#l#-#is, origin#l source : <ernigh,G : +#ult,, : ;guk,, : 7#gin!#?,, Unce taint& Re%uction6 3nonymous,,2 : )erek,,, : C#rolyn 7urley,H : 7#l#-#is,2 : 7#gin!#?,, : ;oe "etrick,, : ;guk,, ' o"a7an%a an% the 'ub!ic6 >y#nko?ey,GD : )erek,26 : C#rolyn 7urley,2H : 7#l#-#is,,D : ;oe "etrick,I : 3nonymous,2 : ;guk,, :
7#gin!#?,,

Uses an% C ati.ications6 7#l#-#is,G : 7#gin!#?,, The 6 ank.u t Schoo!6 =ouling *iu,20 : ;oe "etrick,,, : 3shley 3nker,D :
7#gin!#?,,

3nonymous,H : <younghee,H : 7#l#-#is,G : ;guk,, :

Semiotics an% M&th6

7urley,,

3shley 3nker,42 : ;oe "etrick,24 : <younghee,,0 : 7#l#-#is,I : 3nonymous,H : ;guk,, : 7#gin!#?,, : C#rolyn

O a!it& an% 5ite ac&6 )erek,,2 : 7#l#-#is,4 : ;oe "etrick,G : 3nonymous,, : ;guk,, : 7#gin!#?,, Di..usion o. Inno#ations6 =ouling *iu,G2 : C#rolyn 7urley,6 : 3shley 3nker,6 : ;oe "etrick,H : 7#l#-#is,G : 3nonymous,G : )erek,, :
;guk,, : 7#gin!#?,,

Socio!o7ica! S&stems6 >y#nko?ey,2G : <younghee,6 : 7#l#-#is,4 : )erek,G : ;oe "etrick,2 : 3nonymous,2 : ;guk,, : 7#gin!#?,, NetAo k Societ&6 3lbertin,,I : C#rolyn 7urley,,D : 3shley 3nker,,H : ;oe "etrick,J : 7#l#-#is,4 : 3nonymous,2 : ;guk,, : 7#gin!#?,,

I!age Credits
Int o%uction>

Communic#tion sen!er-mess#ge-recie-er by Bmu?esto 8&F)*9

// M Communic#tion heory

>e%erences

14 R 161R1NC1S
Un ertainty Redu tion
3sh, F.&. 820009. 7ei!er, Frit?. American .ational -iography /nline. >etrie-e! Cctober ,0, 200H %rom http6$$///.#nb.org$#rticles$,4$,4-00J,0.html 2erger, C.>. 8,JDJ9. 2eyon! initi#l inter#ction6 (ncert#inty, un!erst#n!ing, #n! the !e-elopment o% interperson#l rel#tionships. 1n 7. &iles E >. .t. Cl#ir 8e!s.9, (anguage and social psychology 8pp. ,22-,449. Cx%or!6 2l#ck/ell. 2erger, C.>. 8,JI69. (ncert#in outcome -#lues in pre!icte! rel#tionships6 (ncert#inty re!uction theory then #n! no/. Human Communication Research, ,G, G4-GI. 2erger, C. >. 8,JID9. Communic#ting un!er uncert#inty. 1n F. B. >olo%% E &. >. Filler 8B!s.9, Interpersonal processes+ .ew directions in communication research 8p. GJ-629. 'e/bury "#rk, C.3.6 .#ge. 2erger, C.>. 8200H9. 1nterperson#l communic#tion6 heoretic#l perspecti-es, %uture prospects. %ournal of Communication, HH, 4,H-44D. 2erger, C.>., E 2r#!#c, ;.;. 8,JI29. (anguage and social $nowledge. *on!on6 B!/#r! 3rnol! "ublishers *t!. 2erger, C.>., E C#l#brese, >.;. 8,JDH9. .ome explor#tions in initi#l inter#ction #n! beyon!6 o/#r! # !e-elopment#l theory o% interperson#l communic#tion. Human Communication Research, ,, JJ-,,2. 2l#lock, 7.F. 8,J6J9. Theory construction+ 2rom ver#al to mathematical formulations. Bngle/oo! Cli%%s, '.;.6 "rentice-7#ll. C#n#ry, )., E )#inton, F. 8B!s.9. 8200G9. aintaining relationships through communication.

F#h/#h, '.;.6 *#/rence Brlb#um 3ssoci#tes. Ch#rles >. 2erger. Contemporary Authors /nline. he &#le &roup, 200,. >etrie-e! Cctober H, 200H

Wikibooks M /3

Ch#pter ,4 %rom http6$$g#lenet.g#legroup.com.g#te.lib.bu%%#lo.e!u$ser-let$*it>CA-rsneGEC"econt#insEloc1)esunybu% %@m#inEsrchtpe#thrEc#e,Ece,Estee6Et#be,Etbste#rpE#ie200,,,Ene,0E!oc'ume7,000,2D4D JE. ebergerY2CZch#rlesEbContse,4, Cl#u!e Bl/oo! .h#nnon. Contemporary Authors /nline. he &#le &roup, 2002. >etrie-e! Cctober ,H, 200H %rom http6$$g#lenet.g#legroup.com.g#te.lib.bu%%#lo.e!u$ser-let$*it>CA-rsneGEC"econt#insEloc1)esunybu% %@m#inEsrchtpe#thrEc#e6Ece,Estee6Et#be,Etbste#rpE#ie,G444JEne,0E!oc'ume7,000,2HGI HE. esh#nnonEbContse,4, )#inton, F. E 3ylor, 2. 8200,9. 3 rel#tion#l uncert#inty #n#lysis o% Oe#lousy, trust, #n! m#inten#nce in long-!ist#nce -ersus geogr#phic#lly close rel#tionships. Communication !uarterly, 4J, ,D2-,IJ.

)ougl#s, Willi#m. 8,JID9. 5uestion-#sking in s#me- #n! opposite-sex initi#l inter#ctions6 he e%%ects o% #nticip#te! %uture inter#ction. Human Communication Research, ,4, 2G0-24H. )ougl#s, W. 8,JJ09. (ncert#inty, in%orm#tion-seeking, #n! liking !uring initi#l inter#ction. 'estern %ournal of &peech Communication, H4, 66-I,. )ougl#s, W. 8,JJ,9. Bxpect#tions #bout initi#l inter#ction6 3n ex#min#tion o% the e%%ects o% glob#l uncert#inty. Human Communication Research, ,D, GHH-GI4. Festinger, *. 8B!.9. 8,JI09. Retrospections on &ocial Psychology. 'e/ =ork6 Cx%or! (ni-ersity "ress. &u!ykunst, Willi#m 2., #n! 'ishi!#, suk#s#. 8,JI49. 1n!i-i!u#l #n! cultur#l in%luences on uncert#inty re!uction. Communication onographs, H, 2G-G6.

7ei!er, F. 8,JHI9. The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations. 'e/ =ork6 ;ohn Wiley E .ons, 1nc. 7e#th, >.*., E 2ry#nt, ;. 820009. Human communication theory and research. 7ills!#le, '.;.6 *#/rence Brlb#um 3ssoci#tes. <ellerm#n, <., E >eynol!s, >. 8,JJ09. When ignor#nce is bliss6 he role o% moti-#tion to re!uce uncert#inty in uncert#inty re!uction theory. Human Communication Research, ,D, H-GH. 34 M Communic#tion heory

>e%erences "#rks, F#lcolm >., #n! 3!elm#n, F#r# 2. 8,JIG9. Communic#tion net/orks #n! the !e-elopment o% rom#ntic rel#tionships. Human Communication Research, ,0, HH-DJ. "l#n#lp, .#lly, #n! 7oneycutt, ;#mes F. 8,JIH9. B-ents th#t incre#se uncert#inty in person#l rel#tionships. Human Communication Research, ,,, HJG-604. >eingol!, '. 820009. We#-er, W#rren. American .ational -iography /nline. >etrie-e! Cctober ,0, 200H %rom http6$$///.#nb.org$#rticles$,4$,4-0,JJJ.html >ich#r! ;oseph C#l#brese. Contemporary Authors /nline. he &#le &roup, 200,. >etrie-e! Cctober H, 200H %rom http6$$g#lenet.g#legroup.com.g#te.lib.bu%%#lo.e!u$ser-let$*it>CA-rsneGEC"econt#insEloc1)esunybu% %@m#inEsrchtpe#thrEc#eGEsteeHE#ie2H060GEt#be,Etbste#rpEne,0E. ec#l#brese .#melson, F. 820009. Festinger, *eon. American .ational -iography /nline. >etrie-e! Cctober ,0, 200H %rom http6$$///.#nb.org$#rticles$,4$,4-00IID.html .h#nnon, C.B. E We#-er, W. 8,J4J9. The mathematical theory of communication. (rb#n#, 1.*.6 (ni-ersity o% 1llinois press. .unn#%r#nk, F. 8,JI69. "re!icte! outcome -#lue !uring initi#l inter#ctions6 3 re%orm#tion o% uncert#inty re!uction theory. Human Communication Research, ,G, ,J,-2,0. renholm, .., E ;ensen, 3. 820049. Interpersonal communication. 'e/ =ork6 Cx%or! (ni-ersity "ress. West, >., E urner, *. 820009. Introducing communication theory. Fount#in +ie/, C.3.6 F#y%iel! "ublishing Comp#ny. 'ho@s 'ho in the idwest 455A;455B. 8,JJG9. Wilmette, 1.*.6 F#rKuis WhoSs Who.

3ropaganda and the 3u%li

2ern#ys, B.*. 8,J2I9. Propaganda. 'e/ =ork6 7or#ce *i-eright, 1nc. 2ern#ys, B.*. 8,JH29. Pu#lic relations. 'orm#n, Ckl#hom#6 (ni-ersity o% Ckl#hom# "ress. 2ern#ys, B.*. 8,JHH9. The engineering of consent. 'orm#n, Ckl#hom#6 (ni-ersity o% Ckl#hom#.

Wikibooks M 31

Ch#pter ,4 Bllul, ;. 8,J649. The technological society. 'e/ =ork6 +int#ge 2ooks. Bllul, ;. 8,J6H9. Propaganda+ the formation of men9s attitudes. 'e/ =ork6 3l%re! 3. <nop%, 1nc. 1yeng#r, .., "eters, F.)., E <in!er, ).>. 8,JI29. Bxperiment#l !emonstr#tions o% the 4not-sominim#l4 conseKuences o% tele-ision ne/s progr#ms. The American Political &cience Review, C6849, I4I-IHI. ;#mes, W. 8,J0D9. "r#gm#tism. 1n &. &unn 8B!.9, Pragmatism and other writings 3pp. 4 ; 4BA8. .ew =ork6 "enguin 2ooks. ;o/ett, &..., E CS)onnell, +. 8,JJ29. Propaganda and persuasion 82n! B!ition9. 'e/bury "#rk, C#li%orni#6 .#ge "ublic#tions. *#ss/ell, 7.). 8,JGI9. Propaganda techni1ue in the world war. 'e/ =ork6 "eter .mith. *#ss/ell, 7.). 8,J4,9. *emocracy through pu#lic opinion. (.36 &eorge 2#nt# "ublishing Comp#ny. *#ss/ell, 7.). 8,J469. )escribing the contents o% communic#tion. 1n 2.*. .mith, 7.). *#ss/ell, #n! >.). C#sey 8B!s.9, Propaganda, communication, and pu#lic opinion 8pp. D4 J49. "rinceton, 'e/ ;ersey6 "rinceton (ni-ersity "ress. *#ss/ell, 7. ). 8,JHG9. he structure #n! %unction o% communic#tion in society. 1n *. 2ryson 8B!.9, The communic#tion o% i!e#s. .ew "or$+ Harper D Co. *e-in, &. 8,JDH9. &igmund 2reud. 2oston, F#ss#chusetts6 /#yne "ublishers. *ippm#nn, W. 8,J229. Pu#lic opinion. 'e/ =ork6 he Free "ress. *ippm#nn, W. 8,J2H9. The phantom pu#lic. 'e/ =ork6 7#rcourt, 2r#ce #n! Comp#ny, 1nc. *ippm#nn, W. 8,JG69. The good society. 'e/ =ork6 &rosset E )unl#p. *ippm#nn, W. 8,J,49. A preface to politics. (.36 he (ni-ersity o% Fichig#n "ress. FcCombs, F., E .h#/, ). *. 8,JD29. he #gen!#-setting %unction o% m#ss me!i#. Pu#lic /pinion !uarterly, B6, ,D6-,ID. Funson, . 8,J629. The essential wisdom of 0eorge &antayana. 'e/ =ork6 Columbi# (ni-ersity "ress. 32 M Communic#tion heory

>e%erences >ogers, B.F. 8,JJ49. A history of communication study+ a #iographical approach. 'e/ =ork6 he Free "ress. .teel, >. 8,JJJ9. 'alter (ippmann and the American century. 'e/ 2runs/ick, 'e/ ;ersey6 r#ns#ction "ublishers. W#ll#s, &. 8,JI,9. Human nature in politics 8 r#ns#ction B!ition9. 'e/ 2runs/ick, 'e/ ;ersey6 r#ns#ction 2ooks. Weing#st, ).B. 8,J4J9. 'alter (ippmann+ a study in personal Eournalism. 'e/ 2runs/ick, 'e/ ;ersey6 >utgers (ni-ersity "ress. White, ).F. 8,JH09. he 4g#tekepper46 # c#se stu!y in the selection o% ne/s. %ournalism !uarterly, AC , GIG-GJ0.

Uses and 5rati'i ations

3nglem#n, .. 82000, )ecember9. (ses #n! gr#ti%ic#tions #n! 1nternet pro%iles6 3 %#ctor #n#lysis. 1s 1nternet use #n! tr#-el to cybersp#ce rein%orce! by unre#li?e! gr#ti%ic#tionsA "#per presente! to the 'estern &cience &ocial Association 200, Con%erence, >eno, '+. >etrie-e! ;une 4, 200H, %rom http6$$///.Orily.com$*iter#ry1llusions$1nternet&r#ti%ic#tion.tu!y1n!ex.html. 2erelson, 2. 8,J4J9. Wh#t missing the ne/sp#per me#ns. 1n ".F. *#?#rs%el!, E F.F. .t#nton 8B!s.9, Communication Research ,J4I-J 8pp. ,,,-,2J9. '=6 )uell, .lo#n #n! "e#rce. 2r#in#, F. 8200,, 3ugust9. he uses #n! gr#ti%ic#tions o% the 1nternet #mong 3%ric#n 3meric#n college stu!ents. "#per presente! to the Finorities #n! Communic#tion )i-ision, Association for Education in %ournalism and ass Communication, W#shington, )C.

CCF.-1n%ob#se. 8200G9. F#ss me!i#6 e%%ects rese#rch - uses #n! gr#ti%ic#tions. >etrie-e! Cctober ,0, 200H, %rom http6$$///.cultsock.n!irect.co.uk$F(7ome$cshtml$me!i#$ Choi, =., E 7#Kue, F. 820029. 1nternet use p#tterns #n! moti-#tions o% <ore#ns. Asian Information and Communication, 4A8,9, ,26-,40. edia

Wikibooks M 30

Ch#pter ,4 )eFleur, F. *. E 2#ll->oke#ch, .. ;. 8,JIJ9. Theories of mass communication 8Hth e!.9. 'e/ =ork6 *ongm#n. 2lumler, ;., E <#t?, B. 8,JD49. The ,ses of "ublic#tions. )eFleur, F. *., E 2#ll->oke#ch, .. ;. 8,JD69. 3 !epen!ency mo!el o% m#ss me!i# e%%ects. Communication Research, B, G-2,. Bighmey, ;., E FcCor! *. 8,JJI9. 3!!ing -#lue in the in%orm#tion #ge6 (ses #n! gr#ti%ic#tions o% sites on the /orl!-/i!e /eb. %ournal of -usiness Research, F48G9, ,ID-,J4. Ferguson, ). E "erse, B. 820009. he Worl! Wi!e Web #s # %unction#l #ltern#ti-e to tele-ision. %ournal of -roadcasting D Electronic edia, FF 829, ,HH-,D4. ass Communications. 2e-erly 7ills, C36 .#ge

Foo, C., E <oi-isto, B. 82004, )ecember D9. *i-e %rom C"6 &rie% pl#yer moti-#tions. "#per presente! to the /ther Players Con%erence, Copenh#gen, )enm#rk. &r#nt, 3. B., chu, =., +#n uyll, )., eeter, ;., Folle!#, ;. C., Foh#mm#!, =., E 2ollinger, *. 8,JJI, 3pril9. )epen!ency #n! control. "#per presente! to the Annual Convention of the Educators in %ournalism and ass Communications, 2#ltimore, F#ryl#n!. Association of

7er?og, 7. 8,J449. Wh#t !o /e re#lly kno/ #bout !#ytime seri#l listenersA 1n ".F. *#?#rs%el! 8e!.9, Radio Research ,J42-G 8pp. 2-2G9. *on!on6 .#ge. ;#mes, F. *., Wotring, C. B., E Forrest, B. ;. 8,JJH9. 3n explor#tory stu!y o% the percei-e! bene%its o% electronic bulletin bo#r! use #n! their imp#ct on other communic#tion #cti-ities. -roadcasting D Electronic edia, B58,9, G0-H0. %ournal of

;ohnson, . ;., E <#ye, 2. <. 8,JJI9. he 1nternet6 +ehicle %or eng#gement or # h#-en %or the !is#%%ecte!A 1n . ;. ;ohnson, C. B. 7#ys E .. ". 7#ys 8B!s.9, Engaging the pu#lic+ how government and the media can reinvigorate American democracy. *#nh#m, F)6 >o/m#n E *ittle%iel!. <#t?, B. 8,JHJ9. F#ss communic#tion rese#rch #n! the stu!y o% culture. &tudies in Pu#lic 34 M Communic#tion heory

>e%erences Communication, A, ,-6. <#t?, B., 2lumler, ;. &., E &ure-itch, F. 8,JD49. (lili?#tion o% m#ss communic#tion by the in!i-i!u#l. 1n ;. &. 2lumler, E B. <#t? 8B!s.9, The uses of mass communications+ Current gratifications research 8pp. ,J-G29. 2e-erly 7ills6 .#ge. <#t?, B., 2lumler, ;., E &ure-itch, F. 8,JD4#9. (tili?#tion o% m#ss communic#tion by the in!i-i!u#l. 1n ;. &. 2lumler, E B. <#t? 8B!s.9, The ,ses of ass Communications+ Current Perspectives on perspectives on

0ratifications Research. 2e-erly 7ills E *on!on6 .#ge "ublic#tions. <#t?, B., 2lumler, ;., E &ure-itch, F. 8,JD4b9. (ses o% m#ss communic#tion by the in!i-i!u#l. 1n W.". )#-ison, E F. .C. =u 8B!s.9, ass communication research+ aEor issues and future

directions 8pp. ,,-GH9. 'e/ =ork6 "r#eger. <#t?, B. 8,JID9. Communic#tion rese#rch since *#?#rs%el!. Pu#lic /pinion !uarterly, 74, H2HH4H. <o, 7. 82002, 3ugust9. 3 structur#l eKu#tion mo!el o% the uses #n! gr#ti%ic#tions theory6 >itu#li?e! #n! instrument#l 1nternet us#ge. "#per presente! to the Communic#tion heory #n! Fetho!ology )i-ision, Association for Education in %ournalism and Fi#mi, F*. <orenm#n, ;., E Wy#tt, '. 8,JJ69. &roup !yn#mics in #n e-m#il %orum. 1n .. C. 7erring 8B!.9, Computer; ediated Communication+ (inguistic, &ocial and Cross;Cultural Perspectives 8pp. 22H-2429. 3mester!#m E "hil#!elphi#6 ;ohn 2enO#mins "ublishing Comp#ny. <uehn, .. 3. 8,JJG9. Communic#tion inno-#tion on # 22.6 3 content #n#lysis. Interpersonal Computing and Technology+ An Electronic %ournal for the A4st Century, 4829. >etrie-e! ;une ,st, 200H %rom http6$$///.helsinki.%i$science$optek$,JJG$n2$kuehn.txt. *#>ose, >., F#stro, )., E B#stin, F. .. 8200,9. (n!erst#n!ing 1nternet us#ge6 3 soci#l-cogniti-e #ppro#ch to uses #n! gr#ti%ic#tions. &ocial &cience Computer Review, 45849, GJH-4,G. *#?#rs%el!, ".F., E .t#nton, F. 8,J449. Radio Research 45FA;B. '=6 )uell, .lo#n #n! "e#rce. *#?#rs%el!, ".F., E .t#nton, F. 8,J4J9. Communication Research 45FG;5. '=6 7#rper #n! >o/. Wikibooks M 3( ass Communication,

Ch#pter ,4 *illie, ;. 8,JJD9. Bmpo/erment potenti#l o% 1nternet use. >etrie-e! 'o-ember 20, 2004 %rom http6$$///.unc.e!u$bOlillie$G40.html. *in, C. 3. 8,JJ6, 3ugust9. "erson#l computer #!option #n! 1nternet use. "#per presente! to the #nnu#l con-ention o% the Association for Education in %ournalism and ass Communication, 3n#heim, C3.

*in, C. 3. 8,JJJ9. Cnline ser-ice #!option likelihoo!. %ournal of Advertising Research, B5829, DJ-IJ. *in, C. 3. 8200,9. 3u!ience #ttributes, me!i# supplement#tion, #n! likely online ser-ice #!option. ass Communication and &ociety, F8,9, ,J-GI. *ittleOohn, .. 820029. Theories of Human Communication 8Dth e!.9. 3lbuKuerKue, 'F6 W#!s/orth. *o/ery, .. 3., E )eFleur, F. *. 8,JIG9. *ongm#n. *uo, f. 820029. (ses #n! gr#ti%ic#tions theory #n! e-consumer beh#-iors6 3 structur#l eKu#tion mo!eling stu!y. %ournal of Interactive Advertising, A829. F#!!ox, <. 8,JJI, Cctober 269. B-commerce becomes re#lity. Advertising Age, p.,8,9. Fc&uire, W. ;. 8,JD49. "sychologic#l moti-es #n! communic#tion gr#ti%ic#tion. 1n ;. &. 2lumler E B. <#t? 8B!s.9, The ,ses of ass Communications. 2e-erly 7ills, C36 .#ge "ublic#tions. ilestones in ass Communication Research. 'e/ =ork6

Fc<enn#, 3., E 2#rgh, 3. 820009. "l#n J %rom cybersp#ce6 he implic#tions o% the 1nternet %or person#lity #n! soci#l psychology. "erson#lity #n! &ocial Psychology Review, F8,96 HD-DH. Fc5u#il, )., 2lumler, ;. &., E 2ro/mn, ;. 8,JD29. he tele-ision #u!ience6 3 re-ise! perspecti-e. 1n ). Fc5u#il 8B!.9, &ociology of Fc5u#il, ). 8,JIG9. Fc5u#il, ). 8,JID9. Fc5u#il, ). 8,JJ49. ass Communication 8pp. ,GH-6H9. Fi!!lesex, Bngl#n!6 "enguin.

ass Communication Theory 8,st e!.9. *on!on6 .#ge. ass Communication Theory 82n! e!.9. *on!on6 .#ge. ass Communication+ An Introduction 8Gr! e!.,9. *on!on, hous#n! C#ks, 'e/

)elhi6 .#ge "ublic#tions. '#gel, <. .., 7u!son, ;. F., E 3bo/!, &. ). 82004, 'o-ember 6-,09. "re!ictors o% #-#il#bility in home li%e context-me!i#te! communic#tion. "#per presente! to the 2004 3CF con%erence on 3) M Communic#tion heory

>e%erences Computer supported cooperative wor$, Chic#go, 1*. 'ortey, &. 8,JJI9. -enefits of on;line resources for sufferers of chronic illnesses. F#sterSs thesis, 1o/# .t#te (ni-ersity, 3mes, 1o/#. "#lmgreen, "., Wenner, *. 3., E >#yburn 11, ;. ). 8,JI09. >el#tions bet/een gr#ti%ic#tions sought #n! obt#ine!6 3 stu!y o% tele-ision ne/s. Communication Research, C829, ,6,-,J2. "#lmgreen, "., E >#yburn, ;. ). 8,JIH9. 3n expect#ncy--#lue #ppro#ch to me!i# gr#ti%ic#tions. 1n <. B. >osengren, ". "#lmgreen E *. 3. Wenner 8B!s.9, Perspectives 8pp. 6,-D29. 2e-erly 7ills, C36 .#ge. "#rker, 2. ;., E "l#nk, >. B. 820009. 3 uses #n! gr#ti%ic#tions perspecti-e on the 1nternet #s # ne/ in%orm#tion source. American -usiness Review, 4G8;une9, 4G-4J. "#-lik, ;. +., E B-erette, B. ). 8,JJ69. .ew 2oston6 3llyn E 2#con. "iirto, >. 3. 8,JJG9. Electronic communities+ &e>, law and politics online. F#sterSs thesis, Cornell (ni-ersity, 1th#c#, '=. >#%#eli, .. 8,JI69. he electronic bulletin bo#r!6 3 computer-!ri-en m#ss me!ium. Computers and the &ocial &ciences, A8G9, ,2G-,G6 . >ossi, B. 820029. (ses E gr#ti%ic#tions$!epen!ency theory. >etrie-e! 3pril ,, 200H, %rom http6$$?immer.csu%resno.e!u$bOohnc#$spch,00$D-4-uses.htm. >ubin, 3. F., E Win!#hl, .. 8,JI29. F#ss me!i# uses #n! !epen!ency6 3 soci#l systems #ppro#ch to uses #n! gr#ti%ic#tions. "#per presente! to the meeting o% the 1ntern#tion#l Communic#tion ass edia Technology and the Information &uperhighway. edia 0ratification Research+ Current

3ssoci#tion, 2oston, F3. >uggiero, . 820009. (ses #n! gr#ti%ic#tions theory in the 2,st century. Communication D &ociety, B8,9, G-GD. >y#n, ;. 8,JJH9. A uses and gratifications study of the Internet social interaction site (am#da //+ Tal$ing with H*inos.I F#sterSs thesis, 2#ll .t#te (ni-ersity, Funcie, 1'.

.chlinger, F. ;. 8,JDJ9. 3 pro%ile o% responses to commerci#ls. %ournal of Advertising Research, 45829, Wikibooks M 3-

Ch#pter ,4 GD46. .chum#nn, ). W., E horson, B. 8B!s.9 8,JJJ9. Advertising and the 'orld 'ide 'e#. F#h/#h, ';6 *#/rence Brlb#um 3ssoci#tes. .e-erin W. ;., E #nk#r!, ;. W. 8,JJD9. (ses o% F#ss Fe!i#. 1n W. ;. .e-erin, E ;. W. #nk#r! 8B!s.9 Communication Theories+ /rigins, *ongm#n. .un, ., Ch#ng, ., E =u, &. 8,JJJ, 3ugust9. .oci#l structure, me!i# system #n! #u!iences in Chin#6 esting the uses #n! !epen!ency mo!el. "#per presente! to the #nnu#l con-ention o% the Association for Education in %ournalism and ass Communication, 'e/ Crle#ns, *3. ethods, and ,ses in the ass edia 84th e!.9. 'e/ =ork6

ossberg, 3. 820009. &wingers, singers and #orn;again Christians+ An investigation of the uses and gratifications of Internet;relay chat. F#sterSs thesis, 1o/# .t#te (ni-eristy, 3mes, 1o/#. ("B''.B)(. 8200,9. 'ot#ble e#chers, Worl!-Cl#ss >eput#tions. >etrie-e! Cctober ,0, 200H, %rom http6$$///.#sc.upenn.e!u$#sc$3pplic#tion$F#culty$2ios.#sp W#ner, W.*., E 7enry, W.B. 8,J4I9. he r#!io !#y-time seri#l6 3 symbolic #n#lysis. 1n Psychological onographs, BC8,9, D-,G, HH-64. W#tson, ;. E 7ill, 3. 8,JJD9. A dictionary of communications studies. '=6 3rnol! "ublishing. Wenner, *. 3. 8,JI29. &r#ti%ic#tions sought #n! obt#ine! in progr#m !epen!ency6 3 stu!y o% net/ork e-ening ne/s progr#ms #n! 60 Finutes. Communication Research, 5, HGJ-H60. =#nkelo-ich "#rtners. 8,JJH, Cctober ,09. Cyberciti?en6 3 pro%ile o% online users. he =#nkelo-ich Cyberciti?en >eport, 2irmingh#m, 3*.

The 4ran7'urt 6 hool

3!orno, . W. 8,JJG9. heory o% pseu!o-culture. Telos, JH, ,H-2D. 3!orno, . W. 8200,#9. 7o/ to look #t tele-ision. 1n ;. F. 2ernstein 8B!.9, The culture industry 8pp. ,HI-,DD9. 'e/ =ork6 >outle!ge.

3/ M Communic#tion heory

>e%erences 3!orno, . W. 8200,b9. Cn the %etish ch#r#cter in music #n! the regression o% listening. 1n ;. F. 2ernstein 8B!.9, The culture industry 8pp. 2J-609. 'e/ =ork6 >outle!ge. 3gger, 2. 8,JJH9. F#rcuse in postmo!ernity. 1n ;. 2okin# E . ;. *ukes 8B!s.9, arcuse+ 2rom the

new left to the ne>t left 8pp. 2D-409. *#/rence, <.6 (ni-ersity o% <#ns#s "ress. 3l/#y, ;. 8,JJH9. Critical theory and political possi#ilities+ Conceptions of emancipatory politics in the wor$s of Hor$heimer, Adorno, arcuse, and Ha#ermas. Westport, C 6 &reen/oo! "ress.

2runkhorst, 7. 8,JJJ9. Adorno and critical theory. C#r!i%%6 (ni-ersity o% W#les "ress. Ch#mbers, .. 820049. "olitics o% critic#l theory. 1n F. *. >ush 8B!.9, Cam#ridge companion to critical theory. 'e/ =ork6 C#mbri!ge (ni-ersity "ress. Cook, ). 8,JJ69. The culture industry revisited+ Theodor '. Adorno on mass culture. *#nh#m, F)6 >o/m#n E *ittle%iel! "ublishers. B#gleton, . 8,JJ,9. Ideology+ An introduction. *on!on6 +erso. Frie!m#n, &. 8,JI,9. The political philosophy of the 2ran$furt &chool. 1th#c#, '=6 Cornell (ni-ersity "ress. 7ohen!#hl, ". (. 8,JJH9. Prismatic thought+ Theodor '. Adorno. *incoln6 (ni-ersity o% 'ebr#sk# "ress. 7orkheimer, F., 3!orno, . W., E .chmi! 'oerr, &. 820029. *ialectic of enlightenment+ Philosophical fragments. .t#n%or!, C36 .t#n%or! (ni-ersity "ress. ;_ger, *. 820049. Adorno+ A political #iography. 'e/ 7#-en, C 6 *on!on. <ellner, ). 8,JJ,9. 1ntro!uction. 1n 7. F#rcuse8B!.9, /ne;dimensional man+ &tudies in the ideology of advanced industrial society. 2oston, F36 2e#con "ress. F#rcuse, 7. 8,JJ,9. Cne-!imension#l m#n6 .tu!ies in the i!eology o% #!-#nce! in!ustri#l society. 2oston, F36 2e#con "ress. Forris, F. 8200,9. Rethin$ing the communicative turn+ Adorno, Ha#ermas, and the pro#lem of communicative freedom. 3lb#ny, '=6 .t#te (ni-ersity o% 'e/ =ork "ress. Wikibooks M 33

Ch#pter ,4 Forrison, ). B. 8,JDI9. <ultur #n! culture6 he c#se o% heo!or W. 3!orno #n! "#ul F. *#?#rs%el!. &ocial Research 8449, GG,-GHH. >eit?, C. 820009. Art, alienation, and the humanities+ A critical engagement with Her#ert 3lb#ny, '=6 .t#te (ni-ersity o% 'e/ =ork "ress. Wiggersh#us, >. 8,JJ49. The 2ran$furt &chool+ Its history, theories, and political significance. C#mbri!ge, F36 F1 "ress. arcuse.

6e!ioti s and Myth

3llen, &. 8200G9. >ol#n! 2#rthes. 'e/ =ork6 >outle!ge. 2#rker, C. 820009. Cultur#l stu!ies6 heory #n! pr#ctice. *on!on6 .#ge. 2#rker, C. 820029. F#king sense o% cultur#l stu!ies. *on!on6 .#ge 2#rthes, >. 8,JD29. Fythologies, pp. ,0J-GD, 3. *#-ers 8tr#ns.9, 'e/ =ork6 7ill #n! W#ng. 8Crig. ,JHD9. 2#rthes, >. 8,JDD9. >hetoric o% the 1m#ge, in 1m#ge, Fusic, ext, pp. G2-H,, .. 7e#lth 8tr#ns.9. 'e/ =ork6 'oon!#y "ress. 8Crig. ,J649. 2#rthes, >. 8,J6D9, Blements o% .emiology, pp. J-G4, ;. C#pe 8tr#ns.9, 'e/ =ork6 7ill #n! W#ng. 8Crig. ,J649. Ch#mp#gne, >. 3. 8,JJH9. >esurrecting >26 >ol#n! 2#rthes, liter#ture, #n! the st#kes o% liter#ry semiotics. .emiotic#, ,0D, GGJ-G4I. Ch#mp#gne, >. 3. 8,JJD9. French .tructur#lism, in /#yneLs Worl! 3uthors on C)->CF, 'e/ =ork6 &. <. 7#ll E Co. 8pre-iously publishe! in ,JJ09. )erri!#, ;. 8,JI,9. From 4 he )e#th o% >ol#n! 2#rthes4 in ). <night 8e!.9, Critic#l Bss#ys on >ol#n! 2#rthes, pp. ,2J-,GD, 'e/ =ork6 &. <. 7#ll E Co. B!#r, 3., E .e!g/ick, ". 820029. Cultur#l theory6 he key thinker. 'e/ =ork6 >outle!ge. Fouc#ult, F. 8,JI,9. >ol#n! 2#rthes 8,2 'o-ember ,J,H-26 F#rch ,JI09, in ). <night 8e!.9, Critic#l

144 M Communic#tion heory

>e%erences Bss#ys on >ol#n! 2#rthes, pp. ,2,-,22, 'e/ =ork6 &. <. 7#ll E Co.8Crg. ,JI09. 7#ney, W... 8,JIJ9. >ol#n! 2#rthes6 Fo!ernity /ithin history. .emiotic#, D4, G,G-G2I. <ur?/eil, B. 8,JI29. .tructur#lism6 >ol#n! 2#rthes. .tu!ies in Communic#tions, 2, 6,-IJ. *e-i-.tr#uss, C. 8,JI69. he .tructur#l .tu!y o% Fyth, in 7.3!#ms E *. .e#rle 8e!s.9, Critic#l theory since ,J6H 8pp. I0I-I229 8Crig. ,JHH9. *e-i-.tr#uss, C. 8,J6G9. .tructur#l 3n#lysis in *inguistics #n! in 3nthropology, in >. B. 1nnis 8e!.9, .emiotics-3n 1ntro!uctory 3nthology, pp. ,,0-,2I. Forti#ry, F. 8,JJ,9. >ol#n! 2#rthes. C#mbri!ge, (<6 "olity "ress. >ose, &. 8200,9. .emiology6 +isu#l metho!ologies. hous#n! C#ks, C.3.6 .#ge. >yl#nce, >. 8,JJ49. >ol#n! 2#rthes. *on!on6 .imon E .chuster .#ussure, F. 8,JHJ9. he obOect o% linguistics. '#ture o% the linguistic sign, 3 Course in &ener#l *inguistics, in >. B. 1nnis 8e!.9, .emiotics-3n 1ntro!uctory 3nthology, pp. 2I-40. ho!y, ". 8,JDD9. >ol#n! 2#rthes6 3 conser-#ti-e estim#te. *on!on6 ro/bri!ge E Bsher. ho!y, ". 8,JJD9. 1ntro!ucing 2#rthes. 'e/ =ork6 otem 2ooks. o!oro-, . 8,JI,9. 4*#te 2#rthes,4 in ). <night 8e!.9, Critic#l Bss#ys on >ol#n! 2#rthes, pp. ,2G-,2I, 'e/ =ork6 &. <. 7#ll E Co. W#sserm#n, &.>. 8,JI,9. >ol#n! 2#rthes. 'e/ =ork6 &. <. 7#ll E Co.

Orality and Litera y

C#purro, >. 820009. 7ermeneutics #n! the phenomenon o% in%orm#tion. Research in Philosophy and Technology, 45, DJ-IH. Bl .#%%#r, >. 8,JJ,9. he bo!ySs pl#ce6 *#ngu#ge, i!entity, consciousness. 1n 2. B. &ronbeck, . ;. F#rrell, E ". 3. .oukup 8B!s.9, edia, consciousness, and culture+ E>plorations of 'alter

/ng9s thought 8pp. ,I2-,JG9. 'e/bury "#rk, C36 .#ge. F#igley, *. 8,JJI9. +isu#l rhetoric6 *iter#cy by !esign. <eynote speech presente! #t the Center %or

Wikibooks M 141

Ch#pter ,4 1nter!isciplin#ry .tu!ies o% Writing ,JJI con%erence, Technology and literacy in a wired academy, Finne#polis, F'. F#rrell, . ;. 8,JJ,9. .econ!#ry or#lity #n! consciousness to!#y. 1n 2. B. &ronbeck, . ;. F#rrell, E ". 3. .oukup 8B!s.9, edia, consciousness, and culture+ E>plorations of 'alter /ng9s thought 8pp. ,J4-

20J9. 'e/bury "#rk, C36 .#ge. F#rrell, . ;. 820009. 'alter /ng9s contri#utions to cultural studies+ The phenomenology of the word and I;thou communication. Cresskill, ';6 7#mpton "ress. &ol!en, ;. *., 2erKuist, &. F., Colem#n, W. B., E .proule, ;. F. 8B!s.9. 820049. The rhetoric of western thought+ 2rom the editerranean world to the glo#al setting 8Ith e!.9. )ubuKue, 136 <en!#ll$7unt

"ublishing Comp#ny. &oo!y, ;. 8,JDD9. The domestication of the savage mind. C#mbri!ge6 C#mbri!ge (ni-ersity "ress. &oo!y, ;., E W#tt, 1. ". 8,J6G9. he conseKuences o% liter#cy. Comparitive &tudies in &ociety and History, 7, G04-G4H. &ronbeck, 2. B. 8,JJ,9. he rhetoric#l stu!ies tr#!ition #n! W#lter ;. Cng6 Cr#l-liter#cy theories o% me!i#tion, culture, #n! consciousness. 1n 2. B. &ronbeck, . ;. F#rrell, E ". 3. .oukup 8B!s.9, edia, consciousness, and culture+ E>plorations of 'alter /ng@s thought 8pp. H-249. 'e/bury "#rk, C36 .#ge. 7#-elock, B. 3. 8,J6G9. Preface to Plato. C#mbri!ge, F36 2ellkn#p "ress o% 7#r-#r! (ni-ersity "ress. 7#-elock, B. 3. 8,JI29. The (iterate Revolution in 0reece and its cultural conse1uences. "rinceton, ';6 "rinceton (ni-ersity "ress. 1nnis, 7. 3. 8,JH,9. The #ias of communication. oronto6 he (ni-ersity o% oronto "ress. <#u%er, ). .., E 2utler, 2. .. 8,JJ69. Rhetoric and the arts of design. F#h/#h, ';6 *#/rence Brlb#um 3ssoci#tes "ublishers. *or!, 3. 2. 8,J609. The singer of tales. C#mbri!ge, F36 7#r-#r! (ni-ersity "ress. 142 M Communic#tion heory

>e%erences Fc*uh#n, F. 8,J629. The 0uten#erg gala>y+ The ma$ing of typographic man. oronto6 (ni-ersity o% oronto "ress. Fc*uh#n, F. 8,J649. ,nderstanding media+ The e>tensions of man. 'e/ =ork6 Fc&r#/ 7ill. Fontenyohl, B. *. 8,JJH9. Cr#lities 8#n! liter#cies96 Comments on the rel#tionship o% contempor#ry %olklorists #n! liter#ry stu!ies. 1n C. *. "reston 8B!.9, 2ol$lore, literature, and cultural studies+ Collected essays 8pp. 240-2H69. 'e/ =ork6 &#rl#n! "ublishing. Foss, ;. ). 820049. >hetoric, the me#sure o% #ll things. 'eil, .. ). 8,JJG9. Clarifying &reen/oo! "ress. Cng, W. ;. 8,JH29. he Fech#nic#l 2ri!e6 Christen %olklore o% in!ustri#l m#n. >e-ie/ #rticle o% he Fech#nic#l 2ri!e6 Folklore o% 1n!ustri#l F#n. 2y 7erbert F#rsh#ll Fc*uh#n. &ocial /rder A 8Feb.9, DJ-IH. Cng, W. ;. 8,JHI#9. Ramus, method, and the decay of dialogue+ 2rom the art of discourse to the art of reason. C#mbri!ge, F36 7#r-#r! (ni-ersity "ress. Cng, W. ;. 8,JHIb9. >#mus #n! #lon in-entory6 3 short-title in-entory o% the publishe! /orks o% "eter >#mus 8,H,H-,HD29, #n! o% Cmer #lon 8c#. ,H,0-,H629 in their origin#l #n! in their -#riously #ltere! %orms. With rel#te! m#teri#l6 ,. he >#mist contro-ersies6 3 !escripti-e c#t#logue. 2. 3gricol# check list6 3 short-title in-entory o% some printe! e!itions #n! printe! compen!i# o% >u!olph 3gricol#Ss )i#lectic#l in-entory 8)e in-entione !i#lectic#9. C#mbri!ge, F36 7#r-#r! (ni-ersity "ress. Cng, W. ;. 8,J62#9. Fi-e6 .ystem, sp#ce, #n! intellect in ren#iss#nce symbolism. 1n W. ;. Cng, The #ar#arian within+ And other fugitive essays and studies 8pp. 6I-ID9. 'e/ =ork #n! *on!on6 he F#cmill#n Comp#ny. Cng, W. ;. 8,J62b9. Bight6 B!uc#tionists #n! the tr#!ition o% le#rning. 1n W. ;. Cng, The #ar#arian within+ And other fugitive essays and studies 8pp. ,4J-,6G9. 'e/ =ork #n! *on!on6 he Wikibooks M 140 (., 445, HH6-H6H.

c(uhan+ An assessment of process and product. Westport, C 6

Ch#pter ,4 F#cmill#n Comp#ny. Cng, W. ;. 8,J62c9. /o6 3 !i#lectic o% #ur#l #n! obOecti-e correl#ti-es. 1n W. ;. Cng, The #ar#arian within+ And other fugitive essays and studies 8pp. 26-409. 'e/ =ork #n! *on!on6 Comp#ny. Cng, W. ;. 8,J6D#9. The presence of the word+ &ome prolegomena for cultural and religious history. 'e/ 7#-en #n! *on!on6 =#le (ni-ersity "ress. Cng, W. ;. 8,J6Db9. he /or! #n! the sensorium. 1n W. ;. Cng, The presence of the word+ &ome prolegomena for cultural and religious history. 'e/ 7#-en #n! *on!on6 =#le (ni-ersity "ress. Cng, W. ;. 8,J6I9. <no/le!ge in time. 1n W. ;. Cng, )nowledge and the future of man+ An international symposium 8pp. G-GI9. 'e/ =ork, Chic#go, #n! .#n Fr#ncisco6 7olt, >ineh#rt E Winston, 1nc. Cng, W. ;. 8,JD,9. >hetoric #n! the origins o% consciousness. 1n W. ;. Cng, Rhetoric, romance, and technology 8pp. ,-229. 1th#c# #n! *on!on6 Cornell (ni-ersity "ress. Cng, W. ;. 8,JDD#9. ypogr#phic rh#pso!y6 >#-isius extor, c/inger, #n! .h#kespe#re. 1n W. ;. Cng, Interfaces of the word+ &tudies in the evolution of consciousness and culture 8pp. ,46-,II9. 1th#c# #n! *on!on6 Cornell (ni-ersity "ress. Cng, W. ;. 8,JDDb9. 41 see /h#t you s#y46 sense #n#logues %or intellect. 1n W. ;. Cng, Interfaces of the word+ &tudies in the evolution of consciousness and culture 8pp. ,2,-,449. 1th#c# #n! *on!on6 Cornell (ni-ersity "ress. Cng, W. ;. 8,JI29. /rality and literacy+ The technologi?ing of the word. *on!on #n! 'e/ =ork6 Fethuen. "#rry, F. 8,J2I9. (@Ephithete traditionelle dans Homere. "#ris6 .ociete B!itrice *es 2elles *ettres. "#yne, ). 8,JJ,9. Ch#r#cterology, me!i#, #n! rhetoric. 1n 2. B. &ronbeck, . ;. F#rrell, E ". 3. .oukup 8B!s.9, edia, consciousness, and culture+ E>plorations of 'alter /ng@s thought 8pp. he F#cmill#n

22G-2G69. 'e/bury "#rk, C36 .#ge. 144 M Communic#tion heory

>e%erences "oster, C. 8200,9. 2eing, time, #n! !e%inition6 o/#r! # semiotics o% %igur#l rhetoric. Philosophy D Rhetoric, BB, ,,6-,G6. .il-erstone, >. 8,JJ,9. ele-ision, rhetoric, #n! the return o% the unconscious in secon!#ry or#l culture. 1n 2. B. &ronbeck, . ;. F#rrell, E ". 3. .oukup 8B!s.9, edia, consciousness, and culture+

E>plorations of 'alter /ng9s thought 8pp. ,4D-,HJ9. 'e/bury "#rk, C36 .#ge. .oukup, ". 3. 820049. W#lter ;. Cng, .. ;.6 3 retrospecti-e. Communication Research Trends, AB, G-2G. .reberny-Foh#mm#!i, 3. 8,JJ,9 Fe!i# integr#tion in the hir! Worl!6 3n Cngi#n look #t 1r#n. 1n 2. B. &ronbeck, . ;. F#rrell, E ". 3. .oukup 8B!s.9, edia, consciousness, and culture+ E>plorations of

'alter /ng@s thought 8pp. ,GG-,469. 'e/bury "#rk, C36 .#ge. ./e#ringen, C. ;. 8,JJ,9. )iscourse, !i%%erence, #n! gen!er6 W#lter ;. CngSs contributions to %eminist l#ngu#ge stu!ies. 1n 2. B. &ronbeck, . ;. F#rrell, E ". 3. .oukup 8B!s.9, culture+ E>plorations of 'alter /ng@s thought 8pp. 2,0-2229. 'e/bury edia, consciousness, and "#rk, C36 .#ge.

W#lter ;. Cng 8200H, .eptember G09. 'i$ipedia+ The 2ree Encyclopedia. >etrie-e! .eptember G0, 200H, %rom http6$$en./ikipe!i#.org$/iki$W#lter@Cng. Welch, <. B. 8,JJJ9. Electric rhetoric+ Classical rhetoric, oralism, and a new literacy. F#ss#chusetts 1nstitute o% echnology "ress. =oungkin, 2. >. 8,JJH9. The contri#ution of 'alter %. /ng to the study of rhetoric+ History and metaphor. *e/iston, '=6 Fellen (ni-ersity "ress.

(i''usion o' Innovations

Ale>ander, P. %. 3455F8. Entry #arriers, release #ehavior, and multiproduct firms in the music recording industry. >e-ie/ o% 1n!ustri#l Crg#ni?#tion, 5, G7;5G. 3llen, ). 8,JIG9. 'e/ telecommunic#tion ser-ices6 'et/ork extern#lities #n! critic#l m#ss. Telecommunications Policy, ,2, HD-2D,.

Wikibooks M 14(

Ch#pter ,4 Cr#ne, ). 8,JD29. Invisi#le colleges. Chic#go, 1*6 (ni-ersity o% Chic#go "ress. Colem#n, ;. .., <#t?, B., E Fent?el, 7. 8,J669. edical innovation+ *iffusion of a medical drug

among doctors. 1n!i#n#polis, F'6 2obbs-Ferrill. )#%t, >. *., E *engel, >. 7. 8,JI69. 3 propose! integr#tion #mong org#ni?#tion#l in%orm#tion reKuirements, me!i# richness, #n! structur#l !esign. anagement &cience, G2, HH4-HD,.

)eutschm#nn, ". ;., E F#ls 2or!#, C. 8,J629. Communication and adoption patterns in an Andean villege. .#n ;ose, Cost# >ice6 "rogr#m# 1ntermeric#no !e 1n%orm#tion "opul#r. Ch#pin, F... 8,J2I9. Cultural change. 'e/ =ork6 Century Comp#ny. *#ss/ell, 7. ). 8,JHG9. he structure #n! %unction o% communic#tion in society. 1n *. 2ryson 8B!.9, The communication of ideas. 'e/ =ork6 7#pper E Co. *o/ery, ..3., E )eFleur, F.*. 8,JJH9. '=6 *ongm#n "ublishers (.3. F#rkus, F.*. 8,JID9. o/#r! # Qcritic#l m#ssR theory o% inter#cti-e me!i#6 (ni-ers#l #ccess, inter!epen!ence #n! !i%%usion. Communication Research, ,4, 4J,-H,,. >ogers, B.F. 8,JD69. 'e/ pro!uct #!option #n! !i%%usion. %ournal of Consumer Research, 2, 2J0G0,. >ogers, B.F. 8,JJ49. A history of communication study+ A #iographical approach. 'e/ =ork6 Free "ress. >ogers, B.F. 8,JJH9. *iffusion of Innovations 84th e!.9. 'e/ =ork6 Free "ress. >ogers, B., E .ingh#l, 3. 8,JJ69. *iffusion of innovations. 1n .#l/en #n! .t#cks, op. cit., 8pp. 40J4209. >y#n E &ross 8,J4G9, Q he )i%%usion o% 7ybri! .ee! Corn in /o 1o/# Communities, R Rural &ociology G 8F#rch96 ,H. .#g#, +. *., E cmu!, >. W. 8,JJ49. he n#ture #n! !etermin#nts o% 1 #ccept#nce, routini?#tion, #n! in%usion. 1n *. *e-ine 8B!.9, *iffusion, transfer and implementation of information technology 8pp. 6DI69. 3mster!#m6 'orth-7oll#n!. 14) M Communic#tion heory ilestones in ass Communication research. White "l#ins,

>e%erences .ingh#l, 3. 8200H9. Forum6 the li%e #n! /ork o% B-erett >ogers- some person#l re%lections. %ournal of Health Communication, ,0, 4. #r!e, &. 8,J0G9. The laws of imitiation, 8B. C. "#rsons, r#ns.9. 'e/ =ork6 7olt. Wil!emuth, 2. F. 8,JJ29. 3n empiric#lly groun!e! mo!el o% the #!option o% intellectu#l technologies. %ournal of the American &ociety for Information &ciences, 4G, 2,0-224. c#ltm#n, &., )unc#n, >., E 7olbek, ;. 8,JDG9. Innovations and organi?ations. 'e/ =ork6 Wiley.

6o iologi al 6yste!s
3n!erson, '. 3. 8200G9. *iscursive analytical strategies+ understanding 2oucault, )osellec$, (aclau, (uhmann. 2ristol6 "olicy "ress. 2#ecker, ). 8200,9. Why systemsA. Theory, Culture D &ociety. ,I8,9, HJ-D4. 2#ecker, ). 8200H, G 3pril9. 'ikl#s *uhm#nn. International &ociety for the &ystems &ciences+ ProEect I&&&. >etrie-e! 2D Cctober 200H, %rom http6$$proOects.isss.org$F#in$'ikl#s*uhm#nn2y)irk2#ecker. 2#r!m#nn, .F. E 2#ecker, ). 8B!s.9. 8,JJJ9. [0i#t es eigentlich den -erliner <oo noch=@ Erinnerungen an .i$las (uhmann. <onst#?6 (+< (ni-ersit_ts-erl#g. )urkheim, B. 8,JH09. The rules of sociological method 8.. 3. .olo-#y E ;. 7. Fueller, r#ns.9. 'e/ =ork6 he Free "ress. 8Crigin#l /ork publishe! ,IJH9 )urkheim, B. 8,JH,9. &uicide+ A study in sociology. 8;. 3. .p#ul!ing E &. .impson, r#ns.9. 'e/ =ork6 he Free "ress. 8Crigin#l /ork publishe! ,IJD9 7#berm#s, ;. E *uhm#nn, '. 8,JD,9. Theorie der 0esellschaft oder &o?ialtechnologie+ 'as leistet die &ystemforschung=. Fr#nk%urt #.F.6 .uhrk#mp. 7#gen, W. 8B!.9. 820049. 'arum ha#en &ie $einen 2ernseher, Herr (uhmann= 2erlin6 <ultur-erl#g <#!mos. 7eyl, 2. 8,J6I9. he 7#r-#r! Q"#reto CircleR. %ournal of The History of the -ehavioral &ciences, 4849, G,6-G4. >etrie-e! 2D Cctober 200H, %rom

Wikibooks M 14-

Ch#pter ,4 http6$$hum#n-n#ture.com$science-#s-culture$circle.html. 7ornung, 2.>. 8,JJI9. 'ikl#s *uhm#nn ,J2D-,JJI UCbitu#ry /ritten %or the 1.3V. >etrie-e! 2D Cctober 200H, %rom http6$$mgterp.%reeyello/.com$#c#!emic$luh-obit@rcH,.html. *ey!es!or%%, *. 820029. he communic#tion turn in the theory o% soci#l systems. &ystems Research and -ehavioral &cience, ,J, ,2J-,G6. *uhm#nn, '. 8,JI29. *ifferentiation of society 8.. 7olmes E C. *#rmore, r#ns.9. 'e/ =ork6 Columbi# (ni-ersity "ress. *uhm#nn, '. 8,JJ09. Essays on self;reference. 'e/ =ork6 Columbi# (ni-ersity "ress. *uhm#nn, '. 8,JJH9. &ocial &ystems 8;. 2e!n#r?, ;r. /ith ). 2#ecker, r#ns.9. .t#n%or!6 .t#n%or! (ni-ersity "ress. 8Crigin#l /ork publishe! ,JI49 *uhm#nn, '. 8,JJD9. *ie 0esellschaft der 0esellschaft. Fr#nk%urt6 .uhrk#mp. F#tur#n#, 7. E +#rel#, F. 8,JI09. Autopoiesis and cognition+ The reali?ation of the living. )or!echt6 ). >ei!el "ublishing Co. F]ller, F. 8200H9. 2iogr#phie 'ikl#s *uhm#nn. 7J )lassi$er der &o?iologie. >etrie-e! 2D Cctober 200H, %rom http6$$///.k%unigr#?.#c.#t$so?///$#gsoe$lexikon$kl#ssiker$luhm#nn$26bio.htm. 'ikl#s *uhm#nn. 8200H, 26 Cctober9. 'i$ipedia+ *ie freie En?y$lop:die. >etrie-e! 2D Cctober 200H, %rom http6$$!e./ikipe!i#.org$/iki$'ikl#s@*uhm#nn. "#rsons, . 8,JH,9. The social system. &lencoe, 1ll.6 Free "ress. .h#nnon, C.B. E We#-er, W. 8,J4J9. The mathematical theory of communication. (rb#n#, 1.*.6 (ni-ersity o% 1llinois "ress. .o?iologische .ystemtheorie. 8200H, ,H Cctober9. 'i$ipedia+ *ie freie En?y$lop:die. >etrie-e! 2D Cctober 200H, %rom http6$$!e./ikipe!i#.org$/iki$.o?iologische@.ystemtheorie. .tich/eh, >. 820009. .ystems theory #s #n #ltern#ti-e to #ction theoryA he rise o% Lcommunic#tionL #s # theoretic#l option. 3ct# .ociologic#, 4G8,9, H-,4. re-ino, 3. ;. 8B!.9. Talcott Parsons today. *#nh#m, F!.6 >o/m#n E *ittle%iel!. 14/ M Communic#tion heory

>e%erences -on 2ert#l#n%%y, *. 8,JH09. 3n outline o% gener#l systems theory. -ritish %ournal for the Philosophy of &cience ,, ,GJ-,64. -on 2ert#l#n%%y, *. 8,JD69. 0eneral system theory+ 2oundations, development, applications. 'e/ =ork6 2r#?iller. W#ll#ce, >. 3. E Wol%, 3, 8,JJJ9. Contempor#ry sociologic#l theory6 Bxp#n!ing the cl#ssic#l tr#!ition, %i%th e!ition, (pper .#!!le >i-er, '. ;.6 "rentice-7#ll.

Networ7 6o iety
3l-#re?, 1., E <ilbourn, 2. 820029. F#pping the in%orm#tion society liter#ture6 topics, perspecti-es, #n! root met#phors. 2irst onday, C. >etrie-e! %rom

http6$$///.%irstmon!#y.org$issues$issueD@,$#l-#re?$in!ex.html 3run#ch#l#m, .. 8,JJJ9. 1n%orm#tion #n! kno/le!ge in the #ge o% electronic communic#tion6 3 !e-eloping country perspecti-e. %ournal of Information &cience, 2H, 46H-,DD. C#bot, ;.B. 8200G9. he in%orm#tion #ge0 F#nuel C#stells0 the rise o% the net/ork society. Research Policy, G2, ,,4,. C#rnoy, F. 8,JJJ9. &ustaining fle>i#ility+ wor$, family, and community in the Information Age. 'e/ =ork6 >ussell .#ge. C#stells, F. 8,JJ69. The rise of the networ$ society. 'e/ =ork6 2l#ck/ell. C#stells, F. 8,JJD#9. The Power of Identity. Cx%or!6 2l#ck/ell. C#stells, F. 8,JJDb9. 3n intro!uction to the in%orm#tion #ge. City, D, p. 6-,6. C#stells, F. 8,JJJ9. he .oci#l 1mplic#tions o% 1n%orm#tion E Communic#tion echnologies. ,.E&C/9s 'orld &ocial &cience Report. >etrie-e! 'o-ember I. 200H %rom http6$$///.chet.org.?#$ol!site$c#stells$soci#licts.html C#stells, F. 82000#9. End of illennium. Cx%or!6 2l#ck/ell.

C#stells, F. 82000b9. F#teri#ls %or #n explor#tory theory o% the net/ork society. The -ritish %ournal of

Wikibooks M 143

Ch#pter ,4 &ociology, H,, H-24. C#stells, F.82000c9. o/#r! # sociology o% the net/ork society. Contemporary &ociology, 2J, 6JG6JJ. C#stells, F.8200,, F#y J9. Con-ers#tion /ith 7istoryUWebc#stV, (C +. >etrie-e! 'o-ember I, 200H %rom http6$$/ebc#st.ucs!.e!u6I0I0$r#mgen$(C.)@ +$D2G4.rm C#stells, F.820049. Informationalism, .etwor$s, and the .etwor$ &ociety+ a Theoretical -lueprinting, The networ$ society+ a Cross;Cultural Perspective. 'orth#mpton, F36 B!/#r! Blg#r.

)u%%, 3. F. 8,JJI9. )#niel 2ellLs theory o% the in%orm#tion society. %ournal of Information &cience, 24, GDG-GJG. Fiel!s, &. 820029. From Communic#tions #n! 1nno-#tion, to 2usiness Crg#ni?#tion #n! erritory6 he "ro!uction 'et/orks o% ./i%t Fe#t "#cking #n! )ell Computer, 2>1B. >etrie-e! 'o-ember I, 200H %rom http6$$brie.berkeley.e!u$bbrie///$public#tions$,4Jch2.p!% &erstner, ;. 8,JJJ9. he Cther .i!e o% Cybersp#ce6 3n 1nter-ie/ /ith F#nuel C#stells, Cyber.cientist, 132CLs Communic#tion Worl! F#g#?ine, F#rch ,JJJ. >etrie-e! 'o-ember I, 200H %rom http6$$///.inter#netsi!er.com$inter-ie/s$cybersp#ce$in!ex.html &upt#, ). 8200G9. Feeting QFelt 3spir#tionsR6 &lob#li?#tion #n! BKuity %rom #n 3nthropologic#l "erspecti-e, presente! in the 4th 3nnu#l &lob#l )e-elopment Con%erences, &lob#l )e-elopment Con%erence, ;#nu#ry 200G, C#iro, Bgypt. 7utchins, 2. 820049. C#stells, region#l ne/s me!i# #n! the in%orm#tion #ge. Continuum+ %ournal of edia D Cultural &tudies, ,I, HDDHJ0. ;one, >. >. 820009. >ec#sting the 1n%orm#tion 1n%r#structure %or the 1n!ustri#l 3ge. A .ational Transformed #y Information, Ch#n!ler, 3. ). E Cort#!#, ;. W8B).9. <#l!or, F. 8,JJI9. Bn! o% millennium6 he in%orm#tion #ge6 Bconomy, society, #n! culture. Regional &tudies, G2, IJJ-J00. *uc#s, 7. 8,JJJ9. 41n%orm#tion technology #n! the pro!ucti-ity p#r#!ox4. 'e/ =ork6 Cx%or! 114 M Communic#tion heory

>e%erences (ni-ersity "ress. Winkel, C. 8200,9. he !emocr#tic potenti#ls o% inter#cti-e in%orm#tion technologies un!er !iscussion. International %ournal of Communications (aw and Policy.

Wikibooks M 111

Ch#pter ,H

1( CNU 6 R11 D OCUM1NTATION 5 IC1NS1

+ersion ,.2, 'o-ember 2002
Copyright (C) 2000,2001,2002 51 Franklin St, Fifth Floor, '(eryone i! per)itted to copy of thi! licen!e docu)ent, *ut Free Software Foundation, Inc. o!ton, "# 02110$1%01 &S# and di!tri*ute (er*ati) copie! changing it i! not allowed.

?= 3REAM#LE
he purpose o% this *icense is to m#ke # m#nu#l, textbook, or other %unction#l #n! use%ul !ocument 4%ree4 in the sense o% %ree!om6 to #ssure e-eryone the e%%ecti-e %ree!om to copy #n! re!istribute it, /ith or /ithout mo!i%ying it, either commerci#lly or noncommerci#lly. .econ!#rily, this *icense preser-es %or the #uthor #n! publisher # /#y to get cre!it %or their /ork, /hile not being consi!ere! responsible %or mo!i%ic#tions m#!e by others. his *icense is # kin! o% 4copyle%t4, /hich me#ns th#t !eri-#ti-e /orks o% the !ocument must themsel-es be %ree in the s#me sense. 1t complements the &'( &ener#l "ublic *icense, /hich is # copyle%t license !esigne! %or %ree so%t/#re. We h#-e !esigne! this *icense in or!er to use it %or m#nu#ls %or %ree so%t/#re, bec#use %ree so%t/#re nee!s %ree !ocument#tion6 # %ree progr#m shoul! come /ith m#nu#ls pro-i!ing the s#me %ree!oms th#t the so%t/#re !oes. 2ut this *icense is not limite! to so%t/#re m#nu#ls0 it c#n be use! %or #ny textu#l /ork, reg#r!less o% subOect m#tter or /hether it is publishe! #s # printe! book. We recommen! this *icense princip#lly %or /orks /hose purpose is instruction or re%erence.

,= A33LICA#ILITY AN( (E4INITION6

his *icense #pplies to #ny m#nu#l or other /ork, in #ny me!ium, th#t cont#ins # notice pl#ce! by the copyright hol!er s#ying it c#n be !istribute! un!er the terms o% this *icense. .uch # notice gr#nts # /orl!-/i!e, roy#lty-%ree license, unlimite! in !ur#tion, to use th#t /ork un!er the con!itions st#te! herein. he 4)ocument4, belo/, re%ers to #ny such m#nu#l or /ork. 3ny member o% the public is # licensee, #n! is #!!resse! #s 4you4. =ou #ccept the license i% you copy, mo!i%y or !istribute the /ork in # /#y reKuiring permission un!er copyright l#/. 3 4Fo!i%ie! +ersion4 o% the )ocument me#ns #ny /ork cont#ining the )ocument or # portion o% it, either copie! -erb#tim, or /ith mo!i%ic#tions #n!$or tr#nsl#te! into #nother l#ngu#ge. 3 4.econ!#ry .ection4 is # n#me! #ppen!ix or # %ront-m#tter section o% the )ocument th#t !e#ls exclusi-ely /ith the rel#tionship o% the publishers or #uthors o% the )ocument to the )ocumentLs o-er#ll subOect 8or to rel#te! m#tters9 #n! cont#ins nothing th#t coul! %#ll !irectly /ithin th#t o-er#ll subOect. 8 hus, i% the )ocument is in p#rt # textbook o% m#them#tics, # .econ!#ry .ection m#y not expl#in #ny m#them#tics.9 he rel#tionship coul! be # m#tter o% historic#l connection /ith the subOect or /ith rel#te! m#tters, or o% leg#l, commerci#l, philosophic#l, ethic#l or politic#l position reg#r!ing 112 M Communic#tion heory

&'( Free )ocument#tion *icense them. he 41n-#ri#nt .ections4 #re cert#in .econ!#ry .ections /hose titles #re !esign#te!, #s being those o% 1n-#ri#nt .ections, in the notice th#t s#ys th#t the )ocument is rele#se! un!er this *icense. 1% # section !oes not %it the #bo-e !e%inition o% .econ!#ry then it is not #llo/e! to be !esign#te! #s 1n-#ri#nt. he )ocument m#y cont#in ?ero 1n-#ri#nt .ections. 1% the )ocument !oes not i!enti%y #ny 1n-#ri#nt .ections then there #re none. he 4Co-er exts4 #re cert#in short p#ss#ges o% text th#t #re liste!, #s Front-Co-er exts or 2#ckCo-er exts, in the notice th#t s#ys th#t the )ocument is rele#se! un!er this *icense. 3 Front-Co-er ext m#y be #t most H /or!s, #n! # 2#ck-Co-er ext m#y be #t most 2H /or!s. 3 4 r#nsp#rent4 copy o% the )ocument me#ns # m#chine-re#!#ble copy, represente! in # %orm#t /hose speci%ic#tion is #-#il#ble to the gener#l public, th#t is suit#ble %or re-ising the !ocument str#ight%or/#r!ly /ith generic text e!itors or 8%or im#ges compose! o% pixels9 generic p#int progr#ms or 8%or !r#/ings9 some /i!ely #-#il#ble !r#/ing e!itor, #n! th#t is suit#ble %or input to text %orm#tters or %or #utom#tic tr#nsl#tion to # -#riety o% %orm#ts suit#ble %or input to text %orm#tters. 3 copy m#!e in #n other/ise r#nsp#rent %ile %orm#t /hose m#rkup, or #bsence o% m#rkup, h#s been #rr#nge! to th/#rt or !iscour#ge subseKuent mo!i%ic#tion by re#!ers is not r#nsp#rent. 3n im#ge %orm#t is not r#nsp#rent i% use! %or #ny subst#nti#l #mount o% text. 3 copy th#t is not 4 r#nsp#rent4 is c#lle! 4Cp#Kue4. Bx#mples o% suit#ble %orm#ts %or r#nsp#rent copies inclu!e pl#in 3.C11 /ithout m#rkup, exin%o input %orm#t, *# ef input %orm#t, .&F* or fF* using # publicly #-#il#ble ) ), #n! st#n!#r!con%orming simple 7 F*, "ost.cript or ")F !esigne! %or hum#n mo!i%ic#tion. Bx#mples o% tr#nsp#rent im#ge %orm#ts inclu!e "'&, fCF #n! ;"&. Cp#Kue %orm#ts inclu!e propriet#ry %orm#ts th#t c#n be re#! #n! e!ite! only by propriet#ry /or! processors, .&F* or fF* %or /hich the ) ) #n!$or processing tools #re not gener#lly #-#il#ble, #n! the m#chine-gener#te! 7 F*, "ost.cript or ")F pro!uce! by some /or! processors %or output purposes only. he 4 itle "#ge4 me#ns, %or # printe! book, the title p#ge itsel%, plus such %ollo/ing p#ges #s #re nee!e! to hol!, legibly, the m#teri#l this *icense reKuires to #ppe#r in the title p#ge. For /orks in %orm#ts /hich !o not h#-e #ny title p#ge #s such, 4 itle "#ge4 me#ns the text ne#r the most prominent #ppe#r#nce o% the /orkLs title, prece!ing the beginning o% the bo!y o% the text. 3 section 4Bntitle! f=c4 me#ns # n#me! subunit o% the )ocument /hose title either is precisely f=c or cont#ins f=c in p#rentheses %ollo/ing text th#t tr#nsl#tes f=c in #nother l#ngu#ge. 87ere f=c st#n!s %or # speci%ic section n#me mentione! belo/, such #s 43ckno/le!gements4, 4)e!ic#tions4, 4Bn!orsements4, or 47istory4.9 o 4"reser-e the itle4 o% such # section /hen you mo!i%y the )ocument me#ns th#t it rem#ins # section 4Bntitle! f=c4 #ccor!ing to this !e%inition. he )ocument m#y inclu!e W#rr#nty )iscl#imers next to the notice /hich st#tes th#t this *icense #pplies to the )ocument. hese W#rr#nty )iscl#imers #re consi!ere! to be inclu!e! by re%erence in this *icense, but only #s reg#r!s !iscl#iming /#rr#nties6 #ny other implic#tion th#t these W#rr#nty )iscl#imers m#y h#-e is -oi! #n! h#s no e%%ect on the me#ning o% this *icense.

Wikibooks M 110

Ch#pter ,H

@= <ER#ATIM CO3YIN5
=ou m#y copy #n! !istribute the )ocument in #ny me!ium, either commerci#lly or noncommerci#lly, pro-i!e! th#t this *icense, the copyright notices, #n! the license notice s#ying this *icense #pplies to the )ocument #re repro!uce! in #ll copies, #n! th#t you #!! no other con!itions /h#tsoe-er to those o% this *icense. =ou m#y not use technic#l me#sures to obstruct or control the re#!ing or %urther copying o% the copies you m#ke or !istribute. 7o/e-er, you m#y #ccept compens#tion in exch#nge %or copies. 1% you !istribute # l#rge enough number o% copies you must #lso %ollo/ the con!itions in section G. =ou m#y #lso len! copies, un!er the s#me con!itions st#te! #bo-e, #n! you m#y publicly !ispl#y copies.

A= CO3YIN5 IN BUANTITY
1% you publish printe! copies 8or copies in me!i# th#t commonly h#-e printe! co-ers9 o% the )ocument, numbering more th#n ,00, #n! the )ocumentLs license notice reKuires Co-er exts, you must enclose the copies in co-ers th#t c#rry, cle#rly #n! legibly, #ll these Co-er exts6 Front-Co-er exts on the %ront co-er, #n! 2#ck-Co-er exts on the b#ck co-er. 2oth co-ers must #lso cle#rly #n! legibly i!enti%y you #s the publisher o% these copies. he %ront co-er must present the %ull title /ith #ll /or!s o% the title eKu#lly prominent #n! -isible. =ou m#y #!! other m#teri#l on the co-ers in #!!ition. Copying /ith ch#nges limite! to the co-ers, #s long #s they preser-e the title o% the )ocument #n! s#tis%y these con!itions, c#n be tre#te! #s -erb#tim copying in other respects. 1% the reKuire! texts %or either co-er #re too -oluminous to %it legibly, you shoul! put the %irst ones liste! 8#s m#ny #s %it re#son#bly9 on the #ctu#l co-er, #n! continue the rest onto #!O#cent p#ges. 1% you publish or !istribute Cp#Kue copies o% the )ocument numbering more th#n ,00, you must either inclu!e # m#chine-re#!#ble r#nsp#rent copy #long /ith e#ch Cp#Kue copy, or st#te in or /ith e#ch Cp#Kue copy # computer-net/ork loc#tion %rom /hich the gener#l net/ork-using public h#s #ccess to !o/nlo#! using public-st#n!#r! net/ork protocols # complete r#nsp#rent copy o% the )ocument, %ree o% #!!e! m#teri#l. 1% you use the l#tter option, you must t#ke re#son#bly pru!ent steps, /hen you begin !istribution o% Cp#Kue copies in Ku#ntity, to ensure th#t this r#nsp#rent copy /ill rem#in thus #ccessible #t the st#te! loc#tion until #t le#st one ye#r #%ter the l#st time you !istribute #n Cp#Kue copy 8!irectly or through your #gents or ret#ilers9 o% th#t e!ition to the public. 1t is reKueste!, but not reKuire!, th#t you cont#ct the #uthors o% the )ocument /ell be%ore re!istributing #ny l#rge number o% copies, to gi-e them # ch#nce to pro-i!e you /ith #n up!#te! -ersion o% the )ocument.

1= MO(I4ICATION6
=ou m#y copy #n! !istribute # Fo!i%ie! +ersion o% the )ocument un!er the con!itions o% sections 2 #n! G #bo-e, pro-i!e! th#t you rele#se the Fo!i%ie! +ersion un!er precisely this *icense, /ith the Fo!i%ie! +ersion %illing the role o% the )ocument, thus licensing !istribution #n! mo!i%ic#tion o% the Fo!i%ie! +ersion to /hoe-er possesses # copy o% it. 1n #!!ition, you must !o these things in the 114 M Communic#tion heory

&'( Free )ocument#tion *icense Fo!i%ie! +ersion6 A< (se in the itle "#ge 8#n! on the co-ers, i% #ny9 # title !istinct %rom th#t o% the )ocument, #n! %rom those o% pre-ious -ersions 8/hich shoul!, i% there /ere #ny, be liste! in the 7istory section o% the )ocument9. =ou m#y use the s#me title #s # pre-ious -ersion i% the origin#l publisher o% th#t -ersion gi-es permission. =< *ist on the itle "#ge, #s #uthors, one or more persons or entities responsible %or #uthorship o% the mo!i%ic#tions in the Fo!i%ie! +ersion, together /ith #t le#st %i-e o% the princip#l #uthors o% the )ocument 8#ll o% its princip#l #uthors, i% it h#s %e/er th#n %i-e9, unless they rele#se you %rom this reKuirement. C< .t#te on the itle p#ge the n#me o% the publisher o% the Fo!i%ie! +ersion, #s the publisher. D< "reser-e #ll the copyright notices o% the )ocument. 1< 3!! #n #ppropri#te copyright notice %or your mo!i%ic#tions #!O#cent to the other copyright notices. 6< 1nclu!e, imme!i#tely #%ter the copyright notices, # license notice gi-ing the public permission to use the Fo!i%ie! +ersion un!er the terms o% this *icense, in the %orm sho/n in the 3!!en!um belo/. C< "reser-e in th#t license notice the %ull lists o% 1n-#ri#nt .ections #n! reKuire! Co-er exts gi-en in the )ocumentLs license notice. H< 1nclu!e #n un#ltere! copy o% this *icense. I< "reser-e the section Bntitle! 47istory4, "reser-e its itle, #n! #!! to it #n item st#ting #t le#st the title, ye#r, ne/ #uthors, #n! publisher o% the Fo!i%ie! +ersion #s gi-en on the itle "#ge. 1% there is no section Bntitle! 47istory4 in the )ocument, cre#te one st#ting the title, ye#r, #uthors, #n! publisher o% the )ocument #s gi-en on its itle "#ge, then #!! #n item !escribing the Fo!i%ie! +ersion #s st#te! in the pre-ious sentence. ?< "reser-e the net/ork loc#tion, i% #ny, gi-en in the )ocument %or public #ccess to # r#nsp#rent copy o% the )ocument, #n! like/ise the net/ork loc#tions gi-en in the )ocument %or pre-ious -ersions it /#s b#se! on. hese m#y be pl#ce! in the 47istory4 section. =ou m#y omit # net/ork loc#tion %or # /ork th#t /#s publishe! #t le#st %our ye#rs be%ore the )ocument itsel%, or i% the origin#l publisher o% the -ersion it re%ers to gi-es permission. D< For #ny section Bntitle! 43ckno/le!gements4 or 4)e!ic#tions4, "reser-e the itle o% the section, #n! preser-e in the section #ll the subst#nce #n! tone o% e#ch o% the contributor #ckno/le!gements #n!$or !e!ic#tions gi-en therein. 5< "reser-e #ll the 1n-#ri#nt .ections o% the )ocument, un#ltere! in their text #n! in their titles. .ection numbers or the eKui-#lent #re not consi!ere! p#rt o% the section titles. M< )elete #ny section Bntitle! 4Bn!orsements4. .uch # section m#y not be inclu!e! in the Fo!i%ie! +ersion. N< )o not retitle #ny existing section to be Bntitle! 4Bn!orsements4 or to con%lict in title /ith #ny 1n-#ri#nt .ection. O< "reser-e #ny W#rr#nty )iscl#imers. 1% the Fo!i%ie! +ersion inclu!es ne/ %ront-m#tter sections or #ppen!ices th#t Ku#li%y #s .econ!#ry .ections #n! cont#in no m#teri#l copie! %rom the )ocument, you m#y #t your option !esign#te some or #ll o% these sections #s in-#ri#nt. o !o this, #!! their titles to the list o% 1n-#ri#nt .ections in the Fo!i%ie! +ersionLs license notice. hese titles must be !istinct %rom #ny other section titles. =ou m#y #!! # section Bntitle! 4Bn!orsements4, pro-i!e! it cont#ins nothing but en!orsements o% your Fo!i%ie! +ersion by -#rious p#rties--%or ex#mple, st#tements o% peer re-ie/ or th#t the text h#s been #ppro-e! by #n org#ni?#tion #s the #uthorit#ti-e !e%inition o% # st#n!#r!. Wikibooks M 11(

Ch#pter ,H =ou m#y #!! # p#ss#ge o% up to %i-e /or!s #s # Front-Co-er ext, #n! # p#ss#ge o% up to 2H /or!s #s # 2#ck-Co-er ext, to the en! o% the list o% Co-er exts in the Fo!i%ie! +ersion. Cnly one p#ss#ge o% Front-Co-er ext #n! one o% 2#ck-Co-er ext m#y be #!!e! by 8or through #rr#ngements m#!e by9 #ny one entity. 1% the )ocument #lre#!y inclu!es # co-er text %or the s#me co-er, pre-iously #!!e! by you or by #rr#ngement m#!e by the s#me entity you #re #cting on beh#l% o%, you m#y not #!! #nother0 but you m#y repl#ce the ol! one, on explicit permission %rom the pre-ious publisher th#t #!!e! the ol! one. he #uthor8s9 #n! publisher8s9 o% the )ocument !o not by this *icense gi-e permission to use their n#mes %or publicity %or or to #ssert or imply en!orsement o% #ny Fo!i%ie! +ersion.

C= COM#ININ5 (OCUMENT6
=ou m#y combine the )ocument /ith other !ocuments rele#se! un!er this *icense, un!er the terms !e%ine! in section 4 #bo-e %or mo!i%ie! -ersions, pro-i!e! th#t you inclu!e in the combin#tion #ll o% the 1n-#ri#nt .ections o% #ll o% the origin#l !ocuments, unmo!i%ie!, #n! list them #ll #s 1n-#ri#nt .ections o% your combine! /ork in its license notice, #n! th#t you preser-e #ll their W#rr#nty )iscl#imers. he combine! /ork nee! only cont#in one copy o% this *icense, #n! multiple i!entic#l 1n-#ri#nt .ections m#y be repl#ce! /ith # single copy. 1% there #re multiple 1n-#ri#nt .ections /ith the s#me n#me but !i%%erent contents, m#ke the title o% e#ch such section uniKue by #!!ing #t the en! o% it, in p#rentheses, the n#me o% the origin#l #uthor or publisher o% th#t section i% kno/n, or else # uniKue number. F#ke the s#me #!Oustment to the section titles in the list o% 1n-#ri#nt .ections in the license notice o% the combine! /ork. 1n the combin#tion, you must combine #ny sections Bntitle! 47istory4 in the -#rious origin#l !ocuments, %orming one section Bntitle! 47istory40 like/ise combine #ny sections Bntitle! 43ckno/le!gements4, #n! #ny sections Bntitle! 4)e!ic#tions4. =ou must !elete #ll sections Bntitle! 4Bn!orsements.4

D= COLLECTION6 O4 (OCUMENT6
=ou m#y m#ke # collection consisting o% the )ocument #n! other !ocuments rele#se! un!er this *icense, #n! repl#ce the in!i-i!u#l copies o% this *icense in the -#rious !ocuments /ith # single copy th#t is inclu!e! in the collection, pro-i!e! th#t you %ollo/ the rules o% this *icense %or -erb#tim copying o% e#ch o% the !ocuments in #ll other respects. =ou m#y extr#ct # single !ocument %rom such # collection, #n! !istribute it in!i-i!u#lly un!er this *icense, pro-i!e! you insert # copy o% this *icense into the extr#cte! !ocument, #n! %ollo/ this *icense in #ll other respects reg#r!ing -erb#tim copying o% th#t !ocument.

0= A55RE5ATION *ITH IN(E3EN(ENT *OR&6

3 compil#tion o% the )ocument or its !eri-#ti-es /ith other sep#r#te #n! in!epen!ent !ocuments 11) M Communic#tion heory

&'( Free )ocument#tion *icense or /orks, in or on # -olume o% # stor#ge or !istribution me!ium, is c#lle! #n 4#ggreg#te4 i% the copyright resulting %rom the compil#tion is not use! to limit the leg#l rights o% the compil#tionLs users beyon! /h#t the in!i-i!u#l /orks permit. When the )ocument is inclu!e! in #n #ggreg#te, this *icense !oes not #pply to the other /orks in the #ggreg#te /hich #re not themsel-es !eri-#ti-e /orks o% the )ocument. 1% the Co-er ext reKuirement o% section G is #pplic#ble to these copies o% the )ocument, then i% the )ocument is less th#n one h#l% o% the entire #ggreg#te, the )ocumentLs Co-er exts m#y be pl#ce! on co-ers th#t br#cket the )ocument /ithin the #ggreg#te, or the electronic eKui-#lent o% co-ers i% the )ocument is in electronic %orm. Cther/ise they must #ppe#r on printe! co-ers th#t br#cket the /hole #ggreg#te.

-= TRAN6LATION
r#nsl#tion is consi!ere! # kin! o% mo!i%ic#tion, so you m#y !istribute tr#nsl#tions o% the )ocument un!er the terms o% section 4. >epl#cing 1n-#ri#nt .ections /ith tr#nsl#tions reKuires speci#l permission %rom their copyright hol!ers, but you m#y inclu!e tr#nsl#tions o% some or #ll 1n-#ri#nt .ections in #!!ition to the origin#l -ersions o% these 1n-#ri#nt .ections. =ou m#y inclu!e # tr#nsl#tion o% this *icense, #n! #ll the license notices in the )ocument, #n! #ny W#rr#nty )iscl#imers, pro-i!e! th#t you #lso inclu!e the origin#l Bnglish -ersion o% this *icense #n! the origin#l -ersions o% those notices #n! !iscl#imers. 1n c#se o% # !is#greement bet/een the tr#nsl#tion #n! the origin#l -ersion o% this *icense or # notice or !iscl#imer, the origin#l -ersion /ill pre-#il. 1% # section in the )ocument is Bntitle! 43ckno/le!gements4, 4)e!ic#tions4, or 47istory4, the reKuirement 8section 49 to "reser-e its itle 8section ,9 /ill typic#lly reKuire ch#nging the #ctu#l title.

.= TERMINATION
=ou m#y not copy, mo!i%y, sublicense, or !istribute the )ocument except #s expressly pro-i!e! %or un!er this *icense. 3ny other #ttempt to copy, mo!i%y, sublicense or !istribute the )ocument is -oi!, #n! /ill #utom#tic#lly termin#te your rights un!er this *icense. 7o/e-er, p#rties /ho h#-e recei-e! copies, or rights, %rom you un!er this *icense /ill not h#-e their licenses termin#te! so long #s such p#rties rem#in in %ull compli#nce.

,?= 4UTURE RE<I6ION6 O4 THI6 LICEN6E

he Free .o%t/#re Foun!#tion m#y publish ne/, re-ise! -ersions o% the &'( Free )ocument#tion *icense %rom time to time. .uch ne/ -ersions /ill be simil#r in spirit to the present -ersion, but m#y !i%%er in !et#il to #!!ress ne/ problems or concerns. .ee http6$$///.gnu.org$copyle%t$. B#ch -ersion o% the *icense is gi-en # !istinguishing -ersion number. 1% the )ocument speci%ies th#t # p#rticul#r numbere! -ersion o% this *icense 4or #ny l#ter -ersion4 #pplies to it, you h#-e the option o% %ollo/ing the terms #n! con!itions either o% th#t speci%ie! -ersion or o% #ny l#ter -ersion th#t h#s been publishe! 8not #s # !r#%t9 by the Free .o%t/#re Foun!#tion. 1% the )ocument !oes not speci%y # -ersion number o% this *icense, you m#y choose #ny -ersion e-er publishe! 8not #s # !r#%t9 by the Wikibooks M 11-

Ch#pter ,H Free .o%t/#re Foun!#tion.

E)ternal lin7s

&'( Free )ocument#tion *icense 8Wikipe!i# #rticle on the license9 C%%ici#l &'( F)* /ebp#ge

11/ M Communic#tion heory