WORKING WITH CONFLICT Skills and Strategies for Action $ SIMON FISHER > DEKHA IBRAHIM ABDt SP AWeD LUDIN, > RICHARD SMITH STEVE WiLtiaMs > SUE WiLLIAMS @ 220 00x aesronois ro consuierting with Cot Sits and States for Aton as fist polished in 2000 by ‘od Books i, 7 Cythia Steet. enon NI SU, UK ee Room 40, 75th Aen, New Yr, MY 10010, USA Sn aot ith ‘Responding to Confit, 1046 Bt! Rond Sel Osh Birmingham B29 GL, UK 2nd peeion, 2083 ‘ited inthe USA xy by Pala, sin of ‘Startins Pres LLC 75th Avnw, New York RY T0010 USA Conriht Respondng to Conic, 2000, he moral ight of he aus of hs wok hae been ated ty the i acatane wt the Copyright Designs and Patents At, 1988. on ook desig ly Le Robison, Adib Design & station London N19 5H, UK Printed and bound inthe Urited Kingdom Booka Mone Norco Bath UK Avis resened ‘The catlogue reco forth Book i rab fom dhe BA Lay, Ltr of Congess Cataloging in-Publeation Data araite ISBN 105649926 D> ‘v1 as649 0079 FD‘ABUT RESPONDING TO CONFLICT (RTC) GP esroronov cower i temational not-for-profit agency, ‘based in Birmingham, UK. It provides advice, eross-cuturl traning ‘nd longer-term support to people working for peace, development, Tights and emergency relief in societies affected or threatened by violent confit. RTC works in several languages and with partners at a ison strengthening both practice and policy-making and its aim isto help build eetion-orentated capacity for conflict transformation and peace balding in the areas where its most needed For further information om RTC please see page 173, Chapter 10 RIC, 1046 Bristol Rosd Birmingham, B29 GLI, UK Tel #44 121 415 5641 Fox 494.127 415.4119 al: enquiriesebrespond org / Website: wirw respond org UK registered charity No 1015905About the Authors Acknowledgements Preface Part 1: Analysis CHAPTER 1- UNDERSTANDING CONFLICT Towards a Conceptual Framework Making sense of conilict Addressing confit Differing approaches: to manage, resolve or transform conflict Theories about the causes of conflict ‘Violence is more than behaviour: it also involves context and attitudes Violence and nonviolence as ways of bringing about change Peace asa process What is peace-building? How isit best to start? CHAPTER 2- TOOLS FOR CONFLICT ANALYSIS Introduction What is conflict analysis? Tools for analysing confit situations Stages of confit Timelines Conftict mapping The ABC Triangle The Onion The Conflict Tree Force-field analysis Pitars The Pyramid ‘What we have covered and where we are going next WORKING WITH conericr@econwrenisPart 2: STRATEGY CHAPTER 4~ BUILDING STRATEGIES TO ADDRESS CONFLICT Introduction a Visions: building and sharing ‘Multi-level triangles ‘Mapping for entry points The Gri ideas for work on conflict ‘The Wheel Aid and conflict ‘Mapping the impact of aid and development programmes on confit The Strategy Circe INFLUENCING POLICY Introduction How to use this chapter ‘The Values Tree: what you stand for Spectrum of strategie options 2 checklist for NGOs working in areas of confit Assessing organisational capacity Helping individuals to change Part 3; ACTION (CHAPTER 6~ INTERVENING DIRECTLY IM CONFLICT Introduction Nonviolence as an approach to conflict intervention Preparing for intervention Awareness-raising and mobilsetion for change ‘Maintatning a presence Enabling a settlement CHAPTER 7- ADDRESSING THE CONSEQUENCES Introduction Post-war recorstruction: Combining physical and soil aspects ychotogical reconstruction: Helping individuals to deal with the past Social reconstruction: building relationships Conclusion CHAPTER 8- WORKING ON THE SOCIAL FABRIC Introduction Education for peace and justice Promoting participation of people in decision-making Developing global governancePart 4: GHAPTER 9- EVALUATION Introduction Evaluating ‘Working with Conflict” The Evaluation Web Impact assessment Indicators Key issues in evaluations CHAPTER 10-AND FIND OUT MORE... Introduction Organisations Resources Index WORKING WITH conrtict@econrenrs‘SiMON FISHER has been Director of Responding to Conflict (RIC) since it was founded {n 1991, responsible fora range of conic transformation training and support programmes worldwide Born in 1948 and a teacher by profession, he has worked in many countries on education, development and peace-building issues, including Algeria the UK, Congo (Zaire), much of sub-Saharan Africa and the South Pacific He likes writing and, amongst other things, has co-authored a handbook for teachers He is currently actively engaged with partners in the Balkans, Kazakhstan, Afghanistan, ‘Sudan and West Africa and is @ member of the Steering Committee for Action for Conflict Transformation, an intemtational network of practitioners. At the sane time he tries to maintain a private life as @ husband and father of four JAWED LUD is the Project Officer for Afghanistan at the British Refugee Council in London, where his work involves cooperation with the British relief and development ‘NGOs operating in Afghanistan, He has been involved in development and community peace-building work since 1994 and has worked for a number of national and international agencies in Afghanistan and Pakistan, Since 1996 Jawed has been associated with RTC and has factitated training activities both inside and outside his region. At present he fs also pursuing postgraduate studies in Politics and Sociology at the University of London SUE WILUAMS has many years of experience in reconciiation and political mediation in various countries, particularly Uganda (1984-5 and 1990-91) and Norther Ireland (1987 to the present). She was Director for Policy and Process Skills at RTC until 1998, then Director of the Policy and Evaluation Unit of INCORE (the Initiative for Conflict Resolution and Ethnicity) at the University of Ulster/United Nations University She has acted as consultant to groups involved in work on conflict in many countries, including Cambodia, Guatemala, Rwanda, Burundi, Congo and Kenya. Sue has lived in Northern Ireland since 1987 STEVE WILLIAMS is a part-time Special Consultant for RIC, working from his home in Northern Treland He was a full-time course tutor on four of RIC’s Working with Conflict courses between 1997 and 1999, including the 10-week course in South Africa at the end of 1997. Employed by RTC since 1994, he has held positions as Course Organiser and Tutor and as Director for Conifict-Handiing Skills During this period he worked overseas with RTC’s partners in Nigeria, Cambodia and Ethiopia as well as, doing training and consultancy work in Northern leland Previously, he worked on extended mediation and reconciliation initiatives in Uganda, Kenya and Botswana, He ‘made shorter visits to South Aftica, and to the Middle East, Fiji, New Zealand, Australia and Sti Lanka, while gathering first-hand material for a book, Being in the Middle by Being ot the Edge: Quaker experience of non-official politica! mediation (Williams Sessions, York, England, 1994), which he co-authored with Sue Williams, Bom in the USA in 1951, Steve is now a citizen of both the UK and the USADDEKIA ORAM ABDI has worked in Wf, north-east Kenya, in various capacities: as an educationzlis, as a community development worker and in conflict resolution. She 5 has had considerable experience asa trainer and in 1997 worked with the Arid Lands I Resource Management Project (ALRMP), a World Bank-funded project managed by the office of the president in Kenya. Dekha has worked with the Coalition for Peace in Africa (COPA) in South Altica (1997) and with RTC in Birmingham, UK (1995 and 1997). She is RTC’s Trainer and Learning Co-ordinator and lead tutor on the Working ‘with Conflict course Dekha is an experienced mediator in community-based conflicts, ‘especially with the pastoralist community in northemn Kenya. She isa founder member | of various peace initiatives in Wafir District and neighbouring districts of northern i Kenya, Dekha has made an extensive contribution towards pastoralist development, notably in the area of developing an appropriate education system, where she has I Introduced the Mobile Schoot concept i AICHARD SMaTH was RTC’s International Fellow for the period April 1999 fo August 2000. | ! Dating this time he undertook extensive training on the Working with Confit and | Strengthening Policy and Practice courses, a5 well as undertaking verious consultancies for RTC in Sudan and Sri Lanka His initial experience was gained in South Aftica, as an anti-apartheid activist and later through involvement in the reconstruction and | reconciliation processes. He has worked with the independent Electoral Commission and the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Aftica, and, on a community level, with the Reconstruction and Development Programme in the Southern Cape Region. With a background in development and adult education and training, he has ‘worked extensively in Ethiopia, Sudan, Somaliland and Eritrea, Richard is a member of the Coalition for Peace in Aftica atid serves on the Steering Committee of Action for Corifict Transformation, a formal network of global practitioners.© ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS THIS BOOK Is THE RESULT OF WORK BY MANY PRACTTTIONERS and facilitators from all aver the ‘world, working in many languages and contexts. These pages are based upon their ‘work in progress, and if there is credit, it should go primarity to them, and to those ‘they are working with “WORKING WITH CONFLICT REFERS TO A FIELD OF WORK in which ideas and frameworks are shared generously and adapted freely to suit different needs by people who are practically involved in this work, Responding to Conflict (RTC) has been fully part of that process. We constantly borrow, adapt, invent and share ideas and tools This is essential iF our common capacity to address conflicts creatively is to increase. Howeve, it is often possible to Tose sight of where an idea came from and therefore not to give acknowledgement where it should be given. We have credited, wherever possible, those ‘whose work fs quoted. Where we have failed to do this, please forgive us, and inform us so that future editions can be more complete |W PARTICULAR, THERE ARE SOME WHOSE WRITINGS AND IDEAS have been crucial to the development of RTC and our approach: John Paul Lederach, Chris Mitchell, Mari Fitzduff, Adam Cure, Paulo Frete, Sally Timmel and Anne Hope, to mention a few. CHRIS BARBER WAS CENTRALLY INVOLVED IN THE BIRTH OF RTC and ed the trustees in its early years with great wisdom and selflessness. Val Ferguson took aver from Chris and has been an equally devoted and energetic chait With the other trustees and members of the Advisory Group, they have given RTC the security we needed to grow. Nicholas and Bevis Gillett have given invaluable encouragement from the earliest, and mast ‘uncertain, mornents [A SPECIAL ACKNOWLEDGEMENT NEEDS TO BE MADE to Judith Large Judith i a co-founder of RIC and a highly valued colleague She helped conceptualise and give shape to RTCs approach in our early days, Her contribution to' this book is great: sometimes directly, in that she helped devise and draft some of the tools and explanations, sometimes indirectly, as her creativity has influenced the orientation of the whole organisation ‘We thank her here and wish her well in her current work. ‘WE ARE GRATERIL ALSO TO PAUL CLIFFORD who works in many countries on behalf of RTC, sharing his learning and challenging us with new ideas, especially on negotiation and ‘mediation ‘THANKS TO OUR FUNDERS, especially Joseph Rowntree Charitable Trust, Polden Puckham Foundation, Edwatd Cadbury Charitable Trust and the Southall Trost, for their generous and consistent support. Thanks also to the Government of the Netherlands and the Allen ‘Lane Foundation for funding the writing, publication and dissemination of this bookAS THE BOOK WAS BEING PUT TOGETHER certain people gave invaluable help: Bridget Walker helped redraft extensive parts of Chapters 3 and 9 and frequently raised questions about gender and rights. Mary Lou Leavitt restructured Chapter 6 and made us think a Tot about active nonviolence as an approach, Both read and commented on the entire ‘manuscript, as did Ruth Musgrave, Donna Copnall, Rosemary Tucker, Shomari ‘Walingamnina and Gwen Prince Others gave their time for a ‘road-testing’ of the practical tools for analysis and strategy-building, including the entire Development Studies course in the Selly Oak Colleges Federation, and many other students at Woodbrooke College during the Autumn Term of 1999, ‘SPECIAL THANKS GO TO PAT PRIESTLEY, JOHN MANSFIELD, KAREN LEACH AND JACKIE MOORE, the RTC Administration and Finance team, for the efficiency and good humour with which they have helped to take the book from concept to culmination ‘SPECIFIC ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS TO: ‘Fahim Hakim for several drawings * Mati Fitzduff for her ideas on prejudice and discrimination in Chapter 4, and for allowing us to quote fiom her paper given at an RTC Consultation in Chapter 5 * Shomari Walingamina for the drawing in Figure &.2, Chapter 9 '* Oxfam Sudan for the Values Tree (page 80), ‘= Trevor Findlay (VERTIC) for writing about verification in Chapter 6. ‘© Post War Reconstruction and Developrnent Unit, University of York (See section on Reconstruction, page 126). |W ADDITION TO THESE PEOPLE YOU WILL FIND THE NAMES OF MANY OTHERS who have made direct contributions scattered throughout the text Without the commitment of all of them it would not have been possible to produce this book. Our heartfelt thanks go to all contributorsPREFACE : ‘ABOUT THIS BOOK TiS BOOK 15 A PRACTICAL TOOL. It offers ideas, methods and techniques for understanding [ and working with conflict. Its based on the insights of practitioners and communities from their first-hand experience in conflict situations, \WoRKING WITH CONFLICTS INTENDED FOR PEORLE wito are working for a mare just and peaceful world, whatever their belief or background. Some will have labels such as aid and development, human rights, community relations, peace and justice, emergency relief, conflict resolution and prevention. Others will be working in quite different sectors, but with similar velues. They willbe found in every country of the world: ‘wherever rulers and ruled, rich and poor, in-groups and out-groups confront each other; wherever there is hope that things can be better ‘THE CONTENTS HAVE COME OUT OF THE COLLECTIVE WISDOM and experience of some 300, a practitioners from all over the world who have worked with Responding to Conflict (RTC) since 1997, Many have been participants and tutors on our 10-week (formerly I1-week) Working with Conflict course, or other shorter courses, where through the study of each other's problems and the sharing of insights and experience, new tools and approaches have been forged to address common problems. Many of these participants have invited RTC staff to work with them: for example in various parts of Aftica, in Central Ametica, in Afghanistan and Pakistan, in Kazakhstan and other parts of the Commonwealth of Independent States, in Eastern Europe, in Cambodia, and in the South Pacific In each place these ideas and techniques have mutated in the light of local needs and circumstances, so that the contents of this book have been and stil are in a constant state of change. We have necessarily described them at a particular ‘moment in time, but be assured that when you finally read this, they will have evolved further, and mew ideas will be developing alongside them HOW TO USE THIS BOOK “THIS BOOK CAN ASSIST YOU TO: + Analyse the social and political conflicts you are facing, * Assess the capacity of your group or agency to work on 2 conffict ‘ yaluate the impact of your work on conflict. ‘Identify weaknesses and gaps in your current actions ; «Devise new activities and strategies appropriate to the dynamics of the situation * Develop essential skills + Influence strategic thinking in your own organisation, and others i * Leam from what you have done, and help others to do so, i Used systematically it can help you to make sense of what is happening in the conflicts 4 that you face, whether lage or small, and to increase your abiity to address them creatively and effectively‘THE 600K 5 NOT PRIMARILY A MANUAL FOR TRAINERS. Howeyer, the ideas and methods have nearly all been used in workshops and courses, and many trainers will probably use them in this way. We welcome this and hope for your feedback. Photocopying is ‘encouraged, where necessary, with due acknowledgement, THE BOOK DOES NOT HAVE TO BE READ FROM COVERTO COVER It can be dipped into when the need arises, However, there is a sequence to it, which we believe is important So, if _you start with @ later chaptet, you may find that you are referred back to ideas and tools that were covered in eailier chapters THERE ARE FOUR PARTS TO THE BOOK, as you can see from the diagram facing the Introduction to each of the four parts (Analysis, Strategy, Action, Leaming). We see these as a useful series of steps to have in mind, applicable to any intervention. If you read the book through, it should help you to plan and act effectively and to gain important information from it before entering the gyele again. However, you may at this moment be looking for some specific information: a method for assessing the impact of your programme on the conflicts in your area, for example, or some more detailed advice on mediation. If so, we suggest you go straight to the relevant pages, using the table of contents ot the index at the back. But at whatever point you enter this cycle, as shown in the diagram, we invite you to continue with it and to incorporate the four dimensions in a systematic way. (ONE FINAL WoRD: Sometimes it may seem that a tool or method is too complicated to try, Ifyou feel this at any point, we hope you will gather your courage and try it anyway. Do not worry whether you are doing it ‘conrecty: There are many ways to use each method and none is objectively the best or correct version, If it works for you, then that is how it should be. Have a go! We hope you find the book both useful and inspiring Please let us know= c) S a = fiat3 PART 1: ANALYSIS ‘THIS PART OF THE 00K offers 2 FOUNDATION STONE on which any work in an area afected by Cconfct can be buf Before you, as an individual or an organisation temps to do anying, whether fo address the conflict directly o to carry out other types of work, itis essential that you ‘know as much as possible about what is going on. This is what we call ‘analysis Differences in viewpoint are inevitable. When people study a problem together they often assume that, with the same facts at everyone's disposal, they wil ll agree ona single analysis. This és not so Differences are brought about by a range of cimensions: status, power, wealth, age, the role assigned to our gender, belonging to a specitic social group, and go on These incicators of Postion in society often mean that people want ditferent things from the same situation: when their goals clash or are incompatibi, we have @ confit (CHAPTER 1 This chapter introduces basic ideas for thinking about conflict, violence and peace {also introduces frameworks for thinking about intervention in conflict (CHAPTER 2 Ditforonces in perspective and gocls, hie often seen as a problem, can equelly be seen a8 a resource, leading to a wider understancing ofa problem and an improvement the present situation. tis with this in mind that Chapter 2 sets out rine separate tools of analysis that can help you to find out more about what is ‘happening ina conti, ident areas where you need to Know more, and begin to see were you can influence the situation. These tools have been used by individuals ‘working alone, by groups of people trying to find ways of addressing the conflcts ‘hey face, and by groups from diferent sides in a confict trying to understand each other Have ago at using thom. We have found that people understand them by trying them Chapter 2 also considers the reasons for analysing conflict: analysis can be an Intervention as well as a preparation for action In our work with people who are dealing with political and social contics, we have found that having a better Understanding ofthe dyramics, relationships and issues of the particular situation helo them to plan and carry out batter ations and strategies They gain this ‘understanding in two ways: by undertaking detailed analyses of confit from a variety of perspectives, and by exploring the specific issues and problems that relate to these confcts [CHAPTER 3 This chapter explores some ofthe major themes that arse wen you analyse contict: power, cute, identi, gender, righ. These raise questions to which there is nog answer, but with wich you will need to grapple you ere intending to ‘um your analysis into @ strategy and conrete actions You wil no doubt, have other issues that ae critical in your own context PART provides the basis on which to build your strategy: a conceptual framework, a sequence of ‘methods of analysis and an intial discussion of key issues, which are controversial yet fundamental to any serious work for peace and confit transformation workrue wit conriier @ Pxer ts ANALYSIS 1 Inteesuetionve sea eneES 1- UNDERSTANDING CONFLICT Towaris a conceptual framework JURIMARY a This chapter introduces some BEL basic ideas for thinking about contict. The tain topes discussed are: “+ Making sense of confit + Adressingconfct + Ditfarng approaches: fo manage resolve o trans ‘orm eontet? + Theories about ferent approaches to intervention incontict + Violence is more than behaviour: Italsolvalves context and attitudes + Violence and nonviolence as ways of bringing about chango ‘+ Peaco 2s. process ‘Whats peace-bulaing? *Howis itbestto start? ey Mating sense of conflict PERCEPTIONS People have ctferent perspectives on fife and its problems: ‘We each have our ov unique history and character + Each of usis bom either mae or female «Each of sis bom into a particu way off: ‘2 nomatc pastors ‘rom Northern Kenya and an urban dele Kula Lumpur have radially different experiences of, and views about, the wotd and ther place init + Bach oF ushas our ow values, which guide our thinking and ourbehaviour and mothate Us to take certain actions and to reject others Not suprisingly, therefore when we meet and ‘work with others, we find thatthe often have a diferent perspective om things. Look fora ‘moment a the picture below. >> what da you seo? >> And when you look agen can you see somo- ‘thing ditferent? Rather lke seeing different images inthe pie- ture, people see social and political situations differently. Our backgrounds lead us to see things in a particular way. Differences in viewpoint are inevitable, and ‘often enniching. When people study a problem together they often assume that, with the WORKING witH CONFLICT eo PARI 1: ANALYSIS / Chapter 1 -Understanding Confletsame facts at everyone's disposal, they will all agree on a single analysis. This not so. Unanimity is even more unlikely when we consider that, in addition to these “natural” differences, there are those brought about by 4 range of other dimensions: status, power, ‘wealth, age, the role assigned to our gender, lclonging toa specific social eroup, and so on. These indicators of positon in society often ‘mean that people want different things from the same situation: sometimes these goals clash, or are incompatible. It then that we have a confit. Differences in perspective and goals are often seen as a problem that will only be resolved ‘when we all have the same intentions, or when ‘ome view wins over the others. Alternatively, they can be seen as a resource, leading to a \wider understanding of a problem, and an improverment to the present situation. CONFLICT AND VIOLENCE ‘ARE DIFFERENT THINGS As basic working definitions of confit and violence, we would suggest the following: * CONFLICT is a relationship between two oF ‘more parties (individuals or groups) vho have, or think they have, incompatible goa * VIOLENCE consists of actions, wor, attitades, structures or systems that cause physical, psychological, social or environmental damage andor prevent people from reach= ing their fall human potential Confets are facto ite neitable ad often creative. Confictshappen when people pusue goals which dash, Disagreements and conflts are usually resohed without violence, and often Jead to an improved situation for most or all of those nvched. Which just aswel, since con- fits are part of our existence, From the mcr, interpersonal evel through to groups, organ- istions, communities and nations, all human relations ~ social relations, economie relations and relations of power ~ experience growth, change and confit, Confit arise fom fm= balances in these relations ~ie unequal social status, unequal wealth andl access to resources ‘and urequal power leading to problems such as discrimination, unemployment, poverty, ‘oppression crime. Esch eve connects to the ‘others, forming a potentially powerful cian of forces either for constructive change of for destructive violence This book focuses om the middle to higher levels: community and national, However it needs to be read inthe knowledge that events atthe other Teves - interpersonal and family aswell as regional and global ~ are abo crucial Inthe household, for exemple, child abuse and domestic violence are far-reaching in thet impact, and at the global level decisions made bby multinational economic bodies such 35 the IMF, World Trade Organisation and World Bank have a grass roots impact > How many conflicts are you aware of at this ‘moment? > Can you see links betoon contits at ditfor- ont levels? itis clear that conic swith us whether we 1ike it or not, it is only another step to seeing that we actualy need it There is much itere- ture, in the business world especially, which focuses on the beneficial effects of conifct These include making people aware of prob- Jems, promoting necessary change, improving solutions, rising morale, fostering personal development, increasing self-awareness, enhancing psychological maturity ~ and fun? While, from your own experience, you may ‘want to disagree with the advantages listed above, itis intriguing to reflect on the postive contribution that conflict can make, not just -within organisations but at all eves Without it, you might imagine, individuals would be stunted for tack of stimulation, groups and “organisations would stagnate and die, and societies would collapse under their own ‘weight, unable to adapt to changing cheum- stances and altering power relations, tts commonly said, for example, that the Roman Empire collapsed because it was not able to adapt and change.> Can you thnk of situation, from your own ‘oxporiance, where conflet has mado a positive contribution? > How aid confit help to change te situation? > Do you now agroo that confict can help to stimulate necessary change Addressing conflict INTENSIFYING CONFLICT Sometimes i is necessary to intersfy confit For exarmpl, when people are doing well and hhave enough power and resources to meet their needs, they do not notice, or refuse to acknowledge, that others ae disachantaged or marginalised, In this case, conflict needs to be introduced or brought into the open so that the necessary changes can be brought about People working for community develop- ‘ment and han rights vl often find them- selves working not to resolve a conflict, but to intensity it and make it more visible, to ‘the point where the isu is more widely recog ised and effective action begins to be taken This may mean siding with ¢ disedvantaged {group and using strategies for empowerment For example, in South Attia for much of the ‘twentieth centary, activists working for change were striving to bring the hidden, or latent, conflicts into the open so that they could be addressed and dealt with NB: In this book a clear distinction is made between: ‘INTENSIFYING CONFLICT, which means making a hidden conflict more visible and open, for purposeful, nonviolent ends, and ‘* ESCALATING CONFLICT, which refers to a ituation in which levels of tension and violence are increasing ‘Some basic facets of confit are lustrated im the diagram below (Figure 1 1)/ Confit is iferentiated along two axes: goals and beh outs. This accords with our working defin- ition that ‘confct is 2 relationship between FUE 1. ‘GOALS AND BEHAVIOUR COMPATIBLE GOALS 7 a working wirk comseser QQ emai i atin chserUnentntng caret INCOMPATIBLE GOALS.‘wo or more partes who have, or think they hae, incompatible goals: The four boxes in the figure show relation- ships between goals and behaviour and thei implication in terms of conflict, The ain isto illastrate types of confit in order to point towards diferent kinds of possible intervention There is no idea situation in this scenario, but cach of the four types has its own potential and challenges + NO CONFLICK: A common perception may be that the box on the top left, NO CON- LCT, Is preferable. However, any peaceful group or society, iit isto endure, must be lively and dynamic, incorporating conics of behaviour and goals and addressing them creatively. + LATENT CONFLICT is below the surface and, asalteady suggested, may need tobe brought into the open before it can be effectively addressed + OPEN CONFLICT ishoth deep-rooted and very visible, and may require actions that address both the rot causes and the visible effects + SURFACE CONFLICT hes shallow or no roots ‘and may be only 2 misundestanding of goals that can be addressed by means of improved ‘communication ‘SUPPRESSING CONFLICT Ia conflicts suppressed, this Teads to future problems Confit itself can be as much @ part ofthe solution as its of the problem Tt becomes violent when «there are inadequate channels for dialogue and disagreement + dissenting woices and deeply held grievances cannot be heard and addressed ‘*Yhere is instability, injustice and fear in the wider community and society One blockage that is often underestimated fies inthe trauma and hurts that al of us cary from our past: the personal and collective experience of distress, loss, pain, and perhaps: Violence While this i true of all people it early most évastaing and lating in situations cof war and genocide These hurts can continue to destabiise us, consciousiy or unconsciously, if they are not acknowledged and deat with, At their simplest ‘we often experience them as blockages to coeatve thought, orelationships and to action ‘More drasticalty, they can surface in demon- ‘sing attitudes towards other people or groups and act as a perceived legitimisation for destroying them, thus creating yet more hurt Te same process works atthe socal level If a group or nation considers that it has been ‘wrongly treated or itised in the pas, it wil tend to remember these injustices, perhaps fearing 2 repeat of them, perhaps actively looking fora chance to take revenge against the perceived aggressors When such blockages are in place, and linked in a chain from the personal to the national, they create the conditions in which people easy resort to force Theslogan ofthe ‘women's movement thatthe personal spot ica’ applies here, When people ae disadvan {aged or oppressed, they experience suppressed conflicts at @ personal level that can lead them to take political action at a national level. The suppression of confit also provides, 2 fertile ground that can be exploited by politicians, walords and racketeers, who may recruit the aggrieved othe disadvantaged to help them assert their power and influence st 2 national level by the se of coercive force A culture of violence grows, in which eon- filets are habitually handled by force Differing approaches: to manage, resolve or transform conflict Theres now mach effort being put nto resah~ {ng conflicts. Until the Tate 1960s mast wars ‘were fought between nation states, Now most ‘wats are intemal, cil wars and the casualties are mainly viians While men are more key tobe killed, disappeared or coerced int mili tary action, women and children make up the majority of those who are displaced or become refugees. Many atribute this inerease in chi war to the ending of the Cold War and the ‘PARI 1: ANALYSIS | Chapter 1~Understanding Conflict oe WORKING WITH CONFLICTresurgence of nationalism and ethnic identity in the wake of the collapse of the “bipolar ‘word order The collapse ofthe Soviet socil- {st sphere of influence has ao resulted in an “unrestrained globalisation of capitalism that thas had an impact on the efforts of peape te build democratic societies and economies. International nancial institutions, such as ‘the World Bank and the Intemational Monetary Fund (IMF), row have a more influential and decisive role in the way that weaker and poorer ‘countries operate politically, economically nd socially Economic liberalisation has often fuelled tensions and conflict within these ‘counties. The increase of internal conficts, along with the globalstion of cons beyond the control of individual counties, has also resulted from the growth of associated trends such as warlords, political comuption and ‘criminal economies Ina sense, the ending of ‘the Cold War opened a vale for many global tensions that had previously been forcibly repressed In response to this situation there has been a ‘major cxpansion in research and practical effort ‘toredace violent confit Governments and chit society ac have tried to develop answers toa robles that in many aeasis hampering devel- ‘opment or deraing it completely, New organ- ‘ations have sprung up, and new ternnology is struggling to be bom [this erly stage there istvely disagreement cover winat words mean Below we offer typol= gy, which s consistent but has no dim to be universally accepted, The terms describe the various approaches to addressing conflict Sometimes they ae sen as stepsin a process ach step taken incudes the previous one (eg conflet settlement includes measures for con ‘ict prevention, 5 appropriate) In tis book we use the term conflict transformation more eneralty to describe the field a5. a whole * CONFLICT PREVENTION aims to prevent the ‘outbreak of violent conflict * CONFLICT SETTLEMENT sims to end violent ‘behaviour by teaching a peace agreement * CONFLICT MANAGEMENT sims to limit and avoid fate violence by promoting positive ‘behavioural changes in the parties involved + CONFLICT RESOLUTION adresses the causes of conflict and secks to build new and Tasting relationships between hostile groups + CONFLICT TRANSFORMATION adresses the ‘wider social and polite! sources ofa confit and seeks to transform the negative energy ‘of warinto postive social and political change Figure £2 isnot meant to explain ‘when to do what’, but rather to clay terms So, for example, confit prevention refers to strategies that adress confit when tis stlatent, nthe hope of preening an escalation into violence FIGURE 1.2: RESPONSES TO CONFLICTS: THROUGH THE MAZE OF TERIANOLOGY? a ‘aver conmucr |_SoMACEERET coos] one TBAT woneine mite cowriser QQ pam: aunyss/ cpt 1-Understoding Comet | esCConfict resolution, on the other Hand ees to strategies that address open confit in the ‘ope of finding not only an agreement to end the violence {conflict settlement), but aso a resolution of some of the incompatible goals ‘underiying i, While confit transformation & the most thorough and far-teaching strategy, its also the one that needs the longest and most wide-ranging commitment The confictin Kosovo in 1999 can serve as ‘an example: it was an open conflict, dearly involving clashing goats and behaviours, and resulting in mary deaths and much dsplace- rent An appropriate intervention needed to address both settlement and resolution ‘Many of the peace attempts were aimed solely at settlement because of the serious violence However, there were aso longer-term tates ‘involving groups from tie different commu nities in dialogue over their conimon future. ‘Once the war finshed they provided a valuable, middle-level basis for working out future reltionships and the make-up of publicinstitu- tions, They were working atthe longer-term {ask of confit transformation. ‘Theories about the causes of conflict To help you in considering ways of addressing conflicts, we offer the following summary* of the major theories about the causes of conic, each of which points to different methods and goals COMMUNITY RELATIONS THEORY assures that conflicts caused by ongoing polarisation, mistrast and hostility between diferent groups ‘within a community The goals of work based ‘on community relations theory te: #0 improve communication and uneerstand- ing between conficting groups + to promote greater tolerance and acceptance of diversity in the community PRINCIPLED NEGOTIATION THEORY assumes, that conflict caused by incompatible positions and a‘7e10-sum' view of confit being adopted by the conflicting partes’ The goals of work coos based on principled negotiation theory are: toast conflicting partis to separate person lites from problems an issues, aid to be able to negotiate on the basis of thet nter- ests rater than fixed postions #10 facilitate agreements that offer motual gain for bothal partes HUMAN NEEDS THEORY assumes that deep- rooted confit is caused by unmet ot fustrated basic human needs ~ physical, psychological ‘and socal Security, identity recognition, pat ticipation and autonomy ate often cited. The goals of work based on human needs theory ae: * to assist confiting parties to identify and she thei unmet needs, ane. generate options for meeting those needs «forthe partes to reach agreements that meet the basic human needs ofall the sides IDENTITY THEORY assures that contict is caused by feeings of threatened identity, often rooted in umesohed past loss an suffering, The gozls of work based om identity theory are: ‘ through facitated workshops and dialogue, for conflicting panties to identify teats and fears they each feel and to buld empathy and reconciliation between themselves + to jointly reach agreements that recognise ‘the core identity needs of al parties INTERCULTURAL MISCOMMUNICATION THEORY assumes that conflicts cause by incompatib- ites between different cultral communication styles. The goals of work based on intercultural miscommunication theory are: «to nerease the conflicting partis’ Inowedge of eachother’ culture + to weaken negative stereotypes they have of each other + ultimately, to enhance effective intercultural communication. ‘CONFLICT TRANSFORMATION THEORY assumes that conflict is caused by real problems of inequality andl injustice expressed by com= peting social, cultural and economic frame ‘works. The goals of work based on conflict ‘transformation theory re: os Be a . e ee sae a* to change structures and frameworks that cause inequality and injustice, ieluding economic edistributton + to improve longer-term relationships and attitudes among the conficting parties * to develop processes and sytcis that pro- ‘mate empovierment, justice, peace, forgive ness, reconciliation, recognition which ofthese theories, if any, agrees with your ov approach to working on conflict? > Do your goats agree withthe goals given here for that theory? > Do the theories help you to better understand how others are working on the same conflict? > fro thore other approaches used by yoursef or ‘others which do notin one ofthese theories? > Canyou suggest 2 thoory to add to this ist? Violence is more than behaviour: italso involves context and attitudes Whatever you may or may not find useful about theories, the reality that you are ting to deal with eat confct And that reality often includes some form of violence, which is a central obstacle when you are tying to intr- ‘ene in the situation. Most of us think of violence as behaviour King, beating, torture, mang and so on are all examples of physical violence and there fs ‘no shortage ofthis kind of behaviour in com- ‘nities, societies and countries all over the ‘world Wars are avery visible and intense mani- festa ofthis Much violent behaviour occurs also in the private domain ~ for example in families where women and chien experience abuse VIOLENCE AS CONTEXT OR STRUCTURE Butinrecentyearsourunderstanding of viclence has deepened to include other, less obvious forms of violence that can be equally damag- ‘ng and perhaps even more difficult to address. People have Found it unhelpful to draw a clear line between, for example, killing with 2 gun and kling through deprivation of food and other essentials of life In each case on group inficts suffering on another This can be deliberate orit can result fom simply not taking into account the needs of other groups There are many systems and structures that ‘operate in tis way. ‘Many se some ofthe tends in intemational financial systems as violent structures, whereby ‘one group of nations imposes deliberate suffer- ing on others. For example, mary intemational institutions encouraged poorer countries of ‘ica, Asa and Latin America to borrow large amounts of money. These debts and the con- ition for repayment now beng imposed by ‘the IMF have forced many poorer countries to restructure their economies in order to pay the debts rather than meet the basic needs ofthe people The effects in terms of deaths and damaged lives ar often as serious as the effects ofa war This situation is complicated further by the fact that economic and politcal leaders in the north and the south have colfuded in creating these debts, with the result that they gain financially while the majority of people suffer ‘Wars themselves are often the result of systems deliberately fostered by those benefiting from the destruction, for example arms manu- factuers, arms dealers and warlords Wherever stems discriminate between groups, com rmurites and rations t the point of teeatening lives and livelihoods, the results structural at institutional violence. [ATTTTUDES AND VALUES IW RELATION TO VIOLENCE Theres, however, another deeper layer to our ‘understanding of violence. This lates to less visible, mental processes: the Feelings attitudes andvaluesthat people hold. These ate notvio- lent in themrsehies but can easly become the sources of violence, or st least allow violent behaviour and violent structures to operate ate, fear and mistrust are feelings which can allow usto clasfy people as inferior, or superior, in terms of categories such as race, gender, religion, ethnicity, mental bility physical abn, Spee: oe WoRKina witn cont rer QJ veer: amass y chapter s-Unestosing ComicROUGE 1.3: BEHAVIOUR, ‘CONTEXT ANO ATTITUDE [VRECT PHYSICAL VIOLENCE: BEHAVIOUR un +A “semuinsrion «TORTURE ‘cADBMRION OFEDNOMIES « CEWAL OF HGS AND UBS 1 SEREDATN fg. PATHE political ideology o sexual orientation These feelings may cause some groups of people to ‘become intolerant of anyone who is diferent fiom themsevesin any oral of these categories From there, with the appropriate misinfor- ‘mation, iis 2 retatvely sll step for them to begin secing peoplein other groups sles than human, and thus to participate in, or justify {rom the sidelines, inhuman action against them 1n Figure 1.3 these three elements (behav jour, context and attitude) ae shown asinter- connected. An action aimed at reducing Violent betaviour, crucial as itis, needs to be ‘complemented by actions directed at both ‘context and atitudes if real or positive peace is to be achieved. A negative peace, the absence of violet behaviour, will not last it the other dimensions ae not addressed, Acton mall three dimensions is needed to promote positive peace. ‘This wider understanding of violence can be hpi because: oe ‘mm ACTION: ‘WOLENCE REDUCTION TO PROMOTE "NEGATIVE PEACE ‘*1t shows that violent beheviour and war are, in most cases, only a smal part of what rakes up a confit: ‘Tt shows the interconnectedness of al three dimensions: an intervention in one area has ripple effect inthe others. «It prompts us to identify those people who organise and profit from violence, some times known as ‘conflict entrepreneurs, vhs interests ate served by the continuation ‘of violence “It points to vital entry points for confi ‘vansformatin, in both the context and the attitudes ofa situation It also implies that those working to resolve social and politcal confitets need to be clear about their ovn values and long-term goals, > Can you identify violent structures, and attitudes which promote violenea, tn conticts you are addressing? > Do you soe how these factors prevent reat ‘change and mavement toward positive peace? PART 1: ANALYSIS / Chapter 1= Understanding Conflict oO WORKING WITH CONFLICTViolence and nonviolence ‘as ways of bringing about change {in out experience of working with people fom ‘many diferent situations, we have found wide Aiferences of opinion about the relative value of violence or nonviolence in ringing about change. The two broad areas af opinion are: ‘THOSE WHO ACCEPT THE NEED FOR COERCIVE FORCE, inching violent means, to compel ‘others to comply wth the wishes when ale fais: There area range of views on precisely witen violence can justly be used, and theories about just war have been developed to adres this problem For example, many ‘peopl believe thatthe Second World War of 1939-45 was justified as a means to over= come the eater violence being perpetrated by Hite and Nai Germany aginst Jewish people and other ethic minaitis, However, inthe curtent age of nuctear weapans, with the danger ofa nuclear holocaust, some ofthese same people would say that fllscale war smo longer justifiable There ar others who belive that the use of violence justified in oner to erate people from authoritarian and repre she regimes that ae torturing and kling, and severely restricting rights and betes Mave ACTIVE NONVIOLENCE Theteis another approach that alls betiven the ‘wo mentored above For those who wse"actve nonviolence’ force and coercion ae possible, ‘and often necessary, even though they refuse tose volence and do not want to harm other people and relationships. This kind of force aims to change a situation by making it too “costly literally or psychologiclly = fr an undesirable situation oreatiorship tobe sus- tained. For example, Gandhi’ campaigns in South Africa and in India or the campaign for women’s suffage were actively nonviolent and forceful in bringing about positive chenge ‘Active nonviolence seeks to reach out and enhance or awaken the common humanity of allinvohed ina confit, ncuding one’s oppor ‘ents It tries to nerease the potential or tuth- fal communication, vile seeking so to stop or prevent destructive behaviour by everyone involved 1m practic, of course, mast social change movernents use a mix of violent and non violent tactics. The late twentethth century sav an explosion of maverens using some variants of active nonviolence, whether for pragmatic o principled reasons ~ for example, rents with this value base often target propery the people-power revolutions ofthe Philippines ‘and try to avoid harming the pecple whose and Eastern Furope, anti-nuclear and erviron- support they need ‘ental mavements in Wester Europe and the ‘THOSE WHO TAKE A TOTALLY NONVIOLENT STANCE and belive tat in no cumstances can vilence lead toa just outcome, there fore its use cannot be justified Tn practice, rnorvolent actions are cared out by a mix- ture of those who take tis absolut psition and those who adopt nomclent methods because they see them as the mast Hkely 0 succeed in their situation A commitment to nonviolence among the leadership of Tibetan refugees, led by the Dalai Lama, has prevented an armed resistance mave- rent developing to challenge the Chinese ‘occupation of Tibet. On the other hand, the Palestine Liberation Organisation, faced with a similar situation, chose armed struggle United Democratic Front in South Affica (asin the extract on page 12) to mention just a few Peace as a process Peace i a process: a many-sided, never-ending struggle to trarsform violence, Both those who ‘accept the need for evercive force, including violence, and those who take a totally non- violent stance, and the many others with views in between, would say that they want peace: [But their ideas about what peace really are rather different Stable peace a relatively rare state: Many societies and communities are excluded from peace by a range of economic, political and social factors. Peace is often compared to tit to win the WORKING witw ComeL Tey QQ ans i: anavysis/chopter 1-Understonding conte“7 Slowly, slowly, siRNA esse ‘the egg will walk. NELSON MANDELA'S STATEMENT FROM THE DOCK {A THE OPENING OF THE DEFENCE CASE HY THE RIVONIA TREASON TRIAL? I must deatimmiately and at some fongth with the question of violence. Some ofthe things ‘so far tod 10 the Gourt are true and some aro unt. 1 donot, however, deny that | planned sapotage| id not plan it ina spi of rocklessness, nor because {have any love of violence. | planned ia a result ofa cain and sober assessment ofthe political situation that had arisen ator ‘many years of tyranny, exploitation, and oppression of my people by te Whites 1m {admit immediately that | was one ofthe persons wite helped to form Umkonto we Slaw, ‘an that playod a prominent role nts affairs until wos arrestod in August 1962 In .. land the others who started the organisation, did s0 fortwo reasons. First, we bolioved ‘hat, asa result of Government plc, volenoe by the African people had become inetably and tet unless responsible leadership was given to canalise nd control the fetings of our peopl, ‘there would be outbreaks of terrorism which would produce an intensity of bitterness and hestlity petween the various races ofthis country that Is not produced even by war. Secondly, we felt that without violence there would be no way open tothe Atican people to sueceed in their strugateageinet tho principle of white supremacy. Ali awl modes of expressing opposition to this piincpl had beon closed by leisation, and we were placed ino positon in which wo ha testo ocept a pormanent state of inferiority, orto defy the Government. We chose to defy the law We first broke the law in ¢ way which avoided any recouree to violence; when this form was legislated against, and then the Government resorted toa show of force to crush opposition tots patces, only then dd we decide to answer violenco wth violence neath in that it s more easily recognised by disagree over what a peaceful society its absence, Like health, al have access to it, Mam people understand peace to he the However, untxe healt itis contested: people absence of war While this of cours, vital, others see'it as ony a fst step towards a fuller idea, sing definitions such as: an interweaving of relationships between individuals, groups and institutions that value diversity and foster the fall development of human potential Women in Taliban-controlled (peaceful) igharistan, deprived oF education and oppor tunities to work, would not take Yong to see the difference [Apsence of war is often described 25 negative (cold) peace, and is contasted with positive (warm) peace, which encompasses all aspects of the good society that we might ennisage for oursetyes: universal ights, €.0- nomic well-being, ecological balance and other core values There are always those who fear peace. ‘Many have good reason to do so: they will Tose wealth, status and power as result of what van AKAs /ehptee t-undestandng connie @ WORKING wiiw CONFLICTthey have done, Oxfam in the Horn of Africa developed the concept of ‘dynamic stability’ to describe its vision of a peace in which conflicts would stl occu, but violence would be absent From understaning to anolysis. bes ‘mopeing relcionshios sa theiruoge, Sudo ght ond worktop on eontiet in Birmingham. England (tow) ‘What is peace-building? The United Nations distinguishes between several different kinds of ntenention to bring about peace In addition to humanitarian aid lor emergency assistance, designed to provide‘the immediate means of survival for populations ats, the main categories of intervention are: * PEACE-MAKING: intenentions designed to «end hostilities an bring about an agreement using diplomaig, politcal and itary means as necessary | PEACE-KEEPING: monitoring and enforcing ‘an agreement, using force 25 necessary This indues verifying whether agreements are being kept and supervising agreed confidence-building activites. «+ PEACE-BUILDING: undertaking programmes designed to address the causes of conflict and the grievances ofthe pst and to promote Jonge-term staiity and justice Peace-buildng not primarily concermed with ‘confit behaviour but addresses the underly~ ing context end attitudes that give rise to -olence, such as unequal access to employ= ‘ment, discrimination, unacknowledged and “unforgiven responsiblity for past crimes, prju- ice, mistrast, fear, hostility between groups It 's therefore low-profile work that can, a least in theory, continue through all stages of @ conflict Butt sel to be strongest either in Tater stages after settlement and a reduction inviolent behaviour or in earlier stages before ‘any open violence has ocurred, Peace-building is mast often used to descfbe work that has ‘peace-enlancing outcomes, and it attaches «great importance to how things happen. In other words its about the process as well as the activity itself and its outcomes. For example, the rebuilding of abridge in Kabul after it was destroyed in ighting might hhave best been described simply a5 recorstric- tion. However, the UN agency involved saw the opportunity and set out deliberately to develop the peace-building potential ofthe situation by involving the previously cortict- {ng sides jointly inthe planing, the physical work and future maintenance and control PEACE IS HERE AND NOW ~ ‘LETT BEGIN WITH ME {you are trying to Infuence the conflicts in ‘which you work and to build peace and socal justice in your community, you need to look ‘at the groups and organisations you work ‘with, and each of their activities, fm the same light. Do they contain examples of people striving for peaceful cooperation? If so, there is a good chance that you can spread that ‘vision further If they demonstrate the oppo- site (unaccountable icadership, unjust or con- fused procedures, reputation-seeking J, the Tikelinood is that these opposite tendencies will be reinforced > Looking frankly at your group of organisation, ‘what do you see? > Doyou see people who have the capacities, skills and quate to work for peace and justice? > Do you soe any obstactes inthe way the ‘group operates? >> Do you see your organisation heving a positive role in promoting change in your ‘community, society or nation? ‘Much is possible there isthe vl to make a difference. Conflicis car be influenced and steps 1o peace and justice can be achieved, Dearing in mind that HOW you work is as ‘important as WHAT you do. As Gandhi said: "We nmast BE the change we wish to SEE in the world? jow is it best to start? Fy STOP: Think before you act” This is a crucial principle in working with conflict ~ provided that circumstances allow Do your analysis before you take action 1F your intention isto intervene in conflict and ty to influence it for the better, your analysis should be undertaken from different view- points and perspectives LOOK: ‘Put your own house in order” Take 2 good look at yourselFand your organisation and consider whether you may need to change inorder to beable to intervene affectively in the conflict Addressing this 6 pants AMALEehater|-Unentnang cnr QP WOKING WITH COMPLIESVitel and continuing area of work, whatever ‘your intentions for influencing the wider society ‘Took explained n Chapter 5 may be helpful for ‘is step. LUSTEN: ‘What do others say and wnat ‘does your own intuition tell you?" Try to imagine what might happen in the future: fn three or six months time, or Further ahead Itis easier to take effective action, and perhaps to prevent violence, it you can antici pate and plan for any obstacles or changes ‘hat might arise PROCEED: ‘Start out from where you are and begin some new action’ ‘Your current work can provide an entry point ‘to-work For peace and justice There sno need to create special labels and categories, indeed itis often wiser not to Also keepin ming that ‘there are always many alles and collaborators ‘ut there who can help you on this journey, if only you can see them as such, and not as ‘hls oF roadblodin the way of your progress. The following chapter sets out some methods of analysing conflicts Itinvites you to try some of them out andi then moveort to methods of building «strategy and taking caction ores, ‘eet ton er 2 an oa he cet eve nn Sette ‘icons abn My 8 4 Mest ecoae hi age mr ering thre fete ses becntae fannie Baa sib Gepas O4