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NZ General Rescue Manual 2006
NZ General Rescue Manual 2006
March 2006
Table of contents
Table of contents
1 1.1 1.2 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 Introduction .................................................................................................. 1 Purpose ......................................................................................................... 1 Definition of USAR ......................................................................................... 1 General rescue background........................................................................ 3 Objectives ...................................................................................................... 3 The aim of rescue .......................................................................................... 3 Functions ....................................................................................................... 3 The psychology of rescue .............................................................................. 3 Rescue workers ............................................................................................. 4 Personal traits of the rescue worker............................................................... 5 Personal behaviour ........................................................................................ 6 Team composition.......................................................................................... 6 Activation ....................................................................................................... 7 Deployment.................................................................................................... 7 Safety in training and operations ............................................................... 8 Objectives ...................................................................................................... 8 Introduction .................................................................................................... 8 The responsibility for safety ........................................................................... 8 Strategies to improve safety .......................................................................... 9 Basic precautions......................................................................................... 10 Personal protective equipment (PPE) .......................................................... 10 Rescue fall protection .................................................................................. 11 Casualty safety ............................................................................................ 12 Confined space operations .......................................................................... 12 Moving in an unknown environment............................................................. 13 Searching a darkened room......................................................................... 14 Moving on stairs........................................................................................... 15 Vehicle safety............................................................................................... 15 Equipment safety ......................................................................................... 15 Public utility hazards .................................................................................... 16 Correct lifting techniques ............................................................................. 16 Team lifting .................................................................................................. 17 Warning signals ........................................................................................... 17 Incident ground actions ............................................................................ 19 Objectives .................................................................................................... 19 Incident management .................................................................................. 19 Initial action strategies ................................................................................. 20 Site control ................................................................................................... 20 Rescue by stages ........................................................................................ 25
Table of contents
4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 5 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19 5.20 5.21 5.22 5.23 5.24 5.25 5.26 5.27 5.28 5.29 5.30
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Continuing action ......................................................................................... 28 Precautions in operations ............................................................................ 28 Crush injuries ............................................................................................... 29 Debris clearance .......................................................................................... 29 When debris clearance is necessary ........................................................... 30 Methods of debris clearance ........................................................................ 30 Precautions in operations ............................................................................ 30 The appreciation process............................................................................. 31 Introduction to Search and Victim Marking .................................................. 32 Disaster victim identification (DVI) ............................................................... 34 Suspicious circumstances............................................................................ 34 Conduct at the scene ................................................................................... 34 Ropes.......................................................................................................... 36 Objectives .................................................................................................... 36 Introduction .................................................................................................. 36 Types of rope ............................................................................................... 36 Synthetic ropes ............................................................................................ 37 Kernmantle Construction ............................................................................. 37 Characteristics of Static Kernmantle Rope .................................................. 38 Characteristics of rescue ropes.................................................................... 38 Breaking force.............................................................................................. 39 Safe working load (SWL) ............................................................................. 39 Care and maintenance................................................................................. 39 Washing ropes ............................................................................................. 40 Inspection .................................................................................................... 40 Retiring a rope ............................................................................................. 41 Terminology ................................................................................................. 42 Rope packaging ........................................................................................... 43 Identification................................................................................................. 44 Record systems ........................................................................................... 44 Climbing tapes ............................................................................................. 45 Construction................................................................................................. 45 Size.............................................................................................................. 46 Abrasion....................................................................................................... 46 Tape strength............................................................................................... 46 The use of tape ............................................................................................ 46 Care and maintenance................................................................................. 47 Safety........................................................................................................... 47 Flexible steel wire rope ................................................................................ 47 Safe working load (SWL) ............................................................................. 47 Construction................................................................................................. 48 Precautions in operations ............................................................................ 48 Inspection of steel wire rope ........................................................................ 48
General Rescue Manual - March 2006
Table of contents
5.31 6 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16 7 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.11 7.12 7.13 7.14 7.15 7.16 7.17 7.18 7.19 7.20 8 8.1
Storage of steel wire ropes .......................................................................... 49 Knots........................................................................................................... 50 Objectives .................................................................................................... 50 Introduction .................................................................................................. 50 Stopper knots............................................................................................... 50 Figure 8 knots .............................................................................................. 50 Figure 8 knot (Single figure 8)...................................................................... 51 Figure 8 on a bight (Double figure 8) ........................................................... 51 Rethreaded figure 8 ..................................................................................... 51 Figure 8 joining knot (Figure 8 bend) ........................................................... 52 Double figure 8 on a bight (Anchor 8 or Industrial 8).................................... 53 Round turn and two half hitches................................................................... 53 Alpine butterfly ............................................................................................. 54 Double fishermans knot .............................................................................. 54 Prusik knot ................................................................................................... 55 Clove hitch ................................................................................................... 55 Friction hitch................................................................................................. 56 Joining ropes................................................................................................ 56 Ladders....................................................................................................... 57 Objectives .................................................................................................... 57 Introduction .................................................................................................. 57 Construction................................................................................................. 57 Terminology ................................................................................................. 58 Extension ladders ........................................................................................ 59 Step ladders................................................................................................. 59 Inspection of ladders.................................................................................... 60 Maintenance of ladders................................................................................ 60 Single rescuer ladder raise .......................................................................... 60 Erecting and extending the ladder (2 rescuer) ............................................. 61 Erecting and extending the ladder (3 rescuer) ............................................. 61 Angle of ladder when raised ........................................................................ 62 Overlaps ...................................................................................................... 63 Securing ladders .......................................................................................... 63 Securing the head of the ladder ................................................................... 63 Securing the foot of the ladder ..................................................................... 63 Halving ladders ............................................................................................ 64 Ladder climbing............................................................................................ 64 Rules of 3..................................................................................................... 65 Helping a casualty down a ladder ................................................................ 65 Managing casualties.................................................................................. 66 Objectives .................................................................................................... 66
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Table of contents
8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 9 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 9.10 9.11 9.12 9.13 9.14 9.15 9.16 9.17 9.18 9.19 9.20 9.21 9.22 9.23 9.24 9.25 9.26 10 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9 10.10
Introduction .................................................................................................. 66 START ......................................................................................................... 66 Labelling ...................................................................................................... 67 Consumer Code of Rights- Health and Disability Commission .................... 68 Stretchers ................................................................................................... 69 Objectives .................................................................................................... 69 Introduction .................................................................................................. 69 Folding or pole stretchers ............................................................................ 69 Board rescue stretchers............................................................................... 70 Basket stretchers ......................................................................................... 71 Wrap-around stretchers ............................................................................... 71 Blanketing the stretcher ............................................................................... 72 Blanketing - Lateral/Recovery position......................................................... 72 Loading the stretcher ................................................................................... 73 The four rescuer method.............................................................................. 73 Blanket lift (four or six rescuers)................................................................... 74 Clothing lift (Three rescuers)........................................................................ 75 Webbing bands (Five rescuers) ................................................................... 75 Specialist lifting/loading devices................................................................... 76 Summary of stretcher types and uses.......................................................... 76 Lashing the casualty to the stretcher ........................................................... 76 Lashing the folding stretcher ........................................................................ 77 Lashing - Lateral/Recovery position............................................................. 77 Lashing - Board rescue stretcher ................................................................. 78 Alternate Board rescue stretcher lashing ..................................................... 78 Securing a basket stretcher with securing straps......................................... 79 Securing a basket stretcher by lashing ........................................................ 79 Improvised casualty harness ....................................................................... 80 Moving a stretcher over uneven ground....................................................... 80 Moving a stretcher in restricted spaces........................................................ 81 Improvised stretchers................................................................................... 82 Stretcher based rescue techniques ......................................................... 84 Objectives .................................................................................................... 84 Introduction .................................................................................................. 84 Definitions .................................................................................................... 84 Additional equipment ................................................................................... 85 Low angle rescue techniques ...................................................................... 85 Attachment of the line .................................................................................. 85 Creation of the friction/catch ...................................................................... 87 Limited High angle rescue techniques ......................................................... 87 Guide lines ................................................................................................... 88 Single point lower......................................................................................... 88
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Table of contents
10.11 10.12 10.13 10.14 11 11.1 11.2 11.3 12 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 13 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8 13.9 13.10 14 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 14.7 14.8 14.9 14.10 14.11 14.12 14.13 14.14 14.15 14.16
Two point lower............................................................................................ 89 Four point lower ........................................................................................... 90 Ladder Slide................................................................................................. 91 Ladder Hinge ............................................................................................... 93 Non-stretcher based rescue techniques.................................................. 94 Objectives .................................................................................................... 94 Introduction .................................................................................................. 94 Vertical Lift Knot........................................................................................... 95 Improvised casualty movement................................................................ 96 Objectives: ................................................................................................... 96 Introduction .................................................................................................. 96 One rescuer techniques............................................................................... 96 Two rescuer techniques............................................................................... 98 Anchors and holdfasts .............................................................................100 Objectives ...................................................................................................100 Introduction .................................................................................................100 Natural anchors...........................................................................................100 Constructed anchors...................................................................................100 Improvised anchors.....................................................................................103 Precautions in operations ...........................................................................103 Selection of anchors ...................................................................................103 Sling loading angles....................................................................................104 Attachment to anchors ................................................................................105 Safety summary ..........................................................................................106 Pulley systems and lifting ........................................................................107 Objectives ...................................................................................................107 Introduction .................................................................................................107 Terminology ................................................................................................107 Types of pulleys ..........................................................................................108 Characteristics of the lightweight rescue pulley ..........................................108 Constructing pulley systems .......................................................................109 Types of pulley systems..............................................................................109 Mechanical advantage ................................................................................109 Precautions in use ......................................................................................110 Lift/Lower rope rescue devices ...................................................................110 Commercial pulley systems ........................................................................111 Drum systems .............................................................................................111 Standard procedures for use ......................................................................111 Levers .........................................................................................................112 Fulcrum blocks............................................................................................112 Lifting ..........................................................................................................112
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Table of contents
15 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 15.7 15.8 15.9 15.10 15.11 15.12 15.13 15.14 15.15 15.16 15.17
Additional general rescue equipment .....................................................113 Objectives ...................................................................................................113 Introduction .................................................................................................113 Karabiners ..................................................................................................113 Accidental gate opening..............................................................................114 Concerns with screwgate karabiners ..........................................................114 Karabiner usage..........................................................................................114 Shackles .....................................................................................................115 Safety in operation ......................................................................................115 Generators..................................................................................................115 ELCBS and RCDS ....................................................................................116 Power output of the generator ....................................................................116 Precautions in operations ...........................................................................117 Electrical safety precautions .......................................................................117 Generator maintenance and regular checks ...............................................118 Generator storage.......................................................................................118 Lighting .......................................................................................................119 Positioning lighting ......................................................................................119
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Section 1: Introduction
1
1.1
Introduction
Purpose
The purpose of the General Rescue Manual is to provide guidelines for standard methods of training for General Rescue techniques in New Zealand. It is written to accompany the USAR Awareness Student Manual and reference to this manual is made frequently. The development of the USAR structure in New Zealand has provided the impetus for the review in 2004 of the General Rescue Manual. This, with an increased emphasis on safety, has meant some techniques have been modified, others deleted or replaced. Interestingly, some of the core skills developed over the years in New Zealand have stood the test of time and are a credit to the pioneers of general rescue in New Zealand. USAR Awareness and General Rescue combine to provide rescue workers with a range of core skills to safely and effectively locate, extract and rescue victims from a variety of events. It is not intended to be exhaustive, but rather provide a framework for the development of individual rescue workers, and ultimately rescue teams. NOTE: This manual has been developed to support and accompany practical training sessions delivered by suitably qualified trainers.
1.2
Definition of USAR
An integrated multi agency response which is beyond the capability of normal rescue arrangements, to provide initial medical care and removal of entrapped persons from damaged structures or other environments in a safe and expeditious manner. New Zealand has made some significant steps in the development of the USAR structure in recent years. The USAR Awareness Manual covers more about the history and structure of USAR in New Zealand, but of particular note are: The USAR Tier System The Responder certification (Orange Card) USAR Registered Response Teams and USAR Taskforces. Individuals receive Responder certification, and an Orange Card when they have completed recognised, unit standard based training in USAR Awareness, the Coordinated Incident Management System (CIMS), First Aid and General Rescue. A USAR Awareness course should, in most cases, be completed in conjunction with training in General Rescue.
Section 1: Introduction
A Registered New Zealand Response Team is a team of people who have a collective level of skill (based on Responder certification) have met the minimum equipment requirements and have Standard Operating Procedures. A USAR Taskforce is a national team of Taskforce Technicians plus support and specialists. A Task Force Technician is a person trained to carry out specialist structural collapse rescue. More information on USAR Responders, Technicians and Specialists can be found by visiting www.usar.govt.nz.
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2.1
On completion of study and/or instruction on this chapter of the General Rescue Manual individuals: should know: The aim of rescue and demonstrate awareness of: the 3 categories of rescue workers personal traits of the rescue worker some important areas of personal behaviour related to rescue
2.2
To save the greatest number of lives in the shortest possible time and to minimise further injury to people and damage to property.
2.3
Functions
Common rescue functions include: Access to, and the support and removal of, trapped people in the course of rescue operations. Assistance with the recovery of the dead (managed and conducted by NZ Police). Provision of support on request to other services, authorities or specialist teams.
WARNING NOTE: In order to achieve the aim of rescue, all rescuers must be trained in basic life sustaining first aid to recognised standards.
2.4
A moments reflection is all that is needed to realise that any situation requiring a rescue operation, by definition is one which contains either dangerous or potentially dangerous elements. People tend to react differently to danger, but the most general responses are anxiety and fear, perhaps the most powerful of all emotions. It must be remembered that it is not just the victim who faces the danger; in order to rescue the victim the rescuer must first enter the site of the dangerous situation and face the same danger.
Section 1: Introduction
Even if the main danger has struck and passed, additional dangers are still often present. The difference between the victim and the rescuer is that the rescuer is better able to cope with, or handle, the situation. This is because the rescuer has the knowledge and the resources to minimise risk and remedy the situation. It is normal to be anxious and feel fear in the face of danger. These are emotional reactions common to both victim and rescuer. Many other emotional responses may become manifest during a rescue situation - pity, disgust, contempt, pride, concern, and many more. These are often exaggerated beyond all reason by the urgency and pressures of the situation, thus lowering the efficiency of the overall operation. The rescuer must be aware of the psychological needs of the victims, not just their physical needs, and be prepared to meet these psychological needs.
2.5
Rescue workers
An event requiring rescue operations will usually create three categories of rescue workers: Category 1 Survivors The immediate reaction of survivors in a major incident, once they have discovered that they are not injured, is to help their neighbours and families. They often do not know what to do, but obviously it is a serious situation and thus they feel they must do something. These good intentions could aggravate the conditions of those being helped to the point where the loss of life may be greater than it should be. They could also get in the way and interrupt the functioning of trained rescue teams. However, uninjured and slightly injured survivors could well be the only hope of survival for many victims (e.g. if toxic gases, dangerous chemicals, fire, or danger of fire exist at the site of the emergency). The first group to commence rescue work at a site consists of those survivors still physically capable of doing so. The potential for good is enormous but the danger inherent in rescue work by untrained personnel is also enormous. Category 2 Untrained personnel The second wave of rescue workers is drawn from people either witnessing the event from the immediate vicinity, or are drawn to the site by curiosity and a desire to assist the victims. Although not quite as emotionally involved as the survivors, the danger inherent in utilising untrained personnel is still a factor which must be considered. On the positive side, they often bring necessary resources with them and can be effective if brought under control and properly supervised. Unfortunately, a large number of the curious are just that. They have no desire to help, but just look. They get in the way, shout advice, and generally add to the excitement of the site the very thing that is least needed, especially from the standpoint of victims.
Category 3 Trained personnel The last group to arrive at the scene is the trained rescuers: Police, Fire, Civil Defence, etc. It takes some time for various emergency services to mobilise and arrive at the scene. The quicker they can arrive, the less time there will have been for the first two groups to aggravate the situation and create more dangers to surviving victims and themselves. The well-trained team will know what to do, and how to utilise the available resources and untrained personnel in efficiently carrying out the necessary tasks in a manner that will not further endanger anyone. Note: Experience overseas shows that up to 80% of rescues are carried out by category 1 and 2 personnel. Category 3 personnel rescue 15% with the last 5% being rescued by highly trained specialist teams such as USAR Taskforces.
2.6
Rescue work is not an easy task, nor is it necessarily a glamorous one. Certainly not all people are suited to such work. Physical fitness, personality, and emotional stability are all factors in determining ones suitability. Ideally, the rescuer will have the following qualities: Interest- A genuine interest in rescue work, not just because of peer pressure, trying to impress etc. Training- The will to continually undergo training to maintain a professional standard. Cooperation- Rescue work is usually a team effort, hence cooperation with others is vital. Dependability- The lives of victims and team members rely on the rescuer. Initiative- The nature of rescue operations is such that it is often impossible to closely supervise each team member. Each must be able to see what needs doing, set priorities and do the tasks at hand. Versatility- Each situation is unique. An individual must be able to apply a wide range of skills and knowledge to new situations. Physical fitness- Rescue work of any kind is physically demanding and often continues for long periods. Any physical limitations must be recognised and taken into consideration. Leadership qualities- Required by all rescuers at various times and to varying degrees. Through the capable leadership of trained rescuers, many more untrained personnel may be utilised. Control over fears and phobias- It is important that rescuers know what they can and cannot do. Part of this knowledge consists of being aware of any phobias. It is also vital that the leader of a rescue team knows of any phobias in team members. Some phobias that could seriously affect a rescuer and which may be identified in training are: o The fear of the sight of blood (Hemophobia) o The fear of heights (Acrophobia) o The fear of confined spaces (Claustrophobia)
Section 1: Introduction
o The fear of water (Hydrophobia) Good dress and bearing- Appearance should instill confidence in others.
2.7
Personal behaviour
The conduct of individuals says a lot about their psychological makeup and personality. The nature of rescue work is such that it is particularly important that personal conduct does not aggravate matters, but rather assists in creating a feeling that the situation is in competent hands, and everything possible is being done to rescue and care for the victims. Bad behavior by an individual, e.g. bad language, reflects negatively on the whole team and its leadership. A few of the more important general areas of conduct or behaviours follow: AttitudeA serious, professional attitude must be maintained to gain confidence and support. Arrogance and superiority create instant antagonism. Loud talking, joking, and horseplay reduce credibility; they create a feeling of resentment and disgust and add to the confusion, thus hindering the work and adding to the state of anxiety of the victims. Rescuers cannot consider themselves professional if they add to the confusion by loud shouting or frantic gestures. EmotionsEmotions are hard to control in the best of circumstances. In a disaster the control of emotions is a very difficult task but every effort must be made to prevent emotions from influencing good judgement and competence. Regardless of the excitement and the severity of the incident, the rescuer must be able to remain calm, and be sympathetic without becoming emotionally involved. CourtesyCourtesy, tact, and good judgement are vital if the rescue task is to be completed quickly and effectively. Courtesy must be given to all concerned. ConfidentialityDuring rescue activities and training there may be times when rescuers will see and hear things which will be deemed confidential. It is essential that they understand this, be professional and do not discuss these matters with others. A Code of Ethics for rescue workers is currently being developed by the International Search and Rescue Advisory Group (INSARAG) and when finalised should be used as a guiding document.
2.8
Team composition
Team composition will be determined by the various organisations within each area on the basis of safe accomplishment of set tasks. Regardless of the team composition, a team leader must be appointed. A team of 6 8 members is required for effective general rescue teamwork. Teams may be larger, but these are often split into squads of 6-8 rescuers to allow them to be easily managed.
2.9
Activation
Each team should have a callout system established, and have determined the time necessary to ensure a full team response. This system should include such details as: Who calls out the team Who will be responsible for them Where to report What functions the team will perform What equipment to take Likely duration of task or event.
2.10 Deployment
On call-out, teams should clearly state to the organisation requesting their support details of accommodation and any feeding assistance that may be required. If practical, each team should be self-sufficient in the provision of food for the first 24 hours. Note: Minimum requirements for team number, structure, activation and deployment are established for teams wanting to register as a New Zealand Response Team.
3
3.1
On completion of study and/or instruction on this chapter of the General Rescue Manual individuals: should know: Who is responsible for safety at training and rescue operations Demonstrate awareness of: Safe Person Concept or Risk Assessment Management System Safe lifting techniques Practically demonstrate a technique for, in an unknown environment: opening a door climbing stairs searching a darkened room
3.2
Introduction
The task of rescue involves the training of individuals and teams in a variety of skills, some of which, unless properly carried out, may well prove dangerous to the individual rescuer, the team, casualties, or bystanders. In all cases, the safety of rescuers is of prime importance. It is therefore necessary, particularly in the early stages of training and exercises, to pay a great deal of attention to safety measures, and to emphasise the need to strictly observe and enforce these measures. WARNING NOTE: All rescue training and operations must be carried out with due regard to safe work practices, occupational health and safety requirements, and codes of practice and guidelines. Many of the safety precautions to be observed are merely common sense. Unfortunately, they are so basic and simple they are often overlooked.
3.3
Safety is the principal consideration in any rescue activity and it is the responsibility of each rescuer to ensure that safety procedures and Occupational Health and Safety requirements are followed, instructions observed, and operations carried out with a minimum of risk.
8 General Rescue Manual March 2006
There are a number of guidelines, codes of practice, regulations, and procedures that relate to safety, and to operational aspects such as critical incident stress, and risk management. These are constantly being amended and updated it is the responsibility of organisations to keep their procedures and policies in line with the current guidelines, codes of practice and regulations. Reference to the most relevant of these are made throughout this manual, and were correct at the time of printing. Additionally, individual services have procedures for the management of these factors, and for determining individual and organisational responsibilities. All of these factors must be taken into account in the management of rescue activities. This section covers the key points of safety in training and operations as they affect the rescuer, the casualty, or the bystander. Specific safety points will be covered with each rescue technique, as they affect how the particular rescue technique is conducted.
3.4
There are a number of strategies/systems that have been developed to improve the safety of rescue operations. No matter what system is used, the objectives are the same: Identify hazards and risks and take steps to: eliminate isolate or minimise the risk For example: Risk Assessment Management System (RAMS) RAMS is a process where the activities planned to be undertaken are evaluated for their hazard/risk and the steps that can be taken to reduce the risk are identified in a systematic way. Safe Person Concept (SPC) The safe person concept provides a framework for the application of the risk assessment and management process. It is used extensively by the New Zealand Fire Service, and can easily be adapted for the general rescue environment. The SPC uses a 5-step risk assessment and review: 1. Identify potential hazards and risks 2. Likelihood - what is the likelihood of these occurring - certain, very likely, unlikely or rare 3. Consequences - what are the likely consequences - catastrophic, major, moderate or insignificant 4. Level of risk - what is the level of risk? Risk = likelihood x consequence 5. Actions - what actions can be taken to eliminate, isolate or minimise the risk.
This is often presented in a table: eg for General Rescue Training Potential hazard
Rope breaking
Likelihood
(Certain, Very Likely, Unlikely, Rare)
Consequences
(catastrophic, Major, Minimal, Low)
Level of risk
(Extreme, High, Mod, Low)
Actions to be taken
All ropes used to meet standard (M) Only approved knots used (M)
Rare
Major
Moderate
3.5
Basic precautions
Safety Officers should be appointed for any rescue activity. Team Leaders and Safety Officers are responsible for safety at all times, but every team member needs to be aware of their responsibility to raise safety concerns at any time. The orders given by these officers are to be obeyed without question or delay, as they are vital to safety. In general, the Safety Officer should not undertake any other role - their focus is on safety. Equipment must be regularly and carefully checked both before and after use. Ropes can wear and rot, batteries can corrode equipment, and machinery can break down. Faulty equipment can cost lives. Any faulty or suspect equipment must be labeled immediately and removed for repair or replacement (e.g. the rope that a rescuer used, inadvertently damaged, but did not check, may kill someone next time it is used). Personnel at risk by working at heights or depths must be protected by properly established and monitored safety lines and systems. Wherever possible, rescuers should adhere to standard techniques and practices. In any rescue technique, safety limits and margins have been built in for casualty and rescuer protection. These must never be ignored or exceeded. WARNING NOTE: Under no circumstances is smoking permitted in the rescue environment.
3.6
PPE should be issued/made available to each rescuer and is a key in ensuring the safety of rescue personnel.
10
The following is a list of basic PPE for rescue workers - consistent with USAR Awareness Student Manual: Helmet Whistle Full-length clothing Headlamp Torch Goggles Dust masks Gloves First aid kit Knife or shears Boots Hearing protection Knee and elbow pads (advised for USAR Awareness) It is important that each piece of PPE is appropriate for the task being undertaken, and meets the appropriate AS/NZ or international standard. Helmets, in particular, must be worn at all times of risk, whether great or small. All safety equipment must be maintained and replaced in accordance with the manufacturers recommendations.
3.7
Rescue personnel who work in situations where they could fall three meters or more are required, under the Health and Safety in Employment Act 1992 to protect themselves from this potential fall. Consideration should also be given at heights of less than three meters if the result of the fall could lead to an injury. Personnel should wear a harness if there is a potential risk of falling. This harness should meet the requirements of AS/NZS 1891.1: 1985 Safety Belts and Harnesses or equivalent standard, and preferably be of the full body type. As there are many types of harnesses available including sit harnesses, fall arrest harnesses and rescue harnesses. Advice should be sought when deciding on what type of harness you require. Fall protection can be provided under two basic categories. The first of these is fall prevention where the person is restricted from gaining access to the edge where they could fall, i.e. guardrails or a length of line attached to an anchorage and the persons harness which is short enough to stop them reaching the edge. The second method is fall arrest where some device is used to stop a person from hitting a lower surface after a fall i.e. using a shock absorbing lanyard or rope grabbing device.
11
For further information regarding safe work at height the Occupational Safety and Health Services Guidelines for the Prevention of Falls should be consulted.
3.8
Casualty safety
The safety of casualties is very important. Every effort, including the use of protective
equipment, must be made to ensure that casualties come to no further harm once a rescue team arrives at the scene. WARNING NOTE: Horseplay or casual handling of casualties is unsafe and must not be tolerated. For the sake of realism in training it is an advantage to use live casualties in exercises and drills. Teams should bear in mind the added safety required when dealing with heights, water, and contaminated areas, where dummy casualties may be substituted. In most cases, it is only by handling live casualties in training and exercises that rescuers will appreciate the problems they will encounter on operations.
3.9
In rescue operations, many environments may fall within the definition of confined spaces as laid down in Standard ASNZ 2865:2001 (Safe Work in Confined Spaces). A confined space is defined as an enclosed or partially enclosed space which: Is at atmospheric pressure during occupancy Is not intended or designed primarily as a place of work May have restricted means for entry and exit May have an atmosphere which contains potentially harmful levels of contaminant Does not have a safe oxygen level May cause you to be buried. Rescue activities in such environments must be carried out with particular regard to the problems of breathing in dangerous atmospheres.
12
The RAPID programme, has produced a self-paced training module for confined space awareness. RAPID is a join initiative of the Ministry of Civil Defence & Emergency Management (MCDEM) and the Local Government Industry Training Organisation (LGITO).
If you do not know what is behind the door into a room, check the temperature of the door with the back of your hand. If it is hot to touch, do not open the door, as the temperature inside is excessive and/or a fire may be exacerbated.
The procedure for opening a door that opens away from the rescuer, if they are unsure what is on the other side. The rescuer is bent over so that the majority of their weight is over their back leg. This position reduces the likelihood of the rescuer being pulled into the room if the door tries to swing all the way open in the case of strong wind or a difference in air pressure.
The procedure for opening a door that opens towards the rescuer, if they are unsure what may be on the other side.
The rescuers front foot is placed firmly on the floor about 20-30cm away from the door. This prevents the door swinging all the way open in the case of strong wind or a difference in air pressure. It allows the rescuer to close it if the environment appears to be too hazardous to enter.
13
WARNING NOTE: Rescue workers should only enter smoke/dust filled room if required for their evacuation from a building during an emergency situation. If you need to leave a smoke-filled room, crawl on your hands and knees. In this position you are below dangerous heated gases and the bulk of the smoke. You will also be above toxic, heavierthan-air gases that may have been generated by burning plastics and natural materials.
If moving in upright position, shuffle, dont walk. The weight of the body should be kept poised on the rear foot until the advancing foot has tested that it is safe to move forward; do not lift the feet from the ground they should slide forward as this will help detect obstructions and dangers. As you move forward raise your free hand in front of your face, lightly clenched, with the back uppermost, to feel for obstructions. If the back of your hand touches a live electric wire, shock will throw it clear. Your hand will not grasp the wire as it would if it were open.
14
15
16
The sequence of actions for lifting a load is: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Assess need (is there another way?) Assess ability- get help if necessary Clear path Extend before you bend Keep back straight Use legs Keep load close
17
Signals can be given using portable air horns, vehicle horns and whistles. The evacuation signal should be relayed by members of the team to ensure that everyone has heard it. Note: ASTM Rope Rescue and other signal systems exist that conflict with the above.
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4
4.1
On completion of study and/or instruction on this chapter of the General Rescue Manual individuals: Should be able to give a brief description of the: principles that apply when setting up a Site Control stages of rescue (REPEAT) roles and responsibilities in relation to the dead
4.2
Incident management
The first team arriving at an incident site will, at least initially, assume control. This will require the set-up of an Incident Management System. The type of Incident Management System used will depend on many factors including: Size of the incident Number of agencies involved Location of the Incident Control Point (ICP) When a multi-agency response may be expected, then the use of a Coordinated Incident Management System (CIMS) is appropriate. CIMS is a separate course and is recommended for all personnel involved in emergency management. For a situation only requiring one team a Site Control system may be more appropriate using the command structure already established for the team. Whatever system is established, some basic principles apply including: Personnel entry control system Development of regular situation reports Casualty tracking system Recording of key information normally done on incident control whiteboards. A team command system will also be required when the team is tasked to do one component at a larger incident.
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4.3
Following the bombing of the Murrah Federal Building in Okalahoma City, a series of initial action strategies were developed. These need to be considered at the initial stage of the incident response: Constantly gather information Set up communication quickly Limit supervisory staff Establish inventory control system Centralise logistics Determine length of incident
4.4
Site control
Site control will be set up in a suitable area close to the event. The Site Control Area is a vital area to ensure the efficient and effective control and management of an event. Site Control can be set up anywhere where it is safe from the effects and influence of the event and it must be at an appropriate location to work from. Site Control will manage and control the personnel at the event site. It will handle information flow both in and out of the event and take care of all safety issues. It will be responsible for situation reports being sent and received from the Incident Control Point (ICP). Site Control in general is responsible for the efficient running of the event site. It is a good idea to cordon off the Site Control Area, make it visible, well identified and easy to find. Identifying the Site Control Area well saves time for personal entering the event area. In any major event all actions taken at Site Control will be under the guidance of the Incident Controller (IC) who will be working to an Incident Action Plan, all instructions received from the ICP must be acted on. The only variation to this is if there is no ICP established, in that case the first to arrive at the event will be responsible to set up Site Control, secure the site and start on an initial Incident Action Plan.
4.4.1
Safety Officer A Safety Officer must be appointed to take care of safety issues at an event.
20
The Safety Officer will be responsible for all safety issues that may effect team members and casualties at the event site. This will include being responsible for checking on any movement of walls, rubble material etc, and looking out for hazards either present or evolving that could be a danger to personnel or casualties. The Safety Officers responsibility is the safety of all personnel and casualties at the event site and the Safety Officer must not get involved with other tasks such as rescue etc. Note: A Safety Officer may also be required at the Safe Forward Point and/or at operational sites of teams. Information boards Sufficient information boards will be required to display all information such as: Registration Information. Situation Reports. Reconnaissance Information. Map. Incident Action Plan. Registration All personnel entering Site Control must be registered in and out and a permanent record kept. A record must be kept of team members entering the event scene as well. This is particularly important with team members entering into the danger areas of the event. Reconnaissance teams and rescue teams must be accounted for. The information required is: Name of the person entering. The team or organisation they belong to. Time in. The time they registered out of the Site Control Area. Stipulate the importance to register in and out when leaving the site. Some form of registration may also happen at the Safe Forward Point. Situation reports Situation reports are a vital part of site control, they should be sent direct to the ICP on a regular basis. It is imperative that the ICP be kept informed about the status of the event. Requests for resources will be included in the situation reports and the reports should be done at fifteen-minute intervals, sooner if necessary.
21
Only relevant information should be sent and the content of the reports documented. Any medium (radio, runner, phone etc) can be used to deliver reports. Situation reports will include: The number of the report. Information sent. Time sent. Method sent. All incoming information from the recipient e.g. the ICP, must be documented. Reconnaissance Reconnaissance teams will be deployed and information gained will be recorded. This information will be used in the Incident Action Plan and all necessary relevant information relayed back to incident control. Record all relevant information on the map such as hazards encountered, location of found casualties, landmarks and any dangers. Record all relevant information on the information board and keep a permanent record as well. Map A map of the event area must be made. It must be precise and show as much detail as possible and highlight known features, landmarks and any other relevant information. It is also important to show where hazards are on the map and identify any other dangers that could affect both rescue team member and casualties. Show on the map the location of all known identified casualties and their condition, Green, Red, etc. This will save time for future teams going to rescue them. Add landmarks to the map, these will act as reference points for those entering the event. Highlight on the map the location where the Site Control has been set up and send a copy to the Safe Forward Point, this will aid personnel entering the event area to find the Site Control after deployment from the Safe Forward Point (SFP). Incident Action Plan (IAP) The plan to rescue the maximum number of casualties in the shortest possible time. If a team is the first to arrive at an event and the event is not under control from an ICP, the team will need to start to create an Incident Action Plan. The plan is based on information gathered from all sources since the onset of the event. The plan will be taken over by the Incident Controller as soon as an ICP has been established providing the size and nature of the event warrants it. Incident Control will be in operation at all major events.
22
The plan will initially be oral instructions but as the management of the incident becomes organized, written plans will be created and administered by the Incident Management Team (IMT). The plan must be achievable and establish the incident objectives. The Incident Action Plan will: Describe the overall operational objectives and strategies Ensure continuity of control operations Provide for effective use of resources Identify total anticipated resources Safe Forward Point (SFP) The Safe Forward Point is the area where arriving personal and equipment assemble before being deployed into the event proper. It is important to remember that registration in and out is done at both the Safe Forward Point and at Site Control. The Safe Forward Point will be established at a safe location near to the event. It may be inside or just outside the inner cordon. The primary function of the Safe Forward Point is a place where teams and resources will assemble safely at an event. Security will be undertaken at the Safe Forward Point and a safety officer must be appointed to take responsibility for safety issues at the Safe Forward Point. Factors to consider when establishing the site are. Access to the event for all services. Safety in the area selected. (Is it safe from all hazards)? Is it safe from the factors causing the event? Protection from the elements. Large enough to cater for manpower, equipment and casualties. Security Security personnel should be deployed to ensure that only authorised persons enter the Safe Forward Point and Inner Cordon. Only personnel wearing and equipped with all personal safety gear may enter the inner cordon. It is important to establish security as soon as possible, utilize some of the first personnel to arrive for this task. Security is important to deter unwanted people from the site who could hinder or impede the rescue process.
23
Casualty handling and triage An area will need to be set up to manage and treat the casualties being brought out of the event. Although it is not the responsibility of the Safe Forward Point it is often located near by. Triage, treatment and care of the casualties is necessary before and until removal by the professional services. A register will be required for all the casualties processed. The information required would be: Name of the casualties. Condition and nature of injuries, Red, Yellow, Green, Black. Treatment and care given. Time received. Time the casualties left the casualty handling area. Documentation for all casualties treated will be necessary.
4.4.2
Staging area: An area where resources will be accumulated, this should be well away from the administration and casualty handling area. Such things as trailers, rescue equipment, vehicles etc will be located there. Welfare area: An area where the welfare of all the personnel involved with the event can be catered for. Food, water, shelter and a rest area will need to be provided. A welfare area may have been established outside the event area, however if this has not been done a welfare area must be established to cater for all personnel and casualties being effected by the event. Weather:Weather conditions will influence an event. Weather reports must be obtained and weather conditions considered. Cold and wet weather will have a detrimental effect on all personnel and casualties. Time of day:Depending on the time of day an event takes place. Rescue Personnel arriving at an event could require specific resources such as lighting and water etc.
24
Plan ahead to make sure that all the required resources are requested and are in place well before it is too late.
4.4.3
1.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
4.5
Rescue by stages
No set of rules can be devised to give leaders specific guidance on how to tackle every job, but by proceeding in stages in accordance with a regular plan they are less liable to overlook important points and more likely to appreciate, and organise, appropriate action.
R.E.P.E.A.T.
This method of Rescue by Stages is consistent with the International Search And Rescue Advisory Group (INSARAG) rescue response guidelines.
25
R E P E A T
Reconnaissance & Survey Elimination of Utilities Primary Surface Search & Rescue Exploration of all Voids & Spaces Access by Selected Debris Removal Terminate by General Debris Control
REPEAT is explained in more detail in the USAR Awareness Manual, but it is appropriate to highlight the key content of this document: 1. Reconnaissance & survey This is the initial activity undertaken upon arrival at a scene. It includes the resources available to the Team, including personnel, equipment, local expertise, level of training, size and complexity of task, etc. It also takes into account external factors including the weather conditions, external and subsequent threats, structure of building/s, surface conditions, etc. Information gained from this activity should be used to compile a master rescue plan of the area or site, where victims, resources, hazards, access, egress, etc. are shown. Reconnaissance is an ongoing activity, and is not completed until the operation is finished. Reconnaissance is: C Continuous A Accurate R Rapid, and T Thorough. It is essential that every member of a rescue team be trained in reconnaissance. In many instances the Team Leader will be responsible for a number of tasks, and personnel deployed must be capable of conducting reconnaissance and of reporting observations. All sources should be exploited to obtain information regarding casualties, damage, and likely hazards. The acronym TCHARD (or D-CHART) has been used to describe the reconnaissance summary.
26
T C H A R D
2. Elimination of utilities All utilities must be evaluated and controlled for the safety of all those involved. It does not involve any treatment to, or rescue of, victims, as the main need is for information at this stage. (It is expected that some rescue activities will be taking place simultaneously.) 3. Primary surface search & rescue Surface and lightly trapped victims should be removed as quickly and safely, as possible. Extreme care must be taken during this phase to ensure that rescuers do not become victims. It is at this stage that many of the techniques in Chapters 9,10 and 11 of this manual will be put to use. Where a number of structures have to be searched, it is vital to adopt a disciplined Priority Structure Assessment (PSA). The hazard marking system, and the victim marking system must be applied at this stage. 4. Exploration of all voids and spaces All voids and accessible spaces created as a result of the event must be explored for live victims. Audible call systems can be used during this phase, e.g. line and hail search technique (as described in Urban Search And Rescue (USAR) Category 1, Awareness). WARNING NOTE: Only suitably trained dog units, or specially trained rescue personnel should be used in void and space searches.
5. Access by selected debris removal The use of special tools and/or techniques may be necessary after locating a victim. It may be necessary to remove only certain obstructions to gain access to the victim. Information gained from the reconnaissance can be helpful during this phase.
27
Local knowledge and/or expertise may assist in the identification of possible victim location, and also areas where structural safety is a concern. This knowledge may come from building wardens, survivors, engineers, etc. Areas that have been identified by search dogs, or the use of electronic search equipment will be given priority at this stage. It would be unusual for heavy equipment to be used during this phase. An exception would be when information indicates the possibility of other victims located where a large amount of debris is obstructing operations. The decision to use heavy equipment during this phase must be given serious consideration, especially when there is a possibility that live victims are still in the debris.
6. Termination by general debris removal This is usually conducted after all known victims have been recovered and accounted for.
4.6
Continuing action
Having made decisions and deployed personnel, Team Leaders must ensure reconnaissance is continued with a view to allocating priorities for the further deployment of resources. Rescuers deployed on a particular building, damaged by blast or natural causes, should make careful observation of how that building has collapsed. The art of rescue lies in being able to identify and exploit, all debris formations such as voids etc, which can be used to facilitate access to casualties once their whereabouts have been fixed by firm information or inference. All rescuers should attempt to locate and identify the parts of the building, especially those parts where reconnaissance indicates casualties are likely to be. This will provide a rough idea of where casualties might be found in relation to the various parts of the damaged structure. At times such as this, a leader will need to call upon all accumulated experience and training and combine them with effective decision-making.
4.7
Precautions in operations
In the interest of safety to both trapped victims and rescuers, a thorough appreciation must be made before any rescue operation is commenced. The main safety considerations are as follows: Do not move any debris in contact with the collapse without assessing its importance to the stability of the site. Always stabilise a collapse with shoring before entering a void.
28
Entry and rescue procedures for confined spaces must comply with the provisions of ASNZ 2865:2001. Always appreciate the forces and their possible direction of movement in all types of collapse. Pack and support vertically, horizontally, and laterally whenever and wherever possible. In all materials used, consider their strength in relation to the loads to which they will be subjected. Any disaster will invariably result in ruptured electrical water, gas, and sewer lines and, although these will be primarily the responsibility of the public utility, it is essential that rescue personnel be trained to deal with such problems in the initial stages.
4.8
Crush injuries
It should be remembered that casualties may be found who have suffered severe crush injuries. These people will be suffering from shock and their breathing passages may be clogged by the dust contained in the debris. Rescuers must take immediate steps to provide a clear airway for such casualties and treat for shock. People trapped in debris and suffering from crush injuries need urgent, expert medical attention. These victims should be treated, if possible, before release from entrapment.
4.9
Debris clearance
Two methods by which people trapped under a pile of debris can be extracted are: By clearance of debris, ie: by removing the debris piece by piece until the casualties are uncovered and freed. By the construction of tunnels and linking of voids (complying with confined space rules) If anyone survives at all, inside or under a large pile of debris after a building has collapsed, it is because some heavy timber, steel or concrete (a floor, or other portion of the structure) has fallen or remained fixed, in such a way as to protect this person from the main impact and weight of the debris. Furniture can sometimes protect a casualty. Unless something of this kind has happened, it is unlikely that the casualty will survive. This protection may be of a very unstable nature, and, unless great care is exercised, it may collapse. The chances of an internal collapse occurring can be minimised only by disturbing the debris as little as possible during rescue operations, and by making sure that, as one portion of the debris is removed, the remainder is not dislodged and allowed to slide or fall.
29
Careful observance of these principles reduces the risk of further injury to trapped people, resulting in greater speed in the rescue operation. The ideal is speed with safety.
30
Each factor should be thoroughly examined and care should be taken not to introduce irrelevant facts into the examination.
31
Step Four Determine courses open All possible courses that will attain the aim and that are practical must be considered in the Courses Open segment. Only facts dealt with in the Factors should be considered and no new material should be introduced at this stage. Step Five Decide on best course At this stage, a choice must be made from one of the possible solutions developed by the appreciation process. If more than one workable solution is produced and the best course is not obvious, the following criteria should be applied to each: Risk Which solution carries the least risk factor in its execution, or the consequence of failure? Simplicity Which is the simplest course? Time If urgency is a factor, which course can be completed in the shortest time? Economy In terms of resources, which solution imposes the least demand? Step Six Plan The plan will result from the choice of the best course open. That is, it will be the best solution to the problem with the most advantages and the least disadvantages. The plan must be simple, and it must relate directly to the aim. When completed, the plan should be checked against the following test questions: Is the reasoning sound? Is it set out in a logical order? Is everything relevant to the problem? Has anything relevant been left out? Is it free of uncertainties or ambiguities? Is it accurate (positions, timings and so on)? Has the aim been kept in mind throughout? Can the plan achieve the aim?
32
A site control system will then be used to gather information on the teams actions, hazards, and other information found eg number of missing people. For general rescue teams, once primary surface search and rescue is completed then they will summarise the teams actions, any additional hazards found, and some indication of people still unaccounted for, and place this information on the search marking.
G or NG Number of live removed Name of Team Time/Date of Start Time/Date of Finish Number of dead removed
Once the team has completed its task and is leaving the site a circle is place around the search marking. Victim Markings are used primarily in the reconnaissance phase to mark potential and confirmed victim locations whenever the victim is not being immediately removed. They are updated as victims are removed, and can also be used to identify whether the victims are alive or deceased eg:
V
Potential Victim location
V
Confirmed victim location
V
Only dead victims
V
Victims removed
Search and Victim Marking is covered more thoroughly in the USAR Awareness Student Manual.
33
34
Although survivors may be shocked when seeing their relative or friend covered, indicating death, DO cover a severely mutilated body. Otherwise, treat a body as you would a low priority casualty.
35
Section 5: Ropes
5
5.1
Ropes
Objectives
On completion of study and/or instruction on this chapter of the General Rescue Manual individuals: Should be able to describe: The construction and characteristics of kernmantle rescue rope The care and maintenance of rescue rope The relationship between breaking strain and safe working load
5.2
Introduction
Rope is one of the most important tools of the rescue team. Rescuers will use a range of rope types for specific applications. All types have their advantages and disadvantages, but provided the rescuer has thorough knowledge of the characteristics and capabilities of each type, all will give valuable service if they are appropriately cared for and maintained. New Zealand does not have a specific rope standard. All ropes used for rescue should meet an existing international standard, appropriate for the purpose for which they are being used. The existing rope standards include: AS 4142 Australian Standard for Fibre Rope ASTM F1740 Standard Guide for Inspection of Nylon, Polyester, or Nylon/Polyester Blend Kernmantle Rope NFPA1983:2001 National (US) Fire Protection Association Standard for Rescue Lines EN1891 Personal protective equipment for the prevention of falls from a height. Low stretch kernmantel ropes
5.3
Types of rope
The ropes in common use with rescue teams are: Synthetic fibre rope Climbing tape Flexible steel wire rope (SWR). WARNING NOTE: Natural fibre ropes/lines should not be used for any purpose in the rescue environment.
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Section 5: Ropes
5.4
Synthetic ropes
Construction The manufacture of synthetic fibre rope commences with a chemical process that produces the raw material, such as Nylon or Terylene. The material is then melted and extruded through holes in a metal disc to produce long and fine filaments. The filaments are then stretched and cooled, with the amount of stretch determining some subsequent rope properties. In basic terms, higher stretching during filament manufacture will result in a rope with higher tensile strength and lower stretch in use. These filaments are then bunched to form multi-filament yarns. Synthetic rope should be of continuous filament or multi-filament construction, with each filament being a continuous length throughout the rope. It is generally easier to detect a continuous filament rope, as it will be smooth and shiny in appearance, without the hairy appearance of stable or short filament ropes. The multi-filament yarns are twisted to form primary strands and twisted together again to make plied strands. The plied strands are then laid together and encased in a plaited sheath. Ropes of multi-filament kernmantle construction are manufactured from Polyamide fibre with a limited stretch factor and high static strength making them ideal for rescue purposes. Note: Natural fibre lines are normally of Hawser Laid construction and are a pale brown/cream color. On closer inspection you will see the small natural fibres that are twisted together- not the continuous thread of synthetic line. Rescuers need to know what they look like so they can be sure to avoid them.
5.5
Kernmantle Construction
Primary strands
Individual filament
The term kernmantle comes from a German word Kern meaning core, and mantel meaning sheath. The kernmantle style of construction therefore consists of a kern or core of filaments designed to sustain the greater part of the load. This core is covered by a woven or braided sheath which supports a lesser portion of the load, but which provides protection for the core against abrasion, dirt, and sunlight (ultra-violet light). This construction style provides a rope that is strong and resistant to damage, yet is light and easy to handle. These ropes also tend to be highly resistant to spin or twist.
37
Section 5: Ropes
5.6
Elongation A static rope is one designed with low elongation characteristics. These ropes normally elongate around 3% under one persons body weight and not more than 10% to 20% at ultimate breaking point. Elasticity The stretch of a static rope is normally attributable to the elasticity of the rope filaments. Static ropes have poor shock absorbing qualities and any shock loading subjects the rescuers body, the equipment in the system and the anchor system, to high impact forces. Strength vs handling Static ropes tend to have thicker sheaths for greater core protection. The increased sheath contributes more to the overall rope strength, but results in a stiffer rope with poorer rope handling characteristics. ADVANTAGES of static ropes are: Low stretch Resistance to abrasion High tensile strength DISADVANTAGES of static ropes are: Poor capacity for shock absorption Stiffer handling and knotting. WARNING NOTE: All ropes used in a rescue system must have identical characteristics to avoid unequal stretch and load reactions.
5.7
There are a wide range of kernmantle ropes available on the market with variations in manufacturer, colour, sheath characteristics. The criteria for synthetic fibre rescue ropes are laid down in Australian Standard AS4142.3-1993, (Fibre ropes- Part 3 Man-made fibre rope for static life rescue lines): Minimum diameter 11mm Static kernmantle construction Minimum rated strength 3000kg 100% Polyamide (Nylon) Spin resistant
38
Section 5: Ropes
Abrasion resistant Good handling and knotting properties Maximum 3% elongation at 80kg load Maximum 10% elongation at 375kg load Maximum 20% elongation at 3000kg load Contrasting core and sheath colours Coded with an identification tape in the core. NB: this required characteristic limits the number of ropes considered appropriate, as this is not generally required internationally. For this reason a number of organisations are complying with alternative international standards. Rope with a very low (preferably 0%) sheath slippage is also desirable.
5.8
Breaking force
The averaged ultimate breaking point of rope. Expressed in kilograms (kg) or in kiloNewtons (kN) following rigorous testing. Also referred to as Breaking Strain, Mean Breaking Strain (MBS) or Mean Breaking Load (MBL).
5.9
The maximum working load that should be applied to a rope. This is consistent with the factor of safety recommended for the conditions under which the rope is to be used (the breaking force divided by 10). E.g. Breaking Force of 3000kg = safe working load of 300kg
39
Section 5: Ropes
Ropes that have been hauled through mud, sand or grit should always be cleaned after the work has been completed. This is best managed by washing the rope in fresh, running water and following any manufacturers recommendations. Do not dry ropes in front of a fire or other heat source. Sread the rope on a ladder, laid horizontally off the ground in a cool, shady area to enable the air to circulate freely around the rope. Store ropes under cover, off the floor, preferably in racks, in a place free from extremes of temperature and out of contact with any contaminating materials. Damaged or defective ropes must be appropriately labelled and removed from service immediately. Details must then be entered on the rope history record card. Ropes should not be exposed to direct sunlight for prolonged periods as the fibres will degrade due to ultra-violet radiation. If a rope has to be stored in an exposed location, cover it with a tarpaulin or some other form of protection. Ensure no contact is made with contaminants such as grease, oil, petrol, hydraulic fluid, acids, alkalis, and chemicals.
5.12 Inspection
All ropes should be inspected before, during and after use. The inspection should be carried out by visually examining the rope and by thoroughly feeling the rope. Visual examination should check for the following signs: Discolouration of the filaments - Any changes in the original colour of the rope filaments could indicate contamination by chemicals.
40 General Rescue Manual March 2006
Section 5: Ropes
Melting - Any smooth areas could indicate the rope has been damaged by heat fusion. White filaments - Where the sheath has been damaged, the white core filaments may protrude. Size uniformity - The rope may be damaged by mechanical impacts or over stressing. This may be evidenced by an obvious change in the shape and diameter of the rope. Abrasion - Excessive signs of abrasion may indicate the breaking of a sheath bundle and localised weakness. Stiffness - Any inconsistency in the texture of a rope and its stiffness. A bight of rope should have uniform radius around the bend, and inconsistencies may be soft spots that indicate core damage. Thoroughly feeling the rope should check for these additional signs: Stiffened filaments - This indicates possible overloading or contamination. Changes in diameter - Depressed irregularities in the rope diameter (soft spots) may indicate core damage, while increases in the apparent diameter may be due to severe twisting of the core, or the protrusion of core filaments through the sheath. Contamination - Presence of dirt or other materials. WARNING NOTE: Load testing of ropes is not recommended as a safe practice.
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Section 5: Ropes
Sheath protection - Where the white core filaments are visible through a hole in the sheath, or where the core protrudes through the sheath as a white filament puff. Whilst some services may have a policy on the life or limit of use of a rope, the bottom line with regard to rope retirement must be: ! IF IN DOUBT, THROW IT OUT Note: Further information on rope inspection and service life can be located in ASTM F1740-96 Standard Guide for Inspection of Nylon, Polyester, or Nylon/Polyester Blend Kernmantle Rope.
5.14 Terminology
For the purpose of this manual, the following terms are used in reference to rope and rope management. Other terms may be used in specific organisations. Anchoring: Fastening a rope to some suitably secure object. Belaying: Controlling a safety rope attached to personnel or equipment. Bight: A simple bend in which the rope does not cross itself. Hauling: The act of pulling on a rope. Half-Hitch: The closed loop on a rope; a simple fastening of a rope around some object by winding and crossing one turn so that one section of the rope bites on the other without actually knotting the rope. Kernmantle: A style of construction of synthetic fibre rope, consisting of a core (kern) and a sheath (mantle). Loop: A simple bend in which the rope crosses itself. Mousing: Tying a piece of cord or wire across the jaws of a hook to prevent a rope or sling from jumping out of the hook. Parcelling / Edge protection: Wrapping a section of the rope to prevent chafing against some object. Paying out / Easing: Reducing the tension on a rope. Reeving: Threading a rope through pulley blocks. Round turn: One complete turn of a rope around a spar or another rope.
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Section 5: Ropes
Running end: The free or working end of a rope. Standing part: The part of the rope which is taking the load or which is static. Tail: The short length of rope or tape (approx 100-150mm) that extends past the completed knot.
Bight
Loop
Rope Pack
Standing Part
43
Section 5: Ropes
Chaining Chaining involves creating a series of loose loops in multiple strands of rope to form a chain which can then be hung up or stored. The diagram to the left shows the process of forming a multiple strand chain.
5.16 Identification
A system of marking each end of a rope for identification of length, and with a reference number to the rope history card, is recommended. Colour coding can be used to quickly identify ropes, and should be located at each end of the rope. The suggested colour coding is: GREEN - OK to use for all activities. RED - not suitable for live work. Discard damaged rope immediately. It is important you know the colour coding that your team uses as this may differ from team to team. If faults are found during any rope inspection, immediate steps must be taken to rectify the problem(s) in accordance with Standard - AS4142.3 (or EN1891).
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Section 5: Ropes
IMPORTANT: Inspect ropes for damage or excessive wear each time it is deployed and again after each use. Retire all suspect ropes immediately.
Date Used
Location Used
Type of Use
Date Cked
Inspector
Comments
5.19 Construction
There are two broad design categories of tape - flat and tubular. Both types are actually flat in appearance. However, if tubular tape is viewed in cross section, it forms a hollow tube. Standard tubular tape is normally the strongest and most flexible form, and is therefore recommended for vertical rescue. Tubular tape is preferred for rescue as it is less prone to damage on an edge or rough area than is flat tape.
45
Section 5: Ropes
Tape is woven in many different ways and the characteristics that can be affected by the style of construction are: strength, elongation, abrasion resistance and ultra-violet resistance. All of these factors are affected by the fibre used and the weave tension in particular. While a tape with a very tight weave will be strong, knot retention and suppleness will be poor. Obviously a good rescue tape is a compromise of factors.
5.20 Size
Tape is sized by a flat width, with 25mm and 50mm being the most commonly used sizes. Smaller tape sizes are available, often as sewn slings. If they are used in General Rescue they must be certified or rated by the manufacturer.
5.21 Abrasion
Under certain circumstances, tape is liable to abrade or wear more rapidly than rope and it has no sheath for extra protection. Additional attention must be paid to wear or friction areas and tapes must be discarded when doubt exists as to its safety.
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Section 5: Ropes
5.25 Safety
The following safety points relate to tape: When slings are carried on operations, they should preferably be carried on the harness, or diagonally around the neck and under one arm. (Many rescuers carry spare slings around their necks, and it must be recognised that this is a potentially lethal practice; should the rescuer fall, the loose slings can snag, resulting in serious or fatal injury.) Knots must be regularly checked for signs of overstrain or loosening, and properly retied, or cut, heat sealed then retied, where necessary, with minimum tails of 100mm. All tape must be regularly and carefully inspected for signs of damage or abrasion, and where damage is suspected, or serious abrasion has occurred, the tape must be withdrawn from service. Where a sling has been subjected to a severe loading, it may be seriously damaged but the damage may not be obvious. ALL SUCH SLINGS MUST BE DESTROYED.
47
Section 5: Ropes
The safe working loads for these ropes can be calculated by dividing the MBL by a safety factor of 10 which is considered to be an appropriate factor for rescue purposes. Mean Breaking Load (kg) = SWL 10
5.28 Construction
Steel wire rope consists of a number of strands (normally six) with a fibre core. Each strand consists of a number of steel wires the most common form of construction being 6/19, indicating six strands, each of nineteen steel wires and with a fibre core. During manufacture, wires and strands are coated with lubricant to prevent corrosion and friction in the rope, or they are galvanised.
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Section 5: Ropes
left. To save time and trouble, simply bend the wire backwards and forwards with the fingers until it breaks. Look for kinks. When a rope has been kinked, the kink may pull, but when the rope is stressed, and although it may appear reasonably sound, the structure of the rope has been distorted and damaged. The length affected by the kinking may only be small, but this becomes the weakest part of the rope. The presence of a kink is best detected when the rope is lying slack on the ground. Rope of any sort found defective should be labelled and placed apart from good ropes until they can be examined by a competent person.
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6
6.1
Knots
Objectives
On completion of study and/or instruction on this chapter of the General Rescue Manual individuals: Should be able to tie unaided: Single, Double, Rethreaded and Joining Figure 8 Round turn and 2 ! hitches Alpine butterfly Friction hitch Clove Hitch
6.2
Introduction
Rescue personnel should be familiar with the following knots and by constant practice learn how to make and adapt them with speed and proficiency. Knots must always be tied tightly, dressed down, and inspected. As a good rule of thumb, any knot that does not look neat and correct is almost certainly incorrectly tied.
6.3
Stopper knots
Stopper knots are not required if adequate tails are left on knots (more than 150mm) and the knot is dressed (tightened to the correct position as it would when taking a load). Individual teams may have Standard Operating Procedures that require the tying of stopper knots.
6.4
Figure 8 knots
The figure of 8 knots are the preferred knots for forming end loops in synthetic kernmantel ropes, and are highly suited for this purpose in all ropes. They are used to form a non-slip loop that is easy to undo, with a low percentage reduction of the safe working load of the rope.
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6.5
This knot can be used in the same manner as the thumb knot, to prevent a rope end running through a pulley, or fraying, or to secure a knot tied in a synthetic rope. In general, it is more useful than the thumb knot as it is easier to untie. To tie the knot, hold the rope away from you, take the standing part in one hand, palm upward, and the running end in the other hand. Pass the running end over the top of the standing part making a loop, then carry on with the running end down and then up around the standing part, then down through the first loop which you have formed. Draw the running end tight and the knot will be a figure 8.
6.6
The figure 8 on a bight knot is used to form a non-slip loop, which can be placed over a spike, bar, etc. To tie a figure 8 on a bight: Double sufficient rope to allow the knot to be tied. Hold the doubled rope away from you, take the doubled standing part in one hand, palm upwards, and the doubled running end in the other hand. Pass the doubled running end over the top of the doubled standing part making a loop, then carry on with the doubled running end down and then up around the doubled standing part, then down through the first doubled rope loop which you have formed. Draw the doubled running end tight.
6.7
Rethreaded figure 8
The rethreaded figure 8 knot is used to form a non-slip loop, which must be tied around a bar, through a stretcher, hand-hold, etc. Tie a single figure 8 knot as described previously, leaving about 1 metre as the running end.
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Take the running end and pass it around the object, then follow exactly the path back through the knot that the running end took when forming the original Figure 8. Dress and tighten to form the rethreaded figure 8.
6.8
The figure 8 joining knot is the preferred knot for joining synthetic kernmantel ropes of the same diameter. Tie a single figure 8 knot as described previously. Take the running end of the second rope and follow exactly the path back through the first knot (as in the rethreaded figure 8). Dress and tighten both ropes to form the figure 8 joining knot.
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6.9
This is an exceptionally strong knot to form 2 loops at the end of a rope. It allows you to independently adjust the loops, so that each loop can be used as an anchor point. To tie, start with a basic figure 8 on a bight, except do not pass the bight through the final loop. Form a new bight in that end, and place this through the final loop. Place the original bight (single rope loop) over the double and pull it down to the base of the knot. To check that it has been tied correctly, there should be three loops of rope around the base of the knot and two separate bights of rope coming out the end of the knot.
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Dress and pull tight. Whilst the Double Fishermans knot can be very difficult to untie once it has been loaded, its great strength is a positive advantage in rescue operations. Take care when joining ropes of same colour that there is a knot in each running end - otherwise they will be able to pull through.
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To tie the clove hitch: Wrap the running end of a rope around a pole, or other surface. Come around and cross the line back over itself Take it around again and place the running end through the loop formed by the cross.
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7
7.1
Ladders
Objectives
By the end of studying and undertaking training on this chapter of the General Rescue Manual individuals should be able to, with other similarly trained people: Check a ladder Erect a ladder (three rescuer) Secure the ladder, both top and bottom Climb the ladder Lower the ladder
7.2
Introduction
Ladders are readily available at most rescue sites and during a disaster may be used for improvised rescue techniques. It must be remembered however, that ladders have been constructed to be used in a specified load bearing position and should normally be used in accordance with AN/NZS Standards and the Manufacturers specifications. Some guidelines for the use of ladders are contained in the OSH Publication Guidelines for the Prevention of Falls.
7.3
Construction
Ladders come in a variety of styles, lengths and materials. Aluminium, timber and fibreglass are the three most commonly in use.
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7.4
Terminology
Head
Latching device/Pawl Metal hooks fitted to extension ladders to lock the ladders in extended form. Rungs/Rounds Cross members used in climbing a ladder. Hauling rope Pulling line for raising extension ladders. Foot/Heal The bottom or ground end of a ladder. Single ladder A one-piece ladder. Extension ladder A ladder built in sections, one or more of which can "#!#$%#&'#'(!
Pulley Guide
Hauling Rope
Rung (Round)
Foot (Heal)
58 General Rescue Manual March 2006
7.5
Extension ladders
Extension ladders are commonly in two sections, with the upper section sliding on and between the stiles of the lower section. Latching devices are fitted to the lower end of the upper section and operate on a movable shaft. Hauling ropes are taken through a sheave fixed near the top of the lower section, brought down and fastened to hooks or cleats at the bottom of the upper section. One cleat is attached to the latching device thus providing an endless line by means of which the top section can be extended or lowered and the latching devices, which are mounted on the upper section, can be engaged or released. To easily distinguish them in the dark, the stiles of the top section can have a white line to indicate the limit of safety when extended for use. Timber ladders are strengthened on the underside of the stiles by galvanised wire or fibreglass which is stretched tautly in the groove along the edge of the strings being secured top and bottom. Timber ladders are further strengthened by cross ties from stile to stile at intervals. Ladders should not be painted as paint could hide defects. A small section, at each end, may be painted for identification purposes. Timber ladders may be treated with linseed oil. Defective ladders must be withdrawn from service and labelled: Dangerous - Do not use and either repaired or destroyed as soon as possible. WARNING NOTE: A hazard exists when using ladders in the vicinity of electrical wires as all ladders have the potential to conduct electricity from wires or live roofs or structures. Rescuers must ensure overhead clearance when erecting a ladder.
7.6
Step ladders
Stepladders in common use are usually constructed of aluminium or wood, while others are of an aluminium/fibreglass composite construction. Some stepladders have flat steps on one side, and the other leg of the stepladder may be extended using round rungs to give a three to four metre single ladder. When using stepladders both as a step, or as a single ladder, care must be taken to ensure that all locks on the ladder are in place.
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7.7
Inspection of ladders
Every ladder should be visually inspected before each use. The main points for this inspection are: That there are no cracks in any part of the ladder No evidence of rungs being loose (can be tested for twisting) where they are attached to the strings All bolts are secure Rungs should be checked for wear, particularly where the pawl crosses the rounds The rubber feet should be checked to see that there is no deterioration The hauling rope and pulley should be checked for defects that would affect use. WARNING NOTE: Aluminum ladders conduct electricity, and are liable to excessive twisting.
7.8
Maintenance of ladders
Extension ladders must be regularly and carefully checked for damage or defects, in accordance with the relevant Standards. Particular attention must be paid to those ladders that are stored on vehicle roof racks and thereby exposed to the weather regularly. The ladder should be visually inspected for cracks in the timber, the security of the rungs and reinforcing wires, and for general appearance. Pulleys, latching devices and extension guides should be checked for lubrication and security, and the latching device pivot points and pulleys lubricated as necessary. Hauling ropes should be checked and replaced as necessary. Ladders should never be painted as the paint can cover quite serious cracks and defects. Better that timber ladders be left in a natural condition, and regularly oiled with linseed oil, which will keep the ladder flexible, and prevent water damage or rot.
7.9
A single rescuer can quite easily and safely raise a short ladder, by placing the ladder foot against the base of the wall or some other stationary object, and under-running the ladder by walking in and pushing forward and upwards on alternate rungs.
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The ladder is then laid back by the first person, who walks backward until the top of the ladder comes to rest where required - against sill, wall etc. Please note: Communication within the ladder team is very important. While the actual calls may vary between agencies, what is important is that each member of the ladder team knows what is happening and what their job is.
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7.13 Overlaps
Normal two part extension ladders must be extended with sufficient overlap for safety. For small ladders (up to 3 metres not extended) an overlap of at least three (3) rungs is recommended. A five (5) rung overlap is recommended for large ladders. Wherever possible, ladders should be erected so that the head of the ladder projects or overlaps the window, roof or other landing point by at least one metre (4-5 rungs).
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7.19 Rules of 3
Some of the key features of working with ladders can be summarised as the: 3 rules of 3 1. 3 people to raise/lower ladder 2. 3 rungs over/above entry/access point 3. 3 points of contact when climbing up and down
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8
8.1
Managing casualties
Objectives
On completion of study and/or instruction on this chapter of the General Rescue Manual individuals should be able to: Describe the START triage system Describe 4 items that should be included on a casualty label
8.2
Introduction
Using General Rescue techniques contributes to the overall goal of rescuing the maximum number of people in the minimum amount of time. To achieve this rescuers need methods of prioritising casualties for ongoing treatment and rescue. The initial assessment and prioritisation will be done in the reconnaissance phase, but will be ongoing, as conditions, both of the casualties and the environment, will often change throughout the rescue process. In this section we describe one method that has been developed to sort, or triage, a large number of casualties in a short period of time and with little medical knowledge. The method explained below is known as START. Please note that other groups/emergency services may use other, often more complex, methods of triaging based on their advanced medical skills and knowledge. Co-ordination and liaison between groups will be needed, if multiple agencies are working on a site.
8.3
START
START was developed in California in the early 1980s by Hoag Hospital and Newport Beach Fire Department. S T A R T Simple Triage And Rapid Treatment
Those with minor injuries are immediately tagged GREEN - often referred to as walking wounded. START allocates all other casualties a triage category based on assessment.
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Red: Immediate - Life-threatening but treatable injuries requiring rapid medical attention. Yellow: Serious -Not immediately life threatening. Black: Recognised futility - Dead or still with life signs but injuries are incompatible with survival in existing conditions. The triage category is determined by quickly assessing (approx 30 seconds) the casualtys RPM: R - Respiration P - Perfusion- sufficiency of blood flow M - Mental State The following flow chart outlines the process of determining the category for each casualty.
RED
8.4
Labelling
Whatever triage system is used, it is important that all casualties located during a rescue operation are labeled with a casualty tag. There is no nationally recognised casualty tag and many regions have developed their own casualty tags. Whatever tag is used the basic information that should be included is: Identifier for each casualty - their name and/or an assigned number. The location they were found The identification of the person who found them
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The triage outcome undertaken at the time (colour assigned) Any treatment given
8.5
The Code of Health and Disability Services Consumers' Rights became law on 1 July 1996 as a regulation under the Health and Disability Commissioner Act. It is obviously intended for everyday service provision as opposed to during an emergency, however during rescue activities where care is being provided to a individual the Code should be considered. The Code is very wide and extends to any person or organisation providing, or holding themselves out as providing, a health service to the public, or a section of the public, whether that service is paid for or not. The obligation under the Code is to take "reasonable actions in the circumstances to give effect to the rights, and comply with the duties. There are 10 rights in the Code: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. The right to be treated with respect The right to freedom from discrimination, coercion, harassment, and exploitation The right to dignity and independence The right to services of an appropriate standard The right to effective communication The right to be fully informed The right to make an informed choice and give informed consent The right to support Rights in respect of teaching or research The right to complain
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Section 9: Stretchers
9
9.1
Stretchers
Objectives
On completion of study and/or instruction on this chapter of the General Rescue Manual individuals should be able to: Describe the characteristics of the four main types of stretcher used, And with other similarly trained people: Load a person into a stretcher using four rescuer, blanket and clothing lifts blanket and lash people into the folding, board and basket stretchers
9.2
Introduction
The four categories of stretchers in most common use are: Folding or pole stretcher - commonly referred to as NATO or Mk II stretchers Board rescue stretchers Basket stretcher - often referred to by brand names of Stokes Litter, or FernoWashington Wrap-around stretchers
9.3
The folding stretcher must be set up as follows before a casualty can be transferred to it: Unfasten the straps that hold the stretcher closed. Spread open the stretcher and lock the spreaders in place by pushing on each bar with your foot, from the side to avoid standing on the bed, until it locks into place. Do not use your hands as they can be pinched by the hinges.
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Section 9: Stretchers
Where it is possible that the centre hinge of the spreader bar may be snagged, causing the hinge to unlock and collapse the stretcher, a securing rope should be used. A short length of rope can be tied from one stretcher handle to the centre hinge and then to the other stretcher handle in V pattern.
9.4
Many organisations have Board rescue stretchers available. This type of stretcher has a number of advantages for the rescue environment: Providing protection for the patient from underneath. A number of handholds. Relatively inexpensive. This stretcher is suitable for patient transport and some rescue techniques. A footplate is usually used to prevent the patient sliding downwards if the stretcher is tilted towards the vertical position.
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Section 9: Stretchers
WARNING NOTE: A rope lashing system should be used at all times other than when the stretcher is moved over smooth and flat ground. Care must be taken if this stretcher is used for lowering as the high centre of gravity can cause the stretcher to invert, particularly when using the twopoint suspension method.
9.5
Basket stretchers
There are two types of basket stretcher commonly in use. The older type has a strong tubular aluminium frame covered with chicken wire, whereas the newer has a formed plastic, fibreglass, or aluminium basket attached to a tubular aluminium frame. The newer designs have an advantage in that they are less likely to be snagged or penetrated than the wire model. Other than the very old wire designs, these stretchers can accommodate a scoop style stretcher, or spinal board, thus making the transfer of a spinal casualty easier.
Basket stretchers provide good protection for casualties and are ideally suited to a range of rescue techniques. The main drawback is the relative expense in comparison to other types of stretchers.
9.6
Wrap-around stretchers
Wrap-around style stretchers such as the Sked and the Fallright Evacuation Splint, whilst quite different in design and construction, share the same critical feature in that
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Section 9: Stretchers
they conform very closely to the casualtys body, thus adding very little width or bulk for confined space operations. Each of the wrap-around style stretchers has its own advantages and disadvantages that must be weighed up prior to use. Each has its own individual casualty securing system. Manufacturers recommendations about methods of attaching lowering and guide ropes must be followed.
9.7
Before a casualty is placed on a stretcher, it should be covered with a blanket. This adds to comfort, keeps the casualty warm, and to a large degree helps immobilise any fractures that may have been sustained. In very warm weather a cotton bed sheet or sheets may be used instead of blankets. Single blanket method Lay one open blanket diagonally down the stretcher with the corner of the blanket in the centre of the top of the stretcher, and about 150mm overlapping. Place the casualty on the blanket with the head level with the top. Fold over and tuck in the lower half of the blanket. Do likewise with the top half.
9.8
In addition to warmth, comfort, and immobilisation, the blanket is used for padding to keep the patient in the required lateral/recovery position. The following is the recommended method: Before folding the blanket around someone :
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Section 9: Stretchers
Roll a blanket end to end and position it on the stretcher so that the roll is used to pad the patients back. A second blanket is placed on the opposite side of the stretcher to support arm and stop patient rolling onto stomach.
9.9
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Section 9: Stretchers
Final orders are Prepare To Lower, then Lower. The three rescuers, assisted by the leader, lower the casualty on to the stretcher.
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Section 9: Stretchers
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Section 9: Stretchers
Board
Moderate quantities available. Protection from below.
Basket
Back and side protection. Comfortable. Lightweight.
Wraparound
Less bulky than other types.
Disadvantages
Usage
Special notes
High center of gravity when used for lowers. Uncomfortable for long periods of time. Spinal injuries. Rescue from heights using General Rescue Techniques. MUST use lashing line when moving over uneven ground or lowersDO NOT rely on webbing straps.
All purpose.
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Section 9: Stretchers
The position of the three securing Half Hitches can be varied according to the location of the injuries that the casualty has sustained. In the case of a female casualty, the top securing hitch should be placed just above the breast line. Bricks or timber placed under the stretcher Ds before lashing commences, will enable the rope to be passed under the stretcher more easily.
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Section 9: Stretchers
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Section 9: Stretchers
When this lashing is used and the stretcher is going to be lowered consideration should also be given to the Improvised Casualty Harness shown in 9.23. Note: This technique is shown without a blanket for clarity- a blanket would normally be used.
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Section 9: Stretchers
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Section 9: Stretchers
Using six rescuers Moving a heavy casualty over difficult debris conditions for any more than 10 or 15 metres, will almost certainly require 6 rescuers. The leader should position three on each side of the stretcher. On the order Prepare To Lift, the rescuers stoop and grasp the stretcher. When all is in readiness, the leader gives the order Lift and the stretcher is raised to waist height. The next order will be Prepare To Pass. Any member of the team who for any reason is not ready should inform the leader. Good footing on debris is hard to find, and care should be taken in this regard. On the command Pass, the stretcher is passed until such time as it is supported by four rescuers, leaving two spare. These two then climb carefully around the stretcher and take up positions at the other end of the stretcher. The process is then repeated until the stretcher arrives on clear, solid ground. It is stressed that this operation calls for a high degree of teamwork and that the leader must retain control throughout. The leader must ensure that while the stretcher is being passed, no member of the team is moving on the debris.
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Section 9: Stretchers
The stretcher can be worked around the bend, one rescuer easing the foot end and the other the head. Under these conditions the stretcher should not be tipped on its side. To do so would only increase its height and also the difficulty in handling it. Wrap-around style stretchers are specifically designed for confined spaces and that these should be used wherever possible.
Pole stretchers These stretchers are very simple to make and require two poles about two metres long. Stout broom handles, water pipe or 50mm x 50mm timber are quite appropriate for this job.
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Section 9: Stretchers
The poles should be laid parallel on the ground and about 600mm apart. The bed of the stretcher can be formed from a blanket, sacks, overalls or coats. The weight of the casualty will hold the blankets in place.
Ladders Where for any reason, a very narrow stretcher is required, such as for passing through small window openings, tunnels etc. a small ladder or one half of a small extension ladder can be used to an advantage. A decking of boards should be placed on the ladder (if available) and it is then blanketed in the normal way. The lashing line is attached to a ladder string using a rethreaded Figure of eight, and then the lashing done at same positions as board rescue stretcher. Chairs A strong style kitchen chair can be used for carries of casualties without serious injuries.
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10.2 Introduction
In any disaster occurring in an urban environment, it is likely that large numbers of casualties could be trapped in upper floors of buildings, in basements or other depths, or in many other difficult or inaccessible areas. In each case, the method of rescue will be dictated by the circumstances. This section attempts to provide some of the alternative methods of rescue for the low and steep angle situation. The simple option of carrying a casualty up or down an inside stairway must not be overlooked.
10.3 Definitions
Low angle rescue Low angle rescue techniques are used to undertake rescues on slopes of less than 30 degrees, e.g. gentle slope or rubble pile. They are used when the persons injuries require them to be in a stretcher. The main weight of the patient is taken by the rescuers positioned on the side of the stretcher, but allows control in the event that the rescuers may slip or trip. Steep angle rescue Steep angle rescue techniques are used when the situation requires the lowering, or raising, of the stretcher in an angle generally between 30 and 60 degrees. In this situation the weight of the patient and stretcher is taken by the lowering lines. Because of their specialist nature, steep angle rescue techniques are not covered in this manual. Anyone interested should consult the USAR Best Practice Guideline: Rope Rescue Tier Model. High angle rescue High angle rescue is used for rescues above 6 metres and or where the angle of the incline exceeds 60 degrees. It requires specialist equipment and highly trained rescuer. Because of their specialist nature, high angle rescue techniques are not covered in this manual. Anyone interested should consult the USAR Best Practice Guideline: Rope Rescue Tier Model.
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Limited high angle rescue This refers to rescue techniques that can be used for the high angle environment, where the section of high angle (over 60 degrees) does not exceed 6 metres. This can include natural terrain or buildings, provided it does not exceed 6 metres.
Low angle rescue techniques have two main components: the attachment of a line to the stretcher, and the creation of friction to allow the stretcher to be caught in the case it is dropped, or builds up too much speed.
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Option two: This option works well for small distances and when you only have one rescue line. Make a large loop by tying a Figure of eight on the bight.
Divide the loop and place each end through the stretcher handhold and then bring back together overlapping.
Bring the Figure Eight on the Bight up through the cross over.
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CONTROL MECHANISM Only 11mm static Kernmantle lines used (see Chapter 4) Line lengths checked before each lower, after passed around hard belay point All rescuers to be tied off if within 2m of edge, or to be behind fence or solid barrier no less than 900mm high Use hard belays whenever possible Use only Board Rescue or Basket
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stretcher Loss of control of lower Failure of straps on basket stretcher General scene control/safety Use of series of standard commands for lower control Additional lashing line or tape used For the Single and Four Point Lower there should be a rescuer at the bottom to receive the stretcher
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Tying a figure 8 on the bight in each of the running ends and attaching the main lowering lines by means of a Rethreaded figure of 8, or:
Using a Karabiner - in this case you can attach the running ends with a round turn and 2 ! hitches which is more easily adjusted to balance the stretcher.
ready? and waiting for a reply. This is followed by bottom team ready?. If all rescuers are, the rescuers who are lowering the stretcher are directed to tension their lines. The leader of the top team, and or any rescuers at the top who are free to assist, ease the stretcher over the edge of the wall with the tension maintained on the lowering lines. The two rescuers on the ground guide the stretcher clear of any obstruction and walk in, while still pulling on the guide lines, to support the stretcher on either side as it comes down. This technique can be used equally well inside a building, using a hole found or cut in the floor. The minimum team size for this lower is six, but as the weight is taken by two points a hard belays should be used rather than a waist belay whenever possible.
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Four rescuers are required to lower and at least one at the bottom to receive. NOTE: An alternate method of performing the four point off a ledge involves the addition of two lines on the inside edge of the stretcher which are passed underneath the stretcher to two rescuers on the ground who pull the stretcher clear of the wall.
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The stretcher is then pushed up the ladder by a rescuer who climbs up the ladder, until such time as the head end passes clear of the opening. Rescuers at the top who are not holding the raising lines can then pull the stretcher in and move away from the edge/window.
WARNING NOTE: In the ladder slide technique, the ladder is used in a manner other than that for which it was designed and manufactured. This is an improvised technique. As the load on the centre of the span will be close to 150kg, the span must be propped by one or two rescuers, or shored.
Some specific points to be observed with the Ladder Slide are: Communication between the rescuer coming up the ladder and the top team is very important. There should only ever be one person, either casualty or rescuer, on each section of the ladder at any time. Where a timber ladder is used, it must be reinforced with wire or fibreglass stile supports. Where a basket stretcher is used on an alloy ladder, there will be very little friction. Where ladders are extended to provide sufficient reach, the overlap should be lashed with short rope or cord to avoid stretcher catching on the pulley and dragging the extension with it.
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11.2 Introduction
This chapter describes a technique, the Vertical Lift Knot (VLK), that can be used to rescue casualties without the use of a stretcher. It can also be very useful for rescuer entry into and/or exit from sites. The advantages of the VLK is that it requires minimal equipment and is relatively quick to set up. Often the same anchors can be re-used, meaning a large number of people can be rescued quickly. The main disadvantage is that it provides little or no protection for the person being rescued. It may also worsen injuries, so its use is generally limited to the walking wounded. HAZARD ID AND CONTROL HAZARD Rope failure/not long enough CONTROL MECHANISM Only 11mm static Kernmantle lines used (see chapter 4) Line lengths checked before each lower, after passed around hard belay point. A safety line is used- a re-threaded figure 8 around the chest. All rescuers to be tied off if within 2m of edge, or to be behind fence or solid barrier no less than 900mm Use hard belays whenever possible Use of series of standard commands for lower control Have someone at the bottom to receive.
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Note: An alternate method of tying the VLK is commonly taught and used, where there is only a single twist on each side behind the neck. This method is safe and acceptable. It is important that both sides are the same, and not a mix of the two methods.
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12.2 Introduction
Improvised casualty movement covers techniques using no rescue equipment. It must be clearly understood that the following techniques are for use in an emergency and that seriously injured casualties should, where possible, be placed on a stretcher. Conditions such as fire or imminent danger of building collapse, may however dictate that removal from the scene is the first priority. In some cases this may even take precedence over life sustaining first aid. This subject is covered under two headings: 1. One Rescuer Handling Techniques 2. Two Rescuer Handling Techniques
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WARNING NOTE: All single rescuer techniques involve the risk of injury to the rescuer.
Pack strap carry This is used on the conscious casualty with no fractures of the extremities. Turn your back to the standing casualty. Bring their arms over your shoulders to cross your chest. Keep their arms straight as possible, the armpits over your shoulders. Hold casualtys wrists, bend, and pull the person onto your back. Firefighters crawl This is an useful method for when a casualty has to be removed from a smoke filled building in an emergency - noting that rescuers will not enter a smoke filled building. Both rescuer and casualty have their heads low down where the clearest and coolest air is found if the building is on fire. The entire weight of the casualty does not have to be supported by the rescuer. The casualtys hands should be crossed over and tied with a bandage or similar. The Firefighters crawl method can be varied according to personal preference. Probably the most effective method is for the rescuer to place an arm, shoulder and head through the casualtys arms.
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Removal down stairs method This method is used to recover a heavy casualty down stairs, when the rescuer cannot use the pack strap or other methods. However, its use need not be restricted to staircases. With the casualty lying flat, tie the wrists together using a triangular bandage or similar. Next, the rescuer comes to the head and lifts the casualty into sitting position. The rescuer reaches though under the casualtys arms and grasps the wrists. The rescuer is then in a position to drag the casualty backwards, and if a staircase has to be negotiated a large measure of support can be given to the casualtys trunk by the rescuer using a knee to ease over each successive step, remembering that the strongest part of any staircase is close to the wall.
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Four-handed seat This is a method where each rescuer grasps their left wrist and the hands are joined up. This provides a comfortable seat for the casualty and places a minimum strain on the rescuers. However, the casualty must be sufficiently conscious to hold on.
The Fore and Aft method This is perhaps the most suitable way in which two rescuers can handle an unconscious casualty. The casualty is put into a sitting position. The first rescuer stoops at the rear of the casualty. Reaching under the casualtys arms, the first rescuer grips the casualtys wrists. The second rescuer stoops between the casualtys legs grasping them underneath the knees. The standard lift orders are given and the casualty is lifted into the carrying position. Should the casualty have a leg injury, the effects of this can be minimised by the front rescuer crossing the casualtys legs over, then carrying them to one side. The advantage of this method is that the rescuer supporting the casualtys feet has a free hand with which to open doors, clear debris, etc
It is again stressed that the one and two rescuer techniques are generally confined to emergencies where removal from the scene is the first priority.
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13.2 Introduction
Anchors and holdfasts are used in rescue for the purpose of securing a line, rope, or wire that will be under load. They fall into three main classes: Natural - Trees and boulders Constructed - Those that have to be set up (eg. by use of pickets and lashings, anchor devices, buried baulks, or timber) Improvised - Those found on the site, (eg. Reinforced concrete or metal standards, metal framework of buildings, baulks of timber across door openings, etc).
1:1
2:1
3:2:1
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from the load, and with two-thirds of their length into the ground. The strongest picket/s should be nearest the load. The lashings connecting the pickets should be at 90 degrees to the pickets and should go from the head of the one in the front to ground level on the one behind. This determines the distance between the pickets, which should be more than 700mm apart. Anchor systems should be monitored at all times. As a rough guide to safe working loads a 1.5m x 25mm mild steel picket driven into ground with good holding qualities will safely support a load of approximately 350kg. As the number of pickets in the holdfast is increased, the load it will support is increased by approximately 350kg for each picket. NOTE: When using angle iron pickets, the V of the picket must face the load. Padding must be used. From above the picket placement for the 3:2:1 picket holdfast (before lashing) look like:
Load
Placement of pickets Pickets are placed either using heavy hammers or impact drivers. Pickets should be positioned and held by two rescuers, each holding one end of a short cord taken around the picket in a Clove hitch, whilst a third rescuer hammers the picket into the ground. Rescuers must wear safety glasses/goggles and leather gloves. Picket drivers can be used. These are simply a tube with handles attached and used in place of hammers to drive the picket by impact. Picket removal Pickets can be removed from most placements with a large Stilson or pipe wrench. The wrench is fitted to the shaft of the picket and used to wind the picket around and out of the ground as the rescuer exerts an upward pressure on the wrench handle. NOTE: For angle iron V pickets, reverse hammering, leverage or high lift jacks are suitable for removal.
!
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Picket lashings Each lashing is formed using a 12m rope. The lashing should be started by a clove hitch about 180mm from the head of the front picket. Four turns should be taken around the base of the back picket and the head of the front picket, placing these above the clove hitch. Turns should be applied around the lashing, (known as frapping turns) finishing with a clove hitch around the lashing, using up whatever spare rope is left. The lashing must be tightened before commencing the frapping turns(! Ground anchor plates A number of designs for ground anchor plates exist but the principle is the same using a series of long pins are used to anchor a plate onto the ground that can then be used as an anchor point, with a rated shackle or Karabiner attached to the front edge.
LOAD Buried holdfasts With this holdfast, a stout piece of timber, a length of steel girder, a large diameter water pipe or a vehicle spare wheel is required. A trench is dug to accommodate the material used and a small outlet made at right angles to the trench to allow the rope or wire to come to the surface. The greater the load applied, the deeper the trench should be. The buried holdfast is only satisfactory where the angle between ground level and the rope is small. This being the case, the trench need not be filled in, but a rescuer should be detailed to check the holdfast when the initial load is applied. Where a round section of material such as a log or pipe is used for the buried holdfast, the positioning of the rope is critical. The rope should be taken around the holdfast so that the standing part comes to the bottom of the holdfast and the
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running end comes off the top of the holdfast. As the load is applied, this will tend to roll the holdfast down into the trench rather than upwards. Log and picket holdfasts This heavy-duty anchor is set up with four pickets placed about 400500mm apart and a second row of four pickets is placed 1m behind the first row. A log, beam, or other suitable section of material is laid behind the first row of pickets and each pair of pickets is lashed together. The log or beam then forms the anchor point for attaching the rope/system to. This method is of particular use in wet or soft earth since the log acts as a beam and bears evenly against the front row of pickets.
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Angle between anchors (a) 0 10 20 30 40 45 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170
Resultant load on each sling in kg (b) 500.0 501.9 507.7 517.6 532.1 542.0 551.7 577.4 610.4 652.7 707.1 777.9 871.7 1000.0 1183.1 1461.9 1931.9 2879.4 5736.9
Relative tension on each side relative to load % 50.0 50.2 50.8 51.8 53.2 54.2 55.2 57.7 61.0 65.3 70.7 77.8 87.2 100.0 118.3 146.2 193.2 287.9 573.7
Load (b) kg
1000 kg
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Operationally, 90 degrees is a safe relationship between the two legs of the system, and the smaller the angle, the lower the load on each leg. At an angle close to zero the load on each leg is around 50% of the original load, but care must be taken to ensure the load does not pendulum onto one of the anchors. WARNING NOTE: The angle at which anchor slings meet must never be more than 120 degrees, and should preferably be less than 90 degrees.
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All karabiners used in a rescue environment should be of the locking type and be oriented with the gate up.
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14.2 Introduction
Pulley systems are used to gain a mechanical advantage in hauling, lifting and lowering operations. A system is formed by threading the pulleys with rope and all rescuers should be familiar with the correct terms, applications, capabilities and maintenance of this equipment. The traditional forming of ropes and pulleys into block and tackle systems has largely been overtaken by the more modern Z-rig pulley techniques utilising Kernmantel rescue ropes and lightweight high strength rescue pulleys.
14.3 Terminology
Haul The act of pulling on the running end of the rope to operate the system. Mousing Securing the hook of a pulley by wrapping small diameter cord or duct/electrical tape. Pulley A sheave in a frame or shell, provided with a connection point by which it may be attached to another object. Redirection pulley A pulley used in a system to change the direction of the pull without affecting the mechanical advantage. Running end The free end of the rope to which the pulling power is applied. Running pulley The pulley attached to the object being moved. A pulley that travels up or down as the system is used.
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Sheave The grooved wheel over which the rope is run in a pulley. Shell The frame or part of the pulley which holds the sheave and to which the strap, hook, or eye is attached. Snatch block A single sheave pulley with an opening or gate in one side of the shell, through which a rope can be engaged or snatched into the sheave without threading the end of the rope through. This opening is secured by means of a hinged or pivoted portion of the strap. Standing block The system pulley which is fastened to an anchor. Strap or cheek The side plate of the pulley to which the hook or eye is attached. Swing cheek pulley A pulley design in which the side plates or cheeks can be pivoted on the axle to open the pulley and permit access for the rope to the sheave.
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They should also extend beyond the edge of the sheave to protect the rope from abrasion. The axle should have rounded ends which will not snag on ropes, other gear or objects. The bearings should be of such construction as to allow the sheave to turn freely when loaded. A rated strength in excess of 1500kg and preferably greater then 2500kg.
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For a 3:1 mechanical advantage, exerting 100kg of force on the running end will produce 300kg of force on the load. The flipside to this is that the rescuer needs to pull three metres of rope for the load to move just one metre. The Actual Mechanical Advantage (AMA) is less than the theoretical one due to the amount of friction caused by the ropes passing over the sheaves or contacting each other in the returns. The actual efficiency of the pulleys in the system is also taken into account.
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14.14 Levers
The purpose of all lifting techniques is to gain sufficient power to lift or hold a large load with a small, suitable applied force. The simplest appliance for gaining this power is the lever. = Fulcrum point L = Load L 3x 1x In this example, when the ratio between the lever before and after the fulcrum point is 3:1, 1/3 effort is needed to lift the load (L), but it only goes 1/3 of the distance the force applied travels. This is known as a Type 1 system. Another way this principle can be used is a Type 2 system: Force applied
14.16 Lifting
Power should be applied as near to the end of the lever as practicable. When more than one lever is used, the load should be lifted evenly.
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Appendix One:
15.2 Introduction
Most response teams will have a variety of other equipment that is intended for use in General Rescue and/or relating to areas of specialization, e.g. High Angle, Swift Water. This chapter is to introduce people to some of the common equipment being used. For specific information reference should be made to the manufacturers instructions. There is some equipment necessary for teams wanting to register as New Zealand Response Teams (NZ-RTs). Information on this equipment can be found on www.usar.govt.nz.
15.3 Karabiners
Also known as carabiners, krabs or biners these are the most common item of hardware used in vertical rescue. They are normally a D or modified D shaped metal link, having a spring loaded opening section (the gate) in one of the long sides. The gate allows ropes and slings to be clipped into the Karabiner for attachment purposes. Karabiners are manufactured from either high-tensile steel or alloy, and may have either a plain opening gate, or one fitted with a screw locking device or autolocking gate, which prevents the gate from accidental opening. Consequently, Karabiners are referred to as snaplinks, screwgates, twistlocks, or autolocks. NOTE: Triple Action Auto-locking Karabiners are considered to be Best Practice in rescue situations. Most manufacturers stamp the rated strength of the Karabiner into the metal for easy reference. Rescue Karabiners should be of minimum rated strength of 2500kg. WARNING NOTE: Snaplink style Karabiners are NOT recommended for rescue.
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Appendix One
As these devices are made of specialised steel or alloys, care should be taken not to drop them or knock them on hard surfaces. Small stress points can be introduced into the metal that may then cause deterioration of the device.
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Appendix One:
15.7 Shackles
There are two principal types of shackle: D and Bow. With D being the most commonly used in the rescue environment. Almost all are made from a plain round steel bar and all are secured by a round section steel pin, and should comply with New Zealand Standards. The pin is located through one eye of the shackle and screws directly into the other (threaded) eye to secure the attachment in the shackle. Shackles must be selected which are large enough to accept the slings or other attachments, and which are appropriately rated for the loading and the task. WARNING NOTE: Only the shackle pin should be used to secure the shackle. The practice of replacing the proper pin with a nut and bolt is highly dangerous and may cause failure of the shackle.
15.9 Generators
Numerous brands and types of generators are available commercially, but all are basically similar in construction. They have a frame or case, and for safety reasons are fitted with some form of Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB) or Residual Current Device (RCD) and a motor driven alternator to produce 240 volts AC (Alternating Current). The ability of the alternator to deliver current is measured by its power output rating in WATTS. This is a power rating that is also often rated in KILOWATTS (kW), ie: 1 Kilowatt = 1000 Watts
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Appendix One
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Appendix One:
This particular chainsaw can be run from a 2500 Watt (2.5 kW) generator, but not from a 1000 Watt (1.0kW) generator. Rescue teams should calculate the power rating of each appliance likely to be used and clearly mark this figure in Watts on the appliance to save time and possible overload problems during an emergency.
WARNING NOTE: Motor starting current is approximately five times the rated full load current of electric motors. When selecting generators for motor starting, this factor should be considered to avoid overloads.
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Appendix One
Coiled leads should be completely unwound before use. On-the-job surveillance of all electrical equipment, particularly leads, is essential. Checks must be made when stowing or withdrawing equipment from storage. Multiple outlets on floating generators are permitted if all equipment is double insulated or equipotential bound. All inspection and testing of electrical equipment shall be carried out by a licensed electrician and in accordance with AS3760. All electrical equipment, including generators, leads, and fittings should be tested by a licensed electrician within each twelve (12) month period. The equipment must be tagged to indicate the date of inspection and name of the person inspecting.
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Appendix One:
15.16 Lighting
Working at night can increase the dangers involved with rescue work due to shadows, glare, and poor vision associated with artificial lighting systems. Rescuers should experience night rescue situations in training and experiment with various lighting arrangements, so as to eliminate as much as possible the three hazards mentioned.
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Revision Sheet
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Revision Sheet
As part of the process of ensuring the document remains current and in line with best practice, we welcome your feedback on all sections of this document. If you would like to provide feedback on the technical content of this manual, for consideration at revision, please fill out the form below and post to: Ministry of Civil Defence & Emergency Management PO Box 5010 WELLINGTON RE: General Rescue Manual Feedback for revision
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Where possible please reference the appropriate page (P), section (S) and subsection (ss). Ref. Comment Suggested Change/s P S ss
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Revision Sheet
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Suggested Change/s
Please accept these comments as my suggestions for alteration/improvement of this manual at the next revision. Yours sincerely,
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