Energy and Enzymes Forms of Energy - Energy is the ability to do work or bring about a change**(not in notes).

- Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion. - Potential Energy is stored energy. - Chemical Energy in food is converted into mechanical energy when an animal moves.

TWO LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS

The first law states that energy cannot be created nor destroyed. The second law states that energy cannot be changed from one form to another without the loss of usable energy. As energy is converted from one form to another it eventually becomes heat, which dissipates (dissolves) in the environment.

Cells and Entropy -

ENTROPY (S) is a measure of disorder.

To achieve the order in the organization of organisms (i.e. low entropy), an input of energy is required [energy absorption]. However, this energy is eventually converted to heat (high entropy) and dissipates (disperses). Therefore, a continual input of energy is necessary to maintain an organism.

Metabolic Reactions and Energy Transformations ~ Metabolism Involves Reactants - Metabolism consists of chemical reactions that use reactants and result in products. Free energy is the energy available to do work after a reaction. - Exergonic reactions release energy. **Exothermic** - Endergonic reactions have to have an input of energy (energy absorption) in order to occur. **Endothermic** ATP: Energy for Cells Structure of ATP - ATP is adenosine (Adenine + Ribose) plus three phosphate groups. ATP is a highenergy molecule because the third phosphate group is easily removed. - In coupled reactions, the energy released by an exergonic reaction is used to derive an endergonic reaction. Eg. of Exergonic Reactions ATP Breakdown, Cellular Respiration

Coupled Reactions - In coupled reactions, an exergonic reaction drives an endergonic reaction. - The breakdown of ATP drives many coupled reactions. Functions of ATP - ATP breakdown releases energy that drives reactions in cells, e.g., synthetic reactions, muscle contraction, and nerve conduction. - Chemical work: ATP supplies the energy needed to synthesize macromolecules that make up the cell and the organism. - Transport work: ATP supplies the energy needed to pump substances across the plasma membrane. - Mechanical work: ATP supplies the energy needed to Permit muscles to contract, Cilia and flagella to beat, Chromosomes to move etc. Metabolic Pathways - Metabolic pathways are linked reactions that begin with a reactant and end with a product. - An enzyme is a protein that speeds up chemical reactions because it causes substrates to react. - A pathway involving A B C would require an enzyme to help A B and another enzyme to help B C. Activation Energy - Energy that must be added to cause molecules to react is called the energy of activation (EA). Enzymes lower the energy of activation, making it more likely that substrates will meet. - Enzymes are made of proteins. Enzyme-Substrate Complexes - The equation E + S ES E + P shows that the enzyme and substrate form a complex. Enzymes are named for their substrate because they are specific the shape of the enzymes active site and the shape of the substrate are complementary to one another. A process called induced fir assures that an enzyme substrate complex will form. - E: Enzyme, S: Substrate Enzyme-substrate complex E + P: Product

Factors Affecting Enzymatic Speed: Substrate Concentration - As substrate concentration increases, there are more collisions between substrate molecules and enzyme. - No active sites available the rate doe not increase anymore. Enzymes are functioning at the maximum capacity. Factors Affecting Enzymatic Speed: Temperature and pH - Both a warm temperature and an optimal pH speed an enzymatic reaction. - Usually a boiling temperature and an extreme pH cause a protein to denature and the reaction stops. Factors Affecting Enzymatic Speed: Enzyme Concentration - When genes are active more enzyme is present to speed a reaction. Enzymes are often activated when kinases phosphorylate them. - Phosphorylation: Addition of a phosphate group. Enzyme Inhibition - Nearly every enzyme activity is regulated by feedback inhibition. - A product molecule may occupy the active site in competitive inhibition. Products compete with the substrate for the same active site. The end product may also bind to an allosteric site; when the end product occupies this site, the shape of the active site changes and the substrate cannot fit there and no more product is formed. The Redox Reaction - Oxidation is the loss of electrons. - Reduction is the gain of electrons. - In cells, redox reactions often involve the oxidation of substrates by removal of hydrogen atoms and the reduction of others by the gain of hydrogen atoms. - Photosynthesis & Cellular Respiration Photosynthesis - Carbon dioxide is reduced (gaining of electrons) to glucose and water is oxidized (losing electrons) to oxygen. Reduction of carbon dioxide to form a mole of glucose stores 686 kcal in the chemical bonds of glucose. Cellular Respiration - Glucose is oxidized to carbon dioxide and oxygen is reduced to water. The oxidation of a mole of glucose releases 686 kcal in energy and this is used to synthesize ATP.

Organelles and the Flow of Energy - Chloroplasts capture the energy of the sun and carry on photosynthesis to produce carbohydrates. - Mitochondria carry out aerobic cellular respiration that breaks cellulose down; the energy released produces ATP molecules. - Cycling molecules between chloroplasts and mitochondria allows a flow of energy from the sun through all living things.