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Frequently Asked Basic Electronics Interview Questions and Answers

1) Expand ECE. Electronics & Co

unication En!ineerin!.

") #$at is Electronic% &$e study and use o' electrical devices t$at operate (y controllin! t$e 'low o' electrons or ot$er electrically c$ar!ed particles.

)) #$at is co unication% Co unication eans trans'errin! a si!nal 'ro t$e trans itter w$ic$ passes t$rou!$ a ediu t$en t$e output is o(tained at t$e receiver. *or)co unication says as trans'errin! o' essa!e 'ro one place to anot$er place called co unication.

+) ,i''erent types o' co unications% Explain. Analo! and di!ital co unication. As a tec$nolo!y- analo! is t$e process o' takin! an audio or video si!nal *t$e $u an voice) and translatin! it into electronic pulses. ,i!ital on t$e ot$er $and is (reakin! t$e si!nal into a (inary 'or at w$ere t$e audio or video data is represented (y a series o' .1.s and ./.s. ,i!ital si!nals are i une to noise- quality o' trans ission and reception is !oodco ponents used in di!ital co unication can (e produced wit$ $i!$ precision and power consu ption is also very less w$en co pared wit$ analo! si!nals.

0) #$at is en!ineerin!% &$e application o' science to t$e needs o' $u anity and a pro'ession in w$ic$ a knowled!e o' t$e at$e atical and natural sciences !ained (y study- experience- and practice is applied wit$ 1ud! ent to develop ways to use econo ically t$e aterials and 'orces o' nature 'or t$e (ene'it o' ankind.

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2) ,i''erence (etween electronic and electrical. Electronics work on ,C and wit$ a volta!e ran!e o' 3+4v,C to 5+4v,C. I' t$e electronic device is plu!!ed into a standard wall outlet- t$ere will (e a trans'or er inside w$ic$ will convert t$e AC volta!e you are supplyin! to t$e required ,C volta!e needed (y t$e device. Exa ples6 Co puter- radio- &.7- etc... Electric devices use line volta!e *1"/vAC- "+/vAC- etc...). Electric devices can also (e desi!ned to operate on ,C sources- (ut will (e at ,C volta!es a(ove +4v. Exa ples6 are incandescent li!$ts- $eaters- 'rid!e- stove- etc...

8) #$at is sa plin!% &$e process o' o(tainin! a set o' sa ples 'ro to as sa plin!.

a continuous 'unction o' ti e x*t) is re'erred

4) 9tate sa plin! t$eore . It states t$at- w$ile takin! t$e sa ples o' a continuous si!nal- it $as to (e taken care t$at t$e sa plin! rate is equal to or !reater t$an twice t$e cut o'' 'requency and t$e ini u sa plin! rate is known as t$e :yquist rate.

;) #$at is cut3o'' 'requency% &$e 'requency at w$ic$ t$e response is 3)dB wit$ respect to t$e

axi u

response.

1/) #$at is pass (and% <ass(and is t$e ran!e o' 'requencies or wavelen!t$s t$at can pass t$rou!$ a 'ilter wit$out (ein! attenuated.

11) #$at is stop (and% A stop(and is a (and o' 'requencies- (etween speci'ied li its- in w$ic$ a circuit- suc$ as a 'ilter or telep$one circuit- does not let si!nals t$rou!$- or t$e attenuation is a(ove t$e required stop(and attenuation level.

1") ,i''erence (etween o(ile and a cell p$one. &$ere is no di''erence- 1ust lan!ua!e use- w$ic$ di''ers 'ro country to country- so in Britain it is called a o(ile- and in =9A and 9out$ A'rica and ot$er places a cell p$one. Even in Europe t$e na e di''ers. &$e >er ans call it a .$andy.- w$ic$ in En!lis$ $as co pletely anot$er eanin! as an ad1ective- eanin! use'ul. In Italy it is called a telo'onino or .little p$one.. &$is di''erence in Britis$ and A erican En!lis$ is also evident in any ot$er t$in!s we use every day- like li'ts and elevators- nappies and diapers- pickups and trucks. &$e list !oes on and on- any student o' En!lis$ $as to decide w$ic$ $e or s$e will use- as t$e de'ault settin!.

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1)) Explain ?F% ?adio 'requency *?F) is a 'requency or rate o' oscillation wit$in t$e ran!e o' a(out ) @A to )// >@A. &$is ran!e corresponds to 'requency o' alternatin! current electrical si!nals used to produce and detect radio waves. 9ince ost o' t$is ran!e is (eyond t$e vi(ration rate t$at ost ec$anical syste s can respond to- ?F usually re'ers to oscillations in electrical circuits or electro a!netic radiation.

1+) #$at is odulation% And w$ere it is utiliAed% Bodulation is t$e process o' varyin! so e c$aracteristic o' a periodic wave wit$ an external si!nals. ?adio co unication superi poses t$is in'or ation (earin! si!nal onto a carrier si!nal. &$ese $i!$ 'requency carrier si!nals can (e trans itted over t$e air easily and are capa(le o' travellin! lon! distances. &$e c$aracteristics *a plitude- 'requency- or p$ase) o' t$e carrier si!nal are varied in accordance wit$ t$e in'or ation (earin! si!nal. Bodulation is utiliAed to send an in'or ation (earin! si!nal over lon! distances.

10) #$at is de odulation% ,e odulation is t$e act o' re ovin! t$e odulation 'ro an analo! si!nal to !et t$e ori!inal (ase(and si!nal (ack. ,e odulatin! is necessary (ecause t$e receiver syste receives a odulated si!nal wit$ speci'ic c$aracteristics and it needs to turn it to (ase3(and.

12) :a e t$e odulation tec$niques. For Analo! odulation33AB- 99B- FB- <B and 9B ,i!ital odulation33CCD- F9D- A9D- <sk- QAB- B9D- C<B- <<B- &CB- CF,B

18) Explain AB and FB. AB3A plitude odulation is a type o' odulation w$ere t$e a plitude o' t$e carrier si!nal is varied in accordance wit$ t$e in'or ation (earin! si!nal. FB3Frequency odulation is a type o' odulation w$ere t$e 'requency o' t$e carrier si!nal is varied in accordance wit$ t$e in'or ation (earin! si!nal.

14) #$ere do we use AB and FB% AB is used 'or video si!nals 'or exa ple &7. ?an!es 'ro 0)0 to 18/0 k@A. FB is used 'or audio si!nals 'or exa ple ?adio. ?an!es 'ro 44 to 1/4 B@A.

1;) @ow does a

o(ile work%

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#$en you talk into a o(ile telep$one it converts t$e sound o' your voice to radio'requency ener!y *radio waves). &$e radio waves are trans itted t$rou!$ t$e air to a near(y (ase station. &$e (ase station t$en sends t$e call t$rou!$ t$e telep$one network until it reac$es t$e person you are callin!. #$en you receive a call on your o(ile p$one t$e essa!e travels t$rou!$ t$e telep$one network until it reac$es a (ase station near to you. &$e (ase station sends out radio waves- w$ic$ are detected (y your telep$one and converted (ack to speec$. ,ependin! on t$e equip ent and t$e operator- t$e 'requency t$at eac$ operator utilises is ;//B@A- 14//B@A or "1//B@A. &$e o(ile p$one network operates on t$e (asis o' a series o' cells. Eac$ cell requires a radio (ase station to ena(le it to 'unction. &$ere are t$ree types o' (ase station and eac$ $as a particular purpose6 1. &$e Bacrocell is t$e lar!est type and provides t$e ain covera!e 'or o(ile p$one networks. ". &$e Bicrocell is used to i prove capacity in areas w$ere de and to ake calls is $i!$- suc$ as s$oppin! centres. ). &$e <icocell only $as a ran!e o' a 'ew $undred etres and ay (e used to (oost weak si!nals wit$in lar!e (uildin!s. Eac$ (ase station can only cope wit$ a certain nu (er o' calls at any one ti e. 9o i' de and exceeds t$e capacity o' a (ase station an additional (ase station is needed.

"/) #$at is a (ase station% Base station is a radio receiverEtrans itter t$at serves as t$e $u( o' t$e local wireless network- and ay also (e t$e !ateway (etween a wired network and t$e wireless network.

"1) @ow any satellites are required to cover t$e eart$% ) satellites are required to cover t$e entire eart$- w$ic$ is placed at 1"/ de!ree to eac$ ot$er. &$e li'e span o' t$e satellite is a(out 10 years.

"") #$at is a repeater% A repeater is an electronic device t$at receives a si!nal and retrans its it at a $i!$er level andEor $i!$er power- or onto t$e ot$er side o' an o(struction- so t$at t$e si!nal can cover lon!er distances wit$out de!radation.

")) #$at is attenuation% Attenuation is t$e reduction in a plitude and intensity o' a si!nal. 9i!nals ay attenuate exponentially (y trans ission t$rou!$ a ediu - or (y incre ents calculated in electronic circuitry or set (y varia(le controls. Attenuation is an i portant property in teleco unications and ultrasound applications (ecause o' its i portance in deter inin! si!nal stren!t$ as a 'unction o' distance. Attenuation is usually easured in units o' deci(els

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per unit len!t$ o' ediu *dBEc - dBEk - etc) and is represented (y t$e attenuation coe''icient o' t$e ediu in question.

"+) #$at is ultiplexin!% Bultiplexin! *known as uxin!) is a ter used to re'er to a processw$ere ultiple analo! essa!e si!nals or di!ital data strea s are co (ined into one si!nal over a s$ared ediu . &$e ai is to s$are an expensive resource. For exa ple- in teleco unications- several p$one calls ay (e trans'erred usin! one wire.

"0) #$at is C,BA- &,BA- F,BA% Code division ultiple access *C,BA) is a c$annel access et$odutiliAed (y various radio co unication tec$nolo!ies. C,BA e ploysspread3spectru tec$nolo!y and a special codin! sc$e e *w$ere eac$ trans itter is assi!ned a code) to allow ultiple users to (e ultiplexed over t$e sa e p$ysical c$annel. By contrast- ti e division ultiple access *&,BA) divides access (y ti e- w$ile'requency3division ultiple access *F,BA) divides it (y'requency. An analo!y to t$e pro(le o' ultiple access is a roo *c$annel) in w$ic$ people wis$ to co unicate wit$ eac$ ot$er. &o avoid con'usion- people could take turns speakin! *ti e division)- speak at di''erent pitc$es *'requency division)- or speak in di''erent directions *spatial division). In C,BA- t$ey would speak di''erent lan!ua!es. <eople speakin! t$e sa e lan!ua!e can understand eac$ ot$er- (ut not ot$er people. 9i ilarly- in radio C,BA- eac$ !roup o' users is !iven a s$ared code. Bany codes occupy t$e sa e c$annel- (ut only users associated wit$ a particular code can understand eac$ ot$er.

"2) ,i''erence (etween C,BA and >9B. &$ese are t$e two di''erent eans o' o(ile co unication (ein! presently used worldwide. &$e (asic di''erence lies in t$e Bultiplexin! et$od used in t$e aerial co unication i.e. 'ro Bo(ile &ower to your o(ile and vice versa. C,BA uses Code ,ivision Bultiple Access as t$e na e itsel' indicates- 'or exa ple you are in a $all occupied wit$ nu (er o' people speakin! di''erent lan!ua!e. Fou will 'ind t$at t$e one lan!ua!e you know will (e $eard (y you and t$e ot$ers will (e treated like noise. In t$e sa e anner eac$ C,BA o(ile co unication takes place wit$ a .code. co unicatin! (etween t$e and t$e ot$er end i' one is knowin! t$at code t$en only it can listen to t$e data (ein! trans itted i.e. t$e co unication is in t$e coded 'or . Cn t$e ot$er $and >9B *>lo(al 9yste 'or Bo(ile Co unications)uses narrow(and &,BA- w$ic$ allows ei!$t si ultaneous calls on t$e sa e radio 'requency. &,BA works (y dividin! a radio 'requency into ti e slots and t$en allocatin! slots to ultiple calls. In t$is way- a sin!le 'requency can support ultiple- si ultaneous data c$annels.

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"8) #$at is an A pli'ier% An electronic device or electrical circuit t$at is used to (oost *a pli'y) t$e power- volta!e or current o' an applied si!nal.

"4) #$at is Bark$ausen criteria% Bark$ausen criteria- wit$out w$ic$ you will not know w$ic$ conditions- are to (e satis'ied 'or oscillations. GCscillations will not (e sustained i'- at t$e oscillator 'requency- t$e a!nitude o' t$e product o' t$e trans'er !ain o' t$e a pli'ier and t$e a!nitude o' t$e 'eed(ack 'actor o' t$e 'eed(ack network * t$e a!nitude o' t$e loop !ain ) are less t$an unityH. &$e condition o' unity loop !ain 3AI J 1 is called t$e Bark$ausencriterion. &$is condition i plies t$at K AIKJ 1and t$at t$e p$ase o' 3 AI is Aero.

";) Explain Full duplex and $al' duplex. Full duplex re'ers to t$e trans ission o' data in two directions si ultaneously. For exa plea telep$one is a 'ull3duplex device(ecause (ot$ parties can talk at once. In contrast- a walkie3 talkie is a$al'3duplex device (ecause only one party can trans it at a ti e. Bost ode s $ave a switc$ t$at lets you c$oose (etween 'ull3duplex and $al'3duplex odes. &$e c$oice depends on w$ic$co unications pro!ra you are runnin!. In 'ull3duplex ode- data you trans it does not appear on yourscreen until it $as (een received and sent (ack (y t$e ot$er party. &$is ena(les you to validate t$at t$e data $as (een accurately trans itted. I' your display screen s$ows two o' eac$ c$aracter- it pro(a(ly eans t$at your ode is set to $al'3duplex ode w$en it s$ould (e in 'ull3duplex ode.

)/) #$at is a 'eed(ack% And explain di''erent types o' 'eed(ack. Feed(ack is a process w$ere(y so e proportion o' t$e output si!nal o' a syste is passed *'ed (ack) to t$e input. &$is is o'ten used to control t$e dyna ic (e$aviour o' t$e syste . &ypes o' 'eed(ack6

:e!ative 'eed(ack6 &$is tends to reduce output *(ut in a pli'iers- sta(iliAes and lineariAes operation). :e!ative 'eed(ack 'eeds part o' a syste Ls output- inverted- into t$e syste Ls inputM !enerally wit$ t$e result t$at 'luctuations are attenuated.

<ositive 'eed(ack6 &$is tends to increase output. <ositive 'eed(ack- so eti es re'erred to as .cu ulative causation.- is a 'eed(ack loop syste in w$ic$ t$e syste responds to pertur(ation *Apertur(ation eans a syste - is an alteration o' 'unction- induced (y external or internal ec$anis s) in t$e sa e direction as t$e pertur(ation. In contrast- a

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syste t$at responds to t$e pertur(ation in t$e opposite direction is called a ne!ative 'eed(ack syste . Bipolar 'eed(ack6 w$ic$ can eit$er increase or decrease output.

)1) Advanta!es o' ne!ative 'eed(ack over positive 'eed(ack. Buc$ attention $as (een !iven (y researc$ers to ne!ative 'eed(ack processes- (ecause ne!ative 'eed(ack processes lead syste s towards equili(riu states. <ositive 'eed(ack rein'orces a !iven tendency o' a syste and can lead a syste away 'ro equili(riu statespossi(ly causin! quite unexpected results.

)") Exa ple 'or ne!ative 'eed(ack and positive 'eed(ack. Exa ple 'or Nve 'eed(ack is 333A pli'iers And 'or 5ve 'eed(ack is N Cscillators

))) #$at is Cscillator% An oscillator is a circuit t$at creates a wave'or output 'ro a direct current input. &$e two ain types o' oscillator are $ar onic and relaxation. &$e $ar onic oscillators $ave s oot$ curved wave'or s- w$ile relaxation oscillators $ave wave'or s wit$ s$arp c$an!es.

)+) #$at is a transducer and transponder% A transducer is a device- usually electrical- electronic- electro3 ec$anical- electro a!netic- p$otonic- or p$otovoltaic t$at converts one type o' ener!y or p$ysical attri(ute to anot$er 'or various purposes includin! easure ent or in'or ation trans'er. In teleco unication- t$e ter transponder *s$ort3'orTrans itter3responder and so eti es a((reviated to O<,?- O<:,?- &<,? or &<) $as t$e 'ollowin! eanin!s6

An auto atic device t$at receives- a pli'ies- andretrans its a si!nal on a di''erent 'requency *see also(roadcast translator). An auto atic device t$at trans its a predeter ined essa!ein response to a prede'ined received si!nal. A receiver3trans itter t$at will !enerate a reply si!nal upon proper electronic interro!ation.

A co unications satellitePs c$annels are called transponders- (ecause eac$ is a separate transceiver or repeater.

)0) #$at is an Inte!rated Circuit%

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An inte!rated circuit *IC)- also called a icroc$ip- is an electronic circuit etc$ed onto a silicon c$ip. &$eir ain advanta!es are low cost- low power- $i!$ per'or ance- and very s all siAe.

)2) #$at is crosstalk% Crosstalk is a 'or o' inter'erence caused (y si!nals in near(y conductors. &$e ost co on exa ple is $earin! an unwanted conversation on t$e telep$one. Crosstalk can also occur in radios- televisions- networkin! equip ent- and even electric !uitars.

)8) #$at is a recti'ier% A recti'ier c$an!es alternatin! current into direct current. &$is process is called recti'ication. &$e t$ree ain types o' recti'ier are t$e $al'3wave- 'ull3wave- and (rid!e. A recti'ier is t$e opposite o' an inverter- w$ic$ c$an!es direct current into alternatin! current. @#?3 &$e si plest type is t$e $al'3wave recti'ier- w$ic$ can (e ade wit$ 1ust one diode. #$en t$e volta!e o' t$e alternatin! current is positive- t$e diode (eco es 'orward3(iased and current 'lows t$rou!$ it. #$en t$e volta!e is ne!ative- t$e diode is reverse3(iased and t$e current stops. &$e result is a clipped copy o' t$e alternatin! current wave'or wit$ only positive volta!e- and an avera!e volta!e t$at is one t$ird o' t$e peak input volta!e. &$is pulsatin! direct current is adequate 'or so e co ponents- (ut ot$ers require a ore steady current. &$is requires a 'ull3wave recti'ier t$at can convert (ot$ parts o' t$e cycle to positive volta!e. F#?3 &$e 'ull3wave recti'ier is essentially two $al'3wave recti'iers- and can (e ade wit$ two diodes and an eart$ed centre tap on t$e trans'or er. &$e positive volta!e $al' o' t$e cycle 'lows t$rou!$ one diode- and t$e ne!ative $al' 'lows t$rou!$ t$e ot$er. &$e centre tap allows t$e circuit to (e co pleted (ecause current cannot 'low t$rou!$ t$e ot$er diode. &$e result is still a pulsatin! direct current (ut wit$ 1ust over $al' t$e input peak volta!e- and dou(le t$e 'requency. )4) #$at is resistor% A resistor is a two3ter inal electronic co ponent t$at opposes anelectric current (y producin! a volta!e drop (etween its ter inals in proportion to t$e current- t$at is- in accordance wit$ C$ Ls law6 VJ IR.

);) #$at is capacitor% A capacitor is an electricalEelectronic device t$at can store ener!yin t$e electric 'ield (etween a pair o' conductors *called .plates.). &$e process o' storin! ener!y in t$e capacitor is known as .c$ar!in!.- and involves electric c$ar!es o' equal a!nitude- (ut opposite polarity(uildin! up on eac$ plate. Capacitors are o'ten used in electric and electronic circuits asener!y3stora!e devices. &$ey can also (e used to di''erentiate (etween $i!$3'requency and low3'requency si!nals. &$is property akes t$e use'ul in electronic 'ilters.

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Capacitors are occasionally re'erred to as condensers. &$is ter is considered arc$aic in En!lis$- (ut ost ot$er lan!ua!es use aco!nate o' condenser to re'er to a capacitor.

+/) #$at is inductor% An inductor is a passive electrical device e ployed in electrical circuits 'or its property o' inductance. An inductor can take any 'or s.

+1) #$at is conductor% A su(stance- (ody- or device t$at readily conducts $eat- electricity- sound- etc. Copper is a !ood conductor o' electricity.

+") #$at is a se i conductor% A se iconductor is a solid aterial t$at $as electrical conductivityin (etween t$at o' a conductor and t$at o' an insulator*AnInsulator is a aterial t$at resists t$e 'low o' electric current. It is an o(1ect intended to support or separate electrical conductorswit$out passin! current t$rou!$ itsel')M it can vary over t$at wide ran!e eit$er per anently or dyna ically.

+)) #$at is diode% In electronics- a diode is a two3ter inal device. ,iodes $ave two active electrodes (etween w$ic$ t$e si!nal o' interest ay 'low- and ost are used 'or t$eir unidirectional current property.

++) #$at is transistor% In electronics- a transistor is a se iconductor device co only used to a pli'y or switc$ electronic si!nals. &$e transistor is t$e 'unda ental (uildin! (lock o' co puters- and all ot$er odernelectronic devices. 9o e transistors are packa!ed individually (ut ost are 'ound in inte!rated circuits.

+0) #$at is op3a p% An operational a pli'ier- o'ten called an op3a p - is a ,C3coupled$i!$3!ain electronic volta!e a pli'ier wit$ di''erential inputsQ1R and- usually- a sin!le output. &ypically t$e output o' t$e op3a p is controlled eit$er (y ne!ative 'eed(ack- w$ic$ lar!ely deter ines t$e a!nitude o' its output volta!e !ain- or (y positive 'eed(ack- w$ic$ 'acilitates re!enerative !ain and oscillation.

+2) w$at is t$e di''ernce (etween 9C? and diode recti'ier% ans6 diode is a " ter inal device- in scr !ate controls t$e recti'in!.9C? is used in @i!$ 'requency applications (ut diode is low 'reuency devices- 9C? can (e in $i!$ te paratures

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(ut not diode. +8) w$atis intersy (ol inter'erence ans6In teleco unication- intersy (ol inter'erence *I9I) eans a 'or o' distortion o' a si!nal t$at causes t$e previously trans itted sy (ols to $ave an e''ect on t$e currently received sy (ol. &$is is usually an unwanted p$eno enon as t$e previous sy (ols $ave si ilar e''ect as noise- t$us akin! t$e co unication less relia(le. I9I is usually caused (y ec$oes or non3linear 'requency response o' t$e c$annel. #ays to 'i!$t a!ainst intersy (ol inter'erence include adaptive equaliAation or error correctin! codes *especially so't3decodin! wit$ 7iter(i al!orit$ ). +4) ,istin!uis$ (etween An!le odulation and A plitude odulation. ans6 In a plitude Bodulation as t$e a plitude o' !iven si!nal varies- t$e a plitude o' carrier si!nal also varies in t$e sa e way. In an!le odulation- t$e 'requency or p$ase ay vary accordin! to t$e a plitude o' !iven si!nal +;) #$at is Biasin!% ans6 (iasin! is a process o' connectin! dc volta!e to a device (y w$ic$ we can select t$e operatin! point o' t$e device. (y (iasin! actually we select t$e operatin! point o' t$e device. 0/) #$at do you ean (y A9CII- EBC,IC% ans6A9CII *A erican 9tandard Code 'or In'or ation Interc$an!e)- is a c$aracter encodin! (ased on t$e En!lis$ alp$a(et. EBC,IC *Extended Binary Coded ,eci al Interc$an!e Code) is an 43(it c$aracter encodin! used on IBB ain'ra e operatin! syste s 01) #$at do you ean (y ) dB cuto'' 'requency% #$y is it ) dB- not 1 dB% ans6)d( i plies 8/S*o.8o8) o' t$e power-iLe we r interested to consider t$e (andwidt$ ran!e 'ro peak to 8/S (LcoA uptp 8/S its relia(le.$ence )d( is called as $al' power 'req. )d( value is t$e ean square value w$ic$ is 8/S o' t$e axi u value. 0") #$at is eant (y pre3e p$asis and de3e p$asis% ans6<re3e p$asis . I provin! t$e si!nal to noise ratio (y increasin! t$e wit$ respect to lower 'requency si!nals. ,e3e p$asis . I provin! t$e si!nal to noise ratio (y decreasin! t$e wit$ respect to lower 'requency si!nals.

a!nitude o' $i!$er 'requency si!nals

a!nitude o' $i!$er 'requency si!nals

0)) #$at is ?ace3around pro(le % @ow can you recti'y it% ans6 A condition in lo!ic network in w$ic$ t$e di''erence in propa!ation ti es t$rou!$ two or

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ore si!nal pat$s in t$e network can produce an erroneous output.in 1k 'lip 'lop race around pro(le will occur w$en (ot$ t$e inputs are $i!$. it can (e prevented (y usin! aster slave 1k 'lip 'lop

0+) #$at is t$e (asic di''erence (etween Tatc$es and Flip 'lops% ans6latc$ works wit$out clock si!nal-(ut works wit$ a control si!nal and it is level tri!!ered device.w$ereas 'lip 'lop is a 1 (it stora!e ele ent and works wit$ a clock si!nal.its a ed!e tri!!ered device. nor ally latc$es are avoided and 'lip 'lops are pre'erred. 00) w$at is Bark$ausen Criterion% ans6 1.EABEJ1-i.e. t$e a!nitude o' loop !ain ust (e unity ".t$e total prase s$i't around t$e closed loop is Aero or )2/ de!rees. 02) w$at are active and <assive Co ponents% ans6AC&I7E CCB<C:E:&9 &$e co ponents w$ic$ produce t$e ener!y in t$e 'or current or volta!e are called as active co ponents.Exa ple6transistors etc-. 08) #$at is di''erence (etween Bicroprocessor and Bicrocontroller % Bicroprocessors !enerally require external co ponents to i ple ent pro!ra e ory- ra e ory and InputEoutput. IntelLs 4/42- 4/44- and 4/)42 are exa ples o' icroprocessors. Bicro controllers incorporate pro!ra e ory- ra e ory and inputEoutput resources internal to t$e c$ip. Bicroc$ipLs pic series and At elLs A7? series are exa ples o' icro controllers. 04) #$y is Uener ,iode always used in ?everse Bias condition % #$en (iased in t$e 'orward direction it (e$aves 1ust like a nor al si!nal diode passin! t$e rated current- (ut w$en a reverse volta!e is applied to it t$e reverse saturation current re ains 'airly constant over a wide ran!e o' volta!es. &$e reverse volta!e increases until t$e diodes (reakdown volta!e 7B is reac$ed at w$ic$ point a process called Avalanche Breakdown occurs in t$e depletion layer and t$e current 'lowin! t$rou!$ t$e Aener diode increases dra atically to t$e axi u circuit value *w$ic$ is usually li ited (y a series resistor). &$is (reakdown volta!e point is called t$e .Aener volta!e. 'or Aener diodes.

o'

0;) ,e'ine Analo! and ,i!ital 9i!nal <rocessin! Analo! si!nal processin! Analo! si!nal processin! is 'or si!nals t$at $ave not (een di!itiAed- as in classical radiotelep$one- radar- and television syste s. &$is involves linear electronic circuits suc$ as passive 'ilters- active 'ilters- additive ixers- inte!rators and delay lines. It also involves non3linear circuits suc$ as co pandors- ultiplicators *'requency ixers and volta!e3

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controlled a pli'iers)- volta!e3controlled 'ilters-volta!e3controlled oscillators and p$ase3 locked loops. ,iscrete ti e si!nal processin! ,iscrete ti e si!nal processin! is 'or sa pled si!nals t$at are considered as de'ined only at discrete points in ti e- and as suc$ are quantiAed in ti e- (ut not in a!nitude. Analo! discrete3ti e si!nal processin! is a tec$nolo!y (ased on electronic devices suc$ as sa ple and $old circuits- analo! ti e3division ultiplexers- analo! delay lines and analo! 'eed(ack s$i't re!isters. &$is tec$nolo!y was a predecessor o' di!ital si!nal processin! *see (elow)- and is still used in advanced processin! o' !i!a$ertA si!nals. &$e concept o' discrete3ti e si!nal processin! also re'ers to a t$eoretical discipline t$at esta(lis$es a at$e atical (asis 'or di!ital si!nal processin!- wit$out takin! quantiAation error into consideration. 2/) #$at is ?9 in ?93")" % ?93")" *?eco ended 9tandard 3 ")") is a teleco unications standard 'or (inary serial co unications (etween devices. It supplies t$e road ap 'or t$e way devices speak to eac$ ot$er usin! serial ports. &$e devices are co only re'erred to as a ,&E *data ter inal equip ent) and ,CE *data co unications equip ent)M 'or exa plea co puter and ode - respectively

21)#$at is TenA law % An induced current is always in suc$ a direction as to oppose t$e otion or c$an!e causin! it w$enever t$ere is an induced electro otive 'orce *e ') in a conductor- it is always in suc$ a direction t$at t$e current it would produce would oppose t$e c$an!e w$ic$ causes t$e induced e '. I' t$e c$an!e is t$e otion o' a conductor t$rou!$ a a!netic 'ield- t$e induced current ust (e in suc$ a direction as to produce a 'orce opposin! t$e otion. I' t$e c$an!e causin! t$e e ' is a c$an!e o' 'lux t$readin! a coil- t$e induced current ust produce a 'lux in suc$ a direction as to oppose t$e c$an!e. 2") #$at is &rans ission Frequency o' Bluetoot$- #i3Fi and #i3BAO % Bluetoot$ uses a radio tec$nolo!y called 'requency3$oppin! spread spectru - w$ic$ c$ops up t$e data (ein! sent and trans its c$unks o' it on up to 8; (ands *1 B@A eac$) in t$e ran!e "+/"3"+4/ B@A. &$is ran!e is in t$e !lo(ally unlicensed Industrial- 9cienti'ic and Bedical *I9B) ".+ >@A s$ort3ran!e radio 'requency (and. (etween ".+/" >@A and ".+4/ >@A- to (e exact #i3Fi stands 'or #ireless Fidelity. #i3Fi is (ased on t$e IEEE 4/".11 'a ily o' standards and is pri arily a local area networkin! *TA:) tec$nolo!y desi!ned to provide in3(uildin! (road(and covera!e. #iBAO is an I< (ased- wireless (road(and access tec$nolo!y t$at provides per'or ance si ilar to 4/".11E#i3Fi networks wit$ t$e covera!e and QC9 *quality o' service) o' cellular networks. #iBAO is also an acrony eanin! .#orldwide Interopera(ility 'or Bicrowave Access *#iBAO). #iBAO is a wireless di!ital co unications syste - also known as IEEE 4/".12- t$at is intended 'or wireless . etropolitan area networks.. #iBAO can provide (road(and wireless

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access *B#A) up to )/ iles *0/ k ) 'or 'ixed stations- and ) 3 1/ iles *0 3 10 k ) 'or o(ile stations. In contrast- t$e #iFiE4/".11 wireless local area network standard is li ited in ost cases to only 1// 3 )// 'eet *)/ 3 1// ). 2)) #$at is di''erence (etween <iconet and 9catternet % A piconet is t$e type o' connection t$at is 'or ed (etween two or ore Bluetoot$3ena(led devices- one device takes t$e role o' L asterL- and all ot$er devices assu e a LslaveL role 'or sync$roniAation reasons. #$ere as a scatternet is a nu (er o' interconnected piconets t$at supports co unication (etween ore t$an 4 devices. 9catternets can (e 'or ed w$en a e (er o' one piconet *eit$er t$e aster or one o' t$e slaves) elects to participate as a slave in a second- separate piconet. 2+) #$at is BooreLs Taw % &$e prediction (y >ordon Boore *co'ounder o' t$e Intel Corporation) t$at t$e nu (er o' transistors on a icroprocessor would dou(le periodically *approxi ately every 14 ont$s). 20) @ow any satellites co prise t$e ><9 and expand it % &$e ini u satellites recquired to track your position is t$ree. &$at is w$y it is known as trian!ulation. Currently- t$ere are )" satellites in t$e ><9 syste . &$e exact nu (er varies as old satellites 'ail or are retired- and new satellites are sent up to replace t$e . 22) #$at is Ui!Bee and its speci'ications % Ui!Bee is a low3cost- low3power- wireless es$ networkin! standard. First- t$e low cost allows t$e tec$nolo!y to (e widely deployed in wireless control and onitorin! applications. 9econd- t$e low power3usa!e allows lon!er li'e wit$ s aller (atteries. &$ird- t$e es$ networkin! provides $i!$ relia(ility and ore extensive ran!e. Ui!Bee relies on t$e (asic 4/".10.+ standard to esta(lis$ radio per'or ance 28) #$at is F<>A % A Field3pro!ra a(le >ate Array *F<>A) is an inte!rated circuit desi!ned to (e con'i!ured (y t$e custo er or desi!ner a'ter anu'acturin!V$ence .'ield3pro!ra a(le.. Applications o' F<>As include di!ital si!nal processin!- so'tware3de'ined radio- aerospace and de'ense syste s- A9IC prototypin!- edical i a!in!- co puter vision- speec$ reco!nition-crypto!rap$y- (ioin'or atics- co puter $ardware e ulation- radio astrono y- etal detection and a !rowin! ran!e o' ot$er areas. 24) #$at is BIBC % BIBC * ultiple input- ultiple output) is an antenna tec$nolo!y 'or wireless co unications in w$ic$ ultiple antennas are used at (ot$ t$e source *trans itter) and t$e destination *receiver). &$e antennas at eac$ end o' t$e co unications circuit are co (ined to ini iAe errors and opti iAe data speed. BIBC is one o' several 'or s o' s art antenna tec$nolo!y- t$e ot$ers (ein! BI9C * ultiple input- sin!le output) and 9IBC *sin!le inputultiple output)

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2;) #$at is 7CI< % 7oI< *voice over I<) is an I< telep$ony ter 'or a set o' 'acilities used to ana!e t$e delivery o' voice in'or ation over t$e Internet.7oI< involves sendin! voice in'or ation in di!ital 'or in discrete packets rat$er t$an (y usin! t$e traditional circuit3co itted protocols o' t$e pu(lic switc$ed telep$one network *<9&:). A a1or advanta!e o' 7oI< and Internet telep$ony is t$at it avoids t$e tolls c$ar!ed (y ordinary telep$one service. 8/) Cn w$at principle do &rans'or ers work % A trans'or er is a static device t$at trans'ers electrical ener!y 'ro one circuit to anot$er t$rou!$ inductively coupled conductorsVt$e trans'or erLs coils. A varyin! current in t$e 'irst or pri ary windin! creates a varyin! a!netic 'lux in t$e trans'or erLs core and t$us a varyin! a!netic 'ield t$rou!$ t$esecondary windin!. &$is varyin! a!netic 'ield induces a varyin! electro otive 'orce *EBF) or .volta!e. in t$e secondary windin!. &$is e''ect is called utual induction. 81) #$at is E,FA % Er(iu ,oped Fi(er A pli'ier *E,FA) A device t$at (oosts t$e si!nal in an optical 'i(er. E,FA is an optical repeater device t$at is used to (oost t$e intensity o' optical si!nals (ein! carried t$rou!$ a 'i(er optic co unications syste . An optical 'i(er is doped wit$ t$e rare eart$ ele ent er(iu so t$at t$e !lass 'i(er can a(sor( li!$t at one 'requency and e it li!$t at anot$er 'requency. An external se iconductor laser couples li!$t into t$e 'i(er at in'rared wavelen!t$s o' eit$er ;4/ or 1+4/ nano eters. &$is action excites t$e er(iu ato s. Additional optical si!nals at wavelen!t$s (etween 10)/ and 12"/ nano eters enter t$e 'i(er and sti ulate t$e excited er(iu ato s to e it p$otons at t$e sa e wavelen!t$ as t$e inco in! si!nal. &$is action a pli'ies a weak optical si!nal to a $i!$er power- e''ectin! a (oost in t$e si!nal stren!t$. 8") #$at are di''erent types o' antennas % An antenna *or aerial) is a transducer t$at trans its or receives electro a!netic waves. In ot$er words- antennas convert electro a!netic radiation intoelectric current- or vice versa. &$ey are used to trans it and receive electro a!netic radiation o' radio 'requency- t$at is- radio waves- and are a necessary part o' all radio equip ent &$ere are di''erent types o' antennas-t$ey can ainly divided into directional & undirectional a si ply type o' directional antennas6 $elical antenna a si ple type o' undirectional antennas6ya!i & loop antennas 8)) #$at is Fa!i3=da antenna % ,irectional antenna syste consistin! o' an array o' a dipole and additional closely coupled parasitic ele ents *usually a re'lector and one or ore directors). &$e dipole in t$e array is driven- and anot$er ele ent- typically 0S lon!er- e''ectively operates as a re'lector. Ct$er parasitic ele ents s$orter t$an t$e dipole ay (e added in 'ront o' t$e dipole and are re'erred to as directors

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8+) w$y t$e input resistance o' an op3a p is $i!$ w$ereas itLs output resistance is low% Toadin! at t$e input point and to pass t$e axi u output to t$e load is t$e require ent o' Cp3A p w$ic$ is a current exc$an!e device 'ro input side to output side. 80) w$at do you understand (y icrowaves% w$y t$ese are called icro Bicro waves are t$ose waves w$ose wavelen!t$ is less t$an a 'oot*)/ c s) or 'req ran!in! 'ro 1 >@A to 1/// >@A.Because o' t$ere tinyness t$ese are called icro. 82) $ow do icrowave oven works%% @eart o' icrowave oven is a!natron w$ic$ !enerates 'requency o' appox. ".+ >@A.explain workin! o' a!natron. 88) #$at is CB??% Explain (rie'ly. CB?? stands 'or co on ode re1ection ratio. It is a easure o' t$e a(ility o' a test instru ent to re1ect inter'erence t$at is co on to (ot$ o' its easure ent input ter inals. It is expressed in deci(els and it is t$e ratio o' t$e actual or co on si!nal level appearin! on t$e two input ter inals to!et$er to t$e easured level. 84) #$at is eant (y ,3FF% , Flip Flop &$e , Wip3Wop is t$e ost co on 'lip3'lop in use today. It is (etter known as delay 'lip3'lop or data latc$. 8;) #$at is t$e (asic di''erence (etween Tatc$es and Flip 'lops% 'lip 'lops are ed!e3tri!!ered devices w$ereas latc$es are level tri!!ered devices. latc$ does not $ave clock si!nal w$ereas 'lip 'lop does. Flip 'lop $as two values w$ile latc$ $as only one value. *Tatc$es do not store in'or ation- $ere- a (it) 4/) #$at is a ultiplexer% A ultiplexer- so eti es re'erred to as a . ultiplexor. or si ply . ux.- is a device t$at selects (etween a nu (er o' input si!nals. In its si plest 'or - a ultiplexer will $ave two si!nal inputs- one control input- and one output. An everyday exa ple o' an analo! ultiplexer is t$e source selection control on a $o e stereo unit. Bultiplexers are used in (uildin! di!ital se iconductors suc$ as C<=s and !rap$ics controllers. In t$ese applications- t$e nu (er o' inputs is !enerally a ultiple o' " *"- +- 4- 12- etc.)- t$e nu (er o' outputs is eit$er 1 or relatively s all ultiple o' "- and t$e nu (er o' control si!nals is related to t$e co (ined nu (er o' inputs and outputs. 41) #$at do you ean (y an ideal volta!e source%

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In electric circuit t$eory- an ideal volta!e source is a circuit ele ent w$ere t$e volta!e across it is independent o' t$e current t$rou!$ it. 9ources in'inite current to any load wit$out any c$an!e in oEp volta!e. 4") #$at do you ean (y Aener (reakdown and avalanc$e (reakdown% Uener (reakdown In Uener (reakdown t$e electrostatic attraction (etween t$e ne!ative electrons and a lar!e positive volta!e is so !reat t$at it pulls electrons out o' t$eir covalent (onds and away 'ro t$eir parent ato s. ie Electrons are trans'erred 'ro t$e valence to t$e conduction (and. In t$is situation t$e current can still (e li ited (y t$e li ited nu (er o' 'ree electrons produced (y t$e applied volta!e so it is possi(le to cause Uener (reakdown wit$out da a!in! t$e se iconductor. Avalanc$e (reakdown Avalanc$e (reakdown occurs w$en t$e applied volta!e is so lar!e t$at electrons t$at are pulled 'ro t$eir covalent (onds are accelerated to !reat velocities. &$ese electrons collide wit$ t$e silicon ato s and knock o'' ore electrons. &$ese electrons are t$en also accelerated and su(sequently collide wit$ ot$er ato s. Eac$ collision produces ore electrons w$ic$ leads to ore collisions etc. &$e current in t$e se iconductor rapidly increases and t$e aterial can quickly (e destroyed. 4)) #$at are t$e di''erent types o' 'ilters% low pass- $i!$ pass- (and pass- (and stop- resonant 4+) #$at is sa plin! t$eore % 9a plin! &$eore 6 A (andli ited si!nal can (e reconstructed exactly i' it is sa pled at a rate atleast twice t$e axi u 'requency co ponent in it. 40) #$at is i pulse response% I pulse response is t$e response o' a syste to a unit i pulse at its input. &$e i pulse response 'unction is t$e inverse Taplace trans'or o' t$e syste trans'er 'unction @*s). 42) Explain t$e advanta!es and disadvanta!es o' FI? 'ilters co pared to II? counterparts. II? 'ilters are recursive and FI? 'ilters are non3recursive. Also FI? 'ilters are linear p$ase and II? 'ilters are not. 'ir 'ilter are $i!$ly sta(le.we can o(tain linear p$ase in 'ir 'ilter. roundin! error is a(scent in 'ir 'ilter. 48) #$at is CB??% Explain (rie'ly. &$e ratio o' t$e !ain o' an a pli'ier 'or di''erence si!nals (etween t$e input ter inals- to t$e !ain 'or t$e avera!e or co on3 ode si!nal co ponent. 44) #$at do you ean (y $al'3duplex and 'ull3duplex co unication% Explain (rie'ly. $al' duplex 3 (ot$ sender & receiver can co unicate wit$ eac$ ot$er- (ut not si ultaneously...'ull duplex 3 sa e (ut si ultaneous co unication possi(le.

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4;) #$at are t$e 'la!s in 4/42% Carry 'la!- <arity 'la!- Auxiliary carry 'la!- Uero 'la!- Cver'low 'la!- &race 'la!- Interrupt 'la!- ,irection 'la!- and 9i!n 'la!. ;/) #$at are t$e various interrupts in 4/42% Baska(le interrupts- :on3Baska(le interrupts

;1) #$at is eant (y Baska(le interrupts% An interrupt t$at can (e turned o'' (y t$e pro!ra

er is known as Baska(le interrupt.

;") #$ic$ interrupts are !enerally used 'or critical events% :on3Baska(le interrupts are used in critical events 9uc$ as <ower 'ailure- E er!ency- 9$ut o'' etc. ;)) #$at is t$e Baxi u clock 'requency in 4/42% 0 B$A is t$e Baxi u clock 'requency in 4/42. ;+) #$at are t$e various se! ent re!isters in 4/42% Code- ,ata- 9tack- Extra ;0) #$ic$ 9tack is used in 4/42% FIFC *First In First Cut) stack is used in 4/42.In t$is type o' 9tack t$e 'irst stored in'or ation is retrieved 'irst. ;2) #$at are t$e various re!isters in 4/40% Accu ulator re!ister- &e porary re!ister- Instruction re!ister- 9tack <ointer- <ro!ra Counter are t$e various re!isters in 4/40 . ;8) #$at is 9tack <ointer 9tack pointer is a special purpose 123(it re!ister in t$e Bicroprocessor- w$ic$ $olds t$e address o' t$e top o' t$e stack ;4) #$at is <ro!ra counter% <ro!ra counter $olds t$e address o' eit$er t$e 'irst (yte o' t$e next instruction to (e 'etc$ed 'or execution or t$e address o' t$e next (yte o' a ulti (yte instruction- w$ic$ $as not (een co pletely 'etc$ed. In (ot$ t$e cases it !ets incre ented auto atically one (y one as t$e instruction (ytes !et 'etc$ed. Also <ro!ra re!ister keeps t$e address o' t$e next instruction. ;;) #$ic$ 9tack is used in 4/40% TIFC *Tast In First Cut) stack is used in 4/40.In t$is type o' 9tack t$e last stored in'or ation can (e retrieved 'irst. 1//) #$at is eant (y a (us% A (us is a !roup o' conductin! lines t$at carriers data- address- & control si!nals.

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1/1) #$at is &ri3state lo!ic% &$ree To!ic Tevels are used and t$ey are @i!$- Tow- @i!$ i pedance state. &$e $i!$ and low are nor al lo!ic levels & $i!$ i pedance state is electrical open circuit conditions. &ri3 state lo!ic $as a t$ird line called ena(le line. 1/") >ive an exa ple o' one address icroprocessor% 4/40 is a one address icroprocessor. 1/)) In w$at way interrupts are classi'ied in 4/40% In 4/40 t$e interrupts are classi'ied as @ardware and 9o'tware interrupts. 1/+) Exa ples o' 9o'tware interrupts% ?9&/- ?9&1- ?9&"- ?9&)- ?9&+- ?9&0- ?9&2- ?9&8. 1/0) Exa ples o' @ardware interrupts% &?A<- ?9&8.0- ?9&2.0- ?9&0.0- I:&?. 1/2) #$ic$ interrupt $as t$e $i!$est priority% &?A< $as t$e $i!$est priority. 1/8) :a e 0 di''erent addressin! odes% I ediate- ,irect- ?e!ister- ?e!ister indirect- I plied addressin! 1/4) @ow any interrupts are t$ere in 4/40% &$ere are 1" interrupts in 4/40. 1/;) #$at is clock 'requency 'or 4/40% ) B@A is t$e axi u clock 'requency 'or 4/40. 11/) In 4/40 w$ic$ is called as @i!$ order E Tow order ?e!ister% Fla! is called as Tow order re!ister & Accu ulator is called as @i!$ order ?e!ister. 111) #$y crystal is a pre'erred clock source% Because o' $i!$ sta(ility- lar!e Q *Quality Factor) & t$e 'requency t$at doesnPt dri't wit$ a!in!. Crystal is used as a clock source ost o' t$e ti es. 11") #$at does Quality 'actor ean% &$e Quality 'actor is also de'ined- as Q. 9o it is a nu (er- w$ic$ re'lects t$e lossness o' a circuit. @i!$er t$e Q- t$e lower are t$e losses.

odes.