Professional Documents
Culture Documents
USE
CHLORINE
IN YOUR
SWIMMING
POOL
A Manual for Home Owners
by
Stan Kingsley
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Version 20090914
available on the internet and viewable on computers the contents can be listed using
the PDF's search window. If you want to see the main headings type three diagonal
slash marks in the search window. All the headings will be listed. If you want to see
the sections labeled KEY POINTS type that phrase into the search window.
The meat of the book is in the middle -- Achieving Balanced Water and
Maintaining Balanced Water. The earlier sections describe the basic chemistry and
I first wrote this manual over twenty years ago for myself. There was not much
written about pool care. The suppliers started to provide written information but not
unexpectedly they had a slant which promoted their products. Since that time
computer aided analysis became widely available in pool stores. I've updated the
contents to reflect these changes as well as new products. I have noticed that
products and procedures that were not useful are no longer promoted. The most
useful products and test procedures have remained the same for a long time and are
convenience to make maintaining pool water less of a chore and less of an expense.
There are tens of thousands of technical pages written about water and its analysis
and water treatments. Even though the chemistry might seem complicated I have only
included enough to explain why certain effects happen in pool water. For further
information any topic today can be searched on the internet for more details.
In twenty-five years I have used only liquid and tablet chlorine along with acid
and baking soda and occasionally calcium chloride because I live in a soft water area.
Nothing else is needed. Once a pool is balanced it is much easier and cheaper to
maintain it than it is to neglect it and fix it later. But even then a large dose of liquid
chlorine is usually all that is required plus balancing the calcium and pH. My pool has
It is also eco-friendly to maintain pool water in the most efficient ways possible.
The methods described in this manual should help you save time and money and help
the environment too. It is good to be "green" while keeping your pool water blue.
hope that what I have learned about pool water maintenance will be useful to you also.
The most practical points are collected in "key points" and I will start with a summary of
those.
SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS
1.) If you are using chlorine to sanitize a swimming pool keep the pH near 7.4.
2.) There are two forms of economical chlorine -- solution (10%) and tablets (3"
diameter).
3.) If stabilizer is present the chlorine will last longer but must be kept at a higher
level. Too much stabilizer will throw off test results and interfere with
chlorination.
4.) To preserve the cement the water must be balanced and the pH buffered.
Hydrochloric acid and baking soda are the two chemicals needed for this.
5.) Calcium is required at about 300 ppm to preserve the cement and make water
balance easier to maintain. Hard water requires adjusting other parameters.
6.) The best algaecide is liquid chlorine. Others are almost never required.
8.) pH is the single most important test. It indicates the activity level of the chlorine.
9.) The only chemicals you need to use the methods described in this manual are
chlorine tablets and solution, baking soda and acid. And calcium in soft water
areas.
INTRODUCTION
Why Chlorine?
All About Water Balance
If In Doubt
CHLORINATION
CHLORINE SOLUTION
Chemistry of Liquid Chlorine
Handling of Liquid Chlorine
KEY POINTS ABOUT CHLORINE SOLUTION
CHLORINE TABLETS
Chemistry of Trichlor Tablets
Handling of Trichlor Tablets
KEY POINTS ABOUT TRICHLOR TABLETS
CHLORINE POWDER
Chemistry of Calcium Hypochlorite
Handling of Calcium Hypochlorite
KEY POINTS ABOUT CALCIUM HYPOCHLORITE
STABILIZER
Problems Caused By High Stabilizer Concentration
KEY POINTS ABOUT STABILIZER
CONTROL OF pH
Dissociation of Water
Definition of pH
Scale Of pH Values
Buffering
Correcting Low pH
Why pH Increases And Alkalinity Decreases
Carbonate Chemistry
KEY POINTS ABOUT pH CONTROL
CALCIUM BALANCE
Calcium Chloride: Chemistry and Handling
Calcium Concentration
Problems with Hard Water
Calcium Balance and Temperature
Calcium Carbonate (Cement) Solubility
A Short Cut To Balance Water
Using A Nomogram
KEY POINTS ABOUT CALCIUM BALANCE
IDEAL CONDITIONS
WEATHER EFFECTS
Seasonal Effects -- Summer
Seasonal Effects -- Winter
The Effect Of Rain
Evaporation
Incoming Water Supply
Environment
KEY POINTS ABOUT WEATHER EFFECTS
CONTROL OF ALGAE
Super-chlorination
Shock Treatment
Other Chlorine Treatments
Other Algaecides
Quaternary Ammonium Chlorides
Cost Comparison
KEY POINTS ABOUT CONTROL OF ALGAE
TEST KITS
Accuracy of Test Results
Chlorine Test Methods: OTO vs. DPD
pH DETERMINATION
Acid Demand
Base Demand
CHLORINE CONCENTRATION
Chlorine Measurements
Estimating Effective Chlorine (VERY IMPORTANT)
Adjusting Chlorine
TOTAL ALKALINITY
CALCIUM HARDNESS
STABILIZER CONCENTRATION
TESTING CONDUCTIVITY
RECORD KEEPING
CALCULATIONS
Parts Per Million
Amount of Chemical Additions
CHEMICAL SUPPLIES
FILTERING
Cartridge Filters
DE Filters
Pump Schedule
SKIMMER
PUMP TRAP
SAFETY
Risks of Swimming In Chlorinated Water
COST ANALYSIS
Purchasing Chemical Supplies
Costs of Testing
Actual Annual Costs
QUIZ
/// INTRODUCTION \\\
This manual is for the home owner with a cement in-ground swimming pool. It
is a brief description of the necessary chemicals and procedures for using chlorine to
sanitize pool water. An attempt has been made to take the mystery out of the
chemistry.
Why Chlorine?
Chlorination has been used for over a century in public water supplies and
pools because it is safe and effective and low cost compared to the many other
methods which are not discussed here, such as bromination, ozonation, peroxides
The three most widely used and readily available chlorine compounds are:
What they are and how to use them is discussed in detail with suggestions for
making them the most effective at least cost to maintain your pool water. Comparisons
Chlorination to kill bacteria and algae is the first step. The second aspect of
water to keep it near neutral, slightly basic, so that it is never acidic and corrosive. The
If In Doubt
The suitability of the information in this manual and its application to particular
situations has to be determined by the reader. Always read the labels of the chemicals
before using and follow the instructions for safe handling and use. Consult a
Now on to the technical stuff! There are explanations for the technical terms
and a simplified description of the chemistry. It may not seem simple to the average
pool owner without training in chemistry but the emphasis is on the basic mechanisms
at work in pool water treatment and why they affect decisions about which products to
use and how to use them. Each section is followed by KEY POINTS which are useful
for quick reference when it comes time to practice the art of water maintenance. They
are a summary of important points and recommendations. Without knowing the basics
it is easy to be led into wasting money on expensive materials when cheaper ones will
do or into chasing a problem around and around by attacking appearances rather than
true causes.
/// CHLORINATION \\\
water. The amount formed depends on the pH. In very acidic water all of the chlorine
will be in the active form. In basic water it remains inactive as hypochlorite ions. In
normal pool water the chlorine is a mixture of both active and inactive forms.
WATER.
When testing for chlorine the test kit methods will indicate the sum of both the
active and inactive forms. The results can only be interpreted along with the pH value.
As described later the pH of pool water must be maintained in a narrow range for
several reasons. The amount of active chlorine will be anywhere from one-fourth to
three-fourths of the total when the pH is in the proper range. It increases when the pH
The three best materials for effective chlorination at low cost are described in
the next three sections. Each ends with a summary of KEY POINTS about that
material.
approximately the amount of chlorine in most tap water. It might be OK for a short time
but it is so marginal that you would be constantly adjusting it upward. Pool books and
test kits often recommend three to five parts per million. This is a good range and
matches the range for most test methods for pool chlorine. When stabilizer is present
more chlorine is needed so I find that four to five or more parts per million is a more
practical chlorine level to aim for in swimming pools. This too can vary with the water
temperature, number of pool users and the weather. Public pools usually aim for ten
If algae shows up you need more chlorine. An immediate boost will kill the
algae and then a higher level in general will help prevent it from coming back. An
basis. And, again, this depends on climate, weather and pool use. It is better to spend
a little more on regular chlorination and keep the level near four or five ppm rather
than have to shock the pool with ten or more parts per million.
/// CHLORINE SOLUTION (Sodium hypochlorite) \\\
pool supply stores. The bulk material is usually sold in two and a half gallon refillable
containers.
the pH, that is, the availability of acid ions (H+) in the water.
As acid ions are taken up to form the hypochlorous acid the pH of the pool
increases. This is one of the disadvantages of liquid chlorine because the pH must be
brought back to the desired range by the addition of acid to the pool water. Adding
hydrochloric acid lowers the pH and adds chloride ions (Cl–) which do not contribute
to effective chlorination.
Liquid chlorine must be handled carefully. A splash can ruin your clothes. A
spill in your car would be a disaster. It is the same active ingredient as household
bleach but at double the concentration. Use caution when transporting or pouring
liquid chlorine.
HELPFUL HINTS: Use a box to keep the container from touching the car
interior. Carry the container without bumping it against yourself and only put it down
on something that will not be ruined by stray drips of the solution. Never mix the
solution with anything else. Only pour it into a clean measuring container. Avoid
The ten percent concentration is only approximate. The storage life is limited so
the percentage will drop over time. Do not buy more than a season's supply at a time.
In spite of the inconveniences it is the most commonly used form of chlorine because it
immediate. However, the level drops substantially within one or two days. This rate of
Ten percent chlorine solution is added at about 500 ml (one pint) per day every
day to achieve a one part per million (ppm) chlorine level in a 15,000 gallon pool.
/// KEY POINTS ABOUT CHLORINE SOLUTION \\\
3.) The pool's pH rises when chlorine solution is added so it must be re-adjusted
with acid.
trichloro-s-triazinetrione 99.0%
inert 1.0%
available chlorine (89%)
Do not use stabilized chlorine with less available chlorine, such as "dichlor". Do
Comparing prices tablets are more expensive than liquid chlorine. This cost
difference is partially offset because trichlor tablets provide stabilizer. Also the trichlor
compound does not affect the pH and so reduces the requirements for acid.
atoms per molecule. When these chlorine atoms are released they combine with
hydroxyl groups present in the water and form hypochlorous acid (HOCl). At the same
time three acid groups present in the water combine with the remainder of the trichlor
to form one cyanuric acid (CYA) molecule. Cyanuric acid is a stabilizer for chlorine. It
over a long period of time at a slow rate. As the tablet dissolves the chlorine level
increases slowly and reaches a peak several days later. Most of the chlorine will be
released in the first two weeks. Three-inch tablets are preferred because it takes
They are easier to handle and transport than liquids. But if uncovered they give
off obnoxious fumes. It is best to wear rubber gloves when transferring tablets from
their original container to a pool dispenser. Or plastic tongs can be used to avoid skin
Because they dissolve slowly the three inch tablets eliminate the need for daily
attention. The best way to control the rate of chlorination is to use a floating dispenser
Three-inch tablets are added two tablets per week to achieve about one ppm
1.) When trichlor tablets dissolve they slowly create hypochlorous acid (the
effective form of chlorine).
2.) Stabilizer (cyanuric acid) is also released but at one-third the rate of the
hypochlorous acid.
3.) Continuous use of trichlor tablets causes the amount of cyanuric acid stabilizer
to increase.
5.) Use tablets during the hottest time of the year for routine chlorination.
/// CHLORINE POWDER (Calcium hypochlorite) \\\
physical form is solid, usually a powder. It can also be found as tablets, but do not
confuse it with trichlor tablets. Look for the following description on the label:
The cost of calcium hypochlorite varies with quantity and packaging, from 100
chlorine as it dissolves and it raises the pH. Its chemistry is similar to liquid chlorine
but with calcium in place of sodium. The addition of calcium to the pool water is an
advantage in most cases unless the water is hard meaning that there is already a high
level of calcium in it. See the section CALCIUM BALANCE for problems with hard
water.
handle than trichlor. The shelf life is substantially longer than that of chlorine solution.
A disadvantage of calcium hypochlorite is that it causes cloudy pool water until the
The level of chlorine is raised quickly as the powder dissolves. The denser
forms (tablets or cartridges) will be slower to dissolve and are added less often. They
The powdered form of calcium hypochlorite can offer an advantage when used
as a shock treatment to kill algae. The powder can be sprinkled on or near algae
spots. When this is done in still water the concentration of chlorine becomes very high
right where the algae is. Some powders are finer and dissolve faster providing a
One pound of 65% active powder provides a 5 ppm chlorine shock in a 15,000
gallon pool.
About three ounces per day of calcium hypochlorite powder in a 15,000 gallon
1.) The powder form of calcium hypochlorite quickly raises the effective chlorine
concentration.
2.) The tablet or cartridge form of calcium hypochlorite slowly releases effective
chlorine.
4.) It provides calcium, necessary for pool water, but a problem in hard water areas
or when calcium content is already high.
5.) The powder form is an excellent algaecide, especially for spots or clusters of
algae.
COMPARISON OF CHLORINE COMPOUNDS
radiation). This happens to hypochlorous acid in pool water. Cyanuric acid (CYA)
stabilizes hypochlorous acid and extends its lifetime. Stabilizer concentration should
be kept under 100 ppm. About 30 ppm is optimum. A good starting range is 20 to 40
ppm. Higher amounts are required in summer along with higher chlorine
When trichlor tablets are used stabilizer is formed as they dissolve. If trichlor is
not used cyanuric acid stabilizer can be added separately. For example, adding five
pounds would provide 40 ppm in a 15,000 gallon pool. (See the sections on
When trichlor tablets are added routinely to the pool the amount of cyanuric acid
(CYA) will increase by about 3 ppm per month. This effect is very important. Because
the cyanuric acid (CYA) level can become excessive if using trichlor continuously at
least twice a year determine its concentration. If it is too high then one of the other
non-stabilized forms of chlorine should be used instead of trichlor until the level of
CYA comes down below 50 ppm. Be aware that other forms of chlorine may be
stabilized and their use will increase the CYA levels in your pool.
Problems Caused By High Stabilizer Concentration
If the CYA level becomes too high it will interfere with the activity of the chlorine.
The test kit results can show adequate levels of chlorine but there may still be algae
growth. If the pool is super-chlorinated the level of chlorine will remain very for a very
Cyanuric acid (CYA) is very useful but only at a reasonable level. Any amount
over 100 ppm is too much. It is better to never exceed 60 ppm. If the level of CYA is
very high there is only one way to reduce it: Drain about half the pool and refill to cut
the concentration in half. Caution: See the section: Partial draining of the Pool. In
less severe cases simply stop using the trichlor type of chlorine -- the stabilizer
High cyanuric acid (CYA) levels also interfere with the test for alkalinity. At less
than 30 ppm the effect on the alkalinity test is small enough to be ignored. But in large
amounts CYA can mask a low level of bicarbonate alkalinity. See the section TOTAL
For these reasons it is recommended that trichlor be used for only four months
4.) Too much of it will mask a deficiency in carbonate level unless the alkalinity test
result is corrected for it.
5.) The amount of cyanuric acid in the pool water increases when stabilized
chlorine is used continuously for long periods of time.
6.) When the stabilizer level is high do not use trichlor (or any stabilized chlorine
product); use sodium or calcium hypochlorite instead.
/// CONTROL OF pH \\\
Dissociation of Water
Water is unstable and to a very small degree its molecules dissociate. They
break down into ion pairs -- one hydrogen ion (H+) and one hydroxyl ion (OH-). The
balance between (H+) ions and (OH-) ions is easily influenced by other molecules. If
the balance favors the (H+) ions the water is acidic. When the amounts of (H+) ions
and (OH-) ions are equal then the water is neutral. If the (OH-) ions predominate then
(acidic) (basic)
Definition of pH
on a scale which runs from zero to fourteen. (It happens to be the negative logarithm
of the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) expressed in moles per liter.) Because of
the way it is defined neutral water has a pH of 7. Acidic water is less than seven, down
to zero. Basic water has a pH over 7 up to 14. The pH value is the strength of the
hydrogen ion concentration. It is an abbreviation of the German phrase "potenz
Scale Of pH Values
neutral
0----------------------------------7---------------------------------14
acidic basic
For swimming pool water the desired range of pH is within 7 to 8, always on the
slightly basic side. Acidic pool water would be corrosive. Above pH 8 there would be
very little of the active form of chlorine. Recall that hypochlorous acid becomes
For these reasons the ideal value of pH is around 7.4 (with an acceptable range
of 7.2 to 7.6) where the water is not corrosive and about one half of the chlorine will be
Buffering
the water which will counteract increases or decreases in the pH. In swimming pools
prevent cement corrosion (see CALCIUM BALANCE) but also to provide buffering
action for pH stability. The level of sodium bicarbonate will change relatively slowly
and can be adjusted about every two weeks. It is checked with a test for total alkalinity.
The pH has to be adjusted more often. In buffered swimming pools the normal
drift will be to higher pH. Also, as described earlier the use of sodium or calcium
hypochlorite will raise the pH. These changes are corrected by the addition of acid.
Most commonly muriatic (hydrochloric) acid is used. It is more cost effective than dry
acid (sodium bisulfate). The pH adjustment with acid should always be the last thing
Correcting Low pH
Acid additions should always be done such that the pH never goes below 7.
*A slightly acidic pool just under pH 7 can be corrected by adding liquid or powder
chlorine (sodium or calcium hypochlorite).
*A pool with mildly acidic water (pH about 6) can be corrected by adding baking soda.
*Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) can be used to adjust a very low pH pool. This material
is sold under various names for raising pool pH. It should never be needed but if the
occasion arises a pool store would be able to provide it. There is no need to keep it on
hand.
Why pH Increases And Alkalinity Decreases
Acids and bases (alkaline materials) neutralize each other and form salts. In
pool water the acid and bicarbonate combine to form carbonic acid. Carbonic acid
decomposes to water and carbon dioxide gas. When this happens the carbonate and
acid ions are lost. All that remains is sodium and chloride, salt. The decrease in
carbonate reduces the alkalinity. The decrease in acid raises the pH. The
All of these changes are unavoidable and this is why the baking soda and acid
must be replenished. All of this happens faster when the temperature is higher. To
minimize the neutralization of baking soda by the acid it is best to adjust alkalinity first
and then adjust the pH. Doing this in the other order can result in a never-ending
Carbonate Chemistry
Each carbonate ion can take up two acid ions and bicarbonate can take one.
carbonic acid mixture. This happens because the pool pH lies between the pH's of
these two species. It doesn't matter whether bicarbonate (baking soda) or carbonate
(soda ash) is added to the pool water. Once the pH is adjusted to the normal range of
7.2 to 7.6 the same species are formed. This is the reason that there is no need for
2.) A pH of 7.4 is the best value (as a high in summer and as a low in winter).
5.) Hydrochloric (muriatic) acid is used to adjust the pH back to lower values.
6.) Adjusting pH should always be done after making all other additions to the pool
water.
9.) Determining the baking soda content (the total alkalinity test) should be done
about every two weeks.
10.) The correct amount of baking soda (bicarbonate alkalinity) is about 90 ppm. (It
will vary with temperature and calcium content. See the section on CALCIUM
BALANCE.)
/// CALCIUM BALANCE \\\
In-ground swimming pools are usually made by casting concrete over a metal
frame of reinforcing rods. The interior surface of the pool is finished with a coating of
cement containing marble dust ("plaster") to give it a bright white color. Concrete,
cement and marble are principally or entirely limestone which is the mineral name for
calcium carbonate.
The pool surface in contact with water is going to slightly dissolve and put
calcium and carbonate in the water. To prevent the cement surfaces from eroding
chloride.
is usually available in its hydrate form, calcium chloride dihydrate (at 80%, mixed with
other chlorides).
store offer large bags of bulk calcium chloride at lower prices per pound. Smaller
add a few pounds of calcium chloride. When it dissolves it gives off heat. The solid
material or its hot concentrated solution can be irritating to skin. Carefully pour the
calcium solution into the skimmer leaving any solid materials in the bottom of the pail.
Repeat this procedure until the required amount of calcium has been dissolved and
added. Or flakes of calcium chloride can be added slowly to the skimmer so that they
Calcium Concentration
A calcium concentration near 300 ppm is best. A suitable range is 200 to 400
ppm. When the calcium level is controlled fairly closely it is easier to maintain the
proper chemical balances. Testing every three months will usually be sufficient. A
new pool or one recently resurfaced may change more quickly than an older pool and
It is important to remember that the routine use of calcium hypochlorite will add
significantly to the calcium level of the pool water. See the section on CHLORINE
POWDER. Its use as an algaecide or for shock treatments will not contribute much to
the calcium level -- about 2 ppm per treatment. However, routine chlorination with this
material will add about 20 ppm per month. This is not a problem for most pools and
simply reduces the requirement for adding calcium chloride. For pools with an existing
High calcium levels can be the result of naturally occurring levels in the
incoming water used to fill the pool. Some water supplies are naturally "hard" and can
contain so much calcium that scaling becomes a problem. This happens when
calcium carbonate precipitates out of the pool water as a hard rough deposit on the
walls of the pool. Often high calcium content can be compensated by altering
carbonate concentration and pH. In areas where the problem is severe it may be
necessary to bring in water with a lower calcium content from another location.
The presence of calcium (and similar ions such as magnesium) is said to make
water "hard" because it interferes with the sudsing action of detergents. In some test
hardness" test.
for pool water to become corrosive and dissolve the cement. Or it is possible that
calcium carbonate will begin to precipitate. This can cause cloudiness in the water,
This problem was addressed by chemists who developed a saturation index for
needed for a given pH and temperature to prevent corrosion (dissolving cement) and
Most minerals are more soluble in warm water than cold. Calcium carbonate is
unusual in this respect -- it becomes less soluble as the temperature increases. This is
why a lower carbonate (lower alkalinity) level is necessary in hotter weather. And the
acidity should be higher (lower pH) in warmer water because of the decreased
changing the pH to compensate for temperature changes. The calcium and carbonate
given below:
pH 7.3 7.5
Note that the alkalinity is the same and the calcium concentration is the same.
The change in water temperature is compensated by altering the pH. Over a wide and
useful range of temperature the water can be balanced with the calcium concentration
near 300 ppm. The total alkalinity shown above includes 80 ppm for carbonate
With this level of calcium the pH can be kept in the range where the chlorine is
effective.
Another way to look at the problem of balancing the water is given below.
about. With two of these kept in a narrow range -- calcium around 300 ppm and the
pH around 7.4 -- the problem is simplified. Now it is only necessary to alter the
90 75
80 85
70 100
60 115
For most pools this is a good approach because alkalinity can be easily
is much simpler. A carbonate level can be selected for the given temperature and a
pH of 7.4. It is still necessary to test and adjust the pH, calcium and carbonate to
For pool water which is hard it is necessary to use a calcium to carbonate ratio
outside the normal range. And sometimes the temperature falls outside the range
covered in the table above. In these cases a nomogram will make it easier to find the
Using A Nomogram
written or drawn, in this case a scientific law which describes the solubility of calcium
A good test kit will include a nomogram which is a way to compare these four
device like a slide rule. A test kit which includes a nomogram for water balance is well
The nomogram will cover a wide range of conditions but only those which keep
the pH between 7 and 7.6 are of interest. It is best to start with the water temperature
and set it against a pH of 7.4 Next find the alkalinity which compensates the existing
calcium level. If the calcium level is less than 220 ppm consider adjusting it to 300
ppm and find the amount of alkalinity to balance it. Once the alkalinity has been
calcium level higher than 400 ppm. In this situation locate the value of the calcium
level and find an alkalinity value which will balance the water at a useful pH for the
given temperature. Since it is not easy to lower calcium it will be necessary to adjust
alkalinity to lower levels to compensate for it. In this way the necessary pH can be
maintained for effective chlorination over the seasonal temperature range of the pool.
/// KEY POINTS ABOUT CALCIUM BALANCE \\\
1.) Calcium is necessary to preserve the cement finish of the pool surfaces.
3.) Calcium hardness should be determined at least four times a year. A new or
4.) The amount of calcium and the amount of carbonate necessary to preserve the
5.) If the pH is kept near 7.4 and the calcium concentration is near 300 ppm then
the alkalinity can be adjusted to compensate for seasonal changes in the water
temperature.
6.) The desired amount of alkalinity can be determined from a set of tables (or a
temperature.
/// IDEAL CONDITIONS \\\
There are two materials which are necessary for water maintenance using the
method described in this manual: CHLORINE -- to disinfect the water, and CALCIUM
The ideal values for these items and the acceptable ranges are given below:
Ideal Range
one actually measured and it differs because of the influence of the stabilizer.
The "ideal" water temperature for ideal conditions is 77ºF. Since water
should be slightly lower (more acidic). The carbonate alkalinity should be lower. The
In cooler water the chlorine and stabilizer requirements are lower and
maintaining lower levels will reduce costs. The pH can be kept slightly higher (less
acidic) which also reduces the cost. The carbonate alkalinity should be higher. The
Even in a stable climate (such as Florida) pool water can change from below
shown above in IDEAL CONDITIONS calcium balance, buffering and chlorination all
When the water is 20ºF warmer changes occur twice as fast -- algae and
bacteria breed faster, stabilizer decomposes faster, bicarbonate and acid neutralize
faster -- and there is more use of the pool in hotter weather. The most direct ultra-violet
radiation occurs at the summer solstice (June 22 in the northern hemisphere). These
The chlorine and stabilizer levels have to be kept higher to avoid depletion
values (7.2 to 7.4) to make the chlorine more effective. The alkalinity can be kept at
the lower end of its range (60 to 80 ppm). This will be more compatible with a lower
pH and reduce acid demand. These changes will make the precipitation of calcium
When water temperatures drop (especially below 60ºF) there is much less
demand on the chlorine. If the pool is kept open chlorine can be kept lower at one
ppm and the pH kept at 7.4 to 7.5. Higher alkalinity is required (120 ppm). Stabilizer
concentration should be lower, near the winter solstice, December 22. Cold weather
Rain upsets balanced water. It carries dust, dirt, organic matter, pollen, algae
and bacteria into the pool. This causes more of the chlorine to be used and the pH to
rise. The cure for this is simple -- add liquid or power chlorine, then adjust the pH.
dioxide in the air and forms carbonic acid. Buffered pool water overcomes this pH
difference; in fact the pool pH becomes less acidic because of the materials carried
For a typical pool a half inch of rain will be about one percent of the volume;
dilution is not great unless there is a downpour. Heavy rain will require draining some
water and adjusting chlorine, alkalinity and pH (in this order). If possible it is best to
In windy, dry, hot conditions an outdoor pool exposed to the sun could lose
several inches of water in a week. Normal evaporation is less than this and with luck
rain will balance losses. When luck does not prevail it will be necessary to add water
to the pool.
Test the water supply with a pool test kit. This is especially useful when filling a pool.
It is important to remember that municipal water supplies are treated and have
alkalinity and calcium levels that can be substantial. Most municipal water
A typical comparison of tap water, pool water and rain is shown in the table
below:
WATER SUPPLY COMPARISONS
pH 9.5 7.4 5
Stabilizer (ppm) 0 25 0
Environment
Proximity of trees, plants and uncovered soil will affect the amount of dust,
leaves, pine needles, pollen and organic matter blown into the pool. A screen pool
enclosure will greatly reduce the amount of contamination. Careful selection and
placement of decorative plants and the use of mulch or stone near the pool perimeter
1.) Rain upsets balanced water requiring additional chlorine and acid.
2.) Hot summer weather increases the need for chlorine; alkalinity and pH should
be kept at the lower end of their acceptable ranges.
3.) Cold winter weather is an opportunity to save chemical supplies since demands
on chlorine are lower and the pH can be higher.
4.) With more intense sunlight (near the summer solstice) more chlorine and
stabilizer are required.
/// CONTROL OF ALGAE \\\
The most common pool problem is algae growth. Even a brief lapse in
maintaining the chlorine level or the pH can result in algae blooms, especially after a
One of the most effective algaecides is chlorine. It is also the cheapest and
should be the first choice among the methods to combat algae growth.
Super-chlorination
chlorine provides the best effect. When the first bloom of algae growth is noticed
doubling the normal chlorine level will often kill it. This treatment should be
accompanied by brushing the pool surfaces. The filter will remove the dead algae.
The pool should not be used until the chlorine level returns to the normal range.
up when waste material is disinfected. It is convenient to do this when the pool will not
be in use for a day or two. Ideal times to super-chlorinate are when rain is expected or
chlorine can be used. This is called "shocking " the pool. Again liquid chlorine is an
excellent way to increase chlorine levels immediately to a high value. The amount of
chlorine to use depends on the severity of the problem. Most often 30 to 60 ppm will
take care of a major algae bloom. This is ten to twenty times the usual amount so it
will take a while for the chlorine to return to normal. Do not use the pool until the
be added at the end of the day when the water is not circulating. First adjust the pH to
7.2 before turning off the pump. Then add the chlorine to the water along the
perimeter of the pool. During the night the chlorine level will be highest near the walls
where most algae usually forms. The next morning the pH can be checked after
circulating the pool water for half an hour and adjusted as necessary. Note that
superchlorination will usually boost chlorine for about two days whereas shock
In pools which are seldom used or used by one person the need for shock
treatment is rare. In pools which are used by many people, especially in hot weather,
superchlorination and shock will be needed more frequently. Shocking the pool water
is usually required only if the maintenance has been neglected. In a well maintained
pool it would never be required. But if the pool water turns dark green it is definitely
time to shock treat the water. If a pool is going to be left unattended for a period of time
Many times when a pool has a strong odor it is not the chlorine that causes it but
rather the by-product of chlorine and urine which is chloramines. This should
In addition to sodium hypochlorite solution there are three powders which are
material is an excellent choice for control of algae spots. It can be applied directly in
the vicinity of the algae when the pool is not circulating to raise the chlorine level very
could be used if both calcium and stabilizer levels were too high preventing the use of
NOTE: Using spot algaecides should be avoided since strong solid chlorine
compounds can dissolve cement surfaces weakening them and making them rougher
which then promotes algae growth. The first attempt to kill algae should use liquid
chlorine then powders can be used with the water circulating. Spots of algae can also
Other Algaecides
Before buying a high priced algaecide it is a good idea to check the label. If it is
just an expensive form of chlorine it will not be any more effective than the cheaper
forms. There are some very exotic algaecides available and they have higher costs.
Before resorting to these materials it is better to try shocking the pool with liquid
chlorine. Then try powdered chlorine compounds applied in the area of the algae
colony. If these attempt do not kill the algae consult a pool store about the problem for
manufacturers as ten percent solutions in one gallon containers. At higher cost this
material provides an alternate way to defend against algae and bacteria which is
material imparts a slippery feel to the water which may be unwanted. With larger
Cost Comparison
The relative costs of these algaecide and shock treatments are listed below.
The prices are in dollars per pound of active ingredient (which is not the same as the
shelf price in the store). The prices of almost all of these items have gone up since this
list was prepared but the comparisons are still valid. Currently liquid chlorine prices in
Florida have doubled as I type this but the list still shows the expected relative
alternative.
pound of cure. And a dollar's worth of chlorine is better than a more expensive
algaecide.
/// KEY POINTS ABOUT CONTROL OF ALGAE \\\
1.) The most cost effective algaecide is chlorine solution, ten percent sodium
2.) For algae on the bottom of a pool a chlorine powder is more effective, added
when the water is still. The most cost effective powder is calcium hypochlorite:
3.) Expensive algaecides are not more effective and usually not required.
/// TESTING AND ADJUSTING POOL WATER \\\
TEST KITS
A test kit is the most important piece of equipment needed for maintaining pool
water. There are many available. It is very advantageous to purchase a kit that
pH determination
chlorine concentration
total alkalinity
calcium hardness
stabilizer concentration (cyanuric acid)
If in doubt about the accuracy of a test repeat it with new reagents. The cost of a
second test is small compared to the trouble that comes with inaccurate test results. If
the actual pH is higher than indicated the chlorine is less effective. Or, if the pH is
actually lower the water could be corrosive to the cement. The test kit and its reagents
should be stored indoors out of direct sunlight. It does not have to be refrigerated.
There are two methods for measuring chlorine commonly available in pool test
kits. They are referred to as "OTO" and "DPD" which are abbreviations for the reagents
used in the test. The DPD method offers the advantage of using two separate steps to
find the free and total chlorine levels. The OTO test indicates free chlorine for a few
seconds after which total chlorine is indicated. They both provide satisfactory results
pH DETERMINATION
The pH determination indicates the basicity of the pool water. Refer to the
section on CONTROL OF pH. Test kits are designed so that the appropriate pH level
will be approximately in the middle of the test kit range. In a normal buffered pool the
pH will drift to higher values and it will be necessary to bring it back down by adding
acid.
Acid Demand
The amount of acid required is often referred to as "acid demand." For example,
the amount of acid required to change the pH from 7.8 to 7.3 in a 15,000 gallon pool
hydrochloric acid (muriatic acid). This amount can be calculated based on the
changes. Large test kits include a test for this and a table for determining how much
acid should be added. Drops of a standard acid solution ("acid demand reagent") are
added to the pH sample until the desired pH is reached. The number of drops
represents the amount of acid needed for the pool size as listed in the table.
Once familiar with the procedure the amount of acid for a desired change in pH
is easily estimated. Usually 100 to 300 ml (three to ten ounces) of acid will lower the
pH as required. It can be added directly to the pool water or diluted first. But is should
always be added slowly. Rapid addition of acid will reduce the alkalinity more and
Base Demand
There is a similar test and table for "base demand." This is rarely needed. In a
carefully maintained pool the water will never become too acidic. However, if there is
an accidental upset of the pH to values below 7 the base demand test may be useful.
CHLORINE CONCENTRATION
A good test kit will provide two tests for chlorine determination. One for "free
chlorine" and one for "total chlorine." The difference between them is the "combined
chlorine" level. Combined chlorine is produced when chlorine combines with waste
may be some combined chlorine if it has had heavy use but most of the time there will
The most important chlorine level cannot be directly tested. It is the effective
chlorine which is pH dependent. Unless both the free chlorine and the pH are in
Total chlorine is a measure of all the chlorine materials present in the pool
water. This includes hypochlorous acid, hypochlorite ion and chloramines. It does not
include chlorides (from salt or acid). It can be determined by the DPD or OTO method.
Combined chlorine is found by subtracting the free chlorine from the total
To estimate effective chlorine first measure the free chlorine with a DPD test.
Next reduce this amount by half to allow for the pH effect. If stabilizer is present (and
below 40 ppm) subtract another ten percent. If stabilizer is over 100 ppm effective
ppm (with the pH near 7.4). With CYA stabilizer at 30 ppm the effective chlorine is
In a second case if free chlorine were again 3 ppm but the pH was 7.6 with 100
ppm of stabilizer then the effective chlorine would be less than 0.5 ppm. In the first
example algae growth would be inhibited but not in the second, especially in hot
Adjusting Chlorine
Liquid chlorine (sodium hypochlorite) can be added directly to the pool. Pour it
slowly along the perimeter for even distribution. Do not pour chlorine solution into the
along the perimeter of the pool or cast over the surface. An alternate method
pour the solution in the pool. Again, do not put this type of chlorine into the skimmer
Never toss tablets in the pool; they will corrode the cement. There are three
1.) They can be placed in the skimmer basket which causes them to dissolve faster.
This is only recommended if there are no metal parts in the pool plumbing.
2.) They can be added to a floating dispenser which allows them to dissolve slowly
and provides better distribution even when the pump is not running.
3.) There are in-line dispensers which can be connected to the piping of the water
circulation system. The tablets are added to a small tank and dissolve as pool
water is pumped through it. However, controlling the rate of addition is more
tablets last for a period of weeks. With more frequent but smaller additions of either
type of chlorine the minimum amount remains at a higher, more effective level. This is
more cost effective but less convenient than using larger amounts less often.
chlorine and acid additions are critical since only the pH and chlorine concentration
can change rapidly. With hypochlorites (liquid or powder) more frequent correction of
pH is required -- daily additions of chlorine and acid will often be needed to maintain a
steady level of effective chlorine. With trichlor tablets (three-inch size) used in a
TOTAL ALKALINITY
Any material which takes up acid ions will contribute to total alkalinity.
bicarbonate concentration which is important. Since the pH determines the state of the
carbonate ion it will affect the test results; so pH has to be close to normal to get an
week in hot weather). When an addition of baking soda is needed it can be added
slowly into the skimmer. With the water circulating it will dissolve quickly.
The stabilizer compound (CYA) interferes with this test because it contributes to
alkalinity. About one third of it shows up. Typically this will add about ten ppm.
However, if the stabilizer is excessive (over 100 ppm) then it will contribute more than
30 ppm. It would be necessary to adjust for such a large interference since it is only
the bicarbonate which balances the water. When testing alkalinity remember to
CALCIUM HARDNESS
The test for calcium is actually a water hardness test which also responds to
other minerals such as magnesium. This is not a problem for most pools since calcium
will predominate. However, in a hard water area the amount of the other minerals
present must be known in order to adjust for the interference. Public water utilities
should provide this information. A private well would have to be tested for minerals
Calcium hardness should be tested every three months. Normally calcium will
drift to lower values and can be corrected with the addition of calcium chloride. If the
calcium level should go up unexpectedly the cement may be dissolving. Unless the
supply water is hard or a lot of calcium hypochlorite has been used there is a problem
with the water balance (alkalinity and pH). See the section on CALCIUM BALANCE.
STABILIZER CONCENTRATION
The test for cyanuric acid (CYA) is very important if a stabilized chlorine
level of stabilizer to increase. After three months the stabilizer content should be
high levels from interfering with the chlorine activity or the determination of alkalinity.
the test solution. The easiest way to avoid excess is to limit the amount of stabilized
chlorine used for a season. There is no need for this test if neither stabilized chlorine
TESTING CONDUCTIVITY
The conductivity of the pool water indicates the amount of dissolved solids in
the water, most of which is salt. The buffering and pH adjustments using bicarbonate
and acid cause salt to form. As the salt increases the conductivity increases.
This test can be done at a pool store; it is not critical. Once a year ask for a
determination of "total dissolved solids." Compare it with the tap water at the pool site.
When too high reduce it by draining some of the water and adding fresh water. (There
are some pools which use salt in the water for purification with automatic chlorinators.
1.) The amount of effective chlorine is the test kit measurement adjusted for pH and
the presence of stabilizer. It is lower than the test reading, usually by half.
For meaningful results the water sample must represent the average condition
in the pool. For this reason the water should be circulating at least half an hour before
the sample is taken. Always use clean sampling containers and rinse them out after
each test. Do not discard the tested water into the pool.
If test results from samples taken at different locations are compared usually no
differences are found. Try this in your pool. If the results are different is may mean that
the circulation is not very effective. Check the outlets for the incoming water. Most can
each day's test results or chemical additions can be recorded in the appropriate space.
A notebook is useful for recording test results that are done less frequently such
as calcium and stabilizer levels. All the tests should be done together at least four
Except for pH all other tests determine concentrations in "parts per million." It is
abbreviated as "ppm." It refers to the weight of the tested chemical compared to the
The weight of water is 8.3 pounds per gallon. For a 15,000 gallon pool the
weight of the water is 8.3 times 15,000 which equals 124,500 pounds. Dividing this
weight by one million gives 0.1245 pounds. Therefore "one ppm" in a 15,000 gallon
pool is 0.1245 pounds which is about two ounces or 56 grams. If a 15,000 gallon pool
needed 20 ppm of a chemical then 20 times 0.1245 would be 2.5 pounds, the required
amount to add.
The chemical compounds are usually not 100% of the desired material so this
must also be taken into account. For example the different chlorine compounds are
water is required. Tables have been prepared for each of the chemical compounds of
interest. A large test kit will include a set of tables for determining the weight of the
chemical addition which will provide the desired increase in ppm for various pool
sizes.
Amount of Chemical Additions
The test results may indicate that certain additions are required to keep the pool
water in good balance. Using the tables from a test kit the amount of each addition
can be found for the size of the pool. Additions must be made one at a time and while
the pool water is circulating. Always allow time for one addition to disperse before
staring another. Always read the label and follow manufacturer's instructions before
After determining the amount of the addition it is always better to add only part
of it, especially if unsure of the pool capacity. Then the test can be run again and the
rest of the addition can be made as needed. Caution in making additions is always
The tables may give the addition amounts in either metric or standard
measures. A conversion table is given below for the amounts most commonly
encountered.
CONVERSION TABLE FOR LIQUID MEASURES
100 3.4
200 6.8
300 10.0
400 13.5
Pool Capacity
The size of a pool can be estimated in various ways. One way is to calculate
the volume based on the geometry. That is, multiply the average depth times the
surface area. For example, given a rectangular pool 18' x 36' with an average depth of
four feet the volume is 18 times 36 times 4 or about 2,600 cubic feet.
Once the volume is determined in cubic feet multiply by 62.3 pounds per cubic
foot for a pool capacity of 161,500 pounds. Dividing this by 8.3 pounds per gallon
gives 19,400 gallons. Or, combining the conversion factors, the volume in cubic feet
For non-rectangular pools an estimate of the surface area is needed. One way
to do this is to draw on graph paper a scaled outline of the pool shape. Then count the
The easiest way to determine pool capacity is to check the water meter when
the pool is filled. This is the most accurate way to find the size in gallons. However,
A third method to estimate pool capacity is to note the effect of various size
additions on the increase in ppm. For example, if a ten pound addition of baking soda
gives only half the expected increase in ppm alkalinity then the pool capacity is
probably twice that expected. Additions of baking soda or calcium chloride can be
solids or to freshen the water. Over long periods dissolved organic material increases
Never completely empty a pool unless the ground water level has been
checked. If ground water is higher than the bottom of an empty pool it could lift out of
the ground. Many pools have a dry well underneath connected to a pipe used for
All of the above details about testing, adjusting and calculating additions of
chemicals are good things to know. But today many pool stores offer computer
analysis if you bring a water sample in. All you have to know is the temperature of the
pool and its capacity in gallons and the computer will do the analyses and calculate
the required additions. A word of caution: Not all store employees always know what
they are doing all the time. If you have doubts try bringing in samples of the same pool
water on different days or to different stores. There is always some variation in test
results because some of them are estimated or based on subjective judgments of color
or turbidity.
Obviously the sample water must be representative of the pool if the computer
sample should be taken just prior to going to the store. Sometimes store employees
are too eager to recommend something be bought. You always have your own test kit
and the information provided in this manual to check on the recommendations. Again,
a good test kit with all the major tests is recommended for home use.
/// POOL WATER PROBLEMS \\\
inexpensive remedy worth trying before more drastic measures. Draining the pool,
refilling and balancing the water will take care of problems related only to the water.
For unusual problems involving equipment, the cement surface or the structure of the
Algae
growth because chlorine levels are kept low for safety and economic reasons.
Chlorine and acid are the two items which deteriorate most rapidly. Weather
changes can hasten their disappearance. Since low chlorine or high pH results in
ineffective chlorination either can lead to algae growth. This is the most common
If chlorine is high and there is a lot of algae there could be two causes. The first
is high pH making the chlorine less effective. The second is too much cyanuric acid.
This condition, called "chlorine lock," makes super-chlorination or shock treatment less
effective. The cure is to lower the pH. If the algae persists, test the level of stabilizer --
if over 100 ppm partially drain the pool and add fresh water; if over 50 ppm do not use
Cloudy water can have several causes. Among them are algae, high pH, high
alkalinity, high calcium, high combined chlorine or too much stabilizer or quaternary
cause cloudiness unless the filtering system removes them. Calcium hypochlorite can
cause temporary cloudiness. A tear in the filter will create cloudy water, especially if
To cure cloudy water first adjust the pH to 7.2 to 7.4. If cloudiness persists
check the filter pressure and clean the filter or change the DE. Check the filter for
holes if the DE appears to be leaking into the pool. Next super-chlorinate or shock
treat as required.
Also be sure the water is balanced with respect to calcium, carbonate and pH
for the given temperature. Cloudiness could occur during hot weather when rising
If the water is still cloudy it may be caused by small particles which pass through
the filter. These are suspended solids. The use of a flocculent (sequestrant) may be
required. This is a material which will cause suspended particles to clump together so
that the filter can remove them. A pool supply store will have one or more brands to
choose from.
Colored Water
there are two common causes. The first is algae which is discussed above. Algae
usually colors water green. The second is contamination with metal ions. This is an
infrequent problem. The color can vary depending on the metal which is present. Iron
A first attempt to eliminate colored water should be to shock treat with chlorine
solution. If this is ineffective then a treatment to remove metal ions should be tried
next. Pool supply stores have products that will remove metal ions. Before treatment
Foaming
ammonium chlorides. Waiting for the excess to dissipate is probably the best solution;
otherwise, it will be necessary to partially drain and refill with fresh water.
pool (like detergents) then it will be necessary to drain the pool to remove them.
Odors
If there is an unpleasant or strong odor from the pool water it is most likely from
the formation chloramines. This can be treated by chlorine shock which will eliminate
the combined chlorine. Chlorine treated water has a slight smell of chlorine. A strong
smell is often caused by urine, an amine, in the pool water combining with the chlorine
to form a chloramine.
High Dissolved Solids
This is a condition that will occur eventually. A side effect of buffering with
baking soda and acid is the formation of salt. The salt and other water treatment
compounds continue to accumulate in the pool water. It can be several years before
they become objectionable. The only way to reduce them is to partially drain the pool
and add fresh water. Flocculents will not eliminate dissolved solids.
especially in hot weather. Precipitating calcium carbonate could plug the filter. Treat
high pH especially in hot weather. The high water temperature in combination with
high pH causes calcium to precipitate. The deposits usually scrape off easily and
In some cases the calcium content may have become too high. Stop using any
material which contains calcium. Adjust the pH and alkalinity to balance the calcium at
the present water temperature. In severe cases partially drain the pool and refill to
Cement erosion occurs if calcium dissolves from the cement. Neglecting it can
be very expensive. Its cause and cure are discussed below in the section on big
problems.
Staining of Cement
If a stain appears, which is a discoloration that does not brush off, it can usually
be removed by adding chlorine right near the spot. At the bottom of the pool this can
be done by placing one end of a pole near the stain and pouring liquid chlorine down
the other end. Follow it with a few cups of pool water to flush the heavier chlorine
solution out at the end of the pole near the stain. If you are not agile enough to do this
get someone else to help in order to avoid spilling chlorine on yourself. Do this with
the circulation turned off so that the water is still and leave it that way for a while.
Stains will often bleach out within a few minutes. Later on circulate the water and
may want to do tests to determine if there is something in the water such as metal ions
A pool with properly balanced water should last for a very long time -- at least
several decades. However, out of balance water can cause significant damage after
long exposure (about two years). The surface of the pool becomes pitted and rough.
The white finish cement may crumble and erode in patches down to the rough cement
below it. At this stage the calcium level may increase even though calcium is not
added. To repair such damage the pool is drained, resurfaced and refilled at a cost of
thousands of dollars.
Water can be out of balance when regular testing is not done for pH, alkalinity,
calcium and stabilizer. However, even with regular testing a situation can occur where
the water appears to be balanced but is not. The use of stabilized chlorine increases
the amount of cyanuric acid in the pool. This influences the alkalinity test. This
situation causes the pool water to appear balanced when in fact the carbon alkalinity
is actually very low. Total alkalinity will reflect the high stabilizer content and appear to
be normal. Unless this is recognized the water will become corrosive to the cement.
If water is left out of balance when refilling a pool it can cause serious problems
depending on the chemistry of the incoming water. See the section on "Incoming
Water Supply." A high pH may cause precipitation and staining of the cement if it is not
promptly adjusted.
To avoid these problems remember that:
1.) High levels of CYA stabilizer can result from continuous use of stabilized
chlorine (trichlor).
2.) The total alkalinity measurement has to be corrected if the stabilizer content is
The next two sections provide an overall view of how to put all the preceding
information together to achieve and maintain balanced pool water. To check the water
2.) Check the flow rate of the water coming out of the return lines to the pool. Put
your hand in front of the water inlets to feel the force and direction of the water.
3.) Check the pressure of the filtering unit and compare it to the manufacturer's
4.) Look at the color and clarity. The water should be clear and blue -- deeper blue
5.) Look for algae along the tile and on the walls and floor of the pool. It can
Run the pump and filter continuously until the water clears. This could take
If this is your first experience with a pool it may be best to consult a pool care
After any required fixes to the equipment and brushing, filtering and vacuuming
and shock treatment with chlorine there are three questions to complete a visual
inspection: Is the water blue? Is it clear? Is it clean? When the water is blue, clear
and free of dirt or debris it is time to check for the things you can't see using the
1.) Sample the water and perform the tests for chlorine, pH, alkalinity, calcium and
stabilizer.
3.) Compare the test results for all five tests to the ideal values.
4.) Make sure that the amount of cyanuric acid will not cause problems -- it should
immediately. If it is over 100 ppm it will be necessary to partially drain the pool
and refill.
5a.) If calcium is below 200 ppm bring it to 300 ppm by adding calcium chloride.
5b.) If calcium is over 400 ppm use a nomogram or table to determine the
8.) Adjust the pH after making all the other adjustments. Keep it above 7.0 and
details for carrying out the above procedure. The test kit will contain the necessary
tables to find the amounts of the additions to bring the calcium, chlorine, alkalinity and
background information about balancing the chemicals for the water temperature.
chlorine compounds available. The choice will depend on the season, the calcium
adjustments for the decomposition of some of the chemicals and for seasonal changes
in temperature. There are many ways to accomplish this. The method described
With proper filtration and with the water balanced with respect to pH, chlorine,
alkalinity, calcium and stabilizer the following procedures will then maintain the
balance.
Summer Procedures
1.) Use trichlor tablets for the four hottest months of the year. This will make it
easier to keep the chlorine level uniform and the pH stable. It will also provide
cyanuric acid (CYA) stabilizer during the season when the sunlight is most intense.
The three-inch tablet size is recommended for use with a floating dispenser to
provide the most reliable release rate of chlorine. From one to three tablets per week
should be used in a fifteen thousand gallon pool This is approximately forty to fifty
tablets per year (twenty pounds). A few can be reserved for use in midwinter to boost
the stabilizer level but the major portion will be required in the summer.
2.) When the chlorine requirements are not met by the trichlor tablets (at the
maximum rate of one tablet per 5,000 gallons per week) then use chlorine solution to
around 80 ppm. Muriatic acid will be used to adjust the pH and baking soda will be
5.) After heavy use or rain or if algae is present super-chlorinate with liquid chlorine
by adding an additional 3 to 5 ppm over the usual level. If algae gets out of hand
shock treat with a large dose of liquid chlorine to obtain ten or more ppm.
6.) If there is algae on the tile chlorine solution can be poured along the perimeter
when the water is still and left overnight for maximum effect.
7.) If algae occurs on the bottom of the pool calcium hypochlorite powder can be
cast over the surface when the water is still and left overnight.
Off-Season Procedures
1.) During the cooler season it will be easier to maintain the water purity. In order
2.) This will require more frequent adjusting of the pH with acid. The pH can be
kept at about 7.5 and the carbonate alkalinity can be kept at about 100 ppm.
For pools which remain open but unused during the winter there is a procedure
which will reduce some of the maintenance effort. If using chlorine solution change
ppm chlorine remains a week later. There will be a higher than necessary chlorine
Testing for chlorine and pH can also be reduced to once a week. This time-
saving procedure replaces daily maintenance with testing and additions which can be
During a period of time when regular maintenance will not be possible, such as
a trip away from home, preventive shock treatment will delay the onset of algae
growth. If the pool is to be unused keeping the chlorine at a higher than normal level
The key to maintaining pool water is regular testing. And at least four times a
year all five chemical tests should be performed together. The cyanuric acid test can
small test kit for just chlorine and pH. Some of them are either not reliable or difficult to
read precisely enough. Wrong information is just as bad as no information. There are
a few large test kits which are expensive but they contain everything you need to do a
complete analysis of your pool water. One of the best is "tailor made" for your pool.
This is the only brand name hint I've used. Try an internet search for test kits for pool
3.) Test the calcium level and bring it to about 300 ppm.
Summer:
1.) Increase the filtering/circulating time. See the section on "Pump Schedule" in
FILTERING.
2.) Use the trichlor tablets approximately one per week per 5,000 gallons.
3.) Use liquid chlorine for super-chlorination approximately once per week.
Off-Season:
2.) Use weekly super-chlorination with liquid chlorine to reduce maintenance time.
/// CHEMICAL SUPPLIES \\\
Four of them are needed on a regular basis: the tablets, liquid chlorine, acid
and baking soda. Item (5.) is not needed in hard water areas at all and for normal
water areas could be bought as needed since it is only used a few times a year.
I have not used brand names because it is the chemicals and their purity that is
important. Quite often they will be coming from the same manufacturing plant with
different packaging.
/// KEY POINTS ABOUT MAINTAINING POOL WATER \\\
1.) Liquid chlorine (sodium hypochlorite solution) is the most cost effective way to
chlorinate a pool.
2.) Trichlor tablets should be used for three or four months in summer. They
3.) Cyanuric acid stabilizer should be kept around 50 ppm by limiting the amount of
trichlor used.
4.) The cement is preserved by balancing calcium and carbonate levels relative to
5.) Calcium chloride additions may be needed to keep calcium levels near 300
ppm.
6.) Total alkalinity should be about 90 ppm. The usual range is 70 to 130 and the
7.) The optimum pH is 7.4 and is the single most important factor to control.
8.) Control of pH is achieved with hydrochloric (muriatic) acid and baking soda
(sodium bicarbonate).
11.) A comprehensive test kit is necessary for maintaining balanced pool water.
12.) When purchasing supplies pay for the chemical compounds and not for brand
names. Check the labels for ingredients and the percent active. The index
* Calendar or Notebook
* Pool thermometer
* Adjustable length pole with pool brush, skimming net, vacuum head and hose.
* Test kit for pH, chlorine, alkalinity, calcium and stabilizer including tables for
Filtration and circulation are essential to good water maintenance. Algae and
Cartridge Filters
solid debris from the water. As the cartridge picks up solid materials its effective pore
size becomes smaller. This results in higher pressure and decreased flow. When this
happens the pump must run longer to filter the same volume of water. The decreased
flow reduces the circulation in the pool and when it is too low the cartridge must be
The usual routine for cleaning a cartridge filter is to take it apart and hose it
down. The same cartridge is then replaced in the filter housing and used again for
another cycle. The advantage of cartridge filters is the initial lower cost of the
equipment. The disadvantages are the inconvenience of the cleaning procedure and
DE Filters
Diatomaceous earth (DE) filters are more effective than cartridge filters. The
filter pressure goes up the flow decreases and the powder has to be replaced with
fresh DE. For DE filters with a multi-port valve this procedure is quick and easy. The
used powder is blown off the fabric with pool water by setting the valve position to
"backwash." New DE powder is added through the skimmer with the valve in the
At least once a year the filter element should be removed from the housing and
hosed down. This can be very easily done on a model with a clamp and O-ring seal
The disadvantage of DE filters is higher initial cost. However, in the long run
they are cheaper than cartridge filters because the DE powder is inexpensive. (Note:
Sand filters are somewhere in between cartridge and DE filters in effectiveness and
cost.)
Pump Schedule
Filtering and circulating constantly would be best for the water quality but would
cost more and wear out the equipment sooner, especially the pump motor. As usual
there is a trade-off between cost, convenience and necessity. Less effective filtering
systems may have to run almost all day. A more expensive over-sized system will
allow for shorter running times and save a substantial amount of electricity. A timer is
essential for convenient scheduling. By alternating on and off periods the motor has a
chance to cool down and electricity can be saved without reducing the effectiveness.
Water temperature and amount of pool use need to be considered. When the
water temperature is above 85º F more filtering is needed than when it is below 60º F.
During the winter if the pool water is very cold very little circulation and filtration is
required and the pump can be scheduled to run for a few hours per day. Pools in a
cold winter climate do not need to be filtered until they are reopened.
/// BRUSHING AND VACUUMING \\\
Unless there is an automatic cleaner the sides and bottom of the pool should be
brushed occasionally. Use a pool brush with an adjustable telescopic pole. This will
dislodge debris which does not float. It also helps to prevent algae growth. Brushing
is more effective for removing algae than vacuuming. If there is algae to be removed
brush first to dislodge it and vacuum last. Brush debris toward the main drain. For
better suction at the drain during brushing close the skimmer line.
For debris which floats a hand held net can be used. A small hand brush is
needed to brush the tile and grout. For the spaces between tiles a toothbrush is very
effective.
A manual pool vacuum attachment connects to the skimmer outlet with a flexible
hose. It is used to remove debris which has sunk to the bottom of the pool. For
increased suction close down the main drain while vacuuming. Vacuum as required;
this will vary considerably depending on the pool location and enclosure. This chore
solution.
/// SKIMMER \\\
The simmer collects floating debris from the surface of the water. It does this by
pulling water over the edge of a floating weir and through a basket. (Some pools have
a fixed weir.)
The floating weir is the smaller upper part of the skimmer. It is designed so that
it will adjust to changes in water level. Once in a while a floating weir may become
stuck which causes air to be sucked into the pump. Simply dislodge the weir so that it
floats again. This is the reason for maintaining the water level at the midpoint of the
tile.
The floating weir usually has a pocket under its rim which has to be cleaned out
occasionally. The bottom section of the skimmer (the basket) should be periodically
removed and emptied. A screened-in pool will have less floating debris but an open
outdoor pools may have an occasional frog or mouse to remove. A daily check at least
Most pumps for residential swimming pools have a trap to remove debris just
before the water enters the pump. This trap usually has a see-through cover. At least
every few weeks the cover should be removed when the pump is off to clean out the
basket inside. The frequency depends on whether a pool is screened-in or not. The
number of trees in the area also affects how much solid matter ends up in the trap
basket.
The cover to the trap filter should be replaced hand tight. It is a good idea to
lubricate the O-ring with petroleum jelly. A home-made wrench is very useful for
loosening the cover. The wrench can be made from a piece of 2"x6" lumber with a
notch cut in it to fit over the cover handle. Never use the wrench to tighten the cover to
The following reminders about the safe handling of pool chemicals should
always be observed.
* Wait until one chemical addition is complete and has dispersed before making
another.
* Dispose of empty containers after rinsing out with pool water. This puts all the
material into the pool and keeps the trash barrel safe.
* Observe the precautions necessary for each type of chemical. Avoid skin
contact, do not breathe the dust or fumes. Use rubber gloves, goggles or a dust
mask as appropriate.
* Do not use the pool until hazardous chemical additions have been dispersed.
Risks of Swimming In Chlorinated Water
Water has been chlorinated for drinking since the turn of the century. Generally
chlorine gas or liquid chlorine has been used. This results in the formation of
With regard to swimming in chlorinated water there are several points to keep in
mind:
1.) The level of chlorine in swimming pools is about the same as, but can be higher
than, drinking water -- but not much higher when swimming is allowed.
3.) The health consequences of not disinfecting water can be far more serious than
chlorine exposure.
4.) The use of chlorinated water in swimming pools has a long history -- about one
hundred years. No other method of water purification has been subjected to the
scrutiny that chlorination has or has been used on as wide a scale or for as long
a time.
Recently it has been learned that when water is chlorinated there may also be
carcinogens (cause cancer). In spite of this the studies continue to find that drinking
chlorine should be kept as low as possible to avoid exposure risks. This also keeps
the cost lower. However, if the amount of chlorine is not sufficient then bacteria and
algae will flourish which is a health hazard. The cost of eliminating algae blooms and
Safety and economics both argue for using a minimum level of chlorine. Small
and frequent additions of chlorinating compounds are less convenient but safer and
more economical. If a pool is not in use it is convenient to increase the chlorine level
with larger but less frequent additions of chlorine. See the section on "Adjusting
When the methods described in this manual are used the amounts of chemical
supplies for maintaining 15,000 gallons for one year are approximately:
stabilized chlorine will provide chlorination for about five months and enough
2.) Chlorine solution: About 10 to 12 gallons per year to supplement the tablets
and for super-chlorination. And about seven gallons for shock, if needed.
3.) Calcium chloride: The amount will depend on the "hardness" of the water
supply. For soft water areas about 25 to 50 pounds per year should maintain
4.) Hydrochloric (Muriatic) acid: About ten gallons per year to adjust the pH.
5.) Baking soda: About fifty pounds per year to adjust the alkalinity.
Chlorine powder: About 12 pounds per year could be used as a spot algaecide
and for super-chlorination or shock, but only as an option, otherwise use another
chlorine listed above will take care of routine chlorination and super-chlorination and
See the two page chart PRICE COMPARISONS OF POOL CHEMICALS. The
relative prices for supplies are given. The actual dollar prices will vary depending on
the area. Note that the prices have been adjusted for the amount of active material. It
is important to check both the ingredients and the percent active material.
especially true for baking soda and calcium chloride flakes. The price of some
(dry chlorine) will be much cheaper in drums. Packaging also affects price so single
The chemical effectiveness is important in some cases. Dry acid is not only
given weight of muriatic ace. One major money saving strategy is to use liquid
chlorine for super-chlorination and shock treatment to prevent algae growth. The cost
of exotic algaecides is often $50 per gallon; this is why they are usually sold by the
pint or quart.
Some treatments for algae are just small packages of the usual chlorinating
compounds disguised with clever brand names. A gallon of liquid chlorine will out
The cost of testing will average $15 per year. A complete test kit costs about
$65 and will last for several years. Replacing reagents will cost about $20 to $25 per
year.
Acid $ 50 to 75
Baking soda $ 30 to 50
Calcium flakes $ 0 to 30
These costs are estimated for an area where there is competition among
suppliers and they include sales taxes of seven percent. Your costs may be lower but
should not have to be higher than these unless you are in an area where pool
This is about $15 per thousand gallons per year. A ten thousand gallon pool
would cost about $150 per year to maintain and a twenty thousand gallon pool should
Sodium hypochlorite
Calcium hypochlorite **
envelopes 1.50
pail 3.00
drum 1.75
Notes:
* Trichlor requires less acid for pH adjustment and it includes stabilizer (cyanuric
acid) which offsets the price compared to other sources of chlorination.
Other compounds:
Notes:
# Dry acid is less effective on a weight basis by a factor of three making muriatic
acid five times more cost effective.
## Baking soda provides more carbonate on a weight basis than soda ash so it is a
more effective buffering agent. This increases its price advantage. However, for acid
absorption to raise pH, soda ash is more effective but not enough to offset the higher
price.
POOL CHEMICAL DATA SHEET
POOL USE:
Source of chlorine (hypochlorous acid) for routine chlorination, super-
chlorination and shock treatment.
The most cost effective algaecide available.
Causes pH to increase.
Name(s): Trichloro-s-triazinetrione
Trichlor
Chlorine tablets
Trichloroisocyanuric acid
POOL USE:
Source of chlorine (hypochlorous acid) for routine chlorination and
super-chlorination.
Source of stabilizer (cyanuric acid).
Does not upset pH.
POOL USE:
Source of chlorine (hypochlorous acid) for routine chlorination, super-
chlorination and shock treatment.
An effective algaecide.
An excellent spot algaecide.
Causes pH to increase.
Also provides calcium.
A solid alternative to liquid chlorine for easier handling.
Caution: The inert material may give the water a cloudy appearance until
it is removed by filtering.
POOL USE:
Source of chlorine (hypochlorous acid) for routine chlorination, super-
chlorination or shock treatment.
Causes pH to increase.
Does not add calcium or stabilizer.
Easier to handle than liquid chlorine.
An expensive alternative source of chlorine.
POOL USE:
Source of chlorine (hypochlorous acid) for routine chlorination, super-
chlorination or shock treatment.
Source of stabilizer (cyanuric acid)
Alternate: Trichloro-s-triazinetrione
NOT RECOMMENDED because it contains less chlorine and more stabilizer than
trichlor.
POOL CHEMICAL DATA SHEET
POOL USE:
Lowers pH.
RECOMMENDATION:
lowering pH. It is five times more cost effective than sodium bisulfate.
POOL CHEMICAL DATA SHEET
POOL USE:
Lowers pH.
A solid alternative to liquid acid easier to handle and store.
Description: White powder. Other uses include cooking, cleaning, deodorizing and
medication as an antacid.
POOL USE:
Baking soda slows down changes in pH.
It also prevents the cement from dissolving.
It can be used to adjust pH to higher, more basic values.
RECOMMENDATIONS:
Baking soda is recommended as a cost effective source of carbonate to
buffer the pH and preserve the cement.
POOL USE:
It can be used to raise pH. It is useful when the pH is very low.
It can be used to raise carbonate alkalinity. However, the percentage by
weight of carbonate is greater in baking soda.
POOL USE:
A source of calcium to balance the solubility of the calcium in the cement.
Caution: Too much calcium will result in rough deposits on the pool
surfaces.
source of calcium.
POOL CHEMICAL DATA SHEET
POOL USE:
Not recommended.
POOL CHEMICAL DATA SHEET
POOL USE:
Cyanuric acid at 20 to 40 ppm extends the lifetime and effectiveness of chlorine
by protecting it from degradation by the ultra-violet rays of the sun.
Caution: Too much cyanuric acid will inhibit the effectiveness of chlorine.
Caution: Too much cyanuric acid will mask a deficiency in carbonate alkalinity
by increasing the total alkalinity.
B. THE ALKALINITY
C. THE pH
A. THREE YEARS
B. SEVEN YEARS
ANSWERS: In each case the correct answer is C. Not knowing these answers can