Soil mechanics fundamentals

Soil mechanics
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Based on part of the GeotechniCAL reference package by Prof. John Atkinson, City University, London
Soil mechanics
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Basic mechanics of soils Description and classification Effective stress Volume change Shear strength
Soil mechanics describes the mechanical behaviour of a granular material as it is compressed or sheared and as water flows though it. To design of structures in the ground we need to describe
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soil strength soil compressibility and stiffness seepage
Basic theories
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friction logarithmic compression plasticity Darcy seepage
Volume change
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Soil mechanics
Compression and swelling H Consolidation H Compaction Saturated soil contains only mineral grains and water. Both are relatively incompressible so the volume can only change if water can drain out. In unsaturated soil volume changes can occur as air compresses or bleeds out. In both cases loading will bring the grains closer together and the specific volume will reduce. 1. Reduction in volume leads to 2. increase in strength 3. increase in stiffness 4. settlement of foundations
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If soil is unloaded it will swell as the grains move apart. Swelling leads to reduction in strength and stiffness and heave of excavations.
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Basic mechanics of soils
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Analysis of stress and strain Strength Stiffness Material behaviour
Loads from foundations and walls apply stresses in the ground. Settlements are caused by strains in the ground. To analyse the conditions within a material under loading, we must consider the stress-strain behaviour. The relationship between a strain and stress is termed stiffness. The maximum value of stress that may be sustained is termed strength.
Analysis of stress and strain

Special stress and strain states Mohr circle construction Parameters for stress and strain
Back to Basic mechanics of soils
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Stresses and strains occur in all directions and to do settlement and stability analyses it is often necessary to relate the stresses in a particular direction to those in other directions.
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normal stress = Fn / A shear stress = Fs / A
normal strain = z / zo shear strain = h / zo
Note that compressive stresses and strains are positive, counter-clockwise shear stress and strain are positive, and that these are total stresses (see effective stress).
Special stress and strain states
In general, the stresses and strains in the three dimensions will all be different. There are three special cases which are important in ground engineering:
General case princpal stresses
Axially symmetric or triaxial states Stresses and strains in two dorections are equal. 'x = 'y and x = y Relevant to conditions near relatively small foundations, piles, anchors and other concentrated loads.
Plane strain: Strain in one direction = 0 y = 0 Relevant to conditions near long foundations, embankments, retaining walls and other long structures. One-dimensional compression: Strain in two directions = 0 x = y = 0 Relevant to conditions below wide foundations or relatively thin compressible soil layers.
Uniaxial compression 'x = 'y = 0 This is an artifical case which is only possible for soil is there are negative pore water pressures.
Mohr circle construction
Back to Analysis of stress and strain Forward to Parameters
Values of normal stress and shear stress must relate to a particular plane within an element of soil. In general, the stresses on another plane will be different. To visualise the stresses on all the possible planes, a graph called the Mohr circle is drawn by plotting a (normal stress, shear stress) point for a plane at every possible angle.
There are special planes on which the shear stress is zero (i.e. the circle crosses the normal stress axis), and the state of stress (i.e. the circle) can be described by the normal stresses acting on these planes; these are called the principal stresses '1 and '3 .
Parameters for stress and strain
In common soil tests, cylindrical samples are used in which the axial and radial stresses and strains are principal stresses and strains. For analysis of test data, and to develop soil mechanics theories, it is usual to combine these into mean (or normal) components which influence volume changes, and deviator (or shearing) components which influence shape changes. stress strain
mean
p' = ('a + 2'r) / 3 ev = V/V = (a + 2r) s' = 'a + 'r) / 2 q' = ('a - 'r) t' = ('a - 'r) / 2 n = (a + r)
deviator
es = 2 (a - r) / 3 = (a - r)
In the Mohr circle construction t' is the radius of the circle and s' defines its centre. Note: Total and effective stresses are related to pore pressure u: p' = p - u s' = s - u
q' = q t' = t
Strength
Types of failure Strength criteria Typical values of shear strength
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The shear strength of a material is most simply described as the maximum shear stress it can sustain: When the shear stress is increased, the shear strain increases; there will be a limiting condition at which the shear strain becomes very large and the material fails; the shear stress f is then the shear strength of the material. The simple type of failure shown here is associated with ductile or plastic materials. If the material is brittle (like a piece of chalk), the failure may be sudden and catastrophic with loss of strength after failure.
Types of failure
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Materials can fail under different loading conditions. In each case, however, failure is associated with the limiting radius of the Mohr circle, i.e. the maximum shear stress. The following common examples are shown in terms of total stresses:
Shearing Shear strength = f nf = normal stress at failure
Uniaxial extension Tensile strength tf = 2f
Uniaxial compression Compressive strength cf = 2f
Note: Water has no strength f = 0.
Hence vertical and horizontal stresses are equal and the Mohr circle becomes a point.
Strength criteria
Back to Strength
A strength criterion is a formula which relates the strength of a material to some other parameters: these are material parameters and may include other stresses. For soils there are three important strength criteria: the correct criterion depends on the nature of the soil and on whether the loading is drained or undrained. In General, course grained soils will "drain" very quickly (in engineering terms) following loading. Thefore development of excess pore pressure will not occur; volume change associated with increments of effective stress will control the behaviour and the Mohr-Coulomb criteria will be valid. Fine grained saturated soils will respond to loading initially by generating excess pore water pressures and remaining at constant volume. At this stage the Tresca criteria, which uses total stress to represent undrained behaviour, should be used. This is the short term or immediate loading response. Once the pore pressure has dissapated, after a certain time, the effective stresses have incresed and the MohrCoulomb criterion will describe the strength mobilised. This is the long term loading response.
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Tresca criterion Mohr-Coulomb (c=0) criterion Mohr-Coulomb (c>0) criterion
Tresca criterion
Back to Strength criteria Forward to Mohr-Coulomb (c=0)
The strength is independent of the normal stress since the response to loading simple increases the pore water pressure and not the effective stress. The shear strength f is a material parameter which is known as the undrained shear strength su. f = (a - r) = constant
Mohr-Coulomb (c'=0) criterion

The strength increases linearly with increasing normal stress and is zero when the normal stress is zero. 'f = 'n tan' ' is the angle of friction In the Mohr-Coulomb criterion the material parameter is the angle of friction and materials which meet this criterion are known as frictional. In soils, the Mohr-Coulomb criterion applies when the normal stress is an effective normal stress.
Back to Strength criteria Forward to Mohr-Coulomb (c>0)
>Mohr-Coulomb (c'>0) criterion

The strength increases linearly with increasing normal stress and is positive when the normal stress is zero.
Back to Strength criteria
'f = c' + 'n tan' ' is the angle of friction c' is the 'cohesion' intercept In soils, the Mohr-Coulomb criterion applies when the normal stress is an effective normal stress. In soils, the cohesion in the effective stress Mohr-Coulomb criterion is not the same as the cohesion (or undrained strength su) in the Tresca criterion.
Typical values of shear strength

Undrained shear strength su (kPa) Hard soil Stiff soil Firm soil Soft soil Very soft soil Drained shear strength Compact sands Loose sands su > 150 kPa su = 75 ~ 150 kPa su = 40 ~ 75 kPa su = 20 ~ 40kPa su < 20 kPa c (kPa) 0 0 (deg) 35 - 45 30 - 35 18 ~ 25 20 ~ 28 8 ~ 15
Back to Strength
Unweathered overconsolidated clay critical state peak state residual 0 10 ~ 25 kPa 0 ~ 5 kPa
Often the value of c' deduced from laboratory test results (in the shear testing apperatus) may appear to indicate some shar strength at ' = 0. i.e. the particles 'cohereing' together or are 'cemented' in some way. Often this is due to fitting a c', ' line to the experimental data and an 'apparent' cohesion may be deduced due to suction or dilatancy.
Produced by Dr. Leslie Davison, University of the West of England, Bristol, May 2000 in association with Prof. Sarah Springman, Swiss Federal Technical Institute, Zurich
Soil classification
Description & classification

Basic characteristics of soils
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Soil as an engineering material Size range of grains

H Identification Shape of grains
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SAND grains CLAY grains H Specific surface Composition of grains Structure or fabric
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Soil description and classification

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Origins, formation and mineralogy

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Origins of soils from rocks Weathering of rocks Clay minerals Transportation and deposition Loading and drainage history
Basic characteristics of soils Origins, formation and mineralogy Grading and composition Volume-weight properties Current state of soil British Standard system
Grading and composition

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Coarse soils Particle size tests Simulation H Typical grading curves H Grading characteristics H Sieve analysis example Fine soils
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It is necessary to adopt a formal system of soil description and classification in order to describe the various materials found in ground investigation. Such a system must be comprehensive (covering all but the rarest of deposits), meaningful in an engineering context (so that engineers will be able to understand and interpret) and yet relatively concise. It is important to distinguish between description and classification: Description of soil is a statement describing the physical nature and state of the soil. It can be a description of a sample, or a soil in situ. It is arrived at using visual examination, simple tests, observation of site conditions, geological history, etc. Soil classification is the separation of soil into classes or groups each having similar characteristics and potentially similar behaviour. A classification for engineering purposes should be based mainly on mechanical properties, e.g. permeability, stiffness, strength. The class to which a soil belongs can be used in its description.
Consistency Simulation H Plasticity index H Plasticity chart H Activity Specific gravity

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Volume-weight properties
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Volume: the soil model Simulation Degree of saturation Air-voids content Masses of solid and water Densities and unit weights Laboratory measurements
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Description and classification
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Water content Unit weight Field measurements

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Current state of soil

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Soil as an engineering material Size range of grains Shape of grains Composition of grains Structure or fabric
Deposition and erosion Ageing Density index Liquidity index Predicting stiffness and strength
BS system for description and classification

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BS description system
Soils consist of grains (mineral grains, rock fragments, etc.) with water and air in the voids between grains. The water and air contents are readily changed by changes in conditions and location: soils can be perfectly dry (have no water
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Soil classification
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Definitions of terms British Soil Classification System
content) or be fully saturated (have no air content) or be partly saturated (with both air and water present). Although the size and shape of the solid (granular) content rarely changes at a given point, they can vary considerably from point to point.
First of all, consider soil as a engineering material - it is not a coherent solid material like steel and concrete, but is a particulate material. It is important to understand the significance of particle size, shape and composition, and of a soil's internal structure or fabric.
Soil as an engineering material

The term "soil" means different things to different people: To a geologist it represents the products of past surface processes. To a pedologist it represents currently occurring physical and chemical processes. To an engineer it is a material that can be: built on: foundations to buildings, bridges. built in: tunnels, culverts, basements. built with: roads, runways, embankments, dams. supported: retaining walls, quays. Soils may be described in different ways by different people for their different purposes. Engineers' descriptions give engineering terms that will convey some sense of a soil's current state and probable susceptibility to future changes (e.g. in loading, drainage, structure, surface level). Engineers are primarily interested in a soil's mechanical properties: strength, stiffness, permeability. These depend primarily on the nature of the soil grains, the current stress, the water content and unit weight.
Size range of grains

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Aids to size identification
Soil classification
The range of particle sizes encountered in soil is very large: from boulders with a controlling dimension of over 200mm down to clay particles less than 0.002mm (2m). Some clays contain particles less than 1 in size which behave as colloids, i.e. do not settle in water due solely to gravity. In theBritish Soil Classification System, soils are classified into named Basic Soil Type groups according to size, and the groups further divided into coarse, medium and fine sub-groups:
Very coarse BOULDERS soils COBBLES
> 200 mm 60 - 200 mm
Coarse soils
coarse 20 - 60 mm G medium 6 - 20 mm GRAVEL fine 2 - 6 mm coarse S SAND fine coarse M SILT 0.6 - 2.0 mm 0.06 - 0.2 mm 0.02 - 0.06 mm 0.002 - 0.006 mm < 0.002 mm medium 0.2 - 0.6 mm
Fine soils
medium 0.006 - 0.02 mm fine
C CLAY

Soils possess a number of physical characteristics which can be used as aids to size identification in the field. A handful of soil rubbed through the fingers can yield the following: SAND (and coarser) particles are visible to the naked eye. SILT particles become dusty when dry and are easily brushed off hands and boots. CLAY particles are greasy and sticky when wet and hard when dry, and have to be scraped or washed off hands and boots.
Soil classification
Shape of grains
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Shape characteristics of SAND grains Shape characteristics of CLAY grains Specific surface
The majority of soils may be regarded as either SANDS or CLAYS: SANDS include gravelly sands and gravel-sands. Sand grains are generally broken rock particles that have been formed by physical weathering, or they are the resistant components of rocks broken down by chemical weathering. Sand grains generally have a rotund shape. CLAYS include silty clays and clay-silts; there are few pure silts (e.g. areas formed by windblown Less). Clay grains are usually the product of chemical weathering or rocks and soils. Clay particles have a flaky shape. There are major differences in engineering behaviour between SANDS and CLAYS (e. g. in permeability, compressibility, shrinking/swelling potential). The shape and size of the soil grains has an important bearing on these differences.
Shape of grains
Shape characteristics of SAND grains

SAND and larger-sized grains are rotund. Coarse soil grains (silt-sized, sand-sized and larger) have different shape characteristics and surface roughness depending on the amount of wear during transportation (by water, wind or ice), or after crushing in manufactured aggregates. They have a relatively low specific surface (surface area). Click on a link below to see the shape Rounded: Water- or air-worn; transported sediments Irregular: Irregular shape with round edges; glacial sediments (sometimes sub-divided into 'sub-rounded' and 'sub-angular') Angular: Flat faces and sharp edges; residual soils, grits Flaky: Thickness small compared to length/breadth; clays Elongated: Length larger than breadth/thickness; scree, broken flagstone Flaky & Elongated: Length>Breadth>Thickness; broken schists and slates
Soil classification
Shape of grains
Shape characteristics of CLAY grains

CLAY particles are flaky. Their thickness is very small relative to their length & breadth, in some cases as thin as 1/100th of the length. They therefore have high to very high specific surface values. These surfaces carry a small negative electrical charge, that will attract the positive end of water molecules. This charge depends on the soil mineral and may be affected by an electrolite in the pore water. This causes some additional forces between the soil grains which are proportional to the specific surface. Thus a lot of water may be held asadsorbed water within a clay mass.
Shape of grains
Specific surface
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Examples
Specific surface is the ratio of surface area per unit wight. Surface forces are proportional to surface area (i.e. to d). Self-weight forces are proportional to volume (i.e. to d). Surface force self weight forces area Also, specific surface = * volume 1 d 1 d
Therefore
Hence, specific surface is a measure of the relative contributions of surface forces and self-weight forces. The specific surface of a 1mm cube of quartz ( = 2.65gm/cm) is 0.00023 m/N
Soil classification
SAND grains (size 2.0 - 0.06mm) are close to cubes or spheres in shape, and have specific surfaces near the minimum value. CLAY particles are flaky and have much greater specific surface values.
Examples of specific surface

The more elongated or flaky a particle is the greater will be its specific surface. Click on the following examples: cubes, rods, sheets Examples of mineral grain specific surfaces:
Mineral/Soil Quartz grain Quartz sand Kaolinite Illite Montmorillonite
Grain width Specific Surface Thickness m/N d (m) 100 2.0 - 0.06 2.0 - 0.3 2.0 - 0.2 1.0 - 0.01 d d 0.2d 0.1d 0.01d 0.0023 0.0001 - 0.004 2 8 80
See also clay minerals
Structure or fabric
Natural soils are rarely the same from one point in the ground to another. The content and nature of grains varies, but more importantly, so does the arrangement of these. The arrangement and organisation of particles and other features within a soil mass is termed its structure or fabric. This includes bedding orientation, stratification, layer thickness, the occurrence of joints and fissures, the occurrence of voids, artefacts, tree roots and nodules, the presence of cementing or bonding agents between grains. Structural features can have a major influence on in situ properties.
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Vertical and horizontal permeabilities will be different in alternating layers of fine and coarse soils. The presence of fissures affects some aspects of strength. The presence of layers or lenses of different stiffness can affect stability. The presence of cementing or bonding influences strength and stiffness.
Soil classification

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Soils are the results of geological events (except for the very small amount produced by man). The nature and structure of a given soil depends on the geological processes that formed it: breakdown of parent rock: weathering, decomposition, erosion. transportation to site of final deposition: gravity, flowing water, ice, wind. environment of final deposition: flood plain, river terrace, glacial moraine, lacustrine or marine. subsequent conditions of loading and drainage - little or no surcharge, heavy surcharge due to ice or overlying deposits, change from saline to freshwater, leaching, contamination.
Origins of soils from rocks

All soils originate, directly or indirectly, from solid rocks in the Earth's crust: igneous rocks crystalline bodies of cooled magma e.g. granite, basalt, dolerite, gabbro, syenite, porphyry sedimentary rocks layers of consolidated and cemented sediments, mostly formed in bodies of water (seas, lakes, etc.) e.g. limestone, sandstones, mudstone, shale, conglomerate metamorphic rocks formed by the alteration of existing rocks due to heat from igneous intrusions (e.g. marble, quartzite, hornfels) or pressure due to crustal movement (e.g. slate, schist, gneiss).
Weathering of rocks
Soil classification
Physical weathering Physical or mechanical processes taking place on the Earth's surface, including the actions of water, frost, temperature changes, wind and ice; cause disintegration and wearing. The products are mainly coarse soils (silts, sands and gravels). Physical weathering produces Very Coarse soils and Gravels consisting of broken rock particles, but Sands and Silts will be mainly consists of mineral grains. Chemical weathering Chemical weathering occurs in wet and warm conditions and consists of degradation by decomposition and/or alteration. The results of chemical weathering are generally fine soils with separate mineral grains, such as Clays and Clay-Silts. The type of clay mineral depends on the parent rock and on local drainage. Some minerals, such as quartz, are resistant to the chemical weathering and remain unchanged. quartz A resistant and enduring mineral found in many rocks (e.g. granite, sandstone). It is the principal constituent of sands and silts, and the most abundant soil mineral. It occurs as equidimensional hard grains. haematite A red iron (ferric) oxide: resistant to change, results from extreme weathering. It is responsible for the widespread red or pink colouration in rocks and soils. It can form a cement in rocks, or a duricrust in soils in arid climates. micas Flaky minerals present in many igneous rocks. Some are resistant, e.g. muscovite; some are broken down, e.g. biotite. clay minerals These result mainly from the breakdown of feldspar minerals. They are very flaky and therefore have very large surface areas. They are major constituents of clay soils, although clay soil also contains silt sized particles.
Clay minerals
Clay minerals are produced mainly from the chemical weathering and decomposition of feldspars, such as orthoclase and plagioclase, and some micas. They are small in size
Soil classification
and very flaky in shape. The key to some of the properties of clay soils, e.g. plasticity, compressibility, swelling/shrinkage potential, lies in the structure of clay minerals. There are three main groups of clay minerals: kaolinites (include kaolinite, dickite and nacrite) formed by the decomposition of orthoclase feldspar (e.g. in granite); kaolin is the principal constituent in china clay and ball clay. illites (include illite and glauconite) are the commonest clay minerals; formed by the decomposition of some micas and feldspars; predominant in marine clays and shales (e. g. London clay, Oxford clay). montmorillonites (also called smectites or fullers' earth minerals) (include calcium and sodium momtmorillonites, bentonite and vermiculite) formed by the alteration of basic igneous rocks containing silicates rich in Ca and Mg; weak linkage by cations (e.g. Na+, Ca++) results in high swelling/shrinking potential
For more information on mineralogy see http://mineral.gly.bris.ac.uk/mineralogy/
Transportation and deposition

The effects of weathering and transportation largely determine the basic nature of the soil (i.e. the size, shape, composition and distribution of the grains). The environment into which deposition takes place, and subsequent geological events that take place there, largely determine the state of the soil, (i.e. density, moisture content) and the structure or fabric of the soil (i.e. bedding, stratification, occurrence of joints or fissures, tree roots, voids, etc.) Transportation Due to combinations of gravity, flowing water or air, and moving ice. In water or air: grains become sub-rounded or rounded, grain sizes are sorted, producing poorly-graded deposits. In moving ice: grinding and crushing occur, size distribution becomes wider, deposits are well-graded, ranging from rock flour to boulders. Deposition In flowing water, larger particles are deposited as velocity drops, e.g. gravels in river
Soil classification
terraces, sands in floodplains and estuaries, silts and clays in lakes and seas. In still water: horizontal layers of successive sediments are formed, which may change with time, even seasonally or daily.
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Deltaic & shelf deposits: often vary both horizontally and vertically. From glaciers, deposition varies from well-graded basal tills and boulder clays to poorly-graded deposits in moraines and outwash fans. In arid conditions: scree material is usually poorly-graded and lies on slopes. Wind-blown Less is generally uniformly-graded and false-bedded.
Loading and drainage history

The current state (i.e. density and consistency) of a soil will have been profoundly influenced by the history of loading and unloading since it was deposited. Changes in drainage conditions may also have occurred which may have brought about changes in water content. Loading /unloading history Initial loading During deposition the load applied to a layer of soil increases as more layers are deposited over it; thus, it is compressed and water is squeezed out; as deposition continues, the soil becomes stiffer and stronger. Unloading The principal natural mechanism of unloading is erosion of overlying layers. Unloading can also occur as overlying ice-sheets and glaciers retreat, or due to large excavations made by man. Soil expands when it is unloaded, but not as much as it was initially compressed; thus it stays compressed - and is said to be overconsolidated. The degree of overconsolidation depends on the history of loading and unloading. Drainage history Chemical changes Some soils initially deposited loosely in saline water and then inundated with fresh water develop weak collapsing structure. In arid climates with intermittent rainy periods, cycles of wetting and drying can bring minerals to the surface to form a cemented soil. Climate changes Some clays (e.g. montmorillonite clays) are prone to large volume changes due to wetting and drying; thus, seasonal changes in surface level occur, often causing foundation damage, especially after exceptionally dry summers. Trees extract water from soil in the process of evapotranspiration; The soil near to trees can therefore either shrink as trees grow larger, or expand following the removal of large trees.
Soil classification

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Coarse soils Fine soils Specific gravity
The recommended standard for soil classification is the British Soil Classification System, and this is detailed in BS 5930 Site Investigation.
Coarse soils
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Particle size tests Typical grading curves Grading characteristics Sieve analysis example
Coarse soils are classified principally on the basis of particle size and grading. Very coarse BOULDERS soils COBBLES > 200 mm 60 - 200 mm
Coarse soils
coarse 20 - 60 mm G medium 6 - 20 mm GRAVEL fine 2 - 6 mm coarse S SAND fine 0.6 - 2.0 mm 0.06 - 0.2 mm medium 0.2 - 0.6 mm
Coarse soils
Particle size tests

The aim is to measure the distribution of particle sizes in the sample. When a wide range of sizes is present, the sample will be sub-divided, and separate tests carried out on each sub-sample. Full details of tests are given in BS 1377: "Methods of test for soil for civil engineering purposes".
Soil classification
Particle-size tests Wet sieving to separate fine grains from coarse grains is carried out by washing the soil specimen on a 60m sieve mesh. Dry sieving analyses can only be carried out on particles > 60 m. Samples (with fines removed) are dried and shaken through a nest of sieves of descending size. Sedimentation is used only for fine soils. Soil particles are allowed to settle from a suspension. The decreasing density of the suspension is measured at time intervals. Sizes are determined from the settling velocity and times recorded. Percentages between sizes are determined from density differences. Particle-size analysis The cumulative percentage quantities finer than certain sizes (e.g. passing a given size sieve mesh) are determined by weighing. Points are then plotted of % finer (passing) against log size. A smooth S-shaped curve drawn through these points is called a grading curve. The position and shape of the grading curve determines the soil class. Geometrical grading characteristics can be determined also from the grading curve.
Coarse soils
Typical grading curves
Both the position and the shape of the grading curve for a soil can aid its identity and description. Some typical grading curves are shown in the figure: A - a poorly-graded medium SAND (probably estuarine or flood-plain alluvium)
Soil classification
B - a well-graded GRAVEL-SAND (i.e. equal amounts of gravel and sand) C - a gap-graded COBBLES-SAND D - a sandy SILT (perhaps a deltaic or estuarine silt) E - a typical silty CLAY (e.g. London clay, Oxford clay)
Coarse soils
Grading characteristics
A grading curve is a useful aid to soil description. Grading curves are often included in ground investigation reports. Results of grading tests can be tabulated using geometric properties of the grading curve. These properties are called grading characteristics First of all, three points are located on the grading curve: d10 = the maximum size of the smallest 10% of the sample d30 = the maximum size of the smallest 30% of the sample d60 = the maximum size of the smallest 60% of the sample From these the grading characteristics are calculated: Effective size d10 Uniformity coefficient Cu = d60 / d10 Coefficient of gradation Ck = d30 / d60 d10 Both Cu and Ck will be 1 for a single-sized soil Cu > 5 indicates a well-graded soil Cu < 3 indicates a uniform soil Ck between 0.5 and 2.0 indicates a well-graded soil Ck < 0.1 indicates a possible gap-graded soil
Soil classification
Coarse soils
Sieve analysis example

The results of a dry-sieving test are given below, together with the grading analysis and grading curve. Note carefully how the tabulated results are set out and calculated. The grading curve has been plotted on special semi-logarithmic paper; you can also do this analysis using a spreadsheet. Sieve mesh Mass Percentage Percentage size (mm) retained (g) retained finer (passing) 14.0 10.0 6.3 5.0 3.35 2.0 1.18 0.600 0.425 0.300 0.212 0.150 0.063 Pan TOTAL 0 3.5 7.6 7.0 14.3 21.1 56.7 73.4 22.2 26.9 18.4 15.2 17.5 8.5 292.3 0 1.2 2.6 2.4 4.9 7.2 19.4 25.1 7.6 9.2 6.3 5.2 6.0 2.9 100.0 100.0 98.8 86.2 93.8 88.9 81.7 62.3 37.2 29.6 20.4 14.1 8.9 2.9
The soil comprises: 18% gravel, 45% coarse sand, 24% medium sand, 10% fine sand, 3% silt, and is classified therefore as: a well-graded gravelly SAND
Soil classification
Fine soils
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Consistency limits and plasticity Plasticity index The plasticity chart and classification Activity
In the case of fine soils (e.g. CLAYS and SILTS), it is the shape of the particles rather than their size that has the greater influence on engineering properties. Clay soils have flaky particles to which water adheres, thus imparting the property of plasticity.
Fine soils
Consistency limits and plasticity
Consistency varies with the water content of the soil. The consistency of a soil can range from (dry) solid to semi-solid to plastic to liquid (wet). The water contents at which the consistency changes from one state to the next are called consistency limits (or Atterberg limits). Two of these are utilised in the classification of fine soils: Liquid limit (wL) - change of consistency from plastic to liquid Plastic limit (wP) - change of consistency from brittle/crumbly to plastic Measures of liquid and plastic limit values can be obtained from laboratory tests.
Fine soils
Plasticity index
Soil classification
The consistency of most soils in the ground will be plastic or semi-solid. Soil strength and stiffness behaviour are related to the range of plastic consistency. The range of water content over which a soil has a plastic consistency is termed the Plasticity Index (IP or PI). IP = liquid limit - plastic limit = wL - wP
Fine soils
The plasticity chart and classification

In the BSCS fine soils are divided into ten classes based on their measured plasticity index and liquid limit values: CLAYS are distinguished from SILTS, and five divisions of plasticity are defined: Low plasticity Intermediate plasticity High plasticity Very high plasticity wL = < 35% wL = 35 - 50% wL = 50 - 70% wL = 70 - 90%
Extremely high plasticity wL = > 90% A plasticity chart is provided to aid classification.
Soil classification
Fine soils
Activity
So-called 'clay' soils are not 100% clay. The proportion of clay mineral flakes (< 2 m size) in a fine soil affects its current state, particularly its tendency to swell and shrink with changes in water content. The degree of plasticity related to the clay content is called the activity of the soil. Activity = P / (% clay particles) Some typical values are: Mineral Muscovite Kaolinite Illite Activity Soil 0.25 0.40 0.90 Kaolin clay Most British clays Activity 0.4-0.5 0.75-1.25
Glacial clay and loess 0.5-0.75 Organic estuarine clay > 1.25
Montmorillonite > 1.25
Specific gravity
Specific gravity (Gs) is a property of the mineral or rock material forming soil grains. It is defined as
Method of measurement For fine soils a 50 ml density bottle may be used; for coarse soils a 500 ml or 1000 ml jar. The jar is weighed empty (M1). A quantity of dry soil is placed in the jar and the jar weighed (M2). The jar is filled with water, air removed by stirring, and weighed again (M3). The jar is emptied, cleaned and refilled with water - and weighed again (M4).
Soil classification
[The range of Gs for common soils is 2.64 to 2.72]
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Volumes of solid, water and air: the soil model Masses of solid and water: water content Densities and unit weights Laboratory measurements Field measurements
The volume-weight properties of a soil define its state. Measures of the amount of void space, amount of water and the weight of a unit volume of soil are required in engineering analysis and design. Soil comprises three constituent phases: Solid: rock fragments, mineral grains or flakes, organic matter. Liquid: water, with some dissolved compounds (e.g. salts). Gas: air or water vapour. In natural soils the three phases are intermixed. To aid analysis it is convenient to consider a soil model in which the three phases are seen as separate, but still in their correct proportions.
Volumes of solid, water and air: the soil model

Soil classification
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Degree of saturation Air-voids content
The soil model is given dimensional values for the solid, water and air components: Total volume, V = Vs + Vw + Va Since the amounts of both water and air are variable, the volume of solids present is taken as the reference quantity. Thus, the following relational volumetric quantities may be defined:
Note also that: n = e / (1 + e) e = n / (1 - n) v = 1 / (1 - n) Typical void ratios might be 0.3 (e.g. for a dense, well graded granular soil) or 1.5 (e.g. for a soft clay).
Degree of saturation
Soil classification
The volume of water in a soil can only vary between zero (i.e. a dry soil) and the volume of voids; this can be expressed as a ratio:
For a perfectly dry soil: Sr = 0 For a saturated soil: Sr = 1 Note: In clay soils as the amount water increases the volume and therefore the volume of voids will also increase, and so the degree of saturation may remain at Sr = 1 while the actual volume of water is increasing.
Air-voids content
The air-voids volume, Va , is that part of the void space not occupied by water. Va = Vv - Vw = e - e.Sr = e.(1 - Sr)
Soil classification
Air-voids content, Av Av = (air-voids volume) / (total volume) = Va / V = e.(1 - Sr) / (1+e) = n.(1 - Sr) For a perfectly dry soil: Av = n For a saturated soil: Av = 0
Masses of solid and water: water content
The mass of air may be ignored. The mass of solid particles is usually expressed in terms of their particle density or grain specific gravity. Grain specific gravity
Hence the mass of solid particles in a soil Ms = Vs .Gs .w (w = density of water = 1.00Mg/m) [Range of Gs for common soils: 2.64-2.72] Particle density s = mass per unit volume of particles = Gs .w The ratio of the mass of water present to the mass of solid particles is called the water content, or sometimes the moisture content.
Soil classification
From the soil model it can be seen that w = (Sr .e .w) / (Gs .w) Giving the useful relationship: w .Gs = Sr .e
Densities and unit weights
Density is a measure of the quantity of mass in a unit volume of material. Unit weight is a measure of the weight of a unit volume of material. There are two basic measures of density or unit weight applied to soils: Dry density is a measure of the amount of solid particles per unit volume. Bulk density is a measure of the amount of solid + water per unit volume.
The preferred units of density are: Mg/m, kg/m or g/ml. The corresponding unit weights are:
Soil classification
Also, it can be shown that = d(1 + w) and = gd(1 + w)
Laboratory measurements
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Water content Unit weight
It is important to quantify the state of a soil immediately it is received in the testing laboratory and just prior to commencing other tests (e.g. shear tests, compression tests, etc.). The water content and unit weight are particularly important, since these could change during transportation and storage. Some physical state properties are calculated following the practical measurement of others; e.g. void ratio from porosity, dry unit weight from unit weight & water content.
Water content
The most usual method of determining the water content of soil is to weigh a small representative specimen, drying it to constant weight and then weighing it again. Drying can be carried out using an electric oven set at 104-105 Celsius or using a microwave oven. Example: A sample of soil was placed in a tin container and weighed, after which it was dried in an oven and then weighed again. Calculate the water content of the soil. Weight of tin empty = 16.16 g Weight of tin + moist soil = 37.82 g Weight of tin + dry soil = 34.68 g
Soil classification
= (mass of water) / (mass of dry soil) = (37.82 - 34.68) / (34.68 - 16.16) = 0.169 Percentage water content = 16.9 % Water content, w
Unit weight
Clay soils: Specimens are usually prepared in the form of regular geometric shapes, (e. g. prisms, cylinders) of which the volume is easily computed. Sands and gravels: Specimens have to be placed in a container to determine volume (e. g. a cylindrical can). Example A soil specimen had a volume of 89.13 ml, a mass before drying of 174.45 g and after drying of 158.73 g; the water content was 9.9 %. Determine the bulk and dry densities and unit weights. Bulk density = (mass of specimen) / (volume of specimen) = 174.45 / 89.13 g/ml = 1.957 Mg/m [1 g/ml = 1 Mg/m] Unit weight = 9.81m/s x Mg/m = 19.20 kN/m Dry density d = (mass after drying) / (volume) = 158.73 / 89.13 = 1.781 Mg/m d = / (1 + w) = 1.957 / (1+0.099) = 1.781 Mg/m Dry unit weight d = / (1 + w) = 19.20 / (1+0.099) = 17.47 kN/m
Soil classification
Field measurements
Measurements taken in the field are mostly to determine density/unit weight. The most common application is the determination of the density of rolled and compacted fill, e. g. in road bases, embankments, etc. Note: These methods are covered in detail by BS1377. You should understand the general principle that density is calculated from the mass and volume of a sample. How a sample of known volume is obtained depends on the nature of the soil. You are not expected to remember the details of each method. The core cutter method This method is suitable for soft fine grained soils. A steel cylinder is driven into the ground, dug out and the soil shaved off level. The mass of soil is found by weighing and deducting the mass of the cylinder. Small samples are taken from both ends and the water content determined.
The sand-pouring cylinder method This method is suitable for stony soils Using a special tray with a hole in the centre, a hole is formed in the soil and the mass of soil removed is weighed. The volume of the hole is calculated from the mass of clean dry running sand required to fill the hole. The sand-pouring cylinder is used to fill the hole in a controlled manner. The mass of sand required to fill the hole is equal to the difference in the weight of the cylinder before and after filling the hole, less an allowance for the sand left in the cone above the hole.
Bulk density = (mass of soil) / (volume of core cutter or hole)
Soil classification

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Soil history: deposition and erosion Soil history: ageing Density index (relative density) Liquidity index Predicting stiffness and strength from index properties
The state of soil is essentially the closeness of packing of the grains in the range: Closely packed Loosely packed Dense Loose Low water content High water content Strong and stiff Weak and soft The important indicators of the current state of a soil are: current stresses: vertical and horizontal effective stresses current water content: effecting strength and stiffness in fine soils liquidity index: indicates state in fine soils density index: indicates state of compaction in coarse soils history of loading and unloading: degree of overconsolidation Engineering operations (e.g. excavation, loading, unloading, compaction, etc.) on soil bring about changes in its state. Its initial state is the result of processes of erosion and deposition. It is possible for the engineer to predict changes that could result from a proposed engineering operation: changes from the soil's current state to a new future state.
Soil history: deposition and erosion

Original deposition Most soils are formed in layers or lenses by deposition from moving water, ice or wind. One-dimensional compression occurs as overlying layers are added. Vertical and horizontal stresses increase with deposition. Erosion Erosion causes unloading; stresses decrease; some vertical expansion occurs. Plastic strain has occurred; the soil remains compressed, i.e. overconsolidated. Subsequent changes Subsequent changes may occur in the depositional environment: further loading/ unloading due to glaciation, land movement, engineering; and ageing processes.
Soil classification
Soil history: ageing

The term ageing includes processes that occur with time, except loading and unloading. Ageing processes are independent of changes in loading. Vibration and compaction Coarse soils can be made more dense by vibration or compaction at essentially constant effective stress Creep Fine soils creep and continue to compress and distort at constant effective stress after primary consolidation is complete. Cementing and bonding Intergranular cementing and bonding occurs due to deposition of minerals from groundwater, e.g. calcium carbonate; disturbance due to excavation fractures the bonding and reduces strength. Weathering Physical and chemical changes take place in soils near the ground surface due to the influence of changes in rainfall and temperature. Changes in salinity Changes in the salinity of groundwater are due to changes in relative sea and land levels, thus soil originally deposited in sea water may later have fresh water in its pores, such soils may be prone to sudden collapse.
Density index (relative density)

The void ratio of coarse soils (sands and gravels) varies with the state of packing between the loosest practical state in which it can exist and the densest. Some engineering properties are affected by this, e.g.shear strength, compressibility, permeability. It is therefore useful to measure the in situ state and this can be done by comparing the in situ void ratio (e) with the minimum and maximum practical values (emin and emax) to give a density index D
Soil classification
emin is determined with soil compacted densely in a metal mould emax is determined with soil poured loosely into a metal mould Density index is also known as relative density Relative states of compaction are defined: Density index 0-15% 15-35 35-65 65-85 85-100% State of compaction Very loose Loose Medium Dense Very dense
Liquidity index
In fine soils, especially clays, the current state is dependent on the water content with respect to the consistency limits (or Atterberg limits). The liquidity index (L or LI) provides a quantitative measure of the current state:
where wP = plastic limit and wL = liquid limit Significant values of IL indicating the consistency of the soil are:
Soil classification
IL < 0 semi-plastic solid or solid 0 < IL < 1 plastic 1 < IL liquid
Predicting stiffness and strength from index properties

Preliminary estimates of strength and stiffness can provide a useful basis for early design and feasibility studies, and also the planning of more detailed testing programmes. The following suggestions have been made; they are simple, but not necessarily reliable, and should be not be used in final design calculations. Undrained shear strength
su = 170 exp(-4.6 L) kN/m [Schofield and Wroth (1968)] su = (0.11 + 0.37 P) 'vo kN/m where 'vo = vertical effective stress in situ [Skempton and Bjerrum (1957)] Stiffness The slope of the critical state line may be estimated from: = P .Gs / 461 [After Skempton and Northey (1953)] The compressibility index may be estimated from: Cc = ln10 = P Gs / 200 (where P is in percentage units)

Soil classification

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BS description system Definitions of terms used in description British Soil Classification System (BSCS)
BS 5930 Site Investigation recommends the terminology and a system for describing and classifying soils for engineering purposes. Without the use of a satisfactory system of description and classification, the description of materials found on a site would be meaningless or even misleading, and it would be difficult to apply experience to future projects.
A recommended protocol for describing a soil deposit uses ninecharacteristics; these should be written in the following order: compactness e.g. loose, dense, slightly cemented bedding structure e.g. homogeneous or stratified; dip, orientation discontinuities spacing of beds, joints, fissures weathered state degree of weathering colour main body colour, mottling grading or consistency e.g. well-graded, poorly-graded; soft, firm, hard SOIL NAME e.g. GRAVEL, SAND, SILT, CLAY; (upper case letters) plus silty-, gravelly-, withfines, etc. as appropriate soil class (BSCS) designation (for roads & airfields) e.g. SW = well-graded sand geological stratigraphic name (when known) e.g. London clay Not all characteristics are necessarily applicable in every case. Example: (i) Loose homogeneous reddish-yellow poorly-graded medium SAND (SP), Flood plain alluvium (ii) Dense fissured unweathered greyish-blue firm CLAY. Oxford clay.
Soil classification
Definitions of terms used in description

A table is given in BS 5930 Site Investigation setting out a recommended field indentification and description system. The following are some of the terms listed for use in soil descriptions: Particle shape angular, sub-angular, sub-rounded, rounded, flat, elongate Compactness loose, medium dense, dense (use a pick or driven peg, or density index ) Bedding structure homogeneous, stratified, inter-stratified Bedding spacing massive(>2m), thickly bedded (2000-600 mm), medium bedded (600-200 mm), thinly bedded (200-60 mm), very thinly bedded (60-20 mm), laminated (20-6 mm), thinly laminated (<6 mm). Discontinuities i.e. spacing of joints and fissure: very widely spaced(>2m), widely spaced (2000-600 mm), medium spaced (600-200 mm), closely spaced (200-60 mm), very closely spaced (60-20 mm), extremely closely spaced (<20 mm). Colours red, pink, yellow, brown, olive, green, blue, white, grey, black Consistency very soft (exudes between fingers), soft (easily mouldable), firm (strong finger pressure required), stiff (can be indented with fingers, but not moulded) very stiff (indented by sharp object), hard (difficult to indent). Grading well graded (wide size range), uniform (very narrow size range), poorly graded (narrow or uneven size range). Composite soils In SANDS and GRAVELS: slightly clayey or silty (<5%), clayey or silty (5-15%), very clayey or silty(>15%) In CLAYS and SILTS: sandy or gravelly (35-65%)
British Soil Classification System

The recommended standard for soil classification is the British Soil Classification System, and this is detailed in BS 5930 Site Investigation. Its essential structure is as follows: Soil group Coarse soils Symbol Fines % Recommended name
Soil classification
GW GPu/GPg
0-5 0-5
Well-graded GRAVEL Uniform/poorly-graded GRAVEL Well-graded silty/clayey GRAVEL Poorly graded silty/clayey GRAVEL Very silty GRAVEL [plasticity sub-group...] Very clayey GRAVEL [.. symbols as below] Well-graded SAND Uniform/poorly-graded SAND Well-graded silty/clayey SAND Poorly graded silty/clayey SAND Very silty SAND [plasticity subgroup...] Very clayey SAND [..symbols as below]
G-F GWM/GWC 5 - 15 GRAVEL GPM/GPC GF 5 - 15
GML, GMI... 15 - 35 GCL, GCI... 15 - 35 0-5 0-5 5 - 15 5 - 15 15 - 35 15 - 35
SW SPu/SPg
S-F SWM/SWC SAND SF GPM/GPC SML, SMI... SCL, SCI...
Fine soils
>35% fines MG
Liquid limit% Gravelly SILT Sandy SILT [Plasticity subdivisions as for CLAY] Gravelly CLAY Sandy CLAY <35 35 - 50 50 - 70 70 - 90 >90 CLAY of low plasticity CLAY of intermediate plasticity CLAY of high plasticity CLAY of very high plasticity CLAY of extremely high plasticity [Add letter 'O' to group symbol] [Soil predominantly fibrous and organic]
SILT
MS ML, MI... CG CS CL
CLAY
CI CH CV CE
Organic soils O Peat Pt
Soil classification
Soil mechanics
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Soil description and classification

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Basic characteristics of soils Origins, formation and mineralogy Grading and composition Volume-weight properties Current state of soil British Standard system
It is necessary to adopt a formal system of soil description and classification in order to describe the various materials found in ground investigation. Such a system must be comprehensive (covering all but the rarest of deposits), meaningful in an engineering context (so that engineers will be able to understand and interpret) and yet relatively concise. It is important to distinguish between description and classification: Description of soil is a statement describing the physical nature and state of the soil. It can be a description of a sample, or a soil in situ. It is arrived at using visual examination, simple tests, observation of site conditions, geological history, etc. Soil classification is the separation of soil into classes or groups each having similar characteristics and potentially similar behaviour. A classification for engineering purposes should be based mainly on mechanical properties, e.g. permeability, stiffness, strength. The class to which a soil belongs can be used in its description.

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http://fbe.uwe.ac.uk/public/geocal/SoilMech/classification/soilclas.htm (1 of 40)23/03/2005 2:09:56
Soil mechanics
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Size range of grains Shape of grains Composition of grains Structure or fabric
Soils consist of grains (mineral grains, rock fragments, etc.) with water and air in the voids between grains. The water and air contents are readily changed by changes in conditions and location: soils can be perfectly dry (have no water content) or be fully saturated (have no air content) or be partly saturated (with both air and water present). Although the size and shape of the solid (granular) content rarely changes at a given point, they can vary considerably from point to point.
First of all, consider soil as a engineering material - it is not a coherent solid material like steel and concrete, but is a particulate material. It is important to understand the significance of particle size, shape and composition, and of a soil's internal structure or fabric.

The term "soil" means different things to different people: To a geologist it represents the products of past surface processes. To a pedologist it represents currently occurring physical and chemical processes. To an engineer it is a material that can be: built on: foundations to buildings, bridges. built in: tunnels, culverts, basements. built with: roads, runways, embankments, dams. supported: retaining walls, quays. Soils may be described in different ways by different people for their different purposes. Engineers' descriptions give engineering terms that will convey some sense of a soil's current state and probable
Soil mechanics
susceptibility to future changes (e.g. in loading, drainage, structure, surface level). Engineers are primarily interested in a soil's mechanical properties: strength, stiffness, permeability. These depend primarily on the nature of the soil grains, the current stress, the water content and unit weight.

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The range of particle sizes encountered in soil is very large: from boulders with a controlling dimension of over 200mm down to clay particles less than 0.002mm (2m). Some clays contain particles less than 1 in size which behave as colloids, i.e. do not settle in water due solely to gravity. In theBritish Soil Classification System, soils are classified into named Basic Soil Type groups according to size, and the groups further divided into coarse, medium and fine sub-groups:
Very coarse BOULDERS soils COBBLES
> 200 mm 60 - 200 mm
Coarse soils
coarse 20 - 60 mm G medium 6 - 20 mm GRAVEL fine 2 - 6 mm coarse S SAND fine 0.6 - 2.0 mm 0.06 - 0.2 mm medium 0.2 - 0.6 mm
Soil mechanics
coarse Fine soils M SILT fine C CLAY
0.02 - 0.06 mm 0.002 - 0.006 mm < 0.002 mm
medium 0.006 - 0.02 mm

Soils possess a number of physical characteristics which can be used as aids to size identification in the field. A handful of soil rubbed through the fingers can yield the following: SAND (and coarser) particles are visible to the naked eye. SILT particles become dusty when dry and are easily brushed off hands and boots. CLAY particles are greasy and sticky when wet and hard when dry, and have to be scraped or washed off hands and boots.
Shape of grains
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Shape characteristics of SAND grains Shape characteristics of CLAY grains Specific surface
The majority of soils may be regarded as either SANDS or CLAYS: SANDS include gravelly sands and gravel-sands. Sand grains are generally broken rock particles that have been formed by physical weathering, or they are the resistant components of rocks broken down by chemical weathering. Sand grains generally have a rotund shape.
Soil mechanics
CLAYS include silty clays and clay-silts; there are few pure silts (e.g. areas formed by windblown Less). Clay grains are usually the product of chemical weathering or rocks and soils. Clay particles have a flaky shape. There are major differences in engineering behaviour between SANDS and CLAYS (e.g. in permeability, compressibility, shrinking/swelling potential). The shape and size of the soil grains has an important bearing on these differences.
Shape of grains
Shape characteristics of SAND grains

SAND and larger-sized grains are rotund. Coarse soil grains (silt-sized, sand-sized and larger) have different shape characteristics and surface roughness depending on the amount of wear during transportation (by water, wind or ice), or after crushing in manufactured aggregates. They have a relatively low specific surface (surface area). Click on a link below to see the shape Rounded: Water- or air-worn; transported sediments Irregular: Irregular shape with round edges; glacial sediments (sometimes sub-divided into 'sub-rounded' and 'sub-angular') Angular: Flat faces and sharp edges; residual soils, grits Flaky: Thickness small compared to length/breadth; clays Elongated: Length larger than breadth/thickness; scree, broken flagstone Flaky & Elongated: Length>Breadth>Thickness; broken schists and slates
Shape of grains
Shape characteristics of CLAY grains

CLAY particles are flaky. Their thickness is very small relative to their length & breadth, in some cases as thin as 1/100th of the length. They therefore have high to very high specific surface values. These
Soil mechanics
surfaces carry a small negative electrical charge, that will attract the positive end of water molecules. This charge depends on the soil mineral and may be affected by an electrolite in the pore water. This causes some additional forces between the soil grains which are proportional to the specific surface. Thus a lot of water may be held asadsorbed water within a clay mass.
Shape of grains
Specific surface
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Examples
Specific surface is the ratio of surface area per unit wight. Surface forces are proportional to surface area (i.e. to d). Self-weight forces are proportional to volume (i.e. to d). Surface force self weight forces area Also, specific surface = * volume 1 d 1 d
Therefore
Hence, specific surface is a measure of the relative contributions of surface forces and self-weight
Soil mechanics
forces. The specific surface of a 1mm cube of quartz ( = 2.65gm/cm) is 0.00023 m/N SAND grains (size 2.0 - 0.06mm) are close to cubes or spheres in shape, and have specific surfaces near the minimum value. CLAY particles are flaky and have much greater specific surface values.
Examples of specific surface

The more elongated or flaky a particle is the greater will be its specific surface. Click on the following examples: cubes, rods, sheets Examples of mineral grain specific surfaces:
Mineral/Soil Quartz grain Quartz sand Kaolinite Illite Montmorillonite
Grain width Specific Surface Thickness m/N d (m) 100 2.0 - 0.06 2.0 - 0.3 2.0 - 0.2 1.0 - 0.01 d d 0.2d 0.1d 0.01d 0.0023 0.0001 - 0.004 2 8 80
See also clay minerals
Structure or fabric
Natural soils are rarely the same from one point in the ground to another. The content and nature of grains varies, but more importantly, so does the arrangement of these.
Soil mechanics
The arrangement and organisation of particles and other features within a soil mass is termed its structure or fabric. This includes bedding orientation, stratification, layer thickness, the occurrence of joints and fissures, the occurrence of voids, artefacts, tree roots and nodules, the presence of cementing or bonding agents between grains. Structural features can have a major influence on in situ properties.
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Vertical and horizontal permeabilities will be different in alternating layers of fine and coarse soils. The presence of fissures affects some aspects of strength. The presence of layers or lenses of different stiffness can affect stability. The presence of cementing or bonding influences strength and stiffness.

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Soils are the results of geological events (except for the very small amount produced by man). The nature and structure of a given soil depends on the geological processes that formed it: breakdown of parent rock: weathering, decomposition, erosion. transportation to site of final deposition: gravity, flowing water, ice, wind. environment of final deposition: flood plain, river terrace, glacial moraine, lacustrine or marine. subsequent conditions of loading and drainage - little or no surcharge, heavy surcharge due to ice or overlying deposits, change from saline to freshwater, leaching, contamination.
Soil mechanics
Origins of soils from rocks

All soils originate, directly or indirectly, from solid rocks in the Earth's crust: igneous rocks crystalline bodies of cooled magma e.g. granite, basalt, dolerite, gabbro, syenite, porphyry sedimentary rocks layers of consolidated and cemented sediments, mostly formed in bodies of water (seas, lakes, etc.) e.g. limestone, sandstones, mudstone, shale, conglomerate metamorphic rocks formed by the alteration of existing rocks due to heat from igneous intrusions (e.g. marble, quartzite, hornfels) or pressure due to crustal movement (e.g. slate, schist, gneiss).
Weathering of rocks
Physical weathering Physical or mechanical processes taking place on the Earth's surface, including the actions of water, frost, temperature changes, wind and ice; cause disintegration and wearing. The products are mainly coarse soils (silts, sands and gravels). Physical weathering produces Very Coarse soils and Gravels consisting of broken rock particles, but Sands and Silts will be mainly consists of mineral grains. Chemical weathering Chemical weathering occurs in wet and warm conditions and consists of degradation by decomposition and/or alteration. The results of chemical weathering are generally fine soils with separate mineral grains, such as Clays and Clay-Silts. The type of clay mineral depends on the parent rock and on local drainage. Some minerals, such as quartz, are resistant to the chemical weathering and remain unchanged. quartz A resistant and enduring mineral found in many rocks (e.g. granite, sandstone). It is the principal constituent of sands and silts, and the most abundant soil mineral. It occurs as equidimensional hard grains. haematite
Soil mechanics
A red iron (ferric) oxide: resistant to change, results from extreme weathering. It is responsible for the widespread red or pink colouration in rocks and soils. It can form a cement in rocks, or a duricrust in soils in arid climates. micas Flaky minerals present in many igneous rocks. Some are resistant, e.g. muscovite; some are broken down, e.g. biotite. clay minerals These result mainly from the breakdown of feldspar minerals. They are very flaky and therefore have very large surface areas. They are major constituents of clay soils, although clay soil also contains silt sized particles.
Clay minerals
Clay minerals are produced mainly from the chemical weathering and decomposition of feldspars, such as orthoclase and plagioclase, and some micas. They are small in size and very flaky in shape. The key to some of the properties of clay soils, e. g. plasticity, compressibility, swelling/shrinkage potential, lies in the structure of clay minerals. There are three main groups of clay minerals: kaolinites (include kaolinite, dickite and nacrite) formed by the decomposition of orthoclase feldspar (e.g. in granite); kaolin is the principal constituent in china clay and ball clay. illites (include illite and glauconite) are the commonest clay minerals; formed by the decomposition of some micas and feldspars; predominant in marine clays and shales (e.g. London clay, Oxford clay). montmorillonites (also called smectites or fullers' earth minerals) (include calcium and sodium momtmorillonites, bentonite and vermiculite) formed by the alteration of basic igneous rocks containing silicates rich in Ca and Mg; weak linkage by cations (e.g. Na+, Ca++) results in high swelling/shrinking potential
Soil mechanics
For more information on mineralogy see http://mineral.gly.bris.ac.uk/mineralogy/
Transportation and deposition

The effects of weathering and transportation largely determine the basic nature of the soil (i.e. the size, shape, composition and distribution of the grains). The environment into which deposition takes place, and subsequent geological events that take place there, largely determine the state of the soil, (i.e. density, moisture content) and the structure or fabric of the soil (i.e. bedding, stratification, occurrence of joints or fissures, tree roots, voids, etc.) Transportation Due to combinations of gravity, flowing water or air, and moving ice. In water or air: grains become subrounded or rounded, grain sizes are sorted, producing poorly-graded deposits. In moving ice: grinding and crushing occur, size distribution becomes wider, deposits are well-graded, ranging from rock flour to boulders. Deposition In flowing water, larger particles are deposited as velocity drops, e.g. gravels in river terraces, sands in floodplains and estuaries, silts and clays in lakes and seas. In still water: horizontal layers of successive sediments are formed, which may change with time, even seasonally or daily.
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Deltaic & shelf deposits: often vary both horizontally and vertically. From glaciers, deposition varies from well-graded basal tills and boulder clays to poorly-graded deposits in moraines and outwash fans. In arid conditions: scree material is usually poorly-graded and lies on slopes. Wind-blown Less is generally uniformly-graded and false-bedded.
Loading and drainage history

Soil mechanics
The current state (i.e. density and consistency) of a soil will have been profoundly influenced by the history of loading and unloading since it was deposited. Changes in drainage conditions may also have occurred which may have brought about changes in water content. Loading /unloading history Initial loading During deposition the load applied to a layer of soil increases as more layers are deposited over it; thus, it is compressed and water is squeezed out; as deposition continues, the soil becomes stiffer and stronger. Unloading The principal natural mechanism of unloading is erosion of overlying layers. Unloading can also occur as overlying ice-sheets and glaciers retreat, or due to large excavations made by man. Soil expands when it is unloaded, but not as much as it was initially compressed; thus it stays compressed - and is said to be overconsolidated. The degree of overconsolidation depends on the history of loading and unloading. Drainage history Chemical changes Some soils initially deposited loosely in saline water and then inundated with fresh water develop weak collapsing structure. In arid climates with intermittent rainy periods, cycles of wetting and drying can bring minerals to the surface to form a cemented soil. Climate changes Some clays (e.g. montmorillonite clays) are prone to large volume changes due to wetting and drying; thus, seasonal changes in surface level occur, often causing foundation damage, especially after exceptionally dry summers. Trees extract water from soil in the process of evapotranspiration; The soil near to trees can therefore either shrink as trees grow larger, or expand following the removal of large trees.

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Coarse soils Fine soils
Soil mechanics
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Specific gravity
The recommended standard for soil classification is the British Soil Classification System, and this is detailed in BS 5930 Site Investigation.
Coarse soils
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Particle size tests Typical grading curves Grading characteristics Sieve analysis example
Coarse soils are classified principally on the basis of particle size and grading. Very coarse BOULDERS soils COBBLES coarse > 200 mm 60 - 200 mm 20 - 60 mm
Coarse soils
G medium 6 - 20 mm GRAVEL fine 2 - 6 mm coarse S SAND fine 0.6 - 2.0 mm 0.06 - 0.2 mm medium 0.2 - 0.6 mm
Coarse soils
Particle size tests

The aim is to measure the distribution of particle sizes in the sample. When a wide range of sizes is present, the sample will be sub-divided, and separate tests carried out on each sub-sample. Full details of tests are given
Soil mechanics
in BS 1377: "Methods of test for soil for civil engineering purposes". Particle-size tests Wet sieving to separate fine grains from coarse grains is carried out by washing the soil specimen on a 60m sieve mesh. Dry sieving analyses can only be carried out on particles > 60 m. Samples (with fines removed) are dried and shaken through a nest of sieves of descending size. Sedimentation is used only for fine soils. Soil particles are allowed to settle from a suspension. The decreasing density of the suspension is measured at time intervals. Sizes are determined from the settling velocity and times recorded. Percentages between sizes are determined from density differences. Particle-size analysis The cumulative percentage quantities finer than certain sizes (e.g. passing a given size sieve mesh) are determined by weighing. Points are then plotted of % finer (passing) against log size. A smooth Sshaped curve drawn through these points is called a grading curve. The position and shape of the grading curve determines the soil class. Geometrical grading characteristics can be determined also from the grading curve.
Coarse soils
Typical grading curves
Soil mechanics
Both the position and the shape of the grading curve for a soil can aid its identity and description. Some typical grading curves are shown in the figure: A - a poorly-graded medium SAND (probably estuarine or flood-plain alluvium) B - a well-graded GRAVEL-SAND (i.e. equal amounts of gravel and sand) C - a gap-graded COBBLES-SAND D - a sandy SILT (perhaps a deltaic or estuarine silt) E - a typical silty CLAY (e.g. London clay, Oxford clay)
Coarse soils
Grading characteristics
A grading curve is a useful aid to soil description. Grading curves are often included in ground investigation reports. Results of grading tests can be tabulated using geometric properties of the grading curve. These properties are called grading characteristics First of all, three points are located on the grading curve: d10 = the maximum size of the smallest 10% of the sample
Soil mechanics
d30 = the maximum size of the smallest 30% of the sample d60 = the maximum size of the smallest 60% of the sample From these the grading characteristics are calculated: Effective size d10 Uniformity coefficient Cu = d60 / d10 Coefficient of gradation Ck = d30 / d60 d10 Both Cu and Ck will be 1 for a single-sized soil Cu > 5 indicates a well-graded soil Cu < 3 indicates a uniform soil Ck between 0.5 and 2.0 indicates a well-graded soil Ck < 0.1 indicates a possible gap-graded soil
Coarse soils
Sieve analysis example

The results of a dry-sieving test are given below, together with the grading analysis and grading curve. Note carefully how the tabulated results are set out and calculated. The grading curve has been plotted on special semi-logarithmic paper; you can also do this analysis using a spreadsheet. Sieve mesh Mass Percentage Percentage size (mm) retained (g) retained finer (passing) 14.0 10.0 6.3 5.0 3.35 0 3.5 7.6 7.0 14.3 0 1.2 2.6 2.4 4.9 100.0 98.8 86.2 93.8 88.9
Soil mechanics
2.0 1.18 0.600 0.425 0.300 0.212 0.150 0.063 Pan TOTAL
21.1 56.7 73.4 22.2 26.9 18.4 15.2 17.5 8.5 292.3
7.2 19.4 25.1 7.6 9.2 6.3 5.2 6.0 2.9 100.0
81.7 62.3 37.2 29.6 20.4 14.1 8.9 2.9
The soil comprises: 18% gravel, 45% coarse sand, 24% medium sand, 10% fine sand, 3% silt, and is classified therefore as: a well-graded gravelly SAND
Fine soils
G
Soil mechanics
G G G
Plasticity index The plasticity chart and classification Activity
In the case of fine soils (e.g. CLAYS and SILTS), it is the shape of the particles rather than their size that has the greater influence on engineering properties. Clay soils have flaky particles to which water adheres, thus imparting the property of plasticity.
Fine soils
Consistency varies with the water content of the soil. The consistency of a soil can range from (dry) solid to semi-solid to plastic to liquid (wet). The water contents at which the consistency changes from one state to the next are called consistency limits (or Atterberg limits). Two of these are utilised in the classification of fine soils: Liquid limit (wL) - change of consistency from plastic to liquid Plastic limit (wP) - change of consistency from brittle/crumbly to plastic Measures of liquid and plastic limit values can be obtained from laboratory tests.
Soil mechanics
Fine soils
Plasticity index
The consistency of most soils in the ground will be plastic or semi-solid. Soil strength and stiffness behaviour are related to the range of plastic consistency. The range of water content over which a soil has a plastic consistency is termed the Plasticity Index (IP or PI). IP = liquid limit - plastic limit = wL - wP
Fine soils
The plasticity chart and classification

In the BSCS fine soils are divided into ten classes based on their measured plasticity index and liquid limit values: CLAYS are distinguished from SILTS, and five divisions of plasticity are defined: Low plasticity Intermediate plasticity High plasticity Very high plasticity wL = < 35% wL = 35 - 50% wL = 50 - 70% wL = 70 - 90%
Soil mechanics
Extremely high plasticity wL = > 90% A plasticity chart is provided to aid classification.
Fine soils
Activity
So-called 'clay' soils are not 100% clay. The proportion of clay mineral flakes (< 2 m size) in a fine soil affects its current state, particularly its tendency to swell and shrink with changes in water content. The degree of plasticity related to the clay content is called the activity of the soil. Activity = P / (% clay particles) Some typical values are: Mineral Muscovite Kaolinite Illite Activity Soil 0.25 0.40 0.90 Kaolin clay Most British clays Activity 0.4-0.5 0.75-1.25
Glacial clay and loess 0.5-0.75 Organic estuarine clay > 1.25
Montmorillonite > 1.25
Soil mechanics
Specific gravity
Specific gravity (Gs) is a property of the mineral or rock material forming soil grains. It is defined as
Method of measurement For fine soils a 50 ml density bottle may be used; for coarse soils a 500 ml or 1000 ml jar. The jar is weighed empty (M1). A quantity of dry soil is placed in the jar and the jar weighed (M2). The jar is filled with water, air removed by stirring, and weighed again (M3). The jar is emptied, cleaned and refilled with water - and weighed again (M4).
[The range of Gs for common soils is 2.64 to 2.72]
G
Soil mechanics
G G G G
Masses of solid and water: water content Densities and unit weights Laboratory measurements Field measurements
The volume-weight properties of a soil define its state. Measures of the amount of void space, amount of water and the weight of a unit volume of soil are required in engineering analysis and design. Soil comprises three constituent phases: Solid: rock fragments, mineral grains or flakes, organic matter. Liquid: water, with some dissolved compounds (e.g. salts). Gas: air or water vapour. In natural soils the three phases are intermixed. To aid analysis it is convenient to consider a soil model in which the three phases are seen as separate, but still in their correct proportions.

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Degree of saturation Air-voids content
Soil mechanics
The soil model is given dimensional values for the solid, water and air components: Total volume, V = Vs + Vw + Va Since the amounts of both water and air are variable, the volume of solids present is taken as the reference quantity. Thus, the following relational volumetric quantities may be defined:
Note also that: n = e / (1 + e) e = n / (1 - n) v = 1 / (1 - n) Typical void ratios might be 0.3 (e.g. for a dense, well graded granular soil) or 1.5 (e.g. for a soft clay).
Degree of saturation
Soil mechanics
The volume of water in a soil can only vary between zero (i.e. a dry soil) and the volume of voids; this can be expressed as a ratio:
For a perfectly dry soil: Sr = 0 For a saturated soil: Sr = 1 Note: In clay soils as the amount water increases the volume and therefore the volume of voids will also increase, and so the degree of saturation may remain at Sr = 1 while the actual volume of water is increasing.
Air-voids content
Soil mechanics
The air-voids volume, Va , is that part of the void space not occupied by water. Va = Vv - Vw = e - e.Sr = e.(1 - Sr) Air-voids content, Av Av = (air-voids volume) / (total volume) = Va / V = e.(1 - Sr) / (1+e) = n.(1 - Sr) For a perfectly dry soil: Av = n For a saturated soil: Av = 0
Masses of solid and water: water content
Soil mechanics
The mass of air may be ignored. The mass of solid particles is usually expressed in terms of their particle density or grain specific gravity. Grain specific gravity
Hence the mass of solid particles in a soil Ms = Vs .Gs .w (w = density of water = 1.00Mg/m) [Range of Gs for common soils: 2.64-2.72] Particle density s = mass per unit volume of particles = Gs .w The ratio of the mass of water present to the mass of solid particles is called the water content, or sometimes the moisture content.
From the soil model it can be seen that w = (Sr .e .w) / (Gs .w) Giving the useful relationship:
Soil mechanics
w .Gs = Sr .e
Densities and unit weights
Density is a measure of the quantity of mass in a unit volume of material. Unit weight is a measure of the weight of a unit volume of material. There are two basic measures of density or unit weight applied to soils: Dry density is a measure of the amount of solid particles per unit volume. Bulk density is a measure of the amount of solid + water per unit volume.
The preferred units of density are: Mg/m, kg/m or g/ml. The corresponding unit weights are:
Soil mechanics
Also, it can be shown that = d(1 + w) and = gd(1 + w)
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Water content Unit weight
It is important to quantify the state of a soil immediately it is received in the testing laboratory and just prior to commencing other tests (e.g. shear tests, compression tests, etc.). The water content and unit weight are particularly important, since these could change during transportation and storage. Some physical state properties are calculated following the practical measurement of others; e.g. void ratio from porosity, dry unit weight from unit weight & water content.
Water content
The most usual method of determining the water content of soil is to weigh a small representative
Soil mechanics
specimen, drying it to constant weight and then weighing it again. Drying can be carried out using an electric oven set at 104-105 Celsius or using a microwave oven. Example: A sample of soil was placed in a tin container and weighed, after which it was dried in an oven and then weighed again. Calculate the water content of the soil. Weight of tin empty = 16.16 g Weight of tin + moist soil = 37.82 g Weight of tin + dry soil = 34.68 g = (mass of water) / (mass of dry Water content, w soil) = (37.82 - 34.68) / (34.68 - 16.16) = 0.169 Percentage water content = 16.9 %
Unit weight
Clay soils: Specimens are usually prepared in the form of regular geometric shapes, (e.g. prisms, cylinders) of which the volume is easily computed. Sands and gravels: Specimens have to be placed in a container to determine volume (e.g. a cylindrical can). Example A soil specimen had a volume of 89.13 ml, a mass before drying of 174.45 g and after drying of 158.73 g; the water content was 9.9 %. Determine the bulk and dry densities and unit weights. Bulk density = (mass of specimen) / (volume of specimen) = 174.45 / 89.13 g/ml = 1.957 Mg/m [1 g/ml = 1 Mg/m] Unit weight
Soil mechanics
= 9.81m/s x Mg/m = 19.20 kN/m Dry density d = (mass after drying) / (volume) = 158.73 / 89.13 = 1.781 Mg/m d = / (1 + w) = 1.957 / (1+0.099) = 1.781 Mg/m Dry unit weight d = / (1 + w) = 19.20 / (1+0.099) = 17.47 kN/m
Field measurements
Measurements taken in the field are mostly to determine density/unit weight. The most common application is the determination of the density of rolled and compacted fill, e.g. in road bases, embankments, etc. Note: These methods are covered in detail by BS1377. You should understand the general principle that density is calculated from the mass and volume of a sample. How a sample of known volume is obtained depends on the nature of the soil. You are not expected to remember the details of each method.
Soil mechanics
The core cutter method This method is suitable for soft fine grained soils. A steel cylinder is driven into the ground, dug out and the soil shaved off level. The mass of soil is found by weighing and deducting the mass of the cylinder. Small samples are taken from both ends and the water content determined.
The sand-pouring cylinder method This method is suitable for stony soils Using a special tray with a hole in the centre, a hole is formed in the soil and the mass of soil removed is weighed. The volume of the hole is calculated from the mass of clean dry running sand required to fill the hole. The sand-pouring cylinder is used to fill the hole in a controlled manner. The mass of sand required to fill the hole is equal to the difference in the weight of the cylinder before and after filling the hole, less an allowance for the sand left in the cone above the hole.
Bulk density = (mass of soil) / (volume of core cutter or hole)

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Soil history: deposition and erosion Soil history: ageing Density index (relative density) Liquidity index
Soil mechanics
G
The state of soil is essentially the closeness of packing of the grains in the range: Closely packed Loosely packed Dense Loose Low water content High water content Strong and stiff Weak and soft The important indicators of the current state of a soil are: current stresses: vertical and horizontal effective stresses current water content: effecting strength and stiffness in fine soils liquidity index: indicates state in fine soils density index: indicates state of compaction in coarse soils history of loading and unloading: degree of overconsolidation Engineering operations (e.g. excavation, loading, unloading, compaction, etc.) on soil bring about changes in its state. Its initial state is the result of processes of erosion and deposition. It is possible for the engineer to predict changes that could result from a proposed engineering operation: changes from the soil's current state to a new future state.
Soil history: deposition and erosion

Original deposition Most soils are formed in layers or lenses by deposition from moving water, ice or wind. One-dimensional compression occurs as overlying layers are added. Vertical and horizontal stresses increase with deposition. Erosion Erosion causes unloading; stresses decrease; some vertical expansion occurs. Plastic strain has occurred; the soil remains compressed, i.e. overconsolidated. Subsequent changes
Soil mechanics
Subsequent changes may occur in the depositional environment: further loading/unloading due to glaciation, land movement, engineering; and ageing processes.
Soil history: ageing

The term ageing includes processes that occur with time, except loading and unloading. Ageing processes are independent of changes in loading. Vibration and compaction Coarse soils can be made more dense by vibration or compaction at essentially constant effective stress Creep Fine soils creep and continue to compress and distort at constant effective stress after primary consolidation is complete. Cementing and bonding Intergranular cementing and bonding occurs due to deposition of minerals from groundwater, e.g. calcium carbonate; disturbance due to excavation fractures the bonding and reduces strength. Weathering Physical and chemical changes take place in soils near the ground surface due to the influence of changes in rainfall and temperature. Changes in salinity Changes in the salinity of groundwater are due to changes in relative sea and land levels, thus soil originally deposited in sea water may later have fresh water in its pores, such soils may be prone to sudden collapse.
Density index (relative density)

Soil mechanics
The void ratio of coarse soils (sands and gravels) varies with the state of packing between the loosest practical state in which it can exist and the densest. Some engineering properties are affected by this, e.g. shear strength, compressibility, permeability. It is therefore useful to measure the in situ state and this can be done by comparing the in situ void ratio (e) with the minimum and maximum practical values (emin and emax) to give a density index D
emin is determined with soil compacted densely in a metal mould emax is determined with soil poured loosely into a metal mould Density index is also known as relative density Relative states of compaction are defined: Density index 0-15% 15-35 35-65 65-85 85-100% State of compaction Very loose Loose Medium Dense Very dense
Liquidity index
Soil mechanics
In fine soils, especially clays, the current state is dependent on the water content with respect to the consistency limits (or Atterberg limits). The liquidity index (L or LI) provides a quantitative measure of the current state:
where wP = plastic limit and wL = liquid limit Significant values of IL indicating the consistency of the soil are: IL < 0 semi-plastic solid or solid 0 < IL < 1 plastic 1 < IL liquid

Preliminary estimates of strength and stiffness can provide a useful basis for early design and feasibility studies, and also the planning of more detailed testing programmes. The following suggestions have been made; they are simple, but not necessarily reliable, and should be not be used in final design
Soil mechanics
calculations. Undrained shear strength
su = 170 exp(-4.6 L) kN/m [Schofield and Wroth (1968)] su = (0.11 + 0.37 P) 'vo kN/m where 'vo = vertical effective stress in situ [Skempton and Bjerrum (1957)] Stiffness The slope of the critical state line may be estimated from: = P .Gs / 461 [After Skempton and Northey (1953)] The compressibility index may be estimated from: Cc = ln10 = P Gs / 200 (where P is in percentage units)

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BS description system Definitions of terms used in description
Soil mechanics
G
British Soil Classification System (BSCS)
BS 5930 Site Investigation recommends the terminology and a system for describing and classifying soils for engineering purposes. Without the use of a satisfactory system of description and classification, the description of materials found on a site would be meaningless or even misleading, and it would be difficult to apply experience to future projects.
A recommended protocol for describing a soil deposit uses ninecharacteristics; these should be written in the following order: compactness e.g. loose, dense, slightly cemented bedding structure e.g. homogeneous or stratified; dip, orientation discontinuities spacing of beds, joints, fissures weathered state degree of weathering colour main body colour, mottling grading or consistency e.g. well-graded, poorly-graded; soft, firm, hard SOIL NAME e.g. GRAVEL, SAND, SILT, CLAY; (upper case letters) plus silty-, gravelly-, with-fines, etc. as appropriate soil class (BSCS) designation (for roads & airfields) e.g. SW = well-graded sand geological stratigraphic name (when known) e.g. London clay Not all characteristics are necessarily applicable in every case. Example:
Soil mechanics
(i) Loose homogeneous reddish-yellow poorly-graded medium SAND (SP), Flood plain alluvium (ii) Dense fissured unweathered greyish-blue firm CLAY. Oxford clay.
Definitions of terms used in description

A table is given in BS 5930 Site Investigation setting out a recommended field indentification and description system. The following are some of the terms listed for use in soil descriptions: Particle shape angular, sub-angular, sub-rounded, rounded, flat, elongate Compactness loose, medium dense, dense (use a pick or driven peg, or density index ) Bedding structure homogeneous, stratified, inter-stratified Bedding spacing massive(>2m), thickly bedded (2000-600 mm), medium bedded (600-200 mm), thinly bedded (200-60 mm), very thinly bedded (60-20 mm), laminated (20-6 mm), thinly laminated (<6 mm). Discontinuities i.e. spacing of joints and fissure: very widely spaced(>2m), widely spaced (2000-600 mm), medium spaced (600-200 mm), closely spaced (200-60 mm), very closely spaced (60-20 mm), extremely closely spaced (<20 mm). Colours red, pink, yellow, brown, olive, green, blue, white, grey, black Consistency very soft (exudes between fingers), soft (easily mouldable), firm (strong finger pressure required), stiff (can be indented with fingers, but not moulded) very stiff (indented by sharp object), hard (difficult to indent). Grading well graded (wide size range), uniform (very narrow size range), poorly graded (narrow or uneven size range). Composite soils In SANDS and GRAVELS: slightly clayey or silty (<5%), clayey or silty (5-15%), very clayey or silty (>15%) In CLAYS and SILTS: sandy or gravelly (35-65%)
Soil mechanics
British Soil Classification System

The recommended standard for soil classification is the British Soil Classification System, and this is detailed in BS 5930 Site Investigation. Its essential structure is as follows: Soil group Coarse soils G GW GPu/GPg GRAVEL Symbol Fines % 0-5 0-5 Well-graded GRAVEL Uniform/poorly-graded GRAVEL Well-graded silty/clayey GRAVEL Poorly graded silty/clayey GRAVEL Very silty GRAVEL [plasticity sub-group...] Very clayey GRAVEL [..symbols as below] Well-graded SAND Uniform/poorly-graded SAND Well-graded silty/clayey SAND Poorly graded silty/clayey SAND Very silty SAND [plasticity sub-group...] Very clayey SAND [..symbols as below] Recommended name
G-F GWM/GWC 5 - 15 GPM/GPC GF 5 - 15
GML, GMI... 15 - 35 GCL, GCI... 15 - 35 0-5 0-5 5 - 15 5 - 15 15 - 35 15 - 35
SW SPu/SPg
SAND
S-F SWM/SWC GPM/GPC SF SML, SMI... SCL, SCI...
Fine soils
>35% fines MG
Liquid limit% Gravelly SILT Sandy SILT [Plasticity subdivisions as for CLAY] Gravelly CLAY Sandy CLAY <35 CLAY of low plasticity
SILT
MS ML, MI... CG CS CL
CLAY
Soil mechanics
CI CH CV CE Organic soils O Peat Pt
35 - 50 50 - 70 70 - 90 >90
CLAY of intermediate plasticity CLAY of high plasticity CLAY of very high plasticity CLAY of extremely high plasticity [Add letter 'O' to group symbol] [Soil predominantly fibrous and organic]
Stress in the ground
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Effective Stress in the ground

When a load is applied to soil, it is carried by the water in the pores as well as the solid grains. The increase in pressure within the porewater causes drainage (flow out of the soil), and the load is transferred to the solid grains. The rate of drainage depends on the permeability of the soil.
Effective Stress
Introduction Stress profile applet Total stress In a homogeneous soil mass G In a soil mass below a river or lake G In a multi-layered soil mass G In a soil mass which is unsaturated G In a soil mass with a surface surcharge load
G
The strength and compressibility of the soil depend on the stresses within the solid granular fabric. These are called effective stresses. Use the menu on the left to navigate throught the notes and simple exercises on stress in the ground.
Pore pressure
G G G G
Groundwater and hydrostatic pressure Water table, phreatic surface Negative pore pressure (suction) Pore water and pore air pressure Effective stress
Terzaghi's principle and equation G Mohr circles for total and effective stress G Importance of effective stress G Changes in effective stress H Changes in strength H Changes in volume
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Drainage and volume change Volume compressibility under load G Drainage under load G Permeability and time G Volume change under constant effective stress
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Drained and undrained loading

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Drained loading conditions

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Stress in the ground

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Undrained loading conditions Consolidation Rates of loading and seepage Loading simulation Calculating vertical stress
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Simple total and effective stresses Effect of changing water table Stresses under foundations Short-term and long-term stresses H Initially, before construction H Immediately after construction H Many years after construction Steady-state seepage conditions / above to open / close a
click on section.
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Soil classification
home page
Compression and swelling

Mechanisms Common cases Isotropic
G
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Back to Soil Mechanics
Based on part of the GeotechniCAL reference package by Prof. John Atkinson , City University, London
Compression and swelling

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Equations Overconsolidation State
One-dimensional
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Mechanisms Common cases Isotropic One-dimensional Wet and dry states
Equations Overconsolidation Horizontal stress State
The relationship between volume change and effective stress is called compression and swelling. (Consolidation and compaction are different.) The volume of soil grains remains constant, so change in volume is due to change in volume of water. Compression and swelling results from drained loading and the pore pressure remains constant. If saturated soil is loaded undrained there will be no volume change.
Wet and dry states

G
State parameters
Back to Compression and swelling
Mechanisms of compression
Compression of soil is due to a number of mechanisms: rearrangement of grains fracture and rearrangement of grains distortion or bending of grains On unloading, grains will not unfracture or un-rearrange, so volume change on unloading and reloading (swelling and recompression) will be much less than volume change on first loading (compression). In compression, soil behaviour is:
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Soil classification
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non-linear mostly irrecoverable
Common cases of compression and swelling

In practice, the state of stress in the ground will be complex. These are simple theories for two special cases. Isotropic: Equal stress in all directions. Applicable to triaxial test before shearing.
p' = ('a + 2'r) / 3 = mean stress v = / Vo = volumetric strain
One-dimensional: Horizontal strains are zero. Applicable to oedometer test and in the ground below wide foundations, embankments and excavations.
'z = vertical stress v = V / Vo = / Ho = / (1+eo) = volumetric strain
Soil classification
Isotropic compression and swelling

G G G
Equations Overconsolidation State
Isotropic compression and swelling is applied at the start of a triaxial test. p' = ('a + 2'r) / 3 = mean stress V = Vo - Vw = volume v = V / Vo = v / vo = volumetric strain v = V / Vs = specific volume
As the mean stress p' is raised and lowered there are volumetric strains and the specific volume changes.
p'o = initial mean stress vo = initial specific volume Note the paths of compression, swelling and re-loading.
Back to Isotropic compression and swelling
Soil classification
Equations
G G
Bulk modulus Typical values for compression parameters
For isotropic compression and swelling there are simple relationships between specific volume v and (the natural logarithm of) the mean stress p'. First loading normal compression line OAD on the graph v = N - ln p' Unloading and reloading swelling line BC on the graph v = vk - ln p' N, and are soil parameters. vk and p'y locate the particular swelling line. p'y is referred to as the yield stress. If the current stress and the history of loading/unloading are known, the current specific volume can be calculated.
Back to Equations for isotropic compression
Bulk modulus
Isotropic compression can be represented by a bulk modulus K' or by the slope of the normal compression line (or the slope of a swelling line ): these are related.
Soil classification
K' = dp' / dv v = N - ln p' dv / v = - dp' / vp' Hence K' = vp' / (or vp' / ) Bulk modulus K' depends on v and p'. Both of these will change during compression or swelling and so K' is not a soil constant.
Back to Equations for isotropic compression
Typical values for isotropic compression parameters

The compression and swelling parameters and are soil properties and the values depend on the nature of the soil. Typical values w L Ip l very high plasticity clay high plasticity clay intermediate plasticity clay low plasticity clay quartz sand carbonate sand For clays Ip / 170. / is relatively large (e.g. 0.25 - 0.35) because clay particles can bend and distort. For sands is relatively large due to particles crushing (but states only reach NCL at high pressure). / is relatively small (e.g. 0.1) because sand particles crush and rearrange during first compression. 80 60 42 30 50 34 23 12 0.29 0.20 0.14 0.07 0.15 0.34
Overconsolidation
Soil classification
If the current state of soil is on the normal compression line it is said to be normally consolidated. If the soil is unloaded it becomes overconsolidated. (Soil cannot usually be at a state outside the normal compression line unless it is bonded or structured). At a state A the overconsolidation ratio is Rp = p'y / p'a (on NCL Rp = 1.0 and soil is normally consolidated). Note: p'y is the point of intersection of the swelling line through A and the NCL. This is usually close to the maximum past stress.
State
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Change of state Critical state Normalising parameters
The current state of a soil is described by the stress p', the specific volume v and the overconsolidation ratio Rp (for a complete description the shear stress q' is required). The state at A is given by any two of va , p'a , Rp = p'y / p'a All states with the same Rp fall on the lines parallel with the NCL. ln Rp = ln ( p'y / p'a ) = ln p'y - ln p'a Many features of soil behaviour, especially shear modulus
Soil classification
and peak strength, increase with increasing overconsolidation.
Back to Isotropic compression: state
Change of state
Loading and unloading (relevant to all soils) Change of state A to B can only be achieved by normal compression along CD followed by swelling along DB. Note that the yield stress corresponding to B is larger than the yield stress corresponding to A. Vibration or compaction (relevant to sands) or creep (relevant to clays) Change of state can occur directly from A to B. Note that the yield stress corresponding to B is larger than the yield stress corresponding to A.
Critical state
There is a critical overconsolidation ratio which separates states in which the soil will either compress or dilate during shear. This corresponds to the critical state line CSL. Look at the possible specific volumes (v) that can occur at a mean effective stress p'. wet side of critical (W on the graph) vw > vc at stress p' water content ww is larger than critical wc loose
Soil classification
normally consolidated or lightly overconsolidated compress during drained shear dry side of critical (D on the graph) vd < vc at stress p' water content wd is smaller than critical wc dense heavily overconsolidated dilate during drained shear
Normalising parameters
Normalising parameters change the current state to a normalised state so that all states with the same overconsolidation ratio have the same value. Equivalent specific volume vl = va + ln p'a Equivalent pressure ln p'e = ( N - va ) / Critical pressure ln p'c = ( - va ) / If A is on the wet side of critical ve > p'a / p'c > 1 If A is on the dry side of critical ve < p'a / p'c < 1
Soil classification
One-dimensional compression and swelling

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Equations Overconsolidation Horizontal stress State
One-dimensional loading is applied in an oedometer and occurs in the ground beneath wide foundations, embankments or excavations. 'z = vertical effective stress H = height or thickness vertical strain = volumetric strain v = / Ho = / (1+eo) where Ho, eo and 'o are initial values. As the vertical stress 'z is raised and lowered the top of the sample settles or heaves, or the layer contracts or expands. Note that the compression-swelling-recompression curve is similar to that for isotropic compression, but the axes used are ('z, e) rather than (p', v).
Back to One-dimensional compression and swelling
Equations
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One-dimensional modulus and compressibility
For one-dimensional compression and swelling there are simple relationships between the void ratio and the logarithm of the vertical effective stress 'z.
Soil classification
First loading: normal compression line (NCL) OAD on the graph e = eN - Cc log 'z Unloading and reloading: swelling-recompression line (SRL) BC on the graph e = ek - Cs log 'z eN, Cc and Cs are soil parameters ek and 'y locate a particular swelling line If the current stress 'o and the history of loading and unloading are known, the current void ratio can be calculated. e.g. eo = eN - Cc log 'y + Cs ('y - 'o )
Back to One-dimensional compression: equations
One-dimensional modulus and compressibility

The one-dimensional stiffness modulus is the slope of the stress/strain curve: M' = 'z / v or E'o = 'z / z (since h = 0) The reciprocal of stiffness is compressibility. The onedimensional coefficient of compressibility is the slope of the strain/stress curve: mv = / ('z (1+e)) = 1 / E'o E'o and mv apply for the normal compression line and for swelling and recompression lines, and depend on the current state, on the history and on the increment of loading, so
Soil classification
they are not soil constants. Since mv varies with 'z, its value is often quoted for 'z = 100kPa.
Overconsolidation
If the current state of soil is on the normal compression line it is said to be normally consolidated. If the soil is unloaded it becomes overconsolidated. Soil cannot usually be at a state outside the normal compression line unless it is bonded or structured. At a state A the overconsolidation ratio is Ro = 'y / 'a (on NCL Ro = 1.0 and soil is normally consolidated). Note: 'y is the point of intersection of the swelling line through A and the NCL. This is usually, but not always, close to the maximum past stress (see change of state).
Horizontal stress in one-dimensional loading

During one-dimensional loading and unloading the horizontal effective stress 'h will change since the condition of zero horizontal strain (h = 0) is imposed.
Soil classification
The ratio Ko = 'h / 'z is known as the coefficient of earth pressure at rest. Ko depends on the type of soil the overconsolidation ratio (Ro) the loading or unloading cycle Approximations normally consolidated soils: Konc 1 - sin'c overconsolidated soils: Ko Konc Ro
State
G G G
Change of state Critical state Normalising parameters
The current state of a soil is described by the stress ', the void ratio e and the overconsolidation ratio Ro (for a complete description the shear stress ' is required). The state at A is given by any two of ea , 'a , Ro = 'y / 'a All states with the same Ro fall on the lines parallel with the NCL.
Soil classification
log Ro = log ( 'y / 'a ) = log 'y - log 'a Many features of soil behaviour, especially shear modulus and peak strength, increase with increasing overconsolidation.
Back to One-dimensional compression: state
Change of state
Loading and unloading (relevant to all soils) Change of state A to B can only be achieved by normal compression along CD followed by swelling along DB. Note that the yield stress corresponding to B is larger than the yield stress corresponding to A. Vibration or compaction (relevant to sands) or creep: (relevant to clays) Change of state can occur directly from A to B. Note that the yield stress corresponding to B is larger than the yield stress corresponding to A.
Critical state
There is a critical overconsolidation ratio which separates states in which the soil will either compress or dilate during shear. This corresponds to the critical
Soil classification
state line CSL. Look at the possible voids ratios (e) that can occur at an effective stress 'a. wet side of critical (W on the graph) ew > ec at stress ' water content ww is larger than critical wc loose normally consolidated or lightly overconsolidated compress during drained shear dry side of critical (D on the graph) ed < ec at stress ' water content wd is smaller than critical wc dense heavily overconsolidated dilate during drained shear
Normalising parameters
Normalising parameters change the current state to a normalised state so that all states with the same overconsolidation ratio have the same value. Equivalent void ratio el = ea + Cc log 'a Equivalent stress log 'e = ( eN - ea ) / Cc Critical stress log 'c = ( eG - ea ) / Cc If A is on the wet side of critical el > eG 'a / 'c > 1
Soil classification
If A is on the dry side of critical el < eG 'a / 'c < 1
Wet and dry states

G
State parameters
Soils whose states lie on the normal compression line (NCL) are normally consolidated. There is a critical overconsolidation ratio that corresponds with the critical state line (CSL). A lightly overconsolidated soil has a state which lies above the CSL. A heavily overconsolidated soil has a state which lies below the CSL. States lying above the CSL are said to be on the wet side of critical. States lying below the CSL are said to be on the dry side of critical. In the diagrams: va > vb, and yet since the stress at B is greater, state B is on the wet side of critical, while state A is on the dry side of critical.
Wet and dry states

G
State parameters
Soil classification
Soils whose states lie on the normal compression line (NCL) are normally consolidated. There is a critical overconsolidation ratio that corresponds with the critical state line (CSL). A lightly overconsolidated soil has a state which lies above the CSL. A heavily overconsolidated soil has a state which lies below the CSL. States lying above the CSL are said to be on the wet side of critical. States lying below the CSL are said to be on the dry side of critical. In the diagrams: va > vb, and yet since the stress at B is greater, state B is on the wet side of critical, while state A is on the dry side of critical.
Back to Wet and dry states
State parameters
A measure of the initial state of a soil are the distances it lies at from the CSL, in terms of either volume or stress. These distances are expressed as state parameters: Stress state parameter Ss = pa' / pc' ln Ss = ln pa' - ln pc' Volume state parameter Sv = va - vc The state parameters are related: Sv = ln Ss Normally consolidated state: Sv = ln Ss = 0
Soil classification
States on the wet side of critical: Sv and ln Ss are positive States on the dry side of critical: Sv and ln Ss are negative
Produced by Dr. Leslie Davison, University of the West of England, Bristol, 2001
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Soil mechanics fundamentals

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Soil mechanics fundamentals

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Soil mechanics

soil strength soil compressibility and stiffness seepage

friction logarithmic compression plasticity Darcy seepage

Back to Soil mechanics

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Basic mechanics of soils

Back to Soil Mechanics

Basic mechanics of soils

Analysis of stress and strain Strength Stiffness Material behaviour

Analysis of stress and strain

Back to Basic mechanics of soils

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Basic mechanics of soils

normal stress = Fn / A shear stress = Fs / A

normal strain = z / zo shear strain = h / zo

Special stress and strain states

Analysis of stress and strain

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Basic mechanics of soils

Mohr circle construction

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Basic mechanics of soils

Parameters for stress and strain

Analysis of stress and strain

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Basic mechanics of soils

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Basic mechanics of soils

Shearing Shear strength = f nf = normal stress at failure

Uniaxial extension Tensile strength tf = 2f

Uniaxial compression Compressive strength cf = 2f

Note: Water has no strength f = 0.

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Basic mechanics of soils

Tresca criterion Mohr-Coulomb (c=0) criterion Mohr-Coulomb (c>0) criterion

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Basic mechanics of soils

Back to Strength criteria Forward to Mohr-Coulomb (c=0)

Mohr-Coulomb (c'=0) criterion

Back to Strength criteria Forward to Mohr-Coulomb (c>0)

>Mohr-Coulomb (c'>0) criterion

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Basic mechanics of soils

Typical values of shear strength

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Basic mechanics of soils

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Description & classification

Soil as an engineering material Size range of grains

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Soil description and classification

Origins, formation and mineralogy

Grading and composition

Consistency Simulation H Plasticity index H Plasticity chart H Activity Specific gravity

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Current state of soil