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Table of Contents
Present continuous................................................................................................................................( Present simple ......................................................................................................................................) Present simple or continuous................................................................................................................6 Past simple ...........................................................................................................................................* Past continuous..................................................................................................................................... + Past simple or continuous .................................................................................................................... , -rregular %erbs.................................................................................................................................... 1# Present perfect ................................................................................................................................... 1" Present perfect continuous .................................................................................................................1. Present perfect simple or continuous .................................................................................................1( Present Perfect or Past Simple/.......................................................................................................... 1) Past perfect ........................................................................................................................................ 1* Past perfect continuous ......................................................................................................................1+ Past tense re%iew 1 ............................................................................................................................ 1, Past tense re%iew " ............................................................................................................................ "1 Going to ............................................................................................................................................. ". Going to ............................................................................................................................................. ". 0ill 1 future ....................................................................................................................................... "( Going to or will ................................................................................................................................. ") Present forms for the future ............................................................................................................... "6 0ill 1 other uses.................................................................................................................................."* Shall.................................................................................................................................................... ", 2he imperati%e ....................................................................................................................................# 2he Passi%e......................................................................................................................................... .1 2he 1ing form ......................................................................................................................................" Can.......................................................................................................................................................( Could.................................................................................................................................................. .6 May 3 might ....................................................................................................................................... .* Should..................................................................................................................................................+ Should " .............................................................................................................................................., Must or ha%e to .................................................................................................................................. (1 4ero conditional .................................................................................................................................(. 2he first conditional .......................................................................................................................... (( Second conditional ............................................................................................................................ () 2hird conditional................................................................................................................................ (* 0ish ...................................................................................................................................................(+ 5ad better .......................................................................................................................................... )# 6sed to ...............................................................................................................................................)1 7s&ing 8uestions 1 ............................................................................................................................ )" 7s&ing 8uestions " ............................................................................................................................ )( 9uestion tags...................................................................................................................................... )) :eported speech .................................................................................................................................)6 :eported speech " ..............................................................................................................................)+
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Suppose ..............................................................................................................................................), Suppose "............................................................................................................................................6# 5a%e something done ........................................................................................................................ 61 Should ha%e ....................................................................................................................................... 6" Can ha%e 3 Could ha%e .......................................................................................................................6. 0ill be doing ..................................................................................................................................... 6) 0ill ha%e done ...................................................................................................................................66
2han& you %ery much for downloading English Grammar Secrets. 0e hope that you will sign up to recei%e more lessons from us. ;ust go to www.englishgrammarsecrets.com and fill in the form. Caroline Brown Pearson Brown
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Present continuous
2he present continuous is used to tal& about present situations which we see as short1 term or temporary. 0e use the present simple to tal& about present situations which we see as long1term or permanent. -n these e<amples' the action is ta&ing place at the time of spea&ing. -t=s raining. 0ho is >ate tal&ing to on the phone/ ?oo&' somebody is trying to steal that man=s wallet. -=m not loo&ing. My eyes are closed tightly.
-n these e<amples' the action is true at the present time but we don=t thin& it will be true in the long term. -=m loo&ing for a new apartment. 5e=s thin&ing about lea%ing his @ob. 2hey=re considering ma&ing an appeal against the @udgment. 7re you getting enough sleep/
-n these e<amples' the action is at a definite point in the future and it has already been arranged. -=m meeting her at 6..#. 2hey aren=t arri%ing until 2uesday. 0e are ha%ing a special dinner at a top restaurant for all the senior managers. -sn=t he coming to the dinner/ e<ercise 1 e<ercise " e<ercise . e<ercise (
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Present simple
0e use the present simple to tal& about actions we see as long term or permanent. -t is a %ery common and %ery important tense. 5ere' we are tal&ing about regular actions or e%ents. 2hey dri%e to the office e%ery day. She doesn=t come here %ery often. 2he news usually starts at 6.## e%ery e%ening. Ao you usually ha%e bacon and eggs for brea&fast/
5ere' we are tal&ing about facts. 0e ha%e two children. 0ater freeBes at #C C or ."C D. 0hat does this e<pression mean/ 2he 2hames flows through ?ondon.
5ere' we are tal&ing about future facts' usually found in a timetable or a chart. Christmas Aay falls on a Monday this year. 2he plane lea%es at ).## tomorrow morning. :amadan doesn=t start for another . wee&s. Aoes the class begin at 1# or 11 this wee&/
5ere' we are tal&ing about our thoughts and feelings at the time of spea&ing. 7lthough these feelings can be short1term' we use the present simple and not the present continuous. 2hey don=t e%er agree with us. - thin& you are right. She doesn=t want you to do it. Ao you understand what - am trying to say. e<ercise 1 e<ercise " e<ercise . e<ercise (
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Past simple
0e use the past simple to tal& about actions and states which we see as completed in the past. 0e can use it to tal& about a specific point in time. She came bac& last Driday. - saw her in the street. 2hey didn=t agree to the deal. -t can also be used to tal& about a period of time. She li%ed in 2o&yo for se%en years. 2hey were in ?ondon from Monday to 2hursday of last wee&. 0hen - was li%ing in Few $or&' - went to all the art e<hibitions - could. $ou will often find the past simple used with time e<pressions such as theseE $esterday three wee&s ago last year in "##" from March to ;une for a long time for 6 wee&s in the 1,+#s in the last century in the past e<ercise 1 e<ercise " e<ercise . e<ercise ( e<ercise )
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Past continuous
0e use the past simple to tal& about actions and states which we see as completed in the past. 0e can use it to tal& about a specific point in time. 0e use the past continuous to tal& about past e%ents which went on for a period of time. 0e use it when we want to emphasiBe the continuing process of an acti%ity or the period of that acti%ity. -f we @ust want to tal& about the past e%ent as a simple fact' we use the past simple.! 0hile - was dri%ing home' Peter was trying desperately to contact me. 0ere you e<pecting any %isitors/ Sorry' were you sleeping/ - was @ust ma&ing some coffee. - was thin&ing about him last night. -n the 1,,#s few people were using mobile phones.
0e often use it to describe a Gbac&ground actionG when something else happened. - was wal&ing in the street when - suddenly fell o%er. She was tal&ing to me on the phone and it suddenly went dead. 2hey were still waiting for the plane when - spo&e to them. 2he company was declining rapidly before he too& charge. 0e were @ust tal&ing about it before you arri%ed. - was ma&ing a presentation in front of )## people when the microphone stopped wor&ing. e<ercise 1 e<ercise " e<ercise . e<ercise ( e<ercise )
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Hnly use the past continuous when you want to emphasiBe the continuity of the action. E%erybody was tal&ing about it all e%ening. 2hey were really trying hard but couldn=t do it. - was thin&ing about you the other day. 0ere you e<pecting that to happen/
0hen we use these two forms in the same sentence' we use the past continuous to tal& about the Gbac&ground actionG and the past simple to tal& about the shorter completed action. -t was raining hard when we left the building. - was reading the report when you rang. 5e was going out to lunch when - saw him. 2he company was doing well when - last %isited it. e<ercise 1 e<ercise " e<ercise . e<ercise ( e<ercise ) e<ercise 6
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-rregular %erbs
7ll new %erbs in English are regular. - photocopied the report. She fa<ed it to me. 2hey emailed e%erybody about it. - googled my name and got more than "# ### responses.
2here are appro<imately 1+# irregular %erbs. $ou don=t need to learn all of them because some of these are %ery rare but many others are %ery useful and you do need to &now them. 0hat=s the easiest way to learn them/ Some people thin& you should learn a list =by heart=. Hthers thin& you should not learn them at all I you will @ust gradually ac8uire them o%er time. Hne useful method is to note down new irregular %erbs as you meet them. -t is useful to write these %erbs or any %ocabulary you want to learn! in sentences and learn those rather than the indi%idual word. 0hich is easier to learn/ stic& stuc& stuc& - stuc& the photo into my album. 7nother techni8ue is to classify the irregular %erbs into ( categories. 1. 7ll forms the same set set set cost cost cost ". Similar sound groups beat beat beaten eat ate eaten blow blew blown throw threw thrown drin& dran& drun& sing sang sung spea& spo&e spo&en wa&e wo&e wo&en
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.. 2he second and third forms are the same. bend bent bent sleep slept slept spend spent spent bring brought brought buy bought bought teach taught taught ha%e had had pay paid paid say said said
(. 2he GunclassifiablesG come came come do did done go went gone show showed show
7s you meet new irregular %erbs' try to decide in which category they fall. e<ercise 1 e<ercise " e<ercise . e<ercise ( e<ercise ) e<ercise 6 e<ercise * e<ercise +
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Present perfect
Please note that British and 7merican English ha%e different rules for the use of this tense. 2he e<planation and e<ercises here refer to British English. -n 7merican English' it is often acceptable to use the past simple in some of these e<amples.! 0e use the present perfect when we want to loo& bac& from the present to the past. 0e can use it to loo& bac& on the recent past. -=%e bro&en my watch so - don=t &now what time it is. 2hey ha%e cancelled the meeting. She=s ta&en my copy. - don=t ha%e one. 2he sales team has doubled its turno%er.
0hen we loo& bac& on the recent past' we often use the words =@ust= =already= or the word =yet= in negati%es and 8uestions only!. 0e=%e already tal&ed about that. She hasn=t arri%ed yet. -=%e @ust done it. 2hey=%e already met. 2hey don=t &now yet. 5a%e you spo&en to him yet/ 5a%e they got bac& to you yet/
-t can also be used to loo& bac& on the more distant past. 0e=%e been to Singapore a lot o%er the last few years. She=s done this type of pro@ect many times before. 0e=%e mentioned it to them on se%eral occasions o%er the last si< months. 2hey=%e often tal&ed about it in the past.
0hen we loo& bac& on the more distant past' we often use the words =e%er= in 8uestions! and =ne%er=. 5a%e you e%er been to 7rgentina/ 5as he e%er tal&ed to you about the problem/ -=%e ne%er met ;im and Sally. 0e=%e ne%er considered in%esting in Me<ico. e<ercise 1 e<ercise " e<ercise . e<ercise ( e<ercise ) e<ercise 6
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0e use time e<pressions li&e are =e%er=' =ne%er=' =since= with the present perfect. -=%e ne%er seen so many people here before. 5a%e you e%er been more surprised/ -=%e done a lot since we last tal&ed about it. 2ypical time e<pressions used with the present perfect in British English but often used with the past simple in 7merican English are =already=' =@ust=' =yet=. - ha%en=t done it yet. 6>! - didn=t do it yet. 6S! -=%e @ust done it. 6>! - @ust did it. 6S! -=%e already done it. 6>! - already did it. 6S! 0e can use the time phrase =for= with both forms' but with different meanings.
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- li%ed in Paris for a couple of years before - mo%ed here. -=%e li%ed in Paris for a couple of years and still lo%e it. e<ercise 1 e<ercise " e<ercise . e<ercise (
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Past perfect
0e use the past perfect simple to tal& about what happened before a point in the past. -t loo&s bac& from a point in the past to further in the past. - hadn=t &nown the bad news when - spo&e to him. - chec&ed with the supplier and they still hadn=t recei%ed the contract. She had already told him before - got a chance to gi%e him my %ersion. 2he company has started the year well but was badly hit by the postal stri&e.
2he past perfect simple is often used when we report what people had said3thought3belie%ed. 5e told me they had already paid the bill. 5e said he belie%ed that ;ohn had mo%ed to -taly. - thought we had already decided on a name for this product. e<ercise 1 e<ercise " e<ercise . e<ercise ( e<ercise ) e<ercise 6
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2he Present Perfect Continuous can be used to tal& about an action or actions that started in the past and continued until recently or that continue into the future. $ou loo& tired. 5a%e you been sleeping properly/ -=%e been waiting for him for .# minutes and he still hasn=t arri%ed. 5e=s been phoning me all wee& for an answer. 0e can use the past perfect simple to tal& about what happened before a point in the past. -t loo&s bac& from a point in the past to further in the past. - hadn=t &nown the bad news when - spo&e to him. - thought we had already decided on a name for this product. 0e can use the past perfect continuous to loo& bac& at a situation in progress. 0e had been thin&ing about buying a new house but then we decided to stay here. -t had been snowing for a while before we left. She said she had been trying to call me all day.
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2he Present Perfect Continuous can be used to tal& about an action or actions that started in the past and continued until recently or that continue into the future. $ou loo& tired. 5a%e you been sleeping properly/ -=%e been waiting for him for .# minutes and he still hasn=t arri%ed. 5e=s been phoning me all wee& for an answer. 0e can use the past perfect simple to tal& about what happened before a point in the past. -t loo&s bac& from a point in the past to further in the past. - hadn=t &nown the bad news when - spo&e to him. - thought we had already decided on a name for this product. 0e can use the past perfect continuous to loo& bac& at a situation in progress. 0e had been thin&ing about buying a new house but then we decided to stay here. -t had been snowing for a while before we left. She said she had been trying to call me all day.
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Going to
2here is no one =future tense= in English. 2here are ( future forms. 2he one which is used most often in spo&en English is =going to=' not =will=. 0e use =going to= when we want to tal& about a plan for the future. -=m going to see him later today. 2hey=re going to launch it ne<t month. 0e=re going to ha%e lunch first. She=s going to see what she can do. -=m not going to tal& for %ery long.
Fotice that this plan does not ha%e to be for the near future. 0hen - retire -=m going to go bac& to Barbados to li%e. -n ten years time' -=m going to be boss of my own successful company. 0e use =going to= when we want to ma&e a prediction based on e%idence we can see now. ?oo& outJ 2hat cup is going to fall off. ?oo& at those blac& clouds. -t=s going to rain soon. 2hese figures are really bad. 0e=re going to ma&e a loss. $ou loo& %ery tired. $ou=re going to need to stop soon.
0e can replace =going to go= by =going=. -=m going out later. She=s going to the e<hibition tomorrow. e<ercise 1 e<ercise " e<ercise . e<ercise (
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0ill 1 future
Some people ha%e been taught that =will= is =the future= in English. 2his is not correct. Sometimes when we tal& about the future we cannot use =will=. Sometimes when we use =will= we are not tal&ing about the future. 0e can use =will= to tal& about future e%ents we belie%e to be certain. 2he sun will rise o%er there tomorrow morning. Fe<t year' -=ll be )#. 2hat plane will be late. -t always is. 2here won=t be any snow. -=m certain. -t=s too warm.
Hften we add =perhaps=' =maybe=' =probably=' =possibly= to ma&e the belief less certain. -=ll probably come bac& later. 5e=ll possibly find out when he sees ;enny. Maybe it will be H>. Perhaps we=ll meet again some day.
0e often use =will= with =- thin&= or =- hope=. - thin& -=ll go to bed now. - thin& she=ll do well in the @ob. - hope you=ll en@oy your stay. - hope you won=t ma&e too much noise.
0e use =will= at the moment we ma&e a new decision or plan. 2he thought has @ust come into our head. Bye. -=ll phone you when - get there. -=ll answer that. -=ll go. - won=t tell him. - promise. e<ercise 1 e<ercise " e<ercise . e<ercise ( e<ercise )
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Going to or will
0hen we want to tal& about future facts or things we belie%e to be true about the future' we use =will=. 2he President will ser%e for four years. 2he boss won=t be %ery happy. -=m sure you=ll li&e her. -=m certain he=ll do a good @ob.
-f we are not so certain about the future' we use =will= with e<pressions such as =probably=' =possibly=' =- thin&=' =- hope=. - hope you=ll %isit me in my home one day. She=ll probably be a great success. -=ll possibly come but - may not get bac& in time. - thin& we=ll get on well.
-f you are ma&ing a future prediction based on e%idence in the present situation' use =going to=. Fot a cloud in the s&y. -t=s going to be another warm day. ?oo& at the 8ueue. 0e=re not going to get in for hours. 2he traffic is terrible. 0e=re going to miss our flight. Be carefulJ $ou=re going to spill your coffee.
7t the moment of ma&ing a decision' use =will=. Hnce you ha%e made the decision' tal& about it using =going to=. -=ll call ;enny to let her &now. Sarah' - need ;enny=s number. -=m going to call her about the meeting. -=ll come and ha%e a drin& with you but - must let 5arry &now. 5arry' -=m going to ha%e a drin& with Simon. e<ercise 1 e<ercise " e<ercise . e<ercise ( e<ercise )
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-n many situations when we tal& about future plans we can use either the present continuous or the =going to= future. 5owe%er' when we use the present continuous' there is more of a suggestion that an arrangement has already been made. -=m going to see him.3-=m seeing him. -=m going to do it.3-=m doing it. 0e use the present simple to tal& about e%ents in the future which are =timetabled=. 0e can also use the present continuous to tal& about these. My plane lea%es at 6 in the morning. 2he shop opens at ,..#. 2he sun rises a minute earlier tomorrow. My plane is lea%ing at +..#. 2he shop is closing at *.##. 2he sun is rising at 6.." tomorrow. e<ercise 1 e<ercise " e<ercise . e<ercise (
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0e use =will= to ma&e promises or threats. -=ll do it at once. -=ll phone him bac& immediately. - won=t forget this. -=ll get my own bac& some day.
0e use =will= for habit. 7 cat will always find a warm place to sleep. My car won=t go any faster than this.
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0e use =will= for deduction. - e<pect he=ll want us to get on with it. 2he phone=s ringing. 2hat will be Mar&. ?oo& again at all of these e<amples of =will=. 2hey are all to do with the present or are =timeless=. E<ercise 1 e<ercise " e<ercise . e<ercise (
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Shall
0e don=t use =Shall= %ery fre8uently in modern English' particularly in 7merican English. -t is used to ma&e offers and suggestions and to as& for ad%ice. 0hat time shall we meet/ Shall we %ote on it now/ 0hat dress shall - wear/ Shall - open the window/
$ou only really need to &now that about =shall= in modern English. :ead the rest of this only if you want to &now more about how some older spea&ers still use =shall=. Dormerly' in older grammar' =shall= was used as an alternati%e to =will= with =-= and =we=. 2oday' =will= is normally used. 0hen we do use =shall=' it has an idea of a more personal' sub@ecti%e future. - shall go to see the boss and - shall as& him to e<plain this decision. Fotice that the negati%e of =shall= can be =shall not= or =shan=t= I though the second one is now %ery rare in 7merican English. - don=t li&e these people and - shall not go to their party. - shan=t ob@ect if you go without me.
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2he imperati%e
0e can use the imperati%e to gi%e a direct order. 1. 2a&e that chewing gum out of your mouth. ". Stand up straight. .. Gi%e me the details. 0e can use the imperati%e to gi%e instructions. 1. Hpen your boo&. ". 2a&e two tablets e%ery e%ening. .. 2a&e a left and then a right. 0e can use the imperati%e to ma&e an in%itation. 1. Come in and sit down. Ma&e yourself at home. ". Please start without me. -=ll be there shortly. .. 5a%e a piece of this ca&e. -t=s delicious. 0e can use the imperati%e on signs and notices. 1. Push. ". Ao not use. .. -nsert one dollar. 0e can use the imperati%e to gi%e friendly informal ad%ice. 1. Spea& to him. 2ell him how you feel. ". 5a%e a 8uiet word with her about it. .. Aon=t go. Stay at home and rest up. Get some sleep and reco%er. 0e can ma&e the imperati%e =more polite= by adding =do=. Ao be 8uiet. Ao come. Ao sit down. e<ercise 1 e<ercise " e<ercise . e<ercise ( e<ercise ) e<ercise 6
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2he Passi%e
0e use the acti%e form to say what the sub@ect does. Dor e<ampleE - spea& English e%ery day at wor&. - repaired the flat tire on the car. 0e use the passi%e form to say what happens to people and things' to say what is done to them. Dor e<ampleE English is spo&en here. 2he car is being repaired. 0e use the passi%e form when we don=t &now who did the action. Dor e<ampleE 2he car was damaged while it was par&ed on the street. 2he shirts were made in 2ur&ey. 0e use the passi%e form when what was done is more important than who did it. Dor e<ampleE -t was appro%ed by Gerry last wee&. - was informed by the 5uman :esources Manager only two days ago. e<ercise 1 e<ercise " e<ercise . e<ercise ( e<ercise )
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- en@oy dancing. - feel li&e ha%ing a party. -=%e finished writing the report. -=%e gi%en up going to the gym. - can=t help thin&ing about it. - can=t imagine e%er lea%ing this company. - don=t mind doing that. 5e put off tal&ing to her as long as he could. - can=t stand drin&ing beer.
Some %erbs can be followed by either the infiniti%e or Iing form but with different meanings. 5ere are some common onesE - stopped smo&ing last month. - no longer smo&e.! - stopped to smo&e a cigarette. - stopped what - was doing and had a cigarette.! - remember telling him. 7 memory of the past.! - must remember to tell him. Something to remember for the future.! -=m interested in finding out more details. -nterested about the future.! - was interested to read his report. -nterested in the past.!
Some %erbs can be followed by either the infiniti%e or Iing form but with the same meaning. 5ere are some common onesE - lo%e to go shopping. - lo%e going shopping. -=m afraid to fly. -=m afraid of flying. - started to learn English ) years ago. - started learning English ) years ago. e<ercise 1 e<ercise " e<ercise . e<ercise ( e<ercise ) e<ercise 6
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Can
0e use =can= to tal& about =possibility=. Can you do that/ - can=t manage to do that. $ou can lea%e your car in that par&ing space. $ou cannot smo&e in here.
Fotice that there are two negati%e formsE =can=t= and =cannot=. 2hese mean e<actly the same thing. 0hen we are spea&ing' we usually say =can=t=. 0e use =can= to tal& about =ability=. - can spea& Drench. - can=t dri%e. 0e use =can= to as& for and gi%e permission. 0e also use =may= for this but is more formal and much less common.! Can - spea& to you or are you too busy/ $ou can use my phone. $ou can=t come in. 0e use =can= in offers' re8uests and instructions. Can - help/ Can you gi%e me a hand/ 0hen you finish that' you can ta&e out the garbage. 0e use =can= with =see= =hear= =feel= =smell= =taste= to tal& about something which is happening now . 0here you would use the present continuous with most other %erbs.! - can smell something burning. Can you hear that noise/ - can=t see anything.
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0e can use =can=t= for deduction. 2he opposite of =can=t= in this conte<t is =must=. $ou can=t be hungry. $ou=%e @ust eaten. $ou must be hungry. $ou ha%en=t eaten anything all day. 5e was in ?ondon one hour ago when - spo&e to him. 5e can=t be here yet.
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Could
=Could= can be used to tal& about the past' the present or the future. =Could= is a past form of =can= 0hen - was li%ing in Boston' - could wal& to wor&. 5e phoned to say he couldn=t come. - could see him clearly but - couldn=t hear him and then the %ideoconference line went dead. =Could= is used to ma&e polite re8uests. 0e can also use =can= for these but =could= is more polite. Could you help me' please/ Could you lend me some money/ Could - ha%e a lift/ Could - bother you for a moment/
-f we use =could= in reply to these re8uests' it suggests that we do not really want to do it. -f you agree to the re8uest' it is better to say =can=. Hf course - can. - could help you if it=s really necessary but -=m really busy right now. - could lend you some money but -=d need it bac& tomorrow without fail. - could gi%e you a lift as far as Birmingham.
=Could= is used to tal& about theoretical possibility and is similar in meaning to =might=. -t could rain later. 2a&e an umbrella. 5e could be there by now. Could he be any happier/ -t could be Sarah=s. e<ercise 1 e<ercise " e<ercise . e<ercise (
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May 3 might
may 0e can use =may= to as& for permission. 5owe%er this is rather formal and not used %ery often in modern spo&en English May - borrow your pen/ May we thin& about it/ May - go now/ 0e use =may= to suggest something is possible -t may rain later today. - may not ha%e time to do it today. Pete may come with us might 0e use =might= to suggest a small possibility of something. Hften we read that =might= suggests a smaller possibility that =may=' there is in fact little difference and =might is more usual than =may= in spo&en English. She might be at home by now but it=s not sure at all. -t might rain this afternoon. - might not ha%e time to go to the shops for you. - might not go.
Dor the past' we use =might ha%e=. 5e might ha%e tried to call while - was out. - might ha%e dropped it in the street.
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Should
0e use =should= for gi%ing ad%ice. $ou should spea& to him about it. 5e should see a doctor. 0e should as& a lawyer. 0e use =should= to gi%e an opinion or a recommendation. 5e should resign now. 0e should in%est more in 7sia. 2hey should do something about this terrible train ser%ice. =Should= e<presses a personal opinion and is much wea&er and more personal than =must= or =ha%e to=. -t is often introduced by = - thin&=. - thin& they should replace him. - don=t thin& they should &eep the contract. Ao you thin& we should tell her. e<ercise 1 e<ercise " e<ercise . e<ercise (
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Should "
0e can use =should= after =reporting %erbs= such as demand insist propose recommend suggest 5e demanded that we should pay for the repair. She insisted that she should pay for the meal. - ha%e proposed that he should ta&e charge of the organiBation. 2he committee recommends that ;ane should be appointed. 0e ha%e suggested that Michael should be gi%en a reward for his hard wor&.
5owe%er' it is also possible to say e<actly the same thing by omitting the =should= and @ust using the infiniti%e form without =to= . Some people call this the =sub@uncti%e= form. 5e demanded that we pay for the repair. She insisted that she pay for the meal. - ha%e proposed that he ta&e charge of the organiBation. 2he committee recommends that ;ane be appointed. 0e ha%e suggested that Michael be gi%en a reward for his hard wor&.
0e can use =should= after %arious ad@ecti%es. 2ypical e<amples are E funny interesting natural odd strange surprised surprising typical -t=s funny that you should say that. - was thin&ing e<actly the same thing. -t=s interesting that they should offer him the @ob. Fot an ob%ious choice. -t=s natural that you should be an<ious. Fobody li&es spea&ing in public. -sn=t it odd that he should be going to the same tiny hotel/ 0hat a coincidence. -t=s strange that you should thin& so. Fobody else does. 0e can use =should= in =if clauses= when we belie%e that the possibility of something happening is small. -f you should happen to see him before - do' can you tell him that want to spea& to him urgently/ -f there should be a problem' @ust gi%e me a call and -=ll sort it out. -f anyone should as& where - am' say -=m in a meeting. 0e use =should= in %arious fi<ed e<pressions. To show strong agreement
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2hey=re paying you compensation/ - should thin& so. To express pleasure when you receive a gift 0hat a fantastic present. $ou really shouldn=t ha%e. To emphasize a visible emotion $ou should ha%e seen the loo& on her face when she found out that she had got the promotion.
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Must or ha%e to
0e can use =must= to show that we are certain something is true. 0e are ma&ing a logical deduction based upon some clear e%idence or reason. 2here=s no heating on. $ou must be freeBing. $ou must be worried that she is so late coming home. - can=t remember what - did with it. - must be getting old. -t must be nice to li%e in Dlorida.
0e also use =must= to e<press a strong obligation. 0hen we use =must= this usually means that some personal circumstance ma&es the obligation necessary and the spea&er almost certainly agrees with the obligation.! - must go to bed earlier. 2hey must do something about it. $ou must come and see us some time. - must say' - don=t thin& you were %ery nice to him.
0e can also use =ha%e to= to e<press a strong obligation. 0hen we use =ha%e to= this usually means that some e<ternal circumstance ma&es the obligation necessary. - ha%e to arri%e at wor& at , sharp. My boss is %ery strict. 0e ha%e to gi%e him our answer today or lose out on the contract. $ou ha%e to pass your e<ams or the uni%ersity will not accept you. - ha%e to send a report to 5ead Hffice e%ery wee&.
-n British English' we often use =ha%e got to= to mean the same as =ha%e to=. -=%e got to ta&e this boo& bac& to the library or -=ll get a fine. 0e=%e got to finish now as somebody else needs this room. 0e can also use = will ha%e to= to tal& about strong obligations. ?i&e =must= this usually means that that some personal circumstance ma&es the obligation necessary. :emember that =will= is often used to show =willingness=.! -=ll ha%e to spea& to him. 0e=ll ha%e to ha%e lunch and catch up on all the gossip. 2hey=ll ha%e to do something about it. -=ll ha%e to get bac& to you on that.
7s you can see' the differences between the present forms are sometimes %ery small and %ery subtle. 5owe%er' there is a huge difference in the negati%e forms. 0e use =mustn=t= to e<press strong obligations FH2 to do something. 0e mustn=t tal& about it. -t=s confidential. - mustn=t eat chocolate. -t=s bad for me. $ou mustn=t phone me at wor&. 0e aren=t allowed personal calls. 2hey mustn=t see us tal&ing or they=ll suspect something.
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0e use =don=t ha%e to= or =ha%en=t got to= in British English! to state that there is FH obligation or necessity. 0e don=t ha%e to get there on time. 2he boss is away today. - don=t ha%e to listen to this. -=m lea%ing. $ou don=t ha%e to come if you don=t want to. 5e doesn=t ha%e to sign anything if he doesn=t want to at this stage. - ha%en=t got to go. Hnly if - want to e<ercise 1 e<ercise " e<ercise . e<ercise ( e<ercise ) e<ercise 6 e<ercise *
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4ero conditional
0hen we tal& about things that are generally or always true' we can useE -f30hen36nless plus a present form P?6S present simple or imperati%e -f he gets there before me' as& him to wait. 0hen you fly budget airline' you ha%e to pay for your drin&s and snac&s. 6nless you need more space' a small car is big enough for one person. Fote that we are not tal&ing about a specific e%ent but something which is generally true. -n the condition clause' we can use a %ariety of present forms. -n the result clause' there can only be the present simple or imperati%e. -f you %isit ?ondon' go on the ?ondon Eye. -f unemployment is rising' people tend to stay in their present @obs. -f you=%e done that' go and ha%e a coffee. 0hen you go on holiday' ta&e plenty of sun cream. -t=ll be %ery hot. 0hen -=m concentrating' please don=t ma&e so much noise. 0hen -=%e finished an article' - always as& >ate to read it through.
Fotice that =unless= means the same as =if not=. 6nless he as&s you politely' refuse to do any more wor& on the pro@ect. 6nless prices are rising' it=s not a good in%estment. 6nless you=%e been there yourself' you don=t really understand how fantastic it is. e<ercise 1 e<ercise " e<ercise . e<ercise (
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2he =if= clause can be used with different present forms. -f - go to Few $or& again' -=ll buy you a sou%enir from the Empire State Building. -f he=s feeling better' he=ll come. -f she hasn=t heard the bad news yet' -=ll tell her. 2he Gfuture clauseG can contain =going to= or the future perfect as well as =will=. -f - see him' -=m going to tell him e<actly how angry - am. -f we don=t get the contract' we=ll ha%e wasted a lot of time and money. 2he Gfuture clauseG can also contain other modal %erbs such as =can= and =must=. -f you go to Few $or&' you must ha%e the cheeseca&e in ?indy=s. -f he comes' you can get a lift home with him. e<ercise 1 e<ercise " e<ercise . e<ercise (
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Second conditional
2he Second Conditional is used to tal& about =impossible= situations. -f we were in ?ondon today' we would be able to go to the concert in 5yde Par&. -f - had millions dollars' -=d gi%e a lot to charity. -f there were no hungry people in this world' it would be a much better place. -f e%eryone had clean water to drin&' there would be a lot less disease.
Fote that after - 3 he3 she 3it we often use the sub@uncti%e form =were= and not =was=. Some people thin& that =were= is the only =correct= form but other people thin& =was= is e8ually =correct= .! -f she were happy in her @ob' she wouldn=t be loo&ing for another one. -f - li%ed in ;apan' -=d ha%e sushi e%ery day. -f they were to enter our mar&et' we=d ha%e big problems. Fote the form =-f - were you= which is often used to gi%e ad%ice. -f - were you' -=d loo& for a new place to li%e. -f - were you' -=d go bac& to school and get more 8ualifications. 2he Second Conditional is also used to tal& about =unli&ely= situations. -f - went to China' -=d %isit the Great 0all. -f - was the President' -=d reduce ta<es. -f you were in my position' you=d understand. Fote that the choice between the first and the second conditional is often a 8uestion of the spea&er=s attitude rather than of facts. Compare these e<amples. Htto thin&s these things are possible' Peter doesn=t. Htto I -f - win the lottery' -=ll buy a big house. Peter I -f - won the lottery' -=d buy a big house. Htto I -f - get promoted' -=ll throw a big party. Peter I -f - got promoted' -=d throw a big party. Htto I -f my team win the Cup' -=ll buy champagne for e%erybody. Peter I -f my team won the Cup' -=d buy champagne for e%erybody.
Fote that the =-f clause= can contain the past simple or the past continuous. -f - was still wor&ing in Brighton' - would commute by train. -f she were coming' she would be here by now. -f they were thin&ing of selling' - would want to buy. Fote that the main clause can contain =would= =could= or =might. -f - had the chance to do it again' - would do it differently. -f we met up for lunch' we could go to that new restaurant. -f - spo&e to him directly' - might be able to persuade him.
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7lso note that sometimes the =if clause= is implied rather than spo&en. 0hat would - do without you/ Gif you weren=t hereG! 0here would - get one at this time of night/ Gif - wanted oneG! 5e wouldn=t agree. Gif - as&ed himG! e<ercise 1 e<ercise " e<ercise . e<ercise ( e<ercise ) e<ercise 6
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2hird conditional
0e can use the 2hird Conditional to tal& about =impossible= conditions' impossible because they are in the past and we cannot change what has happened. -f - had wor&ed harder at school' - would ha%e got better grades. -f - had had time' - would ha%e gone to see him. But - didn=t ha%e time. -f we had bought that house' we would ha%e had to rebuild the &itchen. -f we had caught the earlier train' we would ha%e got there on time but we were late.
Fotice that the main clause can contain =would=' =could= or =might. -f - had seen him at the meeting' - would ha%e as&ed him. But he wasn=t there so - didn=t.! -f - had seen him at the meeting' - could ha%e as&ed him. But he wasn=t there so it wasn=t possible.! -f - had seen him at the meeting' - might ha%e as&ed him. But -=m not sure. Perhaps if the opportunity had arisen.! -f - had paid more attention in class' - would ha%e understood the lesson. 7lso notice that sometimes the =if clause= is implied rather than spo&en. -=d ha%e done it. Gif you had as&ed me but you didn=t.G! - wouldn=t ha%e said that. Gif -=d been there.G! 5e wouldn=t ha%e let him get away with that. Gif he had tried that with me.G!
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0ish
?et=s start off with the easy part. = - wish to= can mean the same as =- want to= but it is much' much more formal and much' much less common. - wish to ma&e a complaint. - wish to see the manager. $ou can also use =wish= with a noun to =offer good wishes=. - wish you all the best in your new @ob. 0e wish you a merry Christmas. Fotice that when you want to offer good wishes using a %erb' you must use =hope = and not =wish=. 0e wish you the best of luc&. 0e hope you ha%e the best of luc&. - wish you a safe and pleasant @ourney. - hope you ha%e a safe and pleasant @ourney.
5owe%er' the main use of =wish= is to say that we would li&e things to be different from what they are' that we ha%e regrets about the present situation. - wish - was rich. 5e wishes he li%ed in Paris. 2hey wish they=d chosen a different leader. Fotice that the %erb tense which follows =- wish= is =more in the past= than the tense corresponding to its meaning. -=m too fat. - wish - was thin. - ne%er get in%ited to parties. - wish - got in%ited to parties. -t=s raining. - wish it wasn=t raining. - went to see the latest Star 0ars film. - wish - hadn=t gone. -=%e eaten too much. - wish - hadn=t eaten so much. -=m going to %isit her later. - wish - wasn=t going to %isit her later.
-n the case of =will= ' where =will= means =show willingness= we use =would=. 5e won=t help me. - wish he would help me. $ou=re ma&ing too much noise. - wish you would be 8uiet. $ou &eep interrupting me. - wish you wouldn=t do that. 0here =will= means a future e%ent' we cannot use =wish= and must use =hope=. 2here=s a stri&e tomorrow. - hope some buses will still be running. - hope e%erything will be fine in your new @ob.
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-n more formal English' we use the sub@uncti%e form =were= and not =was= after =wish=. - wish - were taller. - wish it were Saturday today. - wish he were here. e<ercise 1 e<ercise " e<ercise . e<ercise ( e<ercise ) e<ercise 6
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5ad better
0e use Lhad betterM plus the infiniti%e without LtoM to gi%e ad%ice. 7lthough LhadM is the past form of Lha%eM' we use Lhad betterM to gi%e ad%ice about the present or future. $ou=d better tell her e%erything. -=d better get bac& to wor&. 0e=d better meet early. 2he negati%e form is Lhad better notM. $ou=d better not say anything. -=d better not come. 0e=d better not miss the start of his presentation. 0e use Lhad betterM to gi%e ad%ice about specific situations' not general ones. -f you want to tal& about general situations' you must use LshouldM. $ou should brush your teeth before you go to bed. - shouldn=t listen to negati%e people. 5e should dress more appropriately for the office. 0hen we gi%e ad%ice about specific situations' it is also possible to use LshouldM. $ou shouldn=t say anything. - should get bac& to wor&. 0e should meet early. 5owe%er' when we use Lhad betterM there is a suggestion that if the ad%ice is not followed' that something bad will happen. $ou=d better do what - say or else you will get into trouble. -=d better get bac& to wor& or my boss will be angry with me. 0e=d better get to the airport by fi%e or else we may miss the flight. e<ercise 1 e<ercise " e<ercise . e<ercise (
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6sed to
6sed to do We use 'used to' for something that happened regularly in the past but no longer happens. - used to smo&e a pac&et a day but - stopped two years ago. Ben used to tra%el a lot in his @ob but now' since his promotion' he doesn=t. - used to dri%e to wor& but now - ta&e the bus. We also use it for something that was true but no longer is. 2here used to be a cinema in the town but now there isn=t. She used to ha%e really long hair but she=s had it all cut off. - didn=t use to li&e him but now - do. =6sed to do= is different from =to be used to doing= and =to get used to doing= to be used to doing We use 'to be used to doing' to say that something is normal, not unusual. -=m used to li%ing on my own. -=%e done it for 8uite a long time. 5ans has li%ed in England for o%er a year so he is used to dri%ing on the left now. 2hey=%e always li%ed in hot countries so they aren=t used to the cold weather here. to get used to doing We use 'to get used to doing' to tal about the process of something becoming normal for us. - didn=t understand the accent when - first mo%ed here but - 8uic&ly got used to it. She has started wor&ing nights and is still getting used to sleeping during the day. - ha%e always li%ed in the country but now -=m beginning to get used to li%ing in the city. e<ercise 1 e<ercise " e<ercise . e<ercise (
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7s&ing 8uestions 1
2he basic rule for as&ing 8uestions in English is straightforwardE -n%ert the order of the sub@ect and the first au<iliary %erb. -t is snowing. N -s it snowing/ 5e can spea& German. N Can he spea& German/ 2hey ha%e li%ed here a long time. N 5a%e they li%ed here a long time/ She will arri%e at ten o=cloc&. N 0ill she arri%e at ten o=cloc&/ 5e was dri%ing fast. N 0as he dri%ing fast/ $ou ha%e been smo&ing. N 5a%e you been smo&ing/
-f there is no au<iliary' use part of the %erb =to do=. $ou spea& fluent Drench. N Ao you spea& fluent Drench/ She li%es in Brussels. N Aoes she li%e in Brussels/ 2hey li%ed in Manchester. N Aid they li%e in Manchester/ 5e had an accident. N Aid he ha%e an accident/
Most 8uestions with 8uestion words are made in the same wayE 5ow often does she use it/ 0hy don=t you come/ 0here do you wor&/ 5ow many did you buy/ 0hat time did you go/ 0hich one do you li&e/ 0hose car were you dri%ing/
Fote who' what and which can be the sub@ect. CompareE 0ho is coming to lunch/ who is the sub@ect of the %erb! 0ho do you want to in%ite to lunch/ you is the sub@ect of the %erb! 0hat happened/ what is the sub@ect of the %erb! 0hat did you do/ you is the sub@ect of the %erb!
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Fote the position of the prepositions in these 8uestionsE 0ho did you spea& to/ 0hat are you loo&ing at/ 0here does he come from/ e<ercise 1 e<ercise " e<ercise . e<ercise ( e<ercise ) e<ercise 6 e<ercise * e<ercise +
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9uestion tags
0e use tags in spo&en English but not in formal written English. 2hey are not really 8uestions but are a way of as&ing the other person to ma&e a comment and so &eep the con%ersation open. Ma&ing a tag is %ery mechanical. 2o ma&e a tag' use the first au<iliary. -f there is no au<iliary' use do' does or did. 0ith a positi%e sentence' ma&e a negati%e tag and with a negati%e sentence' ma&e a positi%e tag. -t=s beautiful' isn=t it/ 5e has been' hasn=t he/ $ou can' can=t you/ -t must be' mustn=t it/ $ou &now him' donPt you/ 5e finished it' didn=t he/ 5e will come' won=t he/ -t isn=t %ery good' is it/ -t hasn=t rained' has it/ -t can=t be' can it/ ;enny doesn=t &now ;ames' does she/ 2hey didn=t lea%e' did they/ 5e wonPt do it' will he/
Fotice theseE 2here isn=t an 72M here' is there/ ?et=s ha%e a cup of coffee' shall we/ 2o reply' use the same au<iliaryE -t=s beautiful' isn=t it/ Q $es' it is. - thin& it=s fabulous. -t isn=t %ery good' is it/ Q Fo' it isn=t. -n fact' it=s terrible. 7lthough' the rules are %ery simple and mechanical' in order to use them easily in con%ersation' they ha%e to be automatic. So you need to hear and practice them %ery often. e<ercise 1 e<ercise " e<ercise . e<ercise ( e<ercise ) e<ercise 6
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:eported speech
0e use reported speech when we are saying what other people say' thin& or belie%e. 5e says he wants it. 0e thin& you are right. - belie%e he lo%es her. $esterday you said you didn=t li&e it but now you doJ She told me he had as&ed her to marry him. - told you she was ill. 0e thought he was in 7ustralia.
0hen we are reporting things in the present' future or present perfect we don=t change the tense. 5e thin&s he lo%es her. -=ll tell her you are coming. 5e has said he=ll do it. 0hen we tell people what someone has said in the past' we generally ma&e the tense =more in the past=. $ou loo& %ery nice. N - told him he loo&ed %ery nice. 5e=s wor&ing in Siberia now. N She told me he was wor&ing in Siberia now. Polly has bought a new car. N She said Polly had bought a new car. ;o can=t come for the wee&end. N She said ;o couldn=t come for the wee&end. Paul called and left a message. N 5e told me Paul had called and had left me a message. -=ll gi%e you a hand. N 5e said he would gi%e me a hand. 5owe%er' when we are reporting something that was said in the past but is still true' it is not obligatory to ma&e the tense =more in the past=. 2he choice is up to the spea&er. Dor e<ampleE G2he train doesn=t stop here.G 5e said the train doesn=t stop here. 5e said the train didn=t stop here. G- li&e Sarah.G She said she li&es Sarah. She said she li&ed Sarah.
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0hen we are reporting what was said' we sometimes ha%e to change other words in the sentence. 0e ha%e to change the pronoun if we are reporting what someone else said. Compare these two sentences. -n each case the person actually said G- don=t want to go.G - said - didn=t want to go. Bill said he didn=t want to go. 0e ha%e to change words referring to =here and now= if we are reporting what was said in a different place or time. Compare these two sentences. -n each case the person actually said G-=ll be there at ten tomorrow.G -f it is later the same day! 5e said he would be there at ten tomorrow. -f it is the ne<t day! 5e said he would be there at ten today.
Fow compare these two sentences. -f we are in a different place! 5e said he would be there tomorrow at ten. -f we are in the place he is coming to! 5e said he would be here at ten tomorrow. e<ercise 1 e<ercise " e<ercise . e<ercise (
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0e use the same structure when we report answers. G1(* Ha& Street.G N - told him what my address was. G- didn=t ha%e time to do it.G N She e<plained why she hadn=t done it. G?oo& at this dress and bag.G N She showed me what she had bought. GPut the paper here and press this button.G N 5e demonstrated how the scanner wor&ed.
$es3no 8uestions are reported with if or whether. Ao you want a ride/ N Mi&e as&ed me if - wanted a ride. 7re you coming/ N 2hey wanted to &now if - was coming. 0ill you be here later/ N She as&ed me whether - would be here later. e<ercise 1 e<ercise " e<ercise . e<ercise (
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Suppose
0e often use =suppose= to mean =imagine= or =guess= - suppose you=ll be meeting Aanielle when you go to Paris/ 0hen you weren=t there' - supposed you must ha%e been held up. - suppose you two &now each other/ Fotice that =suppose= is not normally used in the continuous form. 0e do not usually say =- am supposing=. Fow - suppose we=ll ha%e to do something else. 0e=re waiting for ;ohn and - suppose he must be stuc& in traffic. 7t this moment - suppose it doesn=t matter. Fotice that for =imagine not= or =guess not= that we ma&e =suppose= negati%e' not the other %erb. - don=t suppose you &now where Mary is/ - don=t suppose he=ll do anything. - don=t suppose you ha%e a Fo&ia phone charger here/ 0hen responding to an idea with =suppose=' you can use =so= to a%oid repeating the idea that has already been e<pressed. -s Susan coming to this meeting/ Q - suppose so. e<ercise 1 e<ercise " e<ercise . e<ercise (
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Suppose "
=Supposed to be= can be used to mean =it is said3belie%ed=. 2he new ;ames Bond mo%ie is supposed to be e<cellent. 5e is supposed to ha%e been rude to Mar& but - don=t belie%e it. -t is supposed to be the best restaurant in town. =Supposed to be= can also be used to tal& about what is arranged' intended or e<pected. -t is a bit li&e =should=. -=m supposed to get to wor& by +. ;ohn is supposed to turn off all the lights when he lea%es. -=m supposed to pay my rent on the first of the month. -t=s not supposed to be here.
Hften there is a suggestion that the action =supposed to= happen does not actually happen. -=m supposed to be there before + but -=m often late. $ou were supposed to phone me. -=m supposed to be getting on a plane to 2o&yo at this %ery minute. =Fot supposed to= often suggests that something is not allowed or prohibited. $ou=re not supposed to smo&e in here. -=m not supposed to tell you. 0e=re not supposed to use the -nternet for personal reasons at wor&. =Suppose= can also be used as a con@unction to mean =what if=. Fotice that the %erb which follows it is sometimes' but not always' put =more in the past=. Suppose we ta&e the earlier train to Munich/ -t would gi%e us more time there. Suppose we too& the plane instead/ 2hat would gi%e us e%en more time. 2here=s nobody in reception to let our %isitors in. Suppose - sit there until somebody comes/ -=m going to as& him for a pay increase. Q Suppose he said =no=/ 0hat would you do/ e<ercise 1 e<ercise " e<ercise . e<ercise ( e<ercise ) e<ercise 6
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Should ha%e
0e can use =should ha%e= to tal& about past e%ents that did not happen. - should ha%e let her &now what was happening but - forgot. 5e should ha%e sent e%erybody a reminder by email. 2hey should ha%e remembered that their guests don=t eat por&. 0e can also use =should ha%e= to speculate about e%ents that may or may not ha%e happened. She should ha%e got the letter this morning. - e<pect she=ll gi%e us a call about it later. 5e should ha%e arri%ed at his office by now. ?et=s try ringing him. 2hey should ha%e all read that first email by this stage. -t=s time to send the ne<t one. 0e can use = should not ha%e= to speculate negati%ely about what may or may not ha%e happened. She shouldn=t ha%e left wor& yet. -=ll call her office. 5e shouldn=t ha%e boarded his plane yet. 0e can probably still get hold of him. 2hey shouldn=t ha%e sent the report off for printing yet. 2here is still time to ma&e changes. 0e can also use =should not ha%e= to regret past actions. - shouldn=t ha%e shouted at you. - apologise. 0e shouldn=t ha%e left the office so late. 0e should ha%e anticipated this bad traffic. 2hey shouldn=t ha%e sac&ed him. 5e was the most creati%e person on their team. e<ercise 1 e<ercise " e<ercise . e<ercise ( e<ercise ) e<ercise 6
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$ou can also use =could ha%e= to tal& about possible present situations that ha%e not happened. - could ha%e been earning a lot as an accountant but the wor& was @ust too boring. 5e could ha%e been Prime Minister now but he got in%ol%ed in a big financial scandal. 2hey could ha%e been the mar&et leaders now if they had ta&en his ad%ice. e<ercise 1 e<ercise " e<ercise . e<ercise ( e<ercise ) e<ercise 6
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0ill be doing
0e can use =will be doing= to tal& about something that will be in progress at a particular moment in the future. 2his time ne<t wee&' -=ll be sitting on the beach in Barbados. -=ll be thin&ing about you all bac& in the office I and -=ll be laughing. 0e=ll be en@oying oursel%es too' boss. 0e won=t be doing any wor& while you are not here. 0e can use =will be doing= to tal& about future e%ents that are fi<ed or decided. -=ll be %isiting your country on a regular basis. -n fact' -=m going to be coming ne<t month. 5e=ll be loo&ing after the factory until we can appoint a new manager. 2hey=ll be thin&ing about this %ery carefully o%er the ne<t few months. 0e can use =will be doing= to predict what is happening now. 2ry phoning his hotel. 5e=ll probably still be ha%ing brea&fast. 2hey=ll be deciding who gets the contract at this %ery moment. -=m %ery ner%ous. She=s not in her office. She=ll be ha%ing lunch in the canteen. 0e can use =will be doing= to as& e<tremely politely' and with no pressure' about future plans. 0ill you be eating with us this e%ening/ 0ill you be needing anything else/ 0ill they be @oining us for dinner/ e<ercise 1 e<ercise " e<ercise . e<ercise ( e<ercise )
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