Microwave Antennas and Propagation

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Microwave Antennas And Propagation
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services. Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramcos employees. Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Communications File Reference: CTR20204
For additional information on this subject, contact J.S. Phillips on 873-0228
Communications Microwaave Antennas and Propagation
CONTENTS
PAGES
DETERMINING CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROWAVE ANTENNAS ........................................................................................................... 1 Derivation of Antennas from a Transmission Line...................................... 1 Basic Mechanics of Antenna Radiation....................................................... 2 Microwave Feed Horn................................................................................. 8 Parabolic Reflector ...................................................................................... 9 Horn Reflector Antenna ............................................................................ 11 Advantages and Disadvantages...................................................... 13 MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION PATH CHARACTERISTICS ....................... 14 LOS Propagation ....................................................................................... 14 Free Space Path Loss................................................................................. 17 Other Propagation Losses.......................................................................... 18 Atmospheric Absorption................................................................ 18 Rain Attenuation ............................................................................ 19 Terrain and Obstruction Losses ..................................................... 20 Reflection .................................................................................................. 21 Delay Distortion............................................................................. 24 Multipath Propagation ................................................................... 24 Fresnel Zone Radii......................................................................... 25 Fade Margin .............................................................................................. 30 Reliability Objectives ................................................................................ 31 Probability of Outages ................................................................... 32 Diversity......................................................................................... 36
CALCULATING SYSTEM GAIN....................................................................... 40 Sample Gain Calculation ........................................................................... 43 WORK AID 1: FORMULAS AND REFERENCES FOR DETERMINING MICROWAVE ANTENNA CHARACTERISTICS ................................................................ 47 Determining Microwave Antenna Gain..................................................... 47 Determining the Diameter of the Parabolic Reflector ............................... 48 WORK AID 2: PROCEDURE TO CALCULATE SYSTEM GAIN................... 50 GLOSSARY ......................................................................................................... 52
DETERMINING CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROWAVE ANTENNAS An antenna is the device that provides a transition of electromagnetic energy from the transmission line to the free space and vice versa. An antenna is a reciprocal device, which means that the characteristics that affect a transmitting antenna will have an identical effect on a receiving antenna. This section provides information on the following topics that are pertinent in the determination of the characteristics of microwave antennas: Derivation of Antennas from a Transmission Line Basic Mechanics of Antenna Radiation Microwave Feed Horn Parabolic Reflector Horn Reflector Antenna Advantages and Disadvantages
Derivation of Antennas from a Transmission Line The basic operation of an antenna can be understood through use of transmission line theory. Figure 1 shows how a half-wave dipole can be developed from a quarterwave section of transmission line. The open-ended section of transmission line develops standing waves of voltage and current. When the conductors are parallel with each other, the fields that are generated by the voltage and current are in opposite directions, and these fields will cancel; therefore, the transmission line will not radiate a signal. If the conductors are spread apart, the fields that are generated will be in the same direction and the antenna will radiate waves (energy) into free space. If the conductors are spread to a distance that is equal to one-half of a wavelength of the signal on the transmission line, the antenna will radiate waves that are one-half of a wavelength (l/2).
Development of an Antenna from a Section of Transmission Line Figure 1
Basic Mechanics of Antenna Radiation The radiation that is emitted by the antenna is in the form of transverse electromagnetic (TEM) waves. The TEM wave consists of two components: the electric field (E-field) and the magnetic field (H-field). Figure 2 shows a representation of the E- and H-fields. The Efield is represented by E-lines that are developed along the length of the antenna. The H-field is represented by H-lines that are developed circumferentially around the antenna. The Hfield lines are perpendicular to the E-field lines. The E and H-fields are developed from the standing waves of voltage and current that are 90o out-of-phase with each other. The H-field is at minimum intensity when the E-field is at maximum intensity. The H-field will be at maximum intensity when the E-field is at minimum intensity.
TEM Wave Radiation from an Antenna Figure 2
The following terms are used to describe the characteristics of antennas: Polarization Radiation Efficiency Radiation Pattern Directivity Beamwidth Gain Capture Area Bandwidth
Polarization is a term that is used to define the direction of the E-field lines in relation to the surface of the earth. Because the E-field lines are developed along the length of the antenna, the polarization of the transmitted wave is achieved through use of the position (horizontal or vertical) of the transmitting antenna. If the transmitting antenna is vertical, the E-field lines will be vertical to the surface of the earth, and the emitted wave is said to be vertically polarized. Likewise, a horizontal antenna will emit a wave with horizontal polarization. The receiving antenna must be in the same plane of polarization (vertical or horizontal) as the transmitting antenna for the best reception. For example, a vertical antenna is normally used to receive vertically polarized waves. A slight amount of twisting of the polarization occurs as the TEM wave travels through free space. This twisting is called the faraday effect, and it is normally not significant except in satellite communications. The radiation efficiency of an antenna describes the ratio of the radiated power of an antenna to the applied power of an antenna. Practical antennas will not be 100% efficient because some of the applied power is lost. The radiation efficiency of an antenna is a function of the resistance of the antenna. The actual radiation efficiency of an antenna depends on the design of the antenna. The term radiation pattern refers to the directional characteristics of an antenna. Nearly all practical antennas tend to concentrate energy in specific directions rather than emit radiation that is equal in all directions. A diagram typically is used to show the radiation pattern for an antenna. Figure 3 shows the radiation patterns from an isotropic radiator and from a directional antenna. The isotropic radiator equally emits radiation in all directions. The radiation pattern of the directional antenna is stronger in one direction. The area of most intense radiation is called the main lobe or major lobe. Other smaller lobes exist, and these lobes are called minor lobes.
Radiation Patterns Figure 3
Directivity describes the ability of an antenna to radiate energy in one direction. In reference to Figure 3, directivity is the comparison of the amount of energy that is radiated in the main lobe to the energy that is radiated in the main lobe plus the energy that is radiated in all three minor lobes. Directivity is defined as the ratio of the maximum power density that is radiated by an antenna to the average power that is radiated by the same antenna. Beamwidth is a measure of the width of the major lobe of a directional antenna, and it is measured in degrees. The beamwidth provides an indication of how effective a directional antenna is at aiming the radiated energy in one main direction; for example, an antenna with a narrow major lobe will be more effective in aiming the radiated energy than will an antenna with a wide major lobe.
The gain of an antenna is also related to the directivity of the antenna because antennas are essentially passive devices that do not add energy to an applied signal. Because antennas are passive devices, the gain of an antenna is a directive gain that describes the percentage of the power that is concentrated in the direction of radiation. Although a dipole is sometimes used as a reference, an isotropic antenna is the reference point that is used to determine the gain of directional antennas. An isotropic antenna is a theoretical antenna that radiates power equally in all directions. The gain of an antenna is the ratio of the power density in the direction of radiation of the antenna to the power density of an isotropic radiator. Power density is a measure of the strength of the electromagnetic field across a given volume. This relationship can be expressed mathematically in dB as follows:
gain (dB) = 10 log(Pant/Piso) Pant = Power density at some distance along the direction of radiation from the directional antenna. Piso = Power density at the same distance from an isotropic radiator.
The gain of a given antenna depends on the size, shape, and efficiency of the antenna. Capture area is the term that is used to describe the effective area from which an antenna can capture (receive) transmitted signals. The capture area of a receive antenna is similar to the beamwidth of a transmit antenna. The major lobe of the capture area represents the direction from which a receive antenna is best able to receive a transmitted signal. Bandwidth is the term that is used to describe the specific range of frequencies in which a given antenna is designed to operate. An antenna that is operated at frequencies that are above or below the specified bandwidth may not provide satisfactory service.
Microwave Feed Horn The microwave feed horn that is shown in Figure 4 is the simplest type of microwave antenna. Most microwave transmission systems use waveguide in place of conventional transmission line to connect the transmitter/receiver to the antenna. The microwave feed horn antenna consists of a section of connecting waveguide that is tapered (or flared outward) to form a horn shape that provides a gradual transition from the characteristic impedance of the waveguide to the impedance of free space. The operation of the microwave feed horn antenna is similar to the operation of the half-wave dipole antenna that was previously described. The spread of the conductors that was shown in Figure 1 is duplicated through use of the horn of the microwave feed horn antenna. The horn allows the E-field lines and H-field lines to leave the antenna and travel into free space.
Horn Antenna Figure 4
The geometry of the horn is such that one or both dimensions of the horn walls are tapered. The gain of the microwave feed horn antenna depends on the ratio of the opening of the horn to the square of the transmitted wavelength, and the gain is limited to approximately 20 dB in practical applications. Because the gain of the horn antenna is not high enough for most microwave relay applications, microwave feed horn antennas are used most often in low performance applications or they are used in conjunction with parabolic reflectors to form parabolic antennas. Parabolic Reflector The most common antenna for use in microwave applications is the parabolic reflector or parabolic antenna. The parabolic antenna is sometimes called a dish antenna because of its unique shape. Saudi Aramco exclusively uses parabolic antennas for microwave communication system antennas. The parabolic antenna consists of two main components: the source of the energy and the reflector. The energy source is commonly referred to as the feed, and it can be an antenna such as a half-wave dipole or, more commonly, a horn antenna. The reflector is constructed in the shape of a parabola because the geometry of a parabola is such that any ray of radiation from the energy source that strikes the parabola will be reflected back in the same direction. In addition, all of the reflected rays will travel an identical path length. Because all of the rays are reflected in the same direction and are in-phase, the result is a highly concentrated beam of radiation. In order to ensure that all of the reflected rays are in-phase, the feed must be located at the focus of the parabola. Ideally, the feed should act as a point source. Figure 5 shows the common methods of feeding a parabolic antenna. Both of the antennas that are shown are center-fed, which refers to placement of the feed horn in the center of the parabolic reflector. The front feed design is an economical approach that consists of a waveguide and a horn antenna that are placed around the front of the parabolic reflector. The waveguide section and feed horn will somewhat interfere with the radiation pattern that is produced by the antenna and will limit the gain of the antenna. An alternate method of feeding the parabolic antenna is the Cassegrain feed. With the Cassegrain feed, the waveguide and the feed horn are placed behind the primary parabolic reflector, and a second reflector that is called a hyperboloid is placed out in front of the primary parabolic reflector. The geometry of the hyperboloid causes the radiation that is emitted from the feed horn back into the parabolic reflector to appear to emanate from the focus point of the parabola.
Methods of Feeding Parabolic Antennas Figure 5
Parabolic antennas are used in microwave applications because of the high gain that can be achieved with parabolic antennas. The gain of the parabolic antenna is directly proportional to the ratio of the diameter of the reflector to the wavelength of the transmitted signal; therefore, as the ratio of antenna diameter to signal wavelength increases, the gain of the antenna also increases. This ratio shows that larger diameter reflectors produce higher antenna gains than do small diameter reflectors, and in practical applications, the diameter of the reflector must be at least ten wavelengths. The gain of an antenna is also dependant on the efficiency of the antenna. Parabolic antennas have a standard efficiency of 55%.
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The three factors (diameter of the reflector, wavelength, and efficiency) that affect the gain of a parabolic antenna are represented in the equation to calculate antenna gain; however, wavelength is not used directly because frequency is more convenient. Frequency can be used to determine the gain because frequency is inversely proportional to wavelength. The gain of a parabolic antenna with an efficiency of 55% can be calculated through use of the following equation: GdB = 20logFGHz + 20logB + 17.8 where: GdB FGHz B 17.8 = = = = Gain of a parabolic antenna in dB Frequency of the signal in GHz Diameter of the parabola in meters A constant that accounts for the efficiency of the antenna and for unit conversions.
For example, the gain of a two meter parabola that operates at 6.000 GHz can be calculated as follows: GdB GdB GdB GdB GdB = 20logFGHz + 20logB + 17.8 = 20log(6) + 20log(2) + 17.8 = 20(0.778) + 20(0.301) + 17.8 = 15.6 + 6.0 + 17.8 = 39.4 dB
Figure 15, which is located in Work Aid 1, can also be used to determine the gain of a parabolic antenna through use of a straight edge that connects between the frequency of the signal and the diameter of the reflector. The gain of the antenna is the point at which the straight edge crosses the gain scale.
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Horn Reflector Antenna The horn reflector antenna that is shown in Figure 6 is actually a special type of parabolic antenna. The antenna consists of a waveguide and a feed horn that are at the bottom of a portion of a parabolic reflector. Microwave energy from the waveguide is reflected off of the portion of the parabolic reflector to form a parallel beam that is similar to the parabolic antenna. The geometry of the horn is curved so that the radiation from the feed horn is reflected in concentrated parallel beams off the portion of the parabolic reflector. The main difference between the horn reflector antenna and the parabolic antenna is that the feed mechanism in the horn reflector antenna does not block the radiation from the reflector.
Horn Reflector Antenna Figure 6

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 12
Advantages and Disadvantages There are definite advantages and disadvantages that are associated with both the parabolic reflector antenna and the horn reflector antenna. Each advantage and disadvantage is a direct result of the geometry and the operational characteristics of the antennas. One of the main advantages of the parabolic reflector antenna is the high overall gain. The parabolic reflector antenna has a higher gain than does the horn reflector antenna, even when these antennas are of comparable sizes. The higher gain is due to the complete parabolic geometry of the parabolic reflector antenna. Also, the complete parabolic shape of the parabolic reflector antenna provides a more focused or pencil-shaped beam than does the horn reflector antenna. Pencil-shaped beams have less radiation loss from the transmitter to the receiver. The advantages of the parabolic reflector antenna also are the disadvantages of the horn reflector antenna. The horn reflector antenna does not produce a crisp pencil-shaped beam, and its gain is not as high as that of the parabolic reflector antenna. Both of these disadvantages are the result of the incomplete parabolic shape. The horn reflector antenna does provide one distinct advantage because of the placement of the feed apparatus. Recall that the feed apparatus of the parabolic reflector antenna is in the path of the radiated signals, and the feed apparatus of the horn reflector antenna is out of the path of the radiated signals; therefore, the feed apparatus of the horn reflector antenna does not interfere with the antennas radiation pattern. As a direct result of the feed mechanisms not interfering with the radiation pattern, the horn reflector antenna produces less noise than does the parabolic reflector antenna. In the parabolic reflector antenna, the radiated signal bounces off the feed apparatus, which results in the production of noise and a low signal-tonoise ratio. With the horn reflector antenna, the feed apparatus is not in the path of the radiated signal, and this situation results in less noise production and a high signal-to-noise ratio.
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MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION PATH CHARACTERISTICS Microwave transmissions usually involve a series of microwave links that provide point-topoint communications. The actual path that the microwave signals travel is critical to effective and reliable communications. This section provides information on the following topics that are pertinent to the determination of microwave transmission path characteristics: LOS Propagation Free Space Path Loss Other Propagation Losses Reflection Fade Margin Reliability Objectives
LOS Propagation LOS propagation refers to the method that microwave signals travel from one point to a different point, and this propagation is shown in Figure 7. Figure 7 also shows a transmit antenna that is mounted on a tower and faces a receive antenna that is also mounted on a tower. The majority of microwave propagation occurs via space waves in a direct line-ofsight (LOS) path from the transmit antenna to the receive antenna. Line-of-sight transmission requires that a clear path be provided between the transmitting and the receiving antennas. Mountains, trees, and the curvature of the earth limit the distance of a single-hop, line-of-sight transmission. In actual applications, the line-of-sight signal does not travel a perfectly straight path between the antennas because the space wave is refracted by the earths troposphere. The amount of refraction that occurs depends on the tropospheric conditions. Variations in the density of the atmosphere at various altitudes and weather fronts will affect the refraction of microwave signals. The effects of weather fronts are very unpredictable and can change rapidly as the weather front progresses. The following effects of tropospheric refraction are possible: The wave is bent towards the earth. The wave is not bent. The wave is bent away from the earth.
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If the wave is bent towards the earth, the net effect is to increase the radio horizon beyond the optical horizon. An increased radio horizon allows LOS propagation to occur over longer distances. Under normal tropospheric conditions, signals are bent toward the earth. When the wave is not bent, the radio horizon equals the optical horizon. In this condition, the distance that a microwave signal can be propagated is limited to the optical horizon. If the wave is bent away from the earth, the radio horizon is shorter than the optical horizon. A shortened radio horizon limits the propagation of microwave signals to distances that are shorter than the distances that would be possible without the refraction. The effective earth radius (K) is a useful tool in a discussion of the effects of refraction on propagation. K multiplied by the real earth radius is the radius of an effective earth curve. This effective earth curve is equivalent to the relative curvature of the microwave signal with respect to the curvature of the earth; therefore, any change in the bending of the microwave signal that is caused by tropospheric refraction can be expressed by a change in K. K is equal to 4/3 under normal atmospheric conditions. When K is equal to 4/3, the effective radius of the earth is greater than the actual radius of the earth. The term earth flattening describes conditions when K is greater than one. The earth can be considered flattened under these conditions because microwave signals can be propagated for longer distances before the curvature of the earth blocks the signal. Under extreme tropospheric conditions, K can be infinite. When K is infinite, the curvature of the microwave signal exactly matches the curvature of the earth. An infinite K represents a condition in which microwave signals could be propagated for extremely long distances. Infinite values of K are not desirable because these conditions allow signals from different microwave systems that are separated by great distances to interfere with each other. K can also be less than one. Values of K that are less than one represent a bulged earth condition. The earth can be considered to be bulged because microwave signals cannot be propagated for as great a distance before the curvature of the earth blocks the signal. In addition to refraction, reflections of the space wave also occur. Just as light is reflected from a mirror, microwaves can be reflected from any flat surface such as a building, a lake or even flat ground. Figure 7 shows a ground reflected wave. The reflected waves normally are not used as an intentional means of propagation. Instead, the reflected wave is usually unintentional, and it can cause severe propagation problems. The main problem that is caused by the effect of reflected waves is that the reflected component of the transmitted wave is often out-of-phase with the direct wave component. The phase difference at the receiving antenna will result in a reduction of the received signal strength.
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Microwave Propagation Figure 7
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Free Space Path Loss As microwave signals propagate from point-to-point, the amplitude of the microwave signal is attenuated by losses. One loss to which microwave signals are subjected is free space path loss. Free space path loss is the loss that occurs in an electromagnetic wave as the electromagnetic wave travels from point-to-point. Free space path loss is defined as the loss that occurs between two isotropic antennas in free space, where there are no ground influences or obstructions. Free space path loss does not account for absorption or for reflection of energy from objects. Free space path loss only accounts for the spreading of an electromagnetic wave as the electromagnetic wave travels through free space. An example of free space path loss is the spreading of the electromagnetic energy in a microwave signal as the microwave signal is propagated from the transmit to the receive antenna. The spreading occurs in accordance with the inverse square law. The inverse square law describes the spreading of a field so that the strength of the field at any given point is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the given point and the point at which the field originates. Recall from the discussion of LOS propagation that an electromagnetic wave is composed of an electric field and a magnetic field. These fields spread in accordance with the inverse square law. For example, the strength of the signal at the receive antenna will be reduced by a factor of four if the distance between a transmit and receive antenna is doubled. Because the microwave signal spreads in accordance with the inverse square law, only a portion of a transmitted signal is received by the receive antenna. The portion of the transmitted signal that is not received is a loss. The portion of the radiated energy that is lost due to free space path loss can be calculated through use of the following formula: Lp = 92.4 + 20 log F(GHz) + 20 log D(km) where: Lp F(GHz) D(km) = Free space path loss in db = Transmission frequency in GHz = Distance between transmitting and receiving antennas in km
For example, the free space path loss of a microwave system that transmits at 6.0 GHz to a receiving antenna that is 50 km away can be calculated as follows: Lp Lp Lp Lp = = = = 92.4 + 20 log F(GHz) + 20 log D(km) 92.4 + 20 log (6 GHz) + 20 log (50 km) 92.4 + 15.6 + 34 142 db
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The formula shows that free space path loss is a function of both the distance between antennas and the frequency of the transmitted signal. Free space path loss will increase with either an increase in the frequency of the transmitted signal or an increase in the distance between the antennas. Other Propagation Losses Other propagation losses occur to microwave signals because of absorption or blockage of the microwave signals by items in the propagation path. These other losses can occur in space or along the ground. Losses in space are due to atmospheric absorption and rain attenuation of the microwave signal. Losses along the ground are due to terrain and obstruction losses. Atmospheric Absorption Oxygen and water vapor in the atmosphere will absorb energy from microwave signals. This absorption of energy is represented as a loss to the microwave signal. Absorption losses to microwave signals are analogous to I2R losses in metallic conductors; the energy that is absorbed by oxygen and water vapor in the atmosphere is converted to heat, and the result of the energy absorption is a reduction in the power of the microwave signal. Oxygen and water vapor absorption is a very minor concern in microwave systems that operate below 14 GHz. From 2 GHz to 14 GHz, oxygen absorption is only about 0.01 dB to 0.02 dB per kilometer, and the absorption from water vapor is even less. At 2 GHz, water vapor absorption attenuation is only approximately 0.0003 dB/km. The attenuation that results from water vapor absorption increases with frequency, and it is approximately equal to the attenuation that results from oxygen absorption at 14 GHz. Figure 8 is a graph of the attenuation of microwave signals that results from oxygen and water vapor absorption versus frequency of the microwave signal. Figure 8 is used to determine the microwave signal losses that result from oxygen and water vapor absorption.
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Atmospheric Absorption of Electromagnetic Waves Figure 8 Rain Attenuation The attenuation of microwave signals that results from rain attenuation is also of very little concern in microwave systems that operate at 8 GHz or lower; however, at the higher microwave frequencies, the losses that result from rain attenuation are significant. Rain attenuation losses are the result of energy absorption by water droplets. The energy that is absorbed by the water droplets is converted to heat. The degree of attenuation that results from rainfall is a complex function of many variables. The three most important variables are the frequency of the microwave signal, the area that is covered by the rainfall, and the intensity of the rainfall. The total amount of rainfall along the transmission path over a period of time is not significant. The intensity of the rainfall and the area that is covered by the rainfall along the transmission path at any given instant are the significant parameters. The mechanism of the microwave signal attenuation that results from fog or clouds is identical to that of rainfall; however, fog or cloud attenuation of microwave signals is much less significant than rain attenuation. Figure 9 is a graph of attenuation that results from rain, fog, or clouds at various rainfall rates. Figure 9 is used to determine the microwave signal losses that result from rainfall, fog, or clouds.
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Attenuation Due to Precipitation Figure 9
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Terrain and Obstruction Losses Features of the terrain or man-made obstructions can directly cause losses to a microwave signal. Such losses are caused by a blockage of the signal or a diffraction of the signal. Obstructions (natural and man-made) that exist along the transmission path can physically block the microwave signal. The severity of the signal blockage (complete or partial) that occurs will depend on the size, shape, and nature of the obstruction. A complete blockage of the signal results in a total loss of the received signal, and a partial blockage of the signal results in an additional propagation loss to the signal. Because all signal blockages result in a loss to the microwave signal, microwave transmission paths should avoid obstructions. Diffraction occurs when the microwave signal grazes an obstruction, which results in a scattering of the microwave signal. This signal scattering results in a loss to the microwave signal, and these losses can reach 6 dB. Reflection Electromagnetic waves are subject to electromagnetic reflection during propagation. Electromagnetic reflection occurs when an incident wave strikes the boundary of two media, and some or all of the incident waves power does not enter the second medium. The boundary can exist on the ground or in space. A body of water or a building can be a reflective surface on the ground, and the boundary between a mass of cool air and a mass of warm air can act as a reflective surface in space. There are three types of electromagnetic reflection: Specular reflection Diffuse reflection A combination of specular and diffuse reflection
Electromagnetic reflection is specular when the reflection occurs at a smooth boundary. Specular electromagnetic reflection results in a reflected wavefront that maintains the shape of the incident wavefront. Specular electromagnetic reflection of microwave signals is analogous to the reflection of a flashlight beam in a mirror. Dry lake beds, salt flats, and atmospheric boundaries present a mirror-like surface that can result in specular reflection of microwave signals.
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Electromagnetic reflection is diffuse when the reflection occurs at a rough boundary. Diffuse electromagnetic reflection results in the destruction of the reflected wavefronts shape; that is, the electromagnetic energy is scattered in many different directions at the point of reflection. Rough mountainous terrain or other highly irregular surfaces produce diffuse reflection. A combination of specular and diffuse electromagnetic reflections occurs at semi-rough boundaries. Electromagnetic reflections at semi-rough surfaces will not destroy the shape of the wavefront; however, reflections from semi-rough surfaces do cause a greater reduction in the power of the microwave signal. Objects such as roads, sand dunes, or a field of crops present semi-rough boundaries that can result in a combination of specular and diffuse reflections of microwave signals. Electromagnetic reflection of microwave signals can create problems when a reflected wavefront reaches the receive antenna; therefore, specular and combination reflection can create problems. Diffuse reflection destroys the shape of the wavefront; therefore, diffuse reflection cannot produce a reflected wavefront that will reach a receive antenna. For a reflected wavefront to reach the receive antenna, the wavefront must be intact, and the reflection must occur at an angle so that the reflected wavefront continues to follow the transmission path. With electromagnetic reflection, the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence; therefore, the electromagnetic reflection must occur at a narrow angle of incidence if the reflected waves are to follow the transmission path, as shown in Figure 10. When reflection occurs at a large angle of incidence, the reflected waves are directed away from the transmission path. This situation is also shown in Figure 10.
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Electromagnetic Reflection Figure 10
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Delay Distortion Delay distortion is a problem with microwave systems that is caused by electromagnetic reflections of microwave signals along the transmission path or within waveguide runs. Delay distortion occurs when a portion of the microwave signal undergoes reflections so that the reflected portion of the signal arrives at the receive antenna at least several wavelengths behind the unreflected signal. The delayed portion of the signal interferes with the direct signal, and the end result of the interference that is associated with delay distortion is noise. Noise is defined as any unwanted component of the received signal that lowers the performance of a system. The transmission paths that are most likely to experience delay distortion are paths that consist of low, flat, intermediate terrain that is between high, elevated antennas. For example, this type of path can occur when the transmit and receive antennas are located on building tops and the transmission path is aligned with streets. A path from mountain top to mountain top with low flat terrain in between could also cause delay distortion. Reflections within waveguides that occur because of impedance mismatches and irregularities also cause delay distortion. Delay distortion that is caused by reflections that are within waveguides can be avoided through minimization of the length of waveguide runs. Multipath Propagation Multipath propagation also results from electromagnetic reflection. Multipath propagation occurs when reflected waves that are out-of-phase with the direct wave arrive at the receive antenna. Under these conditions, the received signal is the vector sum of all of the various component waves that vary in phase and amplitude, and there will be short intervals in which the various vectors will cancel each other to produce a null. This null production causes most of the very deep fading that is experienced on many microwave links. Fading is the term that describes the reduction in the strength of a received signal. Multipath propagation can result from electromagnetic reflections that occur in the atmosphere or on the ground. Electromagnetic reflection in the atmosphere occurs when a microwave signal strikes the boundary between two layers in the atmosphere. Layers in the atmosphere are produced from temperature inversions and weather fronts. Temperature inversions produce layers in the atmosphere when the air that is just above the ground cools more rapidly than do higher portions of the atmosphere. When a temperature inversion occurs, the cool air is trapped beneath warmer air and a reflective boundary is formed at the interface. Temperature inversions normally occur at night because of the radiative cooling of the ground. Temperature inversions also can occur during the day; however, these temperature inversions infrequently occur.
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Temperature inversions are very common along Saudi Aramco microwave transmission paths. Unfortunately, there is nothing that can be done to overcome the effects of temperature inversions that are in progress. If a temperature inversion is in progress, layers exist in the atmosphere; therefore, multipath propagation will occur. Weather fronts can also produce layers in the atmosphere. When a weather front moves into an area, the weather front is often accompanied by a sudden decrease in temperature at lower elevations in the atmosphere. This phenomenon creates boundaries between the layers in the atmosphere at which electromagnetic reflection can occur. The layers that are produced by weather fronts are not nearly as stable as those layers that are produced by temperature inversions; therefore, multipath fades that are produced by weather fronts generally do not last as long as the fades that are produced by temperature inversions. Ground reflections occur when the transmission path travels over a smooth or semi-rough surface. Examples of smooth surfaces that can cause multipath propagation are dry lake beds and salt flats. Sand dunes and road beds are examples of semi-rough surfaces that can produce multipath propagation. Recall from the discussion of reflection that the reflections from smooth surfaces are stronger than reflections from semi-rough surfaces; therefore, the fades that are produced from smooth surfaces are deeper than the fades that are produced from semi-rough surfaces. The transmission path has a bearing on the susceptibility of the system to multipath propagation. Long paths tend to produce more multipath propagation than do short paths. Multipath propagation also is somewhat greater at higher frequencies. The incidence of multipath fading varies not only as a function of path length and frequency, but also as a function of climate. In the most favorable areas such as paths in dry, windy areas, multipath fading may be non-existent. Hot, humid areas typically have a high incidence of multipath fading. Fresnel Zone Radii If transmit and receive antennas were located in empty space, reflected signals would not exist, and free space path loss would be the only loss. The strength of the resultant signal at the receive antenna would be equal to the transmitted power minus the free space path loss. Because the transmit and receive antennas are located on earth, the signal strength at the receive antenna now is also dependent on the nature of the reflected signals that are present at the receive antenna. The presence of in-phase reflected waves results in a greater signal strength than would occur with no reflected waves being present; therefore, in-phase reflected waves result in signal addition (gain). For similar reasons, out-of-phase reflected waves result in signal attenuation (loss).
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Fresnel Zones are used to determine the effects that reflected waves have on reception. Because reflected waves travel a greater distance than do primary waves, the reflected and primary waves will not always arrive at the receive antenna in-phase. Fresnel zones define the boundaries at which reflections can occur such that the reflected and primary waves arrive in-phase or out-of-phase. As previously discussed, the electromagnetic reflection must occur at a narrow angle of incidence in order for the reflected wavefront to reach the receive antenna. A consequence of reflection at a narrow angle of incidence is that a 180o phase shift of the reflected wave is produced at the point of reflection. If the reflected path length is one half wavelength longer than the primary path length, the reflected waves will arrive at the receive antenna one-half wavelength behind the primary waves. One half wavelength is equal to 180o; therefore, a one half wavelength longer reflected path produces a 180o phase shift between the reflected waves and the primary waves. Likewise, a reflected path length that is one wavelength longer than the primary pathlength produces a net zero phase shift between the reflected waves and the primary waves. In-phase reflection occurs when the reflective path is one half wavelength longer than the primary path. The 180o phase shift that results from reflection combines with the 180o phase shift that results from the one half wavelength longer pathlength to produce a net zero phase difference between the primary and reflected waves. Out-of-phase reflection occurs when the reflected path length is one wavelength longer than the primary path because the net phase shift is 180o. The first Fresnel Zone consists of all those points at which reflections can occur so that the path length of a reflected wave is exactly one half wavelength longer than the path length of a primary wave. If all the points that constitute the first Fresnel zone were plotted between a transmitting antenna and a receiving antenna, a long, narrow ellipsoid would be produced. The radius of the first Fresnel zone ellipsoid can be calculated for any point along the transmission path through use of the following equation:
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where:
F1 d1 D d2 f
= = = = =
First fresnel zone radius in m Distance from one end of the transmission path to the reflection point in km Total transmission path length in km D - d1 Frequency in GHz
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The second Fresnel Zone consists of all those points at which reflections can occur so that the path length of the reflected waves is exactly one wavelength longer than the path length of primary wave. Each successive Fresnel Zone continues the pattern through description of a reflected wave pathlength that is one half wavelength longer than the reflected wave pathlength of the previous Fresnel Zone. If reflection occurs at the ellipsoid that is defined by an odd numbered Fresnel zone, the reflected signal will arrive at the receive antenna in-phase with the direct signal; therefore, odd numbered Fresnel zones produce additive reflections. Likewise, all even numbered Fresnel zones produce subtractive reflections. The radius for any fresnel zone, n, at a given point along a path can be calculated through use of the following equation:
where:
Fn F1 n
= = =
Fresnel zone radius in m First Fresnel zone radius at that point of the path in m Number of fresnel zone
Figure 11 illustrates the ellipsoids that make up the first three Fresnel Zones. The ellipsoid that constitutes the second Fresnel Zone is somewhat larger than the ellipsoid that constitutes the first Fresnel Zone. The difference in the radius between Fresnel Zones decreases as the number of the Fresnel Zones increase. Restated, the difference in the size of the first and second Fresnel Zone is greater than the difference in the size of the second and third Fresnel Zones. The radius of the first Fresnel Zone at point A of Figure 11 can be calculated through use of the following formula and the data that are given in Figure 11:
F1A F1A F1A F1A
= = = =
17.3 (10)(10)/(2.000)(20) 17.3 2.5 (17.3)(1.58) 27.3 meters
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The radius of the second and third Fresnel Zones can be calculated now that the radius of the first Fresnel Zone is known. The radius at point A of the second Fresnel Zone is calculated as follows: F2A F2A F2A F2A = = = = F1A n (27.3) (2) (27.3)(1.41) 38.5 meters
The radius at point A of the third Fresnel Zone is calculated as follows: F3A F3A F3A F3A = = = = F1A n 27.3 3 (27.3)(1.73) 47.2 meters
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Fresnel Zones Figure 11 Fade Margin Fade margin is a factor that is considered during a system design and that accounts for the effects of fading. Essentially, fade margin represents the amount of fading loss that the system can overcome and still meet the desired quality objectives of the system. The fade margin of a system determines the extent to which a system is over-engineered. Restated, the fade margin results in an unfaded signal strength that is stronger than the signal needs to be. The system changes that can result from an excess margin to fading include stronger transmitters, more sensitive receivers, or shorter pathlengths. Because over-engineering is expensive, fade margin is limited to the amount that is necessary to meet the reliability objectives of the system.
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Fades are caused by both terrain and atmospheric effects; therefore, the following equation can be used in calculations of fade margin that include factors to account for both effects: FM = 30 logD + 10 log(6ABF) - 10 log(1-R) - 70 where: FM D A = = = Fade margin in dB Path length in km Roughness factor B = 4 over water or smooth terrain 1 over average terrain 0.25 over rough mountainous terrain
Factor to convert the worst month probability to an annual probability 0.5 for hot, humid areas 0.25 for average inland areas 0.125 for very dry or mountainous areas
F R
= =
Frequency in GHz Reliability
The term 30 logD accounts for atmospheric effects because a longer path is more likely to experience fading. The term 10 log(6ABF) accounts for terrain effects because the nature of the terrain affects the probability that fades will occur. The reliability term is included because a system that requires higher reliability will require a higher fade margin.
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Reliability Objectives A reliability objective is an objective that describes the acceptable outage time for a system. This reliability objective is expressed as a reliability percentage. An outage time is a time when the received signal level is below the level that is acceptable. The minimum acceptable signal level is that signal level that allows the system to meet the performance objectives of the system. If the signal level falls below the minimum acceptable level, the receiver may still produce an output; however, this output will not meet the performance objectives of the system. The term outage is not meant to imply that the received signal is totally lost. The term outage only means that the received signal is not acceptable. This section provides information on the following topics that are pertinent to reliability objectives: Probability of Outages Diversity
Probability of Outages The reliability percentage is related to the acceptable outage time through use of the following expression: Acceptable outage time = 1 - reliability percentage For example, if the reliability objective is a reliability percentage of 99.99%, the acceptable outage time would be .01% of the time or about 53 minutes a year. Restated, the received signal level may fade below the level that is acceptable for about 53 minutes a year. Because a reliability objective implies an allowable outage time, the probability of an outage can be used to determine if the reliability objective will be met. For example, an outage probability of 0.0001% implies an outage time of 31.5 seconds a year. As long as the allowable outage time is less than 31.5 seconds a year, the reliability objectives will be met.
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The transmission path has a large bearing on the steps that must be taken to meet the reliability objective. Undp stands for the non-diversity annual outage probability and is a measure of the probability of an outage that occurs because of factors that are associated with propagation such as signal reflection. The non-diversity outage probability is calculated to determine if the reliability objectives of a system will be met. Undp can also be expressed in terms of fade probability on the worst month (rm) or over the year (ryr). The following equation can be used to calculate the non-diversity annual outage probability (Undp) for a given path: Undp = a x b x (3.0 x 10-7) x f1.5 x D3 x 10-F/10 where: Undp D f a = = = = Non-diversity annual outage probability Path length in km Frequency in GHz Roughness factor 4 for very smooth terrain with some roughness 1 for average terrain with some roughness
1/4 for mountainous, very rough, or very dry terrain F b = = Fade margin in dB Factor to convert the worst month probability to an annual probability 1/2 for hot humid areas 1/4 normal temperate climates 1/8 mountainous or very dry areas
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The following equations can be used to calculate rm and ryr, which are both indications of fade probability: rm(worst month) where: a f D = = = = a x 10-5 x (f4)1.5 x (D/1.61)3
Roughness factor Frequency in GHz Path length in km = b x rm
ryr (over a year)
where:
b rm
= =
Factor to convert the worst month probability to an annual probability Fade probability on the worst month
The equation for Undp can be simplified through use of the equations for rm and ryr to yield the following new equations for Undp: Undp where: Undp ryr F = = = = ryr x 10F/19 Non-diversity annual outage probability Fade probability over a year Fade margin in dB
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Undp where: Undp b rm F = = = =
= b x rm x 10F/19 Non-diversity annual outage probability Factor to convert the worst month probability to an annual probability Fade probability on the worst month Fade margin in dB
The reliability objectives of a system influence the selection of the transmission path. The probability of an outage for a system is influenced by the terrain and climate along the transmission path. A path that has a higher probability of an outage will cause the system to be less able to meet the reliability objectives of the system. The effect of the reliability objectives on the selection of the transmission path can be illustrated through an examination of an example microwave system. The example microwave system has a reliability objective of 99.999%. objective can be converted to the following acceptable outage time: Acceptable outage time = 1 - reliability percentage Acceptable outage time = 1 - 99.999% Acceptable outage time = 0.001% Because the acceptable outage time is 0.001%, the nondiversity outage probability cannot be greater than 0.001% (0.00001). The example system operates at 2.120 GHz, and the path length is 45 km. If the path is over very dry terrain of average roughness, the fade margin that is required to produce a nondiversity outage probability of 0.00001 can be determined as follows: Undp = a x b x (3.0 x 10-7) x f1.5 x D3 x 10-F/10 This reliability
10-F/10= Undp/(a x b x (3.0 x 10-7) f1.5 x D3) 10-F/10 = 10-F/10 = F F = = 0.00001/(1 x 1/8 x (3.0 x 10-7) x (2.120)1.5 x (45)3) 9.48 x 10-4 -(10)(log(9.48 x 10-4)) 30.2 dB
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If the example system had a transmission path over smooth terrain in a hot, moist area, the fade margin that is required would be much higher. The fade margin that is required for these conditions can be calculated as follows: Undp = a x b x (3.0 x 10-7) x f1.5 x D3 x 10-F/10 Undp/(a x b x (3.0 x 10-7) x f1.5 x D3) 0.00001/(4 x 1/2 x (3.0 x 10-7) x (2.120)1.5 x 453) 5.93 x 10-5 -(10)(log(5.93 x 10-5) 42.3 dB
10-F/10 = 10-F/10 = 10-F/10 = F F = =
The fade margin that is required of the system with the transmission path over the smooth terrain in a hot, moist area is 12.1 dB greater than the fade margin that is required of the system with rolling terrain in a dry area. The greater fade margin that is required of the second system could result in shorter path lengths, more powerful transmitters, more sensitive receivers, or even a less reliable system. As stated in the discussion of fade margin, added fade margin is expensive; therefore, the selection of the transmission path not only affects the reliability of the system. It also affects the costs of the system. Diversity The purpose of diversity systems is to increase system reliability. System reliability is increased through use of diversity systems because they reduce the effect that disruptive atmospheric conditions have on the microwave system. The following are the three types of diversity systems: Space diversity Frequency diversity Quad diversity
Space diversity systems use a single transmitter to transmit to two physically separated receiving antennas. Space diversity systems reduce atmospheric effects because it is unlikely that the effects are the same along both transmission paths at the same points in time.
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Frequency diversity systems use two sets of transmitters and receivers that are usually connected to a single antenna and that operate at different frequencies. Frequency diversity systems take advantage of the fact that many atmospheric effects are frequency dependent and therefore will not affect both channels simultaneously. Quad diversity systems are a combination of the two previous diversity systems. Using two transmitters and four receivers, quad diversity systems have the benefits of both space and frequency diversity. The measure of the benefit of diversity systems to system reliability is dependent upon the correlation of fading between the separate paths. Each individual diversity configuration has a correlation coefficient that describes the amount of correlation between the paths. The coefficient ranges between 0 and 1. At 0, there would be completely independent fading between the paths, and at 1, the separate paths would fade identically. Completely independent fading is the ideal objective of all diversity systems. Completely independent fading implies that the atmospheric conditions that affect one path will not affect the other path; therefore, the likelihood of both paths fading simultaneously is greatly reduced. The typical correlation coefficients that result from frequency diversity systems are somewhat higher than 0.8. The typical correlation coefficients that result from space diversity systems range from 0.6 to 0.7. A more convenient term to describe the benefits of diversity systems is diversity improvement factor. The diversity improvement factor (I) is used with Undp to calculate the diversity outage probability (Udiv). The diversity outage probability is the probability that outages will occur in a system that employs a diversity system. Undp and Udiv are related by the following equation: Udiv = Undp/I where: Udiv Undp I = = = Diversity outage probability Non diversity outage probability Diversity improvement factor
The diversity improvement factor can be used for either space diversity or frequency diversity. The space diversity improvement factor depends on the spacing between the receive antennas, the path length, the transmitted frequency, and the fade margin. The space diversity improvement factor is calculated with the following equation:
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where:
Isd f s F D
= = = = =
Improvement diversity factor Frequency in GHz Vertical spacing between receive antennas in meters Fade Margin in dB Path length
For example, if a 2.12 GHz system has a non-diversity outage probability of 1.1 x 10-5 and the vertical spacing between the antennas is 12 meters, the diversity outage probability can be calculated if the diversity improvement factor is known. The diversity improvement factor can be calculated as follows:
After the diversity improvement factor is calculated, the diversity outage probability can be calculated as follows: Udiv Udiv Udiv = Undp/I = 1.1 x 10-5/8.14 = 1.4 x 10-6
The non-diversity outage probability for this example was given as 1.1 x 10-5, and the diversity outage probability is 1.4 x 10-6; therefore, this space diversity system increased the reliability of the system by approximately a factor of 10. A greater vertical separation between antennas or a higher fade margin would result in an even greater improvement. The frequency diversity improvement factor is not easily determined. All of the data that relates to frequency diversity improvements is experimentally derived and is based on only the 4 GHz and 6 GHz bands. Also, all of the data that are obtained from the experiments only relate to average length paths (40 - 50 km). The following general relationships tend to exist in frequency diversity systems:
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 38
The frequency diversity improvement factor decreases when the frequency of the two transmitters increases for a given difference in transmitter frequencies. For example, a 200 MHz difference in the 4 GHz band provides twice the improvement as a 200 MHz difference in the 6 GHz band would provide. The frequency diversity improvement factor increases when the difference in frequency between the two transmitters increases. The frequency diversity improvement factor also increases as the fade margin increases.
System reliability improvement from quad diversity systems is almost exclusively the result of the space diversity component of the system; therefore, the quad diversity improvement factor equals the space diversity factor. The quad diversity improvement factor is calculated as if a straight space diversity system was used.
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CALCULATING SYSTEM GAIN System gain is the difference between the transmitter output power and the minimum receiver input power. If the system is to operate correctly, system gain must be greater than or equal to the sum of all the gains and losses that are incurred by a signal between the transmitter and receiver. If system gain is less than the sum of these gains and losses, the received signal level will be less than the receiver sensitivity (threshold), and the system performance will be degraded. Figure 12 illustrates a typical microwave system link, and it includes the locations where gains and losses occur in the system. The microwave power amp (Pt) is the transmitter for the system. The signal from the microwave power amp goes to the channel combining network (Lb) where losses may occur. From the channel combining network, the signal is fed via some transmission medium (either coaxial cable or elliptical waveguide) to the antenna feed. There are losses (Lf) that are associated with the transmission medium. The signal is transmitted from the antenna that provides a gain (At). As the signal is propagated, various losses (Lp) occur. The microwave signal is captured by the receive antenna that also provides a gain (Ar). From the receive antenna, the signal is again fed through a transmission medium that also results in a loss (Lf). Finally, the signal is fed through a channel separation network that results in an additional loss (Lb). If the system has been designed properly, the resultant signal that arrives at the receiver input is greater than the microwave threshold (Cmin).
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System Gains and Losses Figure 12 Mathematically, system gain can be expressed with the following formula: Gs = Pt - Cmin where: Gs Pt Cmin = = = System gain (dB) Transmitter output power (dBm) Receiver threshold (dBm)
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For a properly designed system, the difference between the transmitter output power (dBm) and the receiver threshold (dBm) must be greater than or equal to the losses plus the gains as previously stated. The following is a mathematical expression of this relationship: Pt - Cmin > losses + gains where: Pt Cmin = = Transmitter output power (dBm) Receiver threshold (dBm)
The following are the individual gains that must be considered in a calculation of system gain: At Ar = = Transmit antenna gain (dB) relative to an isotropic radiator. Receive antenna gain (dB) relative to an isotropic radiator.
The following are the individual losses that must be considered in a calculation of system gain: Lp Lf = = Free-space path loss between antennas (dB). Waveguide or coaxial cable feeder loss (dB) between the distribution network (channel combining network or channel separation network) and its respective antenna. Total coupling or branching loss (dB) in the circulators, filters, and distribution network between the output of a transmitter or the input to a receiver and its respective waveguide feed or coaxial connector. Fade margin for a given reliability objective.
Lb
FM
The previously stated equations can be combined to yield the following system gain equation: Gs = Pt - Cmin > FM +Lp + Lf + Lb - At - Ar where: Gs Pt Cmin FM = = = = System gain (dB) Transmitter output power (dBm) Receiver threshold (dBm) Fade margin
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Lp Lf Lb At Ar
= = = = =
Free space path loss (dB) Waveguide or coaxial cable feeder loss (dB) Total coupling or branching loss (dB) Transmit antenna gain (dB) Receive antenna gain (dB)
Because system gain is indicative of a net loss, the losses are represented with positive dB values, and the gains are represented with negative dB values. Sample Gain Calculation Figure 13 illustrates a simple microwave link. The output power of the transmitter is 37 dBm and the transmit frequency is 2.100 GHz. Both the transmit antenna and the receive antenna have a gain of 33.2 dB. There is 50 km of dry mountainous terrain that separates the transmitter and receiver. The transmitter and receiver both have 30 meters of coaxial cable that connect them to their respective antennas. The coaxial cable that is used has a characteristic loss of 4.0 dB/100 meters. A reliability of 99.999% is desired of the system. The total coupling loss is 3 dB. This given information can be used to calculate the gain of the simple microwave link that is shown in Figure 13.
Typical 2 GHz Microwave System Link Figure 13
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The following system gain equation can be used to calculate the maximum receiver threshold that is required: Gs = Pt - Ccim The system gain equation can be rearranged to solve for the maximum receiver threshold as follows: Ccim = Pt - Gs Recall that the system gain must be greater than or equal to the sum of the gains and losses of the system. If the gains and losses are inserted into the above equation, the following expression results: Cmin Pt - (FM + Lp + Lf + Lb - At - Ar) The previous equation showed that to determine the maximum receiver threshold, the transmitter power, gains, and losses of the system must be determined. Transmitter power is given by the manufacturer. In the example system, transmitter power is 37 dBm. As discussed previously, fade margin is dependent on the reliability objectives of the system and the nature of the terrain that is between the transmitter and the receiver. The following equation is used to calculate FM: FM = 30 logD + 10 log(6ABF) - 10 log(1 - R) - 70 where: FM D A = = = Fade margin in dB Path length in km Roughness factor B = 4 over water or smooth terrain 1 over average terrain 0.25 over a very rough, mountainous terrain
The factor to convert a worst-month probability to an annual probability 0.5 for hot humid areas
44
F R = =
0.25 for average inland areas 0.125 for very dry or mountainous areas
Frequency in GHz Desired system reliability
The following variables should be inserted into the FM equation for the example system: D A B F R = = = = = 50 km 0.25 0.125 2.100 GHz .99999
The fade margin for the example system now can be calculated as follows: FM = 30 logD + 10 log(6ABF) - 10 log(1-R) - 60
FM = 30 log(50) + 10 log(6 x 0.25 x 0.125 x 2.1) - 10 log(1-.99999) - 70 FM FM FM = = = 30(1.6990) + 10(-0.4048) - 10(-5) - 70 50.97 + (-4.048) - (-50) - 70 26.9 dB
The following equation is used to calculate free space path loss: Lp = 92.4 + 20 logF(GHz) + 20 logD(km)
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The free space path loss for the example system can now be calculated as follows: Lp = = = = = 92.4 + 20 logF(GHz) + 20 logD(km) 92.4 + 20 log(2.1) + 20 log(50) 92.4 + 20(0.3222) + 20(1.6990) 92.4 + 6.4 + 34.0 132.8 dB
If the system operated at a higher frequency, losses that result from atmospheric and rain absorption would be added to the free space path loss. The feeder loss of the system equals the characteristic loss of the waveguide or coaxial cable multiplied by the length of the run, and this loss can be mathematically stated with the following equation: Lf = (length of run)(characteristic loss)
The feeder loss of the example system now can be calculated as follows: L =
f
(length of run(characteristic loss) (60 meters)(4 dB/100 meters) 2.4 dB
= =
The total branching loss of the system was given as 3 dB, and the gain of both the transmitter and receiver antennas was given as 33.2 dB. With the transmitter power, the gains, and the losses of the system having been determined, the maximum receiver threshold can be calculated as follows: Cmin Pt - (FM + Lp + Lf + Lb - At - Ar) Cmin 37 dBm - (26.9 dB + 132.8 dB + 2.4 dB + 3 dB - 33.2 dB - 332 dB) Cmin 37 dBm - (98.7 dB) Cmin - 61.7 dBm For the example system, the receiver threshold must be less than or equal to 61.7 dBm if the system is to operate properly.
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WORK AID 1: FORMULAS AND REFERENCES FOR MICROWAVE ANTENNA CHARACTERISTICS Determining Microwave Antenna Gain
DETERMINING
The gain that is provided by a standard parabolic antenna with 55% efficiency and a given diameter can be determined through use of the following equation: GdB = 20 logFGHz + 20 logB + 17.8 where: GdB FGHz B = = = Gain of a parabolic antenna in dB Frequency of the signal in GHz Diameter of the parabola in meters
The gain of a parabolic antenna also can be determined through use of Figure 14. To determine the gain of a parabolic antenna with Figure 14, use a straight edge to connect between the frequency of the signal and the diameter of the reflector. The gain of the antenna is read at the point at which the straight edge crosses the gain scale.
47
Parabolic Antenna Gain Figure 14 Determining the Diameter of the Parabolic Reflector The required diameter for a parabolic antenna to produce a given gain can be determined through use of the following equation:
where:
B Gdb
= =
Antenna diameter in meters Antenna Gain in dB
48
FGHz
Frequency in GHz
The required parabolic antenna diameter also can be determined through use of Figure 14. Use a straight edge to connect between the frequency of the signal and the gain of the antenna. The diameter of the antenna is read at the point at which the straight edge crosses the diameter scale.
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WORK AID 2: PROCEDURE TO CALCULATE SYSTEM GAIN 1. 2. Evaluate the given information to determine the equation that is needed to calculate system gain. If the transmitter power and receiver sensitivity are given, solve the following equation: Gs = Pt - Cmin where: Gs Pt Cmin 3. = = = System gain Transmitter power Receiver threshold
To determine if the gain of a system is sufficient for the gains and losses of the system, the following relationship must be true: Gs FM + Lp + Lf + Lb - At - Ar
To determine the sum of the gains and losses, the magnitude of each individual gain or loss must first be determined. 3a. To calculate fade margin, solve the following equation: FM = 30 logD + 10 log(6ABF) - 10 log(1-R) - 70 where: FM D A = = = = = = B = = = =
Fade margin in dB Path length in km Roughness factor 4 over water or smooth terrain 1 over average terrain 0.25 over rough mountainous terrain Factor to convert the worst month probability to an annual probability 0.5 for hot, humid areas 0.25 for average inland areas 0.125 for very dry or mountainous areas
50
F R 3b.
= =
Frequency in GHz Reliability
To calculate the free space path loss, solve the following equation: Lp = 92.4 + 20 logFGHz + 20 logDkm where: FGHz D = = Frequency in GHz Path length in km
3c. 3d. 3e.
To calculate feeder losses, multiply the characteristic loss of the waveguide or coaxial cable by the length of the waveguide or coax run. Coupling losses are provided by the manufacturer. To calculate antenna gain, solve the following equation: GdB = 20 logFGHz + 20 logB + 17.8 where: GdB FGHz B = = = Gain of a parabolic antenna in dB Frequency of the signal in GHz Diameter of the parabola in meters
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GLOSSARY antenna The ratio of the power that is radiated by an antenna to the sum of the power that is radiated from an antenna and the power that is dissipated from an antenna as losses. The relationship of fading components in two separate diversity paths. Electric field. Effective Isotropic Radiated Power. Electrostatic lines of forces that make up the E-field. Any loss in signal strength at the receiving antenna. An uncertainty factor in the system gain equation that accounts for multipath propagation, terrain sensitivity, and reliability objectives. Areas of reflection that surround a transmission path that alternately provide aiding and canceling effects. Magnetic field. Magnetic lines of force that make up the H-field. A medium with uniform properties throughout. A theoretical antenna that emits radiation equally in all directions. Equivalent earth radius. The effect of radiowaves that travel by more than one path. The signal-to-noise ratio of an ideal noiseless device divided by the signal-to-noise ratio at the output of an amplifier or a receiver. The angular alignment of the radiated E-lines with respect to the surface of the earth. The equivalent resistance that would dissipate the same amount of power that is radiated by an antenna.
correlation coefficient E-field EIRP E-lines fading fade margin
fresnel zones H-field H-lines homogeneous medium isotropic radiator k multipath propagation noise figure
polarization radiation
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reciprocity specular reflection system gain terrain sensitivity
The property of mutual exchange in two directions. A reflection from a relatively smooth surface. The difference between the nominal output power of a transmitter and the minimum input power to a receiver. The effect that various terrains have on a transmitted radio wave.
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Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards