The Geolo SEC SoyAndrew D. Miall The Geology of Stratigraphic Sequences Al — hae i With 337 Figures and 11 Tables ~ “Gok opts tsa bal @ SpringerProf, Dr. Andrew D. Miall Department of Geology University of Toronto 22 Russell Street Toronto, Ontario MSS 3B1 Canada ISBN 3-540-59348-9 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York Library of Congrese Cataloging-in-Publication Data. Miall, Andrew D. The geology of stratigraphic sequences/Andrew D. Mlall.p. cm, Ineludes bibliographical references (p. 397-421) and indexes. ISBN 3-540-59348.9 (hardcover) - ISBN 0-387 59348-9 (hardcover) 1. Geology, Stratigraphic. I. Tile. QE6S1.M46 1996, 5S1.7-de20 96-26786 This work is subject to copyright. All ights are reserved, whether the whole or part ofthe material is concerned, specifically the ights of sanstnion, reprinting, reuxe of usteations,cectation, benadcastin, reproduction on microfilm ot in any other way, sind storage in data Banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions ofthe Germ Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springe Verlag. Violations are liable for prosecution under the German Copyright Law. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1997 Printed in Germany ‘The use of general descriptive nantes, registered, trademarks, etc. n this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such ames ate exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore fee for general Cover design: Springer-Verlag, £. Kirchner ‘Typesetter Scientific Publishing Services (2) 1d, Madras SPIN: 10502385 3213136/5PS ~ 5 43.2 10 ~ Printed on acidfeee paperFor Charlene, Christopher, and SarahPreface Sequence stratigraphy represents a new paradigm in geology. The principal hypothesis is that stratigraphic successions may be subdivided into discrete sequences bounded by widespread unconformities. There are two parts to this hypothesis. First, it suggests that the driving forces which generate sequences and their bounding unconformities also generate predictable three-dimensional stratigraphies. In recent years stratigraphic research guided by sequence models has brought about fundamental im- provements in our understanding of stratigraphic processes and the controls of basin architecture. Sequence models have provided a powerful framework for mapping and numerical modeling, enabling the science of stratigraphy to advance with rapid strides. This résearch has demonstrated the importance of a wide range of processes for the generation of cyclic sequences, including eustasy, tectonics, and orbital forcing of climate change. The main objective of this book is to document the sequence record and to discuss our current state of knowledge about sequence-generating processes. To a considerable extent, however, these significant developments have been obscured by a controversy emerging from the second part of the sequence stratigraphy paradigm. It has been proposed that stratigraphic sequences are superior as chronostratigraphic in- dicators to all other forms of stratigraphic data, and that they therefore comprise the ideal basis for a superior standard of geological time. The main theoretical basis for the paradigm is the supposition that global stratigraphic successions are controlled primarily by eustatic sea-level changes. However, as this book demonstrates, the basic premise of the paradigm remains unproven. There is no convincing, independent evidence that a suite of globally correlatable cycles exists. Current chronostratigraphic dating techniques do net permit the level of accuracy and precision in sequence correlation claimed for the global cycle charts that have been published by Peter Vail and his former Exxon collea- gues and coworkers. These charts rest on a series of assertions unsupported by published data. There has been considerable controversy on this point. A second objective of this book is to review these developments in detail, drawing on all available published lit- erature, Examples are given from around the world, and the controversies and advances associated with sequence stratigraphy are fully described. I may be known by some readers as a sceptic in the area of sequence stratigraphy, on the basis of a series of critical papers published in this area, plus numerous lectures given around the world, It needs to be emphasized that I find many of the developments of sequence stratigraphy to be exciting and important. There is no doubt that the emergence of sequence stratigraphy constitutes an important revolution in sedimentary geology, to add to those that have already been brought about by developments in plate tectonics, geophysical basin modeling and the concept of the process-response sedimentary model. Part of this book is devoted to a discussion of the uses to which sequence stratigraphy can be put in the field of petroleum geology, and how the exploration and production processes may be facilitated by the employment of sequence stratigraphic techniques. It is to be hoped that the balanced approach of this book - scepticism, plus an equal focus on the positive aspects of the subject - represents the best form of scientific synthesis, and lends the book credibility and usefulness. Andrew D. MiallAcknowledgements My own interest in sequence stratigraphy began slowly, as my work on regional basin analysis for the Geological Survey of Canada matured in the late 1970s, and | am grateful to this organization for introducing me to the scope and sweep of large-scale regional analysis, My developing knowledge of basin analysis provided me with a practical view of the subject that induced scepticism. In particular, my work in the Canadian Arctic in- cluded attempts to adjudicate debates between various biostratigraphic specialists who could not agree on the dating of certain subsurface sections that I was trying to correlate, My critique of sequence stratigraphy as a chronostratigraphic tool developed from this starting point. A few individuals in GSC discussed the early concepts with me and helped me to realize that something important was going on. Among these Ashton Embry stands out. Later, Jim Dixon’s work provided food for thought. Discussions with the main protagonists of sequence stratigraphy have met with mixed success. I would, however, like to acknowledge these colleagues for contributing to the development of my ideas: Phil Allen, Bert Bally, Chris Barnes, Sierd Cloetingh, Jim Co- leman, Bill Galloway, Jake Hancock, Makoto Ito, David James, Alan Kendall, Dale Leckie, Peter McCabe, Dag Nummedal, Henry Posamentier, Brian Pratt, Larry Sloss, John Suter, Peter Vail, John Van Wagoner, Roger Walker, Tony Watts. Discussions with my wife, Charlene Miall, a social scientist, regarding the nature of science as a human endeavor, have been most helpful. This book began fife as an in-house report prepared for the exclusive use of the Japan National Petroleum Corporation in 1993, | am grateful to the Corporation for permission to publish their report, and to my employer, the University of Toronto, for providing the time for me both to write the original report and to prepare the material for the revisions incorporated into the final book. Much of the material in Chapter 13 appeared in a contribution to the PaleoScene series in Geoscience Canada. I am grateful to Darrel Long for stimulating the writing of the paper, and to series editor Godfrey Nowlan and critical reviewers John Atmentrout and Terry Poulton for their invaluable comments. The entire manuscript was critically read by Brian Pratt and Phil Allen, I am most grateful to them for undertaking this onerous task, for their painstaking efforts in completing it, and for their numerous thoughtful and helpful comments. Remaining errors and omissions are, of course, my responsibility. ‘And once again, I must thank my wife Charlene and my children Christopher and Sarah for their encouragement, love and support.Contents Ll 12 13 14 Review of Current Concepts Introduction Sequence Stratigraphy: A New Paradigm? From Sloss to Vail . Probiems and Research Trends: The Current Status Stratigraphic Terminology... Methods for Studying Sequence Stratigraphy Introduction Erecting a Sequence Framework The Importance of Unconformities Facies Cycles .....-. Stratigraphic Architectu Hypsometric Curves . Backstripping The Seismic Method . Methods for Assessing Regional and Global Changes in Sea Level, Other, Than Seismic Stratigraphy... . ‘ Areas and Volumes of Stratigraphic Units . . Sea-Level Estimation from Paleoshorelines and Other Fixed Points . Documentation of Meter-Scale Cycles . Integrated Tectonic-Stratigraphic Analysis . . . The Four Basic Types of Stratigraphic Cycle... Introduction .. The Supercontinent Cycle . Cycles with Episodicities of Tens of Millions of Years . Cycles with Million-Year Episodicities . Cycles with Episodicities of Less Than One Million Years. The Basic Sequence Model Introduction Terminology ... Depositional Systems and Systems Tracts... Sequence Boundaries .. Other Sequence Concepts... . The Global Cycle Chart 30 30 31 33 40 43 48 49 49 51 52 33 56 37 7 57 39 65 67 aXl 61 62 6.2.1 6.2.2 63 6.3.1 632 64 7A 72 73 7A 7S 16 78 79 81 8.2 83 84 85 8.6 87 m1 94 92 93 931 9.3.2 94 10 10.1 10.2 10.2.1 10.2.2 10.2.3 10.2.4 Contents The Stratigraphic Framework . . . oe 7 Cycles with Episodicities of Tens to Hundreds of Millions of Years.... 79 Climate, Sedimentation, and Biogenesis mo 79 The Supercontinent Cycle...........- al ‘The Tectonic-Stratigraphic Model... . : at The Phanerozoic Record . 83 Cycles with Episodicities of Tens of Millions of Years. 85 Intercontinental Correlations. vee 85 Tectonostratigraphic Sequences eee aa. Main Conclusions ..........00e0e0ceeeeeeeeeee eee + 8 Cycles with Million-Year Episodicities ......... 0.0.0.0. 0200 ar) Extensional and Rifted Clastic Continental Margins ........ es 09. Foreland Basin of the North American Western Interior. 101 Other Foreland Basins ee 108 Forearc Basins . . eels) Backarc Basins . : s : 120 Cyciothems and Mesothems on 125 Carbonate Cycles of Platforms and Craton Margins . : 128 Evidence of Cyclicity in the Deep Oceans ..... 137 Main Conclusions... .. eee 138 Cycles with Episodicities of Less Than One Million Years ........... 139 Introduction... 6.2.6.0 ae 139 Neogene Clastie Cycles of Continental Margins... 139 Pre-Neogene Marine Carbonate and Clastic Cycles......... 149 Late Paleozoic Cyclathems .........+ a 137 Lacustrine Clastic and Chemical Rhythms . 161 Clastic Cycles of Foreland Basins .. o : 167 Main Conclusions............0.06 ‘i . 180 Mechanisms 2 2etestet cut] 183 ‘Long-Term Eustasy and Epeirogeny .. eee 185 Mantle Processes and Dynamic Topography .. . 185 Supercontinent Cycles ..... a 185 Cycles with Episodicities of Tens of Millions of Years. 191 Eustasy 0.0... 191 Dynamic Topography and Epeiopeny ceenen 198 Main Conclusions .....-+..2..+++ Sinem ce) Milankovitch Processes ..... . 201 Introduction hee 201 The Nature of Milankovitch Processes . 202 Components of Orbital Forcing... . 202 Basic Climatology 202 Variations with Time in Orbital Periodicities eet 205 Isostasy and Geoid Changes quiets a ea 206Contents xu 10.2.5 The Nature of the Cyclostratigraphic Data Base............ 2.4.2.4 206 10.2.6 The Sensitivity of the Earth to Glaciation ..........-4.s 0.0005 208 10.2.7 Glacioeustasy in the Mesozoic? . .. 210 10.2.8 Nonglacial Milankovitch Cyclicity .. . a 10.3 The Cenozoic Record . . 214 10.4 Late Paleozoic Cyclothems 216 10.5 The End-Ordovician Glaciation beens see 222 10618: Main Conclusions sist en een een mea een tne ape i Fe aR MM SLES eg aera 225 Ml Introduction . . . eee 11.2 Rifting and Thermal Evolution of Divergent Plate Margins . 228 11.2.1 Basic Geophysical Models and Their Implications for Sea-Level Change . 228 11.2.2. Some Results from the Analysis of Modern Data Sets............... 233 11.3. Tectonism on Convergent Plate Margins and in Collision Zones... . 238 11.3.1 Magmatic Arcs and Subduction... 238 11.3.2 Tectonism Versus Eustasy in Foreland Basins Se eee P24, 11.3.2.1 The North American Western Interior Basin . . . reels ease ee 11.3.2.2 The Appalachian Foreland Basin... 22.2.0... 0 cee cece eee renee s 250 11.3.2.3 Pyrenean and Himalayan Basins Pais dol 11.3.3 Rates of Uplift and Subsidence 252 11.3.4 Discussion . . . . . 254 114 Intraplate Stress ee 255 L141 The Pattern of Global Stress . . eee 255 114.2 In-Plane Stress as a Control of Sequence Architecture... 0s. sss... 256 11.4.3 In-Plane Stress and Regional Histories of Sea-Level Change . 259 115 Basement Control............00005 263 11.6 Other Speculative Tectonic Hypotheses oe eae ee 26d 11.7 Sediment Supply and the Importance of Big Rivers ...........-...+ 265 11.8 Environmental Change .. : 269 119 Main Conclusions......... fees + 269 IV Chronostratigraphy and Correlation: Why the Global Cycle Chart Should Be Abandoned........°....... 271 12 Time in Sequence Stratigraphy . .. . aaa 73 121 ARON MMEN ct teereeaeeefeeenereaeee eels ae eee 122 Hierarchies of Time and the Completeness of the Stratigraphic Record .. 273 12.3 Main Conclusions... 6.6... .0.0eceee ects ease eeeeeee neces 279 3 Correlation, and the Potential for Error ......-.....6.0-0s0-000. 281 13.1 Introduction al 13.2 The New Paradigm of Geological Timet ......cscsccccceeceeeees 282 13.3. The Dating and Correlation of Stratigraphic Events: Potential Sources of Uncertainty 0.6.6.0. ...0s0eceee esse geen es 284 13.3.1 Identification of Sequence Boundaries . . 286 13.3.2 Chronostratigraphic Meaning of Unconformities .. . 286 13.3.3 Determination of the Biostratigraphic Framework ........ 288 13.3.3.1 The Problem of Incomplete Biostratigraphic Recovery . . 288 13.3.3.2. Diachroneity of the Biostratigraphic Record ....... 289xv 133.4 13.3.5 13.3.6 13.3.7 13.3.8 134 B41 13.4.2 13.4.3 13.44 135 4 ML 142 143 143.2 14.3.3 144 Contents, The Value of Quantitative Biostratigraphic Methods . Assessment of Relative Biostratigraphic Precision. . : Correlation of Biozones with the Global Stage Framework . Assignment of Absolute Ages .... . . pennergner Implications for the Exxon Global Cycle Chart. 2... Correlating Regional Sequence Frameworks with the Global Cycle Chart . Circular Reasoning from Regional Data . A Rigorous Test of the Global Cycle Chart. A Correlation Experiment . Discussion Main Conclusions Sea-Level Curves Compared ....... eae Introduction. .... sees The Exxon Curves: Revisions, Errors, and Uncertainties . Other Sea-Level Curves... - Cretaceous Sea-Level Curves . Jurassic Sea-Level Curves ‘ Why Does the Exxon Global Cycle Chart Contain So Many More Events Than Other Sea-Level Curves?.......... 6-5 Main Conclusions... Approaches to a Modern Sequence-Stratigraphic Framework. . Elaboration of the Basic Sequence Model ....-..-.-....-..--55 Introduction... Definitions . ‘The Hierarchy of Units and Bounding Surfaces Systems Tracts and Sequence Boundaries. . ‘The Sequence Stratigraphy of Clastic Depositional Systems . Fluvial Deposits and Their Relationship to Sea-Level Change . The Concept of the Bayline . : Deltas, Beach-Barrier Systems, and Estuaries... Shelf Systems: Sand Shoals and Condensed Sections Slope and Rise Systems.......-...... ‘The Sequence Stratigraphy of Carbonate Depositional Systems soc. sss. Platform Carbonates: Catch-Up Versus Keep Up . Carbonate Slopes . . : Pelagic Carbonate Environments . Main Conclusions... . . eee Numerical and Graphical Modeling of Sequences .............+ aa Introduction.......... Model Design . .. ce Selected Examples of Model Results. . . Main Conclusi 291 293 295 296 298 300 300 302 304 306 306 309 309 309 3 313 316 320 320 323 325 325 325 325 331 337 337 341 343 350 355 397 357 360 361 361 365 365 366 369 372Contents xv VI Discussion and Conclusions .........6.0.0. 0005 373 17 Implications for Petroleum Geology .............-+ 375 Introduction... .. eer a a7 Integrated Tectonic Stratigraphic Analysis . 6 375 The Basis of the Methodology ...... ee aa ‘The Development of an Allostratigraphic Framework |... sss... tas Choice of Sequence-Stratigraphic Models... .. . Dag rte 376. The Search for Mechanisms an ee a 30r Reservoir Characterization . narenn fet aTe Controversies in Practical Sequence ‘Analysis eae 378 ‘The Case of the Tocito Sandstone, New Mexico ..... 378 ‘The Case of Gippsiand Basin, Australia . ae 378 Conclusions: A Modified Approach to Sequence Analysis for Practicing Petroleum Geologists and Geophysicists .............. 382 Main Conclusions... .. Pontes 384 Conclusions and Recommendations ............. vee 385 Sequences in the Stratigraphic Record .......... es) Long-Term Stratigraphic Cycles . . v 385 Cycles with Million-Year Episodicities . 385 Cycles with Episodicities of Less Than One Million Years 386 Mechanisms......... ‘ 386 Long-Term Eustasy and Epeirogeny : 386 Milankovitch Processes : : ee 387 Tectonic Mechanisms . ee eee 387 Chronostratigraphy and Correlation .......-.....- : 389 Concepts of Time,....... ae 589 Correlation Problems, and the Basis of the Global Cycle Chart |... 389 Comparison of Sea-Level Curves . ee 390 Modern Sequence Analysis ......... eaten Ree a9: Elaboration of the Basic Sequence Model...........- eer 00) Numerical and Graphical Modeling of Stratigraphic Sequences poate ag Implications for Petroleum Geology. ......+ aera 02 The Global-Eustasy Paradigm: Working Backwards from the Answer? .. 392 The Exxon Factor - Ges : 392 Conclusions ... . . sae 395 Recommendations eee 395 References ........... hs Be eee eee ease g07. Author Index 0.0.0.0. e cence eee eee es 423 Gubject index saeco sareaa 429