VISUAL INSPECTION WORKSHOP

Visual Inspection of Welding Rationale

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Inspection is t aditionall! conside ed a Post" P ocessing acti#it!$ A %ac&ine co%ponent %a! 'e tu ned to a finis&ed fo % and si(e """ t&en inspected fo confo %ance to applica'le d a)ings o specifications$ A ga %ent is inspected afte se)ing and all t&e 'uttons and ot&e featu es a e in place$ In t&ese si%ila instances* #isual inspection is ca ied out afte t&e p oduction acti#ities &a#e 'een co%pleted$ In t&e case of )eld%ents* e+pe ience &as s&o)n t&at Post"P ocessing inspection* e#en )&en supple%ented )it& nondest ucti#e e+a%ination ,N-E.* gi#e no gua antee of suita'ilit! fo intended se #ice$ Ho) e#e consistent esults o#e a conside a'le pe iod of ti%e &a#e de%onst ated t&e effecti#eness of a p e"planned se/uence of #isual inspections$ If ca ied out at specific stages of )eld%ent p oduction* suc& p og a%s gi#e a &ig& deg ee of assu ance of %eeting /ualit! e+pectations"""f e/uentl! )it&out ecou se due to N-E$ Wit& )elding t&e facto s influencing /ualit! %a! %anifest t&e%sel#es at an! stage of t&e p oduction ope ation$ In %ost ci cu%stances* suita'ilit! ti%ed #isual inspection )ould &a#e e#ealed t&e s&o tco%ing at a stage )&en co ecti#e action )ould 'e si%ple to i%ple%ent and ine+pensi#e to ca ! out$ Weld and )eld%ent /ualit! a e dete %ined '!0 Weld%ent and 1oint design 2ate ials of const uction P ocedu e of )elding ,WPS 3 P4R5s. 2anne of )eld application Inspection p og a%

Visual )elding inspection p o#ides t&e 'asis fo t&e effecti#e cont ol of t&ese dete %inants$ 4ualit! of Weld%ents T&e te % quality is )idel! used and applied$ Ho)e#e * %an! ti%es t&e gene al concept of /ualit! is %isunde stood$ Quality is conformance to the applicable specifications. T&e e/ui ed le#el of /ualit! fo a p oduct o se #ice is t!picall! dete %ined '! t&e designe * 'ased on suita'ilit! fo se #ice o#e t&e intended life span$ All p oduct #a ia'les %ust 'e specified in a %anne t&at is capa'le of 'eing %easu ed$ -i%ensions a e eadil! #e ified$ Att i'utes suc& as su face finis&* if significant* %ust 'e specified in te %s allo)ing fo p ecise dete %ination o %easu e%ent$ In ca !ing out an inspection* t&e inspecto 5s tas6 is to co%pa e t&e actual )it& t&e required o specified p oduct di%ensions$ Appea ance alone is a el! t&e dete %inant of p oduct /ualit!$ Visual Inspection Key points about the visual inspection of welding should be recognized. These include:

No inspection program will give an absolute guarantee as to weld and weldment suitability for intended service over the life of a product. However by structuring an appropriate !nspection plan commercially realistic degrees of confidence in a welded product can be achieved. "hile visual inspection is highly effective in the control and assessment of weld and weldment #uality there is one obvious limiting factor. $isual inspections are confined to e%posed surfaces &so subsurface discontinuities may not be detected. This is offset by structuring welding inspection programs to e%amine the minimum number of surfaces that will give the re#uired degree of assurance. Nondestructive testing of welds and welding is an ad'unct to the visual inspection program not a substitute for it. The four N() methods used in connection with welding each have their own areas of best application***along with limitations. +enetrant and magnetic testing are surface techni#ues with magnetic being limited to ferro*magnetic materials. ,adiography is directional ultrasonic e%aminations re#uire smooth surfaces for the transducer to ma-e proper contact.

Visual Inspection of Welding Weld%ent and 7oint design "ithout #uestion the most significant factor in the #uality of a welded product is the arrangement of parts to be welded. The relationship of members and the manner in which the loads are handled determines the local stresses. .i-ewise the placement of 'oints has great significance. However these last two matters are the designers/ responsibility and are not the responsibility of the welding inspector. 0oint design is another matter one in which the welding inspector is vitally concerned. !n one sense 'oint design along with the procedure of welding could be identified as the most significant factors in weld and weldment #uality. The most significant factors include but are not limited to: "elding and inspection access. 1ost cost*effective form. 1inimize residual stresses. !deally 'oint design is proposed by the manufacturer and approved by the designer. !nappropriate 'oint designs are fre#uently imposed on manufacturers. !n such instances the welding inspector has a vital role to play in identifying potential problem areas. The initiation of the re#uired corrective action through the appropriate channels should automatically follow. 0oint designs are specified in the applicable welding procedure specifications 2"+34. Initial Re#ie) !nspectors initially consider the 'oint design in the initial revue of welding inspection when the applicability of the "+3 is reviewed. 5t this stage 'oint design and its form and configuration will have been decided. 6onformance of 'oint shape form and dimensions to applicable criteria are to be chec-ed. P e")eld C&ec6s The actual dimensions of 'oint form and fit*up are to be verified again to establish confidence. 7nce welding commences only in e%ceptional circumstances can meaningful changes to 'oint type and dimensions be made. 7nly certain elements of a 'oint configuration may be altered without engineer approval. 2ate ials of Const uction "hile welding can be successfully used to ma-e a wide range of welded 'oints in many materials there

are certain limitations. These include: Not all metals are weldable. 7f those that are not all can be welded with the same degree of ease or using similar methods and procedures. "elding has the potential to cause significant physical and metallurgical changes that may adversely affect the suitability for intended service of the welded product. However many fully weldable materials react differently to certain welding processes and procedures of welding. 5s with design this leaves the welding inspector with two important determinations to ma-e. The compatibility of the filler metals to be used and the welding process to be employed are verified. These are the essential variables of the welding procedure and must be established by testy. "here previously #ualified procedures have been specified only verification chec-s are necessary. !t is necessary to verify that all materials to be welded satisfy the established base metal re#uirements. !nadvertent changes of material can have far reaching conse#uences. +rotection against this possibility by building in ade#uate chec-s is re#uired by many codes of practice. !n 3ection 9 of the 531) :oiler 9 +ressure $essel 6ode positive and verifiable identification of all parts to be welded is a re#uirement. P ocedu es of Welding "elding procedure specifications 2"+34 are a brea-down of the welding variables to be used to ma-e one or more 'oints under certain circumstances. !n a general sense there can be a limitless number of such combinations. !n practice by using care and attention it is possible for a small number of "+3/s to cover all the diverse situations that arise even when ma-ing comple% weldments. 7ver time manufacturers and constructors of welded products build up a library of #ualified welding procedures from which uni#ue "+3/s can be generated. !n the event that there is no suitable #ualified 2or if appropriate pre*#ualified4 procedure available it is necessary to carry out further #ualification testing. The significant point is that this possibility allows time for appropriate action together with #ualification of welding personnel if necessary. The "+3 fields set out the welding parameters -nown as essential variables. 6hanges outside a certain code specified range re#uires the development and;or #ualification of a new procedure. 2anne of Weld Application "elders are responsible for the application of welding. However welders do not act in isolation. "elder certification attests to the s-ill and ability of a welder to weld specified types of 'oints in certain materials under a range of restricted conditions. These conditions typically include the welding process type2s4 and form2s4 of base metal and 'oint position along with the techni#ue and progression of welding. "elding inspectors verify that the welders welding operators or tac-ers are certified to weld with the procedures to be used during production. This gives warning of any additional re#uirements as far as welding personnel are concerned. !t should be -ept in mind that welder certification test may or may not duplicate 'oints to be made in production. The test coupon although it may be pipe may well be used to #ualify welders to weld plate. ,estricting barriers are sometime placed on weld test coupons to limit access to the 'oint. This is to determine the welders/ capability to weld even on aw-ward 'oints. The welding inspector chec-s the condition of the welding e#uipment and suitability of the base and filler metals. The inspector chec-s 'oint fit*up and pre*heat conditions.

"elding inspectors are re#uired to assure that welder s-ills are maintained throughout. "here there is

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evidence of reduced s-ill re*#ualification or even retraining may be necessary if substandard worpersist. Inspection P og a% "hile the specific details of any given welding program will differ in detail the basic re#uirements remain the same. Three phases have been identified. There is a fourth phase which follows the completion of welding. The four phases in welding inspection are: +hase 1 !nitial ,eview 1. ,eview contract all codes and drawings 2. (evelop all necessary inspection plans 8. 6hec- welding procedures= welder status <. )stablish inspection documentation system +hase 2 +re*welding chec-s 1. 6hec- suitability condition of welding e#uipment. 2. 6hec- conformance of base and filler materials. 8. 6hec- the positioning of members and of 'oints. <. 6hec- 'oint preparation fit*up cleanliness. >. 6hec- ade#uacy of alignment. ?. 6hec- preheat 2or initial temperature. +hase 8 in*process inspections 1. 6hec- compliance with "+3. 2. 6hec- #uality placement of -ey passes. 8. 6hec- weld bead se#uencing and placement. <. 6hec- interpass temperature and cleaning. >. 6hec- ade#uacy of bac- gouging. ?. 1onitor any in*process N(). +hase < +ost welding activities 1. 6hec- finished weld appearance soundness and cleanliness. 2. 6hec- weld sizes and dimensions. 8. 6hec- dimensional accuracy of weldment. <. 6arry out or monitor ; evaluate specified N() >. 1onitor any +ost weld heat treatment 2+"HT4 or other post weld wor-. ?. @inalize and collate inspection documentation.

Inspection P og a% P&ase 8 The purpose of any inspection program is to establish conformance to specifications. !t is self*evident that the very first inspection tas- will be to find out what is re#uired. The first activity is: ,eview 6ontract (ocuments and 3pecifications (epending on a large number of significant factors the scope and detail given will vary over a wide range. 3tructural wor- is different from process piping= pressure vessel wor- and tan-age

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are not the same. )ach will have their own specifications. However there are certain common factors and these should be ascertained at the earliest possible stage. !f errors omissions or incomplete data are uncovered at this point prompt corrective action should be initiated. The minimum data to be obtained include: 1. 2. 8. <. >. 6ode 234 of construction 1aterials of construction 5pplicable standards and specifications (rawings showing weld locations and types !nspection fre#uency techni#ues criteria

(evelop an !nspection +lan 5s the name implies an inspection plan is a detailed list of all inspection activities to ta-e before during and after welding. @or phase one activities a single inspection plan will suffice as these are one time upfront re#uirements. !nspection plans typically are in the form of a chec-list. !t is desirable that inspections ta-e place as a part of the production process. Hold points where production is halted to await inspection clearance should be -ept to a minimum.

6hec- "elding +rocedures and "elder 3tatus 1ost contractors fabricators and manufacturers have a number of welding procedures 2"+34 #ualified either by test or with pre*#ualified status. !n any given situation e%isting procedures may or may not cover all the re#uired welding to be carried out. !n the event of deficiencies it tac-s some time to have new procedures developed and #ualified. Ta-ing action on this matter at the earliest possible stage is prudent. 5ll necessary welding procedure specifications can be developed once the supporting procedures are #ualified 2+A,4. 3imilar remar-s apply to welder status. The limitations on welder #ualification include the form of items to be welded 2plate pipe4 the welding process or processes electrode classifications the welding positions member thic-ness and pipe diameter. +rompt action to have suitably #ualified welders on the roster is a self*evident re#uirement. !n the event that new procedures have to be #ualified e%isting welder certifications may or may not be sufficient. There is a provision in some codes that permits welder to #ualify during production. This possibility should only be used as a bare necessity. Bsually radiographic e%amination of a certain length or number of 'oints is re#uired. !f film images conform to specification the scope of the #ualification is typically much narrower than normal welder tests. !f test do not conform then the removal of all sub'ect welds not 'ust repair is typically re#uired. Bsually welding procedures are not time constrained. 7nce #ualified procedures remain current indefinitely. "elder #ualifications on the other hand are often for a specified time. The duration of currency may be ? months or one year. ,enewal by evidence of use of the process is fre#uently

automatic. !n other cases retesting after a specified period of time is re#uired. )stablish !nspection (ocument 3ystem 1ost organizations operating in the field of welded fabrication will have inspection documentation such as inspection and non*conformance reports. "ith these and other re#uired documents however it should be verified that the form of the documents satisfies the re#uirements of the applicable codes or specifications. 3ome companies re#uire special documentation in addition to re#uirements specified by code. Today with the use of computers producing specialized forms is a simple matter. The time to identify and respond to special re#uirements is before the 'ob commences. P e"Weld C&ec6s P&ase 9 "hile industry is not unanimous on the need for formal procedures for phase 8 Initial Re#ie) there is no doubt that phase 9 P e")eld C&ec6s phase : IN"P ocess Inspections and phase ; Post )elding 5ctivities should be governed by formal procedures. @or e%ample @igure 1.1 where should the temperature*indicating crayon be applied in relation to the weld 'ointC 3hould it be 2>.<mm >D.Emm or 'ust what distance from the weld 'ointC

<igu e8$8 Using a Te%pe atu e indicating C a!on 6hec- 3uitability 6ondition of "elding )#uipment The suitability of the welding e#uipment refers to its capability to produce sound welds using the applicable procedures. !t is unli-ely that a 1>D amp 56 welding machine would be capable of successfully running 8.Dmm )FD1E electrodes= not withstanding ma%imum current re#uirements of say 12D to 18D amps. 5dditionally secondary e#uipment must also be chec-ed for suitability. @or e%ample storage ovens for low hydrogen 315" electrodes e.g. )FD1E must be capable of maintaining a temperature of at least 121 6. These electrodes are limited in terms of how long they are permitted to be e%posed to the atmosphere without adversely affecting their low moister content.

6hec- 6onformance of :ase @iller 1etals "hile it is an evident re#uirement that base and filler metals must conform to the "+3 re#uirements it may ta-e foresight to ensure that it is possible to ma-e this verification. 1aterial Test ,eports 21T,s4 even 6ertified 1aterial Test ,eports 261T,s4 are fine= but how is the metal to be welded identified as being that referred to in the Test ,eportsC 1aterial traceability is a must for all material being welded. 6hec- +ositioning of 1embers and 0oints This is the appropriate time to verify that access for welding has been allowed. !t is always possible that access problems were not identified from the drawings. Presetting of members to be welded is a prudent and effective way in which to offset or at least reduce the effects of weld shrin-age. 3ome e%amples of presetting are shown in @igure 1.2.

<igu e 8$9 P esetting of 7oint 2e%'e s "here presetting is involved there are three important accompanying factors to be considered as follows: a. 5mount of presetting b. The e%istence of non*uniform restraint c. The se#uence of welding !t is appropriate at this time to review the scope of #ualifications of the welder 2s4 concerned with ma-ing the 'oint 2s4 under consideration. "elders are #ualified to weld in one or more 'oint positions on a range of metals in terms of composition form 2plate pipe4 and dimensions. 5dditionally certain codes impose positional restraints on the scope of welding procedures. "+3s supported by procedures #ualified on pipe butts usually have a wider scope of

positional capability than procedures #ualified on plate. "elder #ualification is generally similar. 6hec- 0oint +reparation @it*up and 6leanliness The term Joint Preparation covers a wide range of combinations of plate edge treatment. 7n wor-ing drawings the dimensional re#uirements for 'oint preparations should be shown by the use of the appropriate welding symbol2s4. The purpose of edge preparation is to allow the electrode access to the 'oint root area. The arc must be able to impinge on all surfaces to be melted. This means there is no universal Gedge prepH because there are many electrode sizes in use. !t also means the dimensions of weld preparation are important. 6onsider the 0oints in @igure 1.8 "hile the e%ample in @igure 1.8 may represent e%treme cases it is evident that the tolerances applicable to weld edge preparations and to 'oint fit*up are significant and must be observed. The e%amination of weld edge preparation and fit*up is considered to be the most important of the "elding !nspection +rogram steps. !naccuracies at this point predestine a weld to almost certain non*conformance.

<igu e 8$: Significance of Weld P epa ation Ele%ents The assembly of T*'oints deserve particular attention. 1ost T*'oints are fillet welded generally from both sides. 3eparation between the members acts to reduce the effective weld size. "ith double*welded 'oints separation cannot normally be seen after welding. Ienerally specified weld sizes are re#uired to be increased by the amount of separation to restore the specified weld

size. !f from some prior event there is an e%cessive gap between members of butt 'oint there are several possible remedies short of member replacement. @or small additions 'oint edge2s4 can be built up by welding. 5lternatively consider the use of a bac-ing bar. 5fter welding the bac-ing bar can be removed if necessary. 5nother possibility is to use a GspacerH which is gouged out after welding from the first side is completed. 3ee @igure 1.<

<igu e 8$; Regula i(ing 7oint %e%'e s =aps

6hec- 0oint +reparation @it*up and 6leanliness 6leanliness of the 'oint is a general re#uirement. 5rc heat melts and vaporizes everything in its vicinity. 6leanliness of the 'oint area is a general re#uirement and must be verified prior to welding. .oose scale rust oil grease cutting fluid residues paint and other surface contaminants should not be present for at least >Dmm on either side of the weld center line. !f the area to be welded is pitted with rust it is highly desirable to grind the area to shiny metal. @or new material vigorous brushing should suffice. @or steel no longer showing tightly adhering blue mill scale grinding is preferred. +articular attention needs to be paid to pipe 'oints especially if gas bac-ing is to be used. Bnder the heat of welding many surface contaminants are vaporized generally into hydrogen*rich substances which have potentially unsatisfactory effects on molten weld metal and base metals at the elevated temperatures associated with welding.

6hec- 5de#uacy of 5lignment 1aintenance (uring welding forces of considerable magnitude act on 'oint members. !t is necessary to establish that means of holding 'oint members is ade#uate to ensure that members are held in proper alignment throughout welding. "here members are tac-ed verify that the tac- length and the number of tac-s are sufficient to maintain alignment.

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6hec- +reheat or !nitial 0ob Temperature !t is the responsibilities of the welding inspector to verify that the wor- piece has been heated to the specified preheat temperature. The wor- piece may have been heated to the re#uired temperature but in such a localized area that the wor- piece temperature has fallen by the time welding commences. Temperature chec-s should be made >Dmm away from the 'oint on both sides of the weld.

In"p ocess Inspections The activities to be considered in this phase of the welding inspection program are aimed at ensuring that the physical operation of welding ta-es place in accordance with the applicable "+3. !t is important at this point to again stress the importance of ensuring that all welding inspection is a seamless part of the production process. !t is desirable that the welding inspector becomes a part of the production process*****and +articularly not an interruption to it. !nspectors should foster an amicable relationship with production personnel at all levels. 3ee-ing cooperation rather than demanding it as a right is the appropriate approach. 6hec- 6ompliance with "+3 +rovisions This phase of inspection is ongoing through out welding. The following need to be monitored with sufficient fre#uency to assure compliance with applicable "+3 provisions: 1. 6onsumable type and diameter 2. 6urrent or wire feed speed 8. $oltage <. Ias flow rates >. Travel speed Tac- and weld end treatment ?. 5mount of spatter The issue and storage of welding consumables should be under constant surveillance. )lectrode storage ovens ma-e convenient food warmers for instance. +eriodic in*process chec-ing of current is typically accomplished by the use of a Tong Test 5mmeter. :e sure the testers are set to the same current as being tested 256 e.g. (64. !t should have current calibrating date. "elding machine meters are not usually calibrated and cannot be depended on to be accurate. 6hec- Auality +lacement of Key "eld +asses "ithout a doubt the most critical stage of welding is the root pass. 5s with any operation good wor- is based on a sound foundation. The root pass is the foundation of every welded 'oint. The function of the root pass is to provide a sound tie between members at the root 'oint. This applies to both unbac-ed and bac-ed 'oints. 5 second consideration at this time is the shape of the root pass. This is desirably flat to slightly conve%. "hile in multiple pass 'oints a concave profile may appear desirable= the shrin-age stresses may give rise to crac-ing as in figure 1.>. 5t the other e%treme e%cessive bead conve%ity can lead to incomplete fusion. High beads prevent access of the arc to all areas of the partially filled 'oint as shown in figure 1.>. 5s the root pass is being made it is prudent to chec- if the means of 'oint assembly such as tac-ing or clamping is holding 'oint members in the correct relationship. (epending on the welding process there will be a tendency for the root to open or close. !f corrective action ids

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necessary other 'oints that are similarly assembled should also reflect the changes.

<igu e 8$> Significance of Weld ?ead Si(e* S&ape The toes of root beads should be chec-ed periodically to insure that sidewall undercutting is not ta-ing place. To ma-e sound passes a common practice is to increase the welding current and offset the additional heat availability by increasing the travel speed of the arc along the seam being welded. Bndercut results when the amount of weld metal is insufficient to fill the area of metal melted. "ith slag*shielded welding processes sidewall undercut may be indicated by difficult slag removal but this will need to be confirmed by e%amination. 6orrective action for sidewall undercut is to grind the 'oint edges bac- to eliminate the grooving effect. !f not done it is unli-ely that arc impingement during subse#uent weld passes will reach the bottom of undercut grooves. This is the primary source of G wagon tracksH a linear slag inclusion. !n case of non*slag processes sidewall undercut is usually identified on radiographs as a slag inclusion. Notwithstanding the absence of slag the image shape is the same as in the case of slag*shielded processes. +orosity in the root pass will tend if left untreated to persist in subse#uent passes. 5 pore may produce a vertical pipe in a multi*pass weld. The heat of welding e%pands air in e%isting pores the pressure of which causes the entrapped gases to rise through the molten metal as it is deposited in subse#uent overlaying beads. 6omplete removal of any pore from the first pass in which it is detected is the only effective corrective action. 6hec- "eld :ead 3e#uencing and +lacement The se#uence in which weld beads are deposited e%ercises a significant effect on the dimensions and shape of a weldment. "here distortion caused by shrin-age is li-ely to be a problem it is prudent to re#uire that a weld se#uence program be developed and observed during welding. )ven when a welding se#uence is not specified it is desirable that the usual rules to minimize distortion are followed. These include but are not limited to: 1. welding from areas of least restraint 2. "elding long weld 'oints from the center outward 8. :alancing welding on either side of 'oints of welded assemblies and of weldments as a whole 3ome common techni#ues for se#uencing weld beads include 2a4 back stepping 2b4 skip welding and 2c4 an offset method for T*'oints using double fillet welds as shown in @igure 1.?. !n bac- step welding while individual weld passes are made from the outside towards the center the general direction of welding is from the 'oint centerline outward. This techni#ue is used for both thic- and thin base metal and for groove and fillet welds made on one side of T*'oints. 3-ip welding is a variation of bac- step welding but primarily for groove welds in thinner base metals. The techni#ue shown in

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@igure 1.? for fillet*welded 'oints is based on limiting longitudinal shrin-age and at the same time offsetting angular rotation. The placement of individual weld passes within a 'oint can e%ercise a significant effect on 'oint #uality and alignment. 6onsider the last complete weld pass on the left in @igure 1.F. !n ma-ing the ne%t pass 2dotted4 the arc may be unable to melt the sidewall resulting in incomplete fusion.

<igu e 8$@ Welding Se/uence Tec&ni/ues

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<igu e 8$A Effect of ?ead Place%ent on Weld 4ualit! The order in which weld beads are placed on one side of a 'oint or the other is important. 5s @igure 1.E shows the effect of ma-ing a second weld bead on the same side as the first was made 22nd down4 is dramatic. !nstead of being pulled almost straight the net effect is to ma-e it impossible for all the weld beads placed on the opposite side of the 'oint to pull the 'oint into correct alignment. 6hec- !nterpass Temperature and 6leaning @or 'oints where preheat and interpass temperature are specified it is intended that the 'oint area will be -ept within the re#uired temperature range throughout welding. @or wor- e%tending over a wor- brea- the best practice is to determine whether the 'ob can be allowed to cool or if the minimum specified temperature must be preserved in the 'oint until welding has been completed. !rrespective of the specifics the welding inspector should ta-e an active role to ensure proper temperature control.

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<igu e 8$B Effect of O de of Weld ?ead Place%ent @inally with respect to interpass temperature where there is a ma%imum specified**** as may be the case where toughness is critical****the weld area should be chec-ed with sufficient fre#uency to be certain that there is no e%cessive heat buildup. !f this does occur no attempt to accelerate cooling should be allowed. 5 basic purpose of preheat and interpass temperature control is to retard the cooling rate ate the 'oint area. @orced cooling or accelerated cooling will not correct the situation. !nterpass cleaning is needed to ensure that subse#uent weld passes will be made on clean metal. !t also allows the welder to carry out a visual e%amination of the wor- 'ust completed. 5part from the obvious it is useful to loo- for surface discontinuities such as shown in @igure 1.J

<igu e 8$C -iscontinuities in Inte %ediate Passes 6hec- the 5de#uacy of :ac- gouging :ac- gouging****the removal of base or weld metal from the weld root side of a 'oint to sound metal****is used to ensure complete fusion and 'oint penetration and to avoid gaseous and solid inclusions. Typically carried out by grinding or by arc air gouging bac- gouging is re#uired by many codes when unbac-ed complete 'oint penetration welds are specified. @igure 1.1D shows in the upper diagram the principle involved. The depth of the bac- gouging must be such that there is sound metal e%posed over the whole 'oint length. The angle of the groove must allow full access for the electrode. !n @igure 1.1D the lower diagram shows a groove typical of arc air gouging when the electrode diameter is to small for the depth of gouging re#uired. The lower diagram at the right shows the usual groove produces by grinding. !n both cases the groove angle must be increased to that specified in the

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"+3 for the first side welded. "elding inspectors must be satisfied that bac- gouging is complete including the use of N() if considered necessary.

<igu e 8$8D ?ac6 gouging 2et&od* Accessi'ilit! 1onitor 5ny 3pecified !n*process N() 5part from the N() noted above in connection with bac- gouging there are circumstances where in process N() is specified. 1agnetic particle inspection even radiography of root passes on heavy*walled pipe is not uncommon. !n all such instances the role of the welding inspector will vary but basic to all situations is that these activities are carried out under proper control. @urther that appropriate records are furnished and maintained. Post )elding Acti#ities P&ase ; The final phase of the welding inspection program embodies the post welding activities necessary to ensure that the finished weldment meets the applicable re#uirements in all relevant respects. This should not be confused at least in principle with the final 'ob inspection. The ob'ect is to establish weld and weldment #uality conformance within the overall 'ob conte%t. This involves the following activities: 6hec- @inished "eld 5ppearance and soundness "eld faces should display uniform ripples with no significant variations in shape or form. :umps and depressions indicating starts and stops should be minimal. Iroove weld reinforcement should be evident without under fill or e%cess. 3ee @igure 1.11 for e%amples of each of the foregoing.

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<igu e 8$88 = oo#e einfo ce%ent This similarly applies to fillet welds where minimum ratio of width to depth should be 1.2> to one. )%cessive conve%ity or concavity is e#ually undesirable. +ossibilities include those shown in @igure 1.12.

<igu e 8$89 E+cessi#e <illet Con#e+it! and Conca#it! "etting at the toes of both groove and fillet welds without undercut is desirable with all welds. "elds with e%cessive conve%ity or reinforcement increase stress concentrations sometimes to unacceptable values. @ollowing the chec- of the general appearance of all welds a detailed e%amination should be carried out to establish freedom from non*conforming surface discontinuities. !n the absence of other indications this will represent the final visual inspection. 5ccordingly it needs to be detailed and thorough. 5 flashlight is a most important aid in carrying out this e%amination. 3urface discontinuities not considered above include but are not limited to: 1. 6rac-s 2. 8. <. >. >. ?. !ncomplete fusion on the sidewall between weld passes or as overlap !ncomplete 'oint penetration of one sided butt welds 3lag inclusions +orosity and other gaseous inclusions Bndercut 5rc stri-es

6ommon surface cracks are shown in figure 1.18. 3ometime overlapping terminology is used for crac-s. !t may be based on time of occurrence site direction or other determinants. The throat

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crac- as shown in figure 1.18 may also be -nown as a hot crac- a centerline crac- or a longitudinal crac-.

<igu e 8$8: Weld"Associated Su face C ac6s Incomplete fusion may appear as cavities between weld passes or between the weld sidewall and the ad'acent weld bead. 5 third form of this discontinuity is overlap where molten filler metal has rolled over unmelted base metal. 5 characteristic is a distinct re*entrant angle at the weld toe. )%amples of overlap are shown in @igure 1.1<.

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<igu e 8$8; O#e lap and Unde cut

Undercut may be considered as opposite of overlap. !n the case of undercut the cause is the melting of a greater amount of base metal than there is available molten weld metal to fill. This results in the characteristic groove at the toe of the weld toes. "hile the severity of undercut is really the sharpness of the angle made by the sides of the undercut groove in practice acceptability is based on depth. "ith welded 'oints welded from one side only with access to the bac- 'oint incomplete joint penetration may be generally detected. 5n e%ception is when weld shrin-age has pulled the members together so there is no evident separation. However the absence of a penetration bead should indicate the need for further e%amination. ,eadily apparent incomplete penetration is seen in @igure 1.1>.

<igu e 8$8> Inco%plete 7oint Penet ation

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3urface slag discontinuities will typically appear as elongated cavities in which slag may or may not remain. 3urface slag cavities should be investigated for depth. !f the weld cross section is not reduced beyond the applicable tolerance corrective action is usually to grind the area to a slight concavity to remove any tendency to stress concentration. Porosity is the term covering discontinuities caused by trapped gases. (uring welding atmospheric and other gases are drawn into the weld pool because they are soluble in molten metal. Normally this gas escapes as the weld puddle cools. However there are circumstances when the gas remains in the solidified puddle mainly as a result of incorrect electrode manipulation. Iases may be wholly entrapped in the weld or have sufficient pressure to brea- the weld surface to appear as surface porosity. +orosity tends to be round or nearly so= with little ability to concentrate stress. 1ost codes allow some pores up to a specified diameter in a unit length of weld. !ndividual pore diameters are measured to determine conformance or otherwise based on the applicable criteria. Arc strike shows a scar on the base metal surface and must be investigated. 6orrective action includes grinding the effected area to a shallow dish insuring that the thic-ness tolerance is not e%ceeded. Testing with 1agnetic +article testing 21T or dye penetrant testing 2+T4 or both as applicable is usually mandatory. 6hec- "eld 3izes and (imensions The size of fillet welds should be verified as meeting the specified re#uirements with due consideration of any weld size under*run provisions. 3ome codes allow all or portions of a weld to under*run the weld size specified. 5lthough not a cause for re'ection consistently oversized welds should be drawn to the attention of the welding supervisor. !ncreasing the size of a ?.<mm fillet weld to E.Dmm involves an increase of more than >DK in weld metal heat input and distortion potential. This is significant in terms of 'ob cost. "eld lengths where specified must be verified. 5gain this provision largely applies to fillet welds and in situations where the re#uired length is less than the length of the 'oint. The increments and pitch 2center to center distances4 of intermittent fillet welds are re#uired to be chec-ed. 6hec- (imensional 5ccuracy of the "eldment The term weldment is used to denote a welded product be it simple assembly of two pieces 'oined by welding as a test coupon or a comple% finished product made up of subassemblies and other components. (epending on the nature of the wor- the scope and e%tent of dimensional chec-ing will vary from simple measurements of flatness straightness and overall dimensions to comple% survey involving instruments outside the range normally associated with welding inspection. 6arry 7ut or 1onitor and evaluate 3pecified N() 3uitably #ualified welding inspectors may carry out specified post welding N(). 5lternatively specialists perform such wor-. !n the latter case the welding inspectors role is evaluating the reports produced thereby. These reports will become part of the 'ob records and are to be retained.

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@or !" and Post weld #eat $reatment specialist may be involved so the welding inspector/s role changes to one of monitoring rather than active inspection. !n broad terms monitoring involves verifying conformance of service to both the overall 'ob re#uirements and the specifics of the type of service being supplied. Aualification and calibrations are important factors as is reporting accuracy. !t is important that suitable evidence of certification of N() operators who sign conformance reports be produced. The types of consumables used in various e%aminations may be specified or left to the discretion of the service agency. !t is usual to re#uire some level of certification. @or +T chloride*free penetrant may be re#uired. @or ,T the film speed may be specified. 3lower speed films are finer grained giving finer definition but increase e%posure time. @or BT type of couplant to be used may be specified. !n terms of N() procedures variables include: 1. 2. 8. <. @or 1T***magnetizing medium particle type @or +T****penetrant type and removal system @or ,T****radiation source film type @or BT****transducer types scanning patterns

1onitor +"HT 2+ost "eld Heat Treatment4 or 7ther +ost weld 5ctivities "hen post weld heat treatment 2+"HT4 is re#uired the welding inspector/s role is to monitor the overall activities to insure a suitable outcome. This activity falls into four sections*****initial review before +"HT commences during the +"HT cycle and post +"HT. 5n initial review must be made to see that the weldment will remain dimensionally stable during heat treatment. 5ny enclosed space must be vented&fully welded double plate and double L welded flanges must have one or more vent holes drilled to avoid pressure build up. Horizontal surfaces must be supported either by the structure itself or by temporary braces. !rrespective of the type of heat treatment involved the yield strength of the metal will be reduced. :efore heat treatment the number and positioning of thermocouple 2T64 leads must be ad'usted to give an accurate reflection of the current temperatures. Thermocouples should be located within 12mm of the weldment. Heat treatment is typically carried out using a programmable controller. The programmed cycle of heating 2at a specified rate4 holding for a re#uired time at temperature and controlled cooling 2again at a specified rate4 to a certain temperature is monitored by a recorder which plots time against temperature. )ach thermocouple is connected to recorder so temperature at any time can be determined. !f the heat treatment is being physically monitored it is customary for welding inspectors to sign the chart at the time of there visit to the wor- area. Bpon completion of the heat treatment the removal of the thermocouple leads and temporary supports. 5 visual inspection should be made to insure that no problems have arisen during treatment. !n particular the maintenance of dimensions should be established.

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"ith certain types of metals particularly micro*alloyed and G6hrome*molyH steels M there is a ris- of li#uation crac-ing or reheat crac-ing. The presence of low*melting temperature phases within a metal can lead to this problem. @or such cases an N() e%am is fre#uently re#uired. @or ferromagnetic materials this is typically 1T. 5s a principle welding should not ta-e place on wor- that has undergone post weld heat treatment. "elding will induce further residual stress in the product which was the reason +"HT was specified in the first instance. !f welding is used to carry out a repair specific approval should be obtained from the engineer of record beforehand. @inalize and 6ollate !nspection (ocumentation !t is the inspector/s responsibility to -eep originals 2or copies as appropriate4 of all inspection* related documents. "ith this aspect in mind prudent welding inspectors ma-e timely preparation. 7ne method is to draw up a list of all the e%pected activities and open a file with some or all the following list of headings. 1. Bnpriced copy of contract with a list of all referenced documents including codes standards and specifications 2by title4 and drawings 2by drawing number4. 2. 6opies of change orders and instructions including lists of drawing revisions noting date of receipt. 8. 6opies of material certificates for base metals filler metals and other consumables. <. "elding procedure specifications 2"+34 to be used on the 'ob including repair procedures. 5nd supporting procedure #ualification records 2+A,4 with applicable laboratory reports. >. "elder;welding operators;tac-ers performance certificates and supporting reports. "elder maintenance records. ?. !nspection reports which may be signed*off sheets for confirming wor- and copies of formal reports for nonconformance. F. N() reports and copies for e%ternally supplied N() services. E. ,epair activity reports including concession documentation and release reports. J. Heat treatment orders instructions to heat treater and heat treatment charts. 1D. @inal release certification. :y preparing sub files for each of the above 2or other anticipated activities4 as soon as documents are in hand they can be filed. .i-ewise if a document is not delivered or produced at the appropriate time. @ollow*up action can be initiated while the matter is still current. .ost and missing documents are a significant cause of dissatisfaction between constructor and client at the end of a pro'ect. Weld -iscontinuities "eld discontinuities 2a discontinuity is any change or interruption to the uniformity of an ob'ect4 are an ever*present possibility with welding. "hile most discontinuities detract in some way from member cross*section this loss is usually not the main concern. ,ather the stress concentration associated with the presence of a discontinuity is customarily the dominant factor. !t is from this perspective that discontinuity influence is considered. 5 common mis*impression of persons outside the industry 2and some within4 is that welding is unreliable. @urther that welders are prone to producing defective wor-. Nothing could be further from the truth. This idea completely overloo-s the millions of pounds of weld metal deposited properly each year. Thousands of welds made every day with a very small percentage of defective product. The factors determining welded 'oint integrity are:

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 1. 2. 8. <. >. "eldment and 'oint design :ase metal and filler metal selection 0oint preparation positioning set up "eld procedure ade#uacy and observance "elder s-ill

The determinants of discontinuity significance can be shown to depend on >the following factors: 1. .inearity 2ratio of largest and least dimensions4 2. )nd condition 2or sharpness4 5 linear discontinuity is a discontinuity of length N 8 time its width. Ias pores tend to be round and thus non*linear. This contrasts with crac-s Typically of greater length than any other dimension and with a sharp end condition. Ias pores are rounded and so present a large angle 2to any propagating force4. 5 crac- on the other hand has a very small angle at its tip. These factors ta-en together lead to the following general order of potential discontinuity severity: 1ost severe 6rac-s see 1.1F !ncomplete fusion see 1.1E !nade#uate penetration see 1.1J 3olid inclusions see 1.2D .east sever $arying severity Iaseous inclusions see 1.21 see 1.22 see 1.28

3hape discontinuities 1iscellaneous discontinuities

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<igu e 8$8@ Weld and Weld" elated -iscontinuities C ac6s and C ac6ing 6rac-s develop when applied load in a given area e%ceeds the local strength of the metal. The e%tent and conse#uences of crac-ing is largely dependant on two factors namely: 1. The load its magnitude 2and application mode4 2. The mechanical properties of the material 2grain types and sizes4 in the area of load application. "ith welding the heating and cooling of the weld area alone are sufficient in many cases to supply a load. This can be e%acerbated by local stress concentration which in turn may develop as a result of 'oint design or even the shape of the 'oint. !rrespective of any other factors with welding there is always some form of load available. The mechanical properties of metal are affected by welding. 5 prime concern is the cooling rate in the weld area. 5s the cooling rate increases carbon steel tends to lose its toughness and ductility. 6onse#uently its ability to bear load without failure may be reduced. 3tated another way metal that has been welded becomes potentially susceptible to failure under adverse circumstances. @or carbon steels especially those e%hibiting high strength an additional factor that of hydrogen must also be considered. 1olten metals have great affinity for gases. !n the welding process a considerable amount of all the gases in the arc area may be absorbed into the weld pool. This is shown in @igure 1.1F.

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<igu e 8$8A Weld A ea at Ti%e of Weld <o %ation !n the normal course of events the gases drawn into the molten weld pool are e%pelled as solidification proceeds. )%pulsion ta-es place in all directions. Hydrogen because it has a very small atom may migrate to the heated but now solid edges of the weld area. :eing still mobile the entrapped hydrogen moves in all directions= !ncluding into the metal affected 2but not melted4 by the welding heat -nown as the heat% affected &one 2H5O4. @or carbon steels the simultaneous presence of three factors listed below can result in a form of crac-ing referred to as underbead or delayed crac-ing: 1. +resence of hydrogen in the H5O 2. ,esidual 3tress 8. H5O hardness greater than ,oc-well 8D C ac6s"""Hot C ac6ing There are two broad categories of crac-s based on the stage in the welding cycle when crac-ing occurs. Hot crac-s typically occur in weld metal at or near the time of solidification. !n most cases this type of occurrence is more correctly described as a tear rather than a crac-. 5s the weld metal solidifies from the outer edges toward s the center the metal is cooling and contracting.

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6ircumstances may develop to preclude the solidifying weld metal 'oining together in the center of the weld. "hen the weld pool is deep and narrow 2depth e%ceeding width4 there is a ris- of hot cracdevelopment. !n @igure 1.1E a throat crac- also -nown as a centerline crack' longitudinal crack' or solidification crack is seen. The root crack may also develop from the same factors. The crater crack or star crack derives from similar conditions. 5t the time of welding insufficient li#uid metal was available so the last metal of solidify was torn apart as cooling proceeded. There are other sources of hot crac-s. !mpurities in the weld metal may give rise to presence of li#uid films. These may impede 'oining of the solidifying weld metal along the weld centerline. 3ulphur or phosphorus in e%cess of D.D?K can cause crac-ing of this type particularly if manganese content of the weld metal is low.

<igu e 8$8B C ac6s in Weld 2etal

"ith certain steels such as chrome*moly types crac-ing based on li#uid film presence may occur during or following heat treatment. This is -nown as liquation or reheat crac-ing. !t is for this reason specifications fre#uently call for a further inspection often with 1T for weldments sub'ected to post*weld heat treatment. !n addition to the sites mentioned above liquid film cracking may occur at the toes of welds.

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Hot crac-s brea- the surface and are detected by visual e%amination. "here crac-s are suspected 1T or +T will identify even the tight crac-s. 6rater crac-s are caused by improper weld termination techni#ue a matter that can be readily corrected by additional welder training. The most common cause of throat crac-ing is restraint. 3maller weld beads with added preheat if re#uired will often overcome the problem. 5s already noted weld pool width*to*depth ratio should be greater than one. C ac6s""""Cold C ac6ing 6old crac-s typically develop at or near ambient temperature certainly below the lower transformation temperature 2ambient4. 6old crac-s may be considered a metallurgical occurrence. The principal factors generally involved when cold crac-ing occurs reduce to: 1. "eldability of the base metal 2. 3uitability of the weld procedure 2"+34 !t should be noted that while in the case of certain hot crac-s welder s-ill might be involved= with cold crac-s welder s-ill is rarely a consideration. The problem stems from design or supervision or both. 6old crac-s may brea- the surface such as with the transverse crac- as in @igure 1.1J. However in general cold crac-s are subsurface and thus not readily detectable during visual inspection. ,ather the welding inspectors principal activity with cold crac-ing is usually associated with repair. "hen cold crac-ing is detected most codes re#uire the crac- site to be e%cavated forming a boat* shaped cavity which ends over the full depth and of the crac-. The length of the e%cavation is typically re#uired to e%tend beyond the identified limits of crac-ing by a certain amount.

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<igu e 8$8C Weld and ?ase 2etal C ac6

Numerous types of cold crac-s are reviewed in welding literature. Heat*affected zone crac-s and underbead crac-s are 'ust two of many types which are described by their direction by their appearance and at times by the position of their occurrence 2see @igure 1.2D4. However the common factor is the stage at which crac-s develop: at or below transformation temperature. 2The temperature at which certain micro structural changes occur.4

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<igu e 8$9D Cold C ac6s 5nother type of cold crac- is delayed cracking******crac-s that only develop some time after the weldment cools to ambient temperature. 6ertain alloy steels for instance the #uenched and tempered steels 53T1 5>1< and 5>1F are prone to this problem. @or this reason many codes re#uire e%amination of such weldments after a delay of up to four days. Hydrogen is often involved in cold crac-ing and for this reason welding of all alloy steels should always be carried out with low*hydrogen consumables and using appropriate techni#ues in all relevant areas. !n particular careful control of welding heat input and 'oint restraint are vital to cracfree welding. Inco%plete <usion !ncomplete fusion is a significant welding problem= it has linearity and end condition. !t develops when molten weld metal flows over unmelted base metal or ad'acent weld beads. !ncomplete fusion is found in one or more of the following locations: 1. 2. 8. 8. 5t the 'oint root -nown as incomplete fusion :etween weld beads -nown as incomplete inter*run fusion :etween weld bead and weld groove -nown as incomplete sidewall fusion :etween weld metal and base metal -nown as overroll or overlap

Incomplete joint penetration or incomplete fusion is common with T*'oints with both fillet and

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groove welds ad'acent to the root. )lectrode size or improper manipulation or both are primary causes. "ith incomplete 'oint penetration in groove welds the cause is usually improper electrode manipulation. Incomplete interrun fusion and incomplete sidewall fusion are shown in @igure 1.21. 5gain improper electrode manipulation is the primary cause. This may be e%acerbated by improper placement of weld beads. This restricts access and does not permit the arc to impinge upon and melt all the base metal on which the weld pass is being made.

<igu e 8$98 Inco%plete <usion in #a ious Locations (verlap results from molten weld metal flowing over unmelted base metal. This is potentially a problem with all types of semi*automatic and automatic welding. "hen more molten filler metal is available than can be contained within the area of molten base metal overlap results. "ith this type of discontinuity electrode manipulation and travel speed are the -ey factors. Bnusual weld profile shape often indicates that overlapping has occurred. 7verlap occurs if molten weld metal flows out of the weld on to unmelted base metal. 7verroll is common in out*of*position groove and fillet welds. 7verlap and overroll are the only types of incomplete fusion that may normally be detected by visual e%amination. 7ther types of incomplete fusion are usually found only by a subsurface e%amination such as ,T or BT. However even these techni#ues have only limited reliability as the orientation of the incomplete fusion may be unfavorable for detection by radiography and the ultrasonic echo may be lost amid other echoes. This is a particular problem with the e%amination of fillet welds for depth of penetration. !n*process inspection of weld bead placement allows potential problem areas to be identified and corrected if necessary. The arc must be able to GseeH and be closest to the area of the base metal;weld metal that the ne%t weld bead will occupy when deposited. The arc ta-es the shortest path from the electrode to the weld area. 5n assessment should be made before weld run placement. 5s mentioned e%amination after the event is too late even where a subsurface e%amination is specified. "elder awareness and welder s-ill upgrading provide the best route to avoidance of incomplete fusion. !n*process welding inspection gives the best assurance of minimizing incomplete fusion.

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Inco%plete 7oint Penet ation Incomplete joint penetration results from utilizing an unsuitable welding procedure. !ncomplete 2or inade#uate4 penetration is differentiated from incomplete fusion by this consideration. !n other terms incomplete fusion results from improper or inappropriate manipulation of the electrode and is thus largely a welder*based problem. !ncomplete penetration on the other hand stems either from the use of a welding procedure unsuited to wor- in hand or from the nonobservance of -ey provisions of an otherwise suitable welding procedure. @igure 1.22 shows the general form of the discontinuity. !n some respects it is similar to incomplete fusion= but it may not have the same ability to concentrate stress. !t is for this reason that incomplete penetration is considered less serious. However it should be pointed out that most codes prohibit either discontinuity in any amount. )nd condition and linearity are always determinants.

<igu e 8$99 Inco%plete 7oint penet ation !n most fabrication wor- incomplete penetration is readily detected by visual inspection. @or 'oints welded from both sides incomplete penetration should be identified during bac- gouging. 5 notable e%ception to this rule is where small*diameter pipe and tube wor- are concerned. Bnless it is possible to view the bac- of a 'oint directly or by borescope the discontinuity can only be detected by a subsurface e%amination. However in contrast to incomplete fusion incomplete penetration is usually readily decerned on radiographs and by BT echo. The radiographic image is typically clearly defined with both edges sharp as seen in @igure 1.22. !n the case of small*diameter pipe and tube wor- repair typically involves complete removal of the weld. !n the case8 of groove 'oints welded from both sides the weld on one side must be

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removed. ,epair of incomplete penetration where the bac- of the weld is accessible presents little problem. :ac-gouging is the only preparation necessary but its thoroughness should be chec-ed by 1T or +T to insure that the discontinuity has been eliminated. Solid Inclusions The term solid inclusion embraces a variety of solid matter trapped in the molten weld metal and remaining within the solidified weld metal at the time of e%amination. !nclusions with the latter most common 2see figure 1.284. !nclusions are considered to be less severe than the discontinuities considered above. The end condition is rounded and the linearity is less pronounced.

<igu e 8$9: Slag Inclusions "ith non*ferrous metals o%ide inclusions can present a problem area while in the case of the ferrous metals= o%ide inclusions are not a significant factor. !ron and its alloys of steel melt at temperatures considerably above the melting temperature of the main o%ides of iron namely ferrous o%ide and ferric o%ide. !t is this property that enables carbon and many alloy steels to be cut by burning in the rapid o%idation of flame cutting. 5part from metallic ob'ects deliberately placed within a weld such as weld rod stubs and sometimes spatter the only significant metallic inclusions normally encountered in welding are tungsten and to some e%tent copper. Tungsten droplets may leave the electrode in both gas tungsten arc welding 2IT5"4 and plasma arc welding 2+5"4 and become embedded in the weld metal. @or reasons not well understood tungsten inclusions do not appear to e%ercise any significant effect on weld properties even in instances of fatigue loading. Thus most codes allow considerable latitude with this type of discontinuity. 3imilar remar-s are generally applicable to copper inclusions in welds. )lag is the term describing all types of non*metallic inclusions that occur in weld metal. )%cept for surface inclusions slag inclusions are only detectable by subsurface e%amination. 3lag is readily discernable on radiographs. 3lag inclusions generally result from improper electrode manipulation. +art of welder s-ill is confining slag to the rear of the weld pool as the slag rises therein. 3lag in front of the electrode can be trapped becoming an inclusion. 3lag inclusions may also result from wide weaving.

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5nother type of slag inclusion is *wagon tracks.+ !n ma-ing the weld root pass sidewall undercutting may occur. To achieve penetration without e%cess the rate of travel is increased. The groove sides are melted but insufficient metal is available to completely fill the groove. 3lag acts to cover any sidewall undercut. )ven if thoroughly cleaned of slag a type of incomplete fusion will result during the ne%t weld run which leads to either slag entrapment or a void along one or both sides of the weld hence the term wagon tracks. 1ost codes permit a certain size and number of slag inclusions to remain un*repaired. 5s the stress concentration ability is not great and the end conditions is usually rounded many codes consider slag more from the point view of section loss. Bnder such conditions repair is only mandated incases of gross e%cess which often indicates a poor weld. =aseous Inclusions ,Po osit!. 5s discussed above the molten weld pool dissolves and ta-es considerable amounts of gas into solution. 1ost if not all of these gases come out of solution and are e%pelled into the atmosphere as the weld metal cools. Iases remaining after solidification will form pores wormholes or piping 2three basic types4. These discontinuities are collectively -nown as porosity. @ast freezing weld metal and incorrect or improper electrode manipulation are the primary cause of porosity. 5t the instant a consumable electrode arc is struc- no shielding is available. Thus the first metal deposited will contain pores due to fast freezing. This dictates a particular method to commence consumable electrode welding the weld start technique. The arc should be struc12mm downstream on the weld a%is and #uic-ly move to the intended starting position as the arc stabilizes. 5t that point normal welding should commence. 5s the arc moves over the previously deposited 2but porous4 weld metal it is remelted and the entrapped gases are able to escape along with such gases as are ta-en into the molten weld pool as is normal. !f a bead is characterized by raised bumps at the stop*start positions grinding the cap off the bump will often reveal starting porosity. Holding the face of the weld pool open and not allowing the slag to run over molten metal and seal in the gases greatly facilitates gas escape for the production of porosity free welds. +orosity assumes a number of forms and the occurrences are named for the appearance most of which are self*e%planatory. 3ingle or *isolated+ pores uniformly and non*uniformly scattered porosity starting porosity linear or longitudinal porosity are e%amples. !n addition there are what may be termed special event porosity porosity that arises from a specific cause. The most common are pores caused by lac- of cleanliness. 3ome scale remains on the line of welding. 5rc heat melts and decomposes it into iron o%ygen and water vapor 2such o%ides are usually hydrated4. These gases plus those already present in the weld pool are unable to escape as the weld pool solidifies resulting in cluster porosity. +ores may be elongated to some e%tent in the welding direction. "hen the rate of gas escape is matched by the rate of solidification of the weld metal elongated

88

pores result sometimes -nown as wormholes or vermicular porosity. 3uch porosity may be as shown in @igure 1.2<. 5lternatively individual wormholes with tails may form. 5nother possibility is a gas bubble moving linearly along the weld to form a longitudinal pipe. 5 vertical pipe on the other hand forms when molten metal in a subse#uent weld pass is deposited over weld metal having a pore which is open to the surface. The air therein e%pands and forces a path through the molten metal of later passes.

<igu e 8$9; Po osit! T!pes

S&ape discontinuities )hape refers to the weld profile 2in cross section4. The most significant feature of weld shape is the angle between the base metal and the weld. 5s this angle increases the stress concentration increases.

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@igure 1.2> illustrates the significance of the weld reinforcement angle with respect to load carrying capacity of the 'oint operating in conditions of cyclic loading.

<igu e 8$9> Reinfo ce%ent Effect The load capacity of fillet welds is based on the weld throat. !n fatigue loading it is also a function of the angle the weld ma-es with the base metal. @or this reason specified limits of shape are laid down in codes applicable to welding. The diagrams in @igure 1.2? show typical re#uirements for both fillet and groove weld shape. !t is possible to have more than one shape discontinuity present in a single weld for e%ample undercut and insufficient throat.

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<igu e 8$9@ E+a%ples of Unde fill and Unde cut The diagrams in @igure 1.2F are from 5"3 (1.1 )tructural ,elding -ode%%%)teel. The limits of conve%ity 6 for fillet welds are shown bellow: Emm leg > Emm * < 2>.<mm and 2>.<mm 1.?mm 8.2mm <.Emm

!n the same code the allowable weld reinforcement height , for but 'oints is 8.2mm irrespective of the thic-ness of members 'oined. Notice that size under*run is considered a shape discontinuity. 3hape discontinuities are associated with the manner in which welding is carried out. The opposite of the e%cessive reinforcement reviewed above is under fill which gives rise to insufficient throat. !n figure 1.2? there are e%amples of this discontinuity at both the face and the root of a 'oint. ,emedial steps are simple e%cept in the case where preheating was specified for the original welding. !n all cases restoration of under filled 'oints re#uires welding to be carried out using the

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original welding procedure or a specific repair procedure. "eld e%amination and testing should be as specified for the original welding. +ossibly the most common shape discontinuity is undercut. 5s already discussed in connection with sidewall difficulties undercut results from the non*availability of sufficient metal to completely fill the weld area melted by the arc heat.

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<igu e 8$9A Accepta'le ,Confo %ing. and Unaccepta'le ,Non"Confo %ing. Weld S&apes ,AWS -8$8.

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+ossibly the most common shape discontinuity is undercut. 5s already discussed in connection with sidewall difficulties undercut results from the non*availability of sufficient metal to completely fill the weld area melted by the arc heat. @igure 1.2? shows the two usual forms of undercut. "hile not a discontinuity that is entirely position sensitive welds made in the horizontal position is2not or4 most vulnerable. 5n accompanying li-elihood is that overlap****a type of incomplete fusion as mentioned earlier. .i#uid metal runs out of the weld pool and covers unmelted base metal. Notice in the diagram @igure 1.2F the fillet weld. 7verlap is present at the weld toe of the horizontal member as shown in @igure 1.2F2c4. This is not as readily evident as in the case of the groove 'oint. "hen undercut is present at one toe of the weld it is prudent to search the area of the other toe to ensure overlapping or over rolling have not ta-en place. :oth Bndercut and overlap are readily corrected. !f shallow that is not of a depth in e%cess of the base metal thic-ness tolerance it can be ground out to a shallow dish. !f depth e%ceeds the thic-ness tolerance undercut is repaired by welding. 5s with other corrective welding it is to be carried out using the original procedure 2"+34. @or deep narrowing undercut it may be beneficial to grind the undercut channel to a more favorable shape for welding. 2iscellaneous -iscontinuities

Welding"Caused -iscontinuities 5lthough welding involves both weld metal and base metal there are distinct divisions between the two when it comes to a series of miscellaneous discontinuities identified in connection with weld fabrication. 3patter and arc stri-e for instance are clearly welding caused discontinuities. )#ually clear .aminations and cold laps are material discontinuities. "elding and materials are thus the basic divisions of this topic. .amellar tearing a combination of factors represents yet a further type of discontinuity that does not fall into any of the preceding categories. "ithout welding it would not have developed. 7n the other hand there is no lamellar tearing can be avoided by welding control methods ta-en in isolation. .amellar tearing will therefore be considered as a separate part of the topic under review. )patter is a normal 5ccompaniment of the consumable electrode welding processes. Typically during transfer across the arc not all the molten electrode stream is retained within the arc cone. 1etal droplets are thus deposited on the base metal outside the weld area. +rovided the droplets or spatter are small such droplets will be removed during normal wire brush cleaning of welds. However if droplets of spatter e%ceed a specific size relative to droplet volume and temperature sufficient superheat will e%ist to cause at least partial welding of the spatter to the 'ob. 5part from the difficulty of removal of such spatter a situation analogous to arc stri-e 2see below4 may have developed. 5part from identification of the possible arc stri-e condition spatter removal serves a number of purposes. The composition of spatter is different 2due to o%idization4 from that of the base metal upon which it falls. This can cause preferential corrosion. !f the weld in the spatter area is to be e%amined by BT spatter will prevent good coupling with the wor- piece. !f spatter remains on wor- to be painted it may be later dislodged again with corrosion potential. @urther the spatter

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may mas- discontinuities when the area is e%amined. The ease or difficulty of spatter removal is often a guide as to the general weld #uality. Arc strike occurs when a live part of the welding circuit contacts the wor- piece Jin any area not to be melted during welding. This typically but not e%clusively arises from accidental contact between electrode and wor- piece. The potential danger associated with arc stri-e comes from possible conse#uences of the super*fast cooling rate e%perienced by the base metal at the point of the arc stri-e. 5rc stri-es are readily identified. 6haracteristics often include a small area of discoloration with some shallow gouging and usually evidencing a drop of weld metal 2that has melted during the occurrence4 and often one or more gas pores. +otentially micro crac-ing may have also occurred as a result of accelerated cooling rate e%perienced by the area in #uestion.

The remedial operation consists of two stages: 1. The area containing the arc stri-e is ground out to produce a shallow dish centered on the arc stri-e. 2. 8. The site of the arc stri-e is e%amined visually and tested. This means conducting either 1T or +T in the area. The aim of this test is to insure that no crac-s remain in the area of the arc stri-e. ?ase 2etal"Caused -iscontinuities 1etal plates and sections arriving from the supplier are normally inspected more for #uantity than for #uality. @or this reason certain base discontinuities may only become evident during fabrication with laps and seams most commonly encountered. (uring the rolling process considerable movement of metal ta-es place and a lap may form. !n certain circumstances such laps may become a seam. :oth are evidenced as non*coherent 'unctions or separations between otherwise sound metal. .aps and seams result from rolling practices. The ne%t base metal discontinuities to be considered concern lamination. There are two types of lamination that are caused by failure to fuse during rolling or that caused by metal/s composition or its processing. 6onsidering only the latter as shown in @igure 1.2E a lamination is a closed separation of metal on a plane parallel with the plate slab or billet surface. (elamination occurs when a lamination physically separates as shown.

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<igu e 8$9B La%ination and -ela%ination

1anganese an alloying element in steel serves several functions. 7ne is to combine with and neutralize the effects of sulfur. 1anganese sulfide formed in this process e%ists as high*melting temperature beads within the metal. (uring rolling these beads are flattened and dispersed with in the body of the metal. However. !f their number is great and they aggregate on a common plane a lamination may result. The ris- increases as metal thic-ness increases. @or 'oints at ris- BT scans readily identify such material. 5 lamination scan should always precede a weld BT e%amination. @igure 1.2J illustrates a discontinuity -nown as lamellar tearing. 3hrin-age associated with cooling weld metal causes lamination* prone steel to tear. .amellar tearing presents a step*li-e wood Lgrained appearance when visually e%amined. !n many instances there is no e%ternal evidence of the presence of lamellar tearing until failure under load ta-es place. 5s with other types of lamination lamellar tearing is readily identified by BT. 0oints applying tension in the through*thic-ness direction are vulnerable. !t is thus prudent to ta-e steps to avoid lamellar tearing when wor-ing with thic- materials that are at most ris-. 6orrective action often re#uires considerable rewor- or replacement of material. 3ome avenue for design change e%ists with most corner 'oints.

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<igu e 8$9C E+a%ples of La%ella Tea ing

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