EAP - PSF

AprÐlioc 2009

Kbantik  Hlektrodunamik 
JewrÐa kai Efarmogèc 1

PapadhmhtrÐou Ge¸rgioc

Deuterobˆjmia EkpaÐdeush
AntÐrrio AitwloakarnanÐac, Ellˆda
gpapadem@sch.gr

PerÐlhyh
Sthn ergasÐa aut  perigrˆfetai h kbˆntwsh twn pedÐwn me thn efarmog  twn o-
loklhrwmˆtwn diadrom c (path integrals). Me thn mèjodo aut  epitugqˆnetai h
kbˆntwsh enìc pedÐou qwrÐc anaforˆ se telestèc allˆ se èna m -arijm simo a-
peirodiˆstato olokl rwma pˆnw se klassikˆ pedÐa. H kbantik  sumperiforˆ tou
sust matoc èpetai apì to gegonìc ìti h kÐnhsh metaxÔ dÔo shmeÐwn   katastˆsewn
gÐnetai diamèsou enìc apeÐrou pl jouc troqi¸n h kajemÐa apì tic opoÐec suneisfè-
rei sto plˆtoc pijanìthtac. H mèjodoc twn oloklhrwmˆtwn diadrom¸n odhgeÐ sta
Ðdia apotelèsmata me th mèjodo thc kanonik c kbˆntwshc ìmwc eÐnai perissìtero
diˆfanh se pedÐa me summetrÐa bajmÐdac ìpwc to hlektromagnhtikì kai ta pedÐa
me m -abelian  summetrÐa. Me thn teqnik  thc sunarthsiak  parag¸gishc kai o-
lokl rwshc prokÔptoun oi sunart seic n-shmeÐwn pou me th seirˆ touc odhgoÔn
ston pÐnaka S kai stouc kanìnec Feynman, pou mporoÔn na qrhsimopoihjoÔn gia
ton upologismì twn metr simwn posot twn twn plat¸n skèdashc kai twn rujm¸n
diˆspashc swmatidÐwn. Wc efarmogèc twn teqnik¸n aut¸n anaptÔssetai h epakano-
nikopoÐhsh thc Kbantik c Hlektrodunamik c se pr¸th tˆxh (1-brìgqo), h diìrjwsh
thc magnhtik c dipolik c rop c tou hlektronÐou, kai o upologismìc thc diatom c thc
skèdashc Compton.

1
Diplwmatik  ergasÐa sto prìgramma ’Proqwrhmènec Spoudèc sth Fusik  tou EllhnikoÔ
AnoiqtoÔ PanepisthmÐou
.
Perieqìmena

1 JewrÐa 1
1.1 Eisagwg  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Oloklhr¸mata Diadrom c sthn Kbantik  Mhqanik  . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Oloklhr¸mata diadrom c sthn kbantik  jewrÐa pedÐou . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.1 Sunarthsiak  Genn tria gia bajmwtˆ pedÐa . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.2 Sunarthsiak  Genn tria gia bajmwtˆ allhlepidr¸nta pedÐa . 6
1.3.3 Sunarthsiak  Genn tria gia spinor pedÐa . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.4 Sunarthsiak  Genn tria gia to H/M pedÐo . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.5 Sunart seic Green kai Diadìtec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.6 Telest c autoenèrgeiac kai sunˆrthsh kìmbwn . . . . . . . . 14
1.3.7 Sunˆrthsh kìmbou gia to hlektrìnio . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3.8 Tautìthta Ward-Takahashi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3.9 PÐnakac S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2 Efarmogèc 20
2.1 EpakanonikopoÐhsh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2 EpakanonikopoÐhsh thc QED se pr¸th tˆxh . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.2.1 OmalopoÐhsh twn oloklhrwmˆtwn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2.2 EpakanonikopoÐhsh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.3 Magnhtik  rop  tou hlektronÐou . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.4 Skèdash Compton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

3 SÔnoyh - Sumperˆsmata 50
4 Parˆrthma 52
4.1 'Iqnh g pinˆkwn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.2 g pÐnakec se d diastˆseic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.3 Oloklhr¸mata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

i
.

ii
Kefˆlaio 1

JewrÐa
1.1 Eisagwg 
Sthn ergasÐa aut  perigrˆfetai h kbˆntwsh twn pedÐwn me thn efarmog  twn o-
loklhrwmˆtwn diadrom c (path integrals). Me thn mèjodo aut  epitugqˆnetai h
kbˆntwsh enìc pedÐou qwrÐc anaforˆ se telestèc allˆ se èna m -arijm simo a-
peirodiˆstato olokl rwma pˆnw se klassikˆ pedÐa. H kbantik  sumperiforˆ tou
sust matoc èpetai apì to gegonìc ìti h kÐnhsh metaxÔ dÔo shmeÐwn   katastˆsewn
gÐnetai diamèsou enìc apeÐrou pl jouc troqi¸n h kajemÐa apì tic opoÐec suneisfè-
rei sto plˆtoc pijanìthtac. H mèjodoc twn oloklhrwmˆtwn diadrom¸n odhgeÐ sta
Ðdia apotelèsmata me th mèjodo thc kanonik c kbˆntwshc ìmwc eÐnai perissìtero
diˆfanh se pedÐa me summetrÐa bajmÐdac ìpwc to hlektromagnhtikì kai ta pedÐa
me m -abelian  summetrÐa. Me thn teqnik  thc sunarthsiak  parag¸gishc kai o-
lokl rwshc prokÔptoun oi sunart seic n-shmeÐwn pou me th seirˆ touc odhgoÔn
ston pÐnaka S kai stouc kanìnec Feynman, pou mporoÔn na qrhsimopoihjoÔn gia
ton upologismì twn metr simwn posot twn twn plat¸n skèdashc kai twn rujm¸n
diˆspashc swmatidÐwn. Wc efarmogèc twn teqnik¸n aut¸n anaptÔssetai h epakano-
nikopoÐhsh thc Kbantik c Hlektrodunamik c se pr¸th tˆxh (1-brìgqo), h diìrjwsh
thc magnhtik c dipolok c rop c tou hlektronÐou, kai o upologismìc thc diatom c
thc skèdashc Compton.

1.2 Oloklhr¸mata Diadrom c sthn Kbantik  Mh-

qanik 
Apì thn Kbantik  jewrÐa eÐnai gnwstì [4] ìti to plˆtoc metˆbashc hq 0 , t0 |q, ti apì
thn katˆstash |q, ti sthn katˆstash |q 0 , t0 i mporeÐ na grafeÐ wc
Z NY
−1 N −1
" N −1 µ ¶#
Y dpn i² X qn+1 − qn
hq 0 , t0 |q, ti = lim dqn exp pn − H(pn , q̄n )
N →∞ 2π~ ~ ²
n=1 n=0 n=0
(1.1)

1
 Sto ìrio oi suntetagmènec q kai p mporoÔn na jewrhjoÔn wc timèc sunart sewn
qrìnou qn = q(tn ), pn = p(tn ) opìte h parapˆnw èkfrash mporeÐ na grafeÐ wc
Z " Z 0 #
0 0 i t
hq , t |q, ti = DqDp exp dt(pq̇ − H(p, q)) (1.2)
~ t

To olokl rwma autì eÐnai plèon sunarthsiakì (sunarthsiak ) olokl rwma pˆ-

nw stic sunart seic q(t), p(t) pou kajemÐa orÐzei kai mÐa diadrom  ston q¸ro fˆsewn.
Sthn perÐptwsh pou h Qamiltonian  H tou sust matoc eÐnai thc morf c H =
p2
2m + V (q) tìte h parapˆnw morf  (1.2) mporeÐ na grafeÐ kai wc olokl rwma dia-
drom c F eynman
Z " Z 0 #
t
i
hq 0 , t0 |q, ti = N Dq exp dtL(q, q̇) (1.3)
~ t

Gia na perigrˆyoume thn dhmiourgÐa kai thn katastrof  swmatidÐwn, diadikasÐec

pou eÐnai sunhjismènec sthn kbantik  jewrÐa pedÐou, prèpei na tropopoi soume th
Lagrangian me èna ìro phg c J(t) dhlad 

L → L + ~J(t)q(t) (1.4)

An to katastatikì diˆnusma thc jemeli¸douc stˆjmhc (tou kenoÔ) parousÐa thc

phg c J(t) eÐnai |0, tiJ tìte to plˆtoc metˆbashc apì to kenì gia t = −∞ sto kenì
gia t = + = ∞ eÐnai:
Z[J] ∝ h0, ∞|0, −∞iJ (1.5)
An h phg  J(t) eÐnai diˆforh tou mhdenìc gia qronikì diˆsthma apì t èwc t0 me
t < t0 kai dÔo qronikèc stigmèc T < t kai T 0 > t0 tìte to plˆtoc metˆbashc eÐnai
Z " Z 0 #
0 0 J i T
hQ , T |Q, T i = N Dq exp dt(L + ~Jq) (1.6)
~ T

O pr¸toc ìroc mporeÐ na grafeÐ

Z
hQ0 , T 0 |Q, T iJ = dq 0 dqhQ0 , T 0 |q 0 , t0 ihq 0 , t0 |q, tiJ hq, t|Q, T i (1.7)

kai qrhsimopoi¸ntac idiosunart seic enèrgeiac gia ta plˆth hQ0 , T 0 |q 0 , t0 i kai hq, t|Q, T i
h parapˆnw exÐswsh mporeÐ na grafeÐ
XX · ¸
0 0 J 0 ∗ i 0
hQ , T |Q, T i = φn (Q )φm (Q)exp − (En t − Em t)
~
n m
Z (1.8)
× dq 0 dqφ∗n (q 0 , t0 )hq 0 , t0 |q, tiJ φ(q, t)

Sto ìrio T 0 → +∞ kai T → −∞ pou mac endiafèrei ta ekjetikˆ empodÐzoun

th sÔgklish. 'Omwc an pragmatopoi soume mÐa strof  W ick tou ˆxona tou qrìnou

2
katˆ gwnÐa − π2 sto migadikì epÐpedo ¸ste· t = −iτ , T 0 → −i∞
¸ kai T → +i∞ tìte
1
o ìroc me to ekjetikì gÐnetai lim exp − (En τ 0 − Em τ ) pou pèftei ekjetikˆ.
τ →−∞
0
~
τ →+∞
Sto ˆjroisma tìte kuriarqeÐ o ìroc me thn ligìtero apìtomh kˆjodo pou eÐnai o
ìroc me n = 0 (jemeli¸dhc stˆjmh) o opoÐoc èqei th mikrìterh enèrgeia.
H exÐswsh (1.9) tìte gÐnetai:
· ¸
0 0 J 0 ∗ i 0
lim hQ , T |Q, T i = φ0 (Q )φ0 (Q)exp − E0 (T − T )
T 0 →−i∞ ~
T →+i∞
Z (1.9)
× dq 0 dqφ∗0 (q 0 , t0 )hq 0 , t0 |q, tiJ φ(q, t)

kai isodÔnama
Z
hQ0 , T 0 |Q, T iJ
dq 0 dqφ∗0 (q 0 , t0 )hq 0 , t0 |q, tiJ φ(q, t) = lim £ i ¤
T→−i∞ φ0 (Q0 )φ∗
0 0
0 (Q)exp − ~ E0 (T − T )
T →+i∞
(1.10)
Epeid  oi qrìnoi t kai t0 mporoÔn na gÐnoun apeÐrwc mikrìc o ènac kai apeÐ-
rwc megˆloc o ˆlloc to aristerì mèloc thc parapˆnw exÐswshc gÐnetai to plˆtoc
h0, ∞|0, −∞iJ , en¸ sto dexÐ mèloc o paronomast c eÐnai ènac arijmìc kai o arijmh-
t c mporeÐ na grafeÐ wc olokl rwma diadrom c F eynman
Z " Z 0 #
i T
N Dq exp dtL(Q, Q̇ + ~JQ)
~ T

opìte telikˆ
Z " Z 0 #
i T
h0, ∞|0, −∞iJ = lim N DQ exp dt(L(Q, Q̇) + ~JQ) (1.11)
T 0 →−i∞ ~ T
T →+i∞

  alli¸c
Z · Z +∞ ¸
J i
h0, ∞|0, −∞i ∝ Z[J] = N Dq exp dt(L + ~Jq) (1.12)
~ −∞
Ta oloklhr¸mata diadrom c mporoÔn na mac d¸soun me fusikì trìpo ta qronikˆ
taxinomhmèna (time ordered) ginìmena telest¸n afoÔ gia parˆdeigma an tn1 > tn2
Z
hqf , tf |q̂(tn1 )q̂(tn2 )|qi , ti i = dq1 · · · dqn hqf , tf |qn , tn i · · · hqn1 , tn1 |q̂(tn1 )|qn1−1 , tn1−1 i

· · · hqn2 , tn2 |q̂(tn2 )|qn2−1 , tn2−1 i · · · hq1 , t1 |qi , ti i

Z
= dq1 · · · dqn q(tn1 )q(tn2 )hqf , tf |qn , tn i · · · hq1 , t1 |qi , ti i
Z · Z tf ¸
1 i
= DqDp q(tn1 )q(tn2 ) exp dt(pq̇ − H(p, q))
~ ~ ti
(1.13)

3
en¸ an tn2 > tn1 to dexÐ mèloc eÐnai mhdèn. An ìmwc gia tn2 > tn1 upologÐsoume to
hqf , tf |q̂(tn2 )q̂(tn1 )|qi , ti i tìte brÐskoume to Ðdio apotèlesma
Z · Z tf ¸
1 i
hqf , tf |q̂(tn2 )q̂(tn1 )|qi , ti i = DqDp q(tn1 )q(tn2 ) exp dt(pq̇ − H(p, q))
~ ~ ti
(1.14)

pou shmaÐnei ìti

Z · Z tf ¸
1 i
DqDp q(tn1 )q(tn2 ) exp dtL = hqf , tf |T [q̂(tn1 )q̂(tn2 )]|qi , ti i (1.15)
~ ~ ti

ìpou
(
A(t1 )B(t2 ), t1 > t2
T [A(t1 )B(t2 )] = (1.16)
B(t2 )A(t1 ), t2 > t1

kai ta pedÐa A kai B eÐnai mpozonikˆ.

H sunarthsiak  parˆgwgoc enìc sunarthsiakoÔ F [f (x)] orÐzetai wc ex c

δF [f (x)] F [f (x) + ²δ(x − y)] − F [f (x)]

= lim (1.17)
δf (y) ²→0 ²

To aristerì Rmèloc thc£ (1.15)

R eÐnai h sunarthsiak  ¤ parˆgwgoc tou plˆtouc me-
tˆbashc Z[J] = Dqexp ~i dt(L + ~Jq + 12 i²q 2 )) wc proc J(tn1 ) kai J(tn2 ), gia
J = 0 opìte
¯
δ 2 Z[J] ¯¯
∝ i2 h0, ∞|T [q̂(t1 )q̂(t2 )]|0, −∞i (1.18)
δJ(t1 )δJ(t2 ) ¯J=0

Sthn parapˆnw èkfrash antikatast same ta dianÔsmata |qi , ti i kai |qf , tf i me

ta dianÔsmata thc jemeli¸douc (kenoÔ) mia kai o prìsjetoc ìroc 12 i²q 2 thc Lag-
kranzian c epilègei th suneisforˆ tou kenoÔ me ton Ðdio trìpo pou epitugqˆnetai
me th strof  W ick sto migadikì epÐpedo. H genÐkeush thc parapˆnw sqèshc eÐnai
profan c
¯
δ n Z[J] ¯
¯ ∝ in h0, ∞|T [q̂(t1 ) · · · q̂(tn )]|0, −∞i (1.19)
δJ(t1 ) · · · δJ(tn ) ¯J=0

1.3 Oloklhr¸mata diadrom c sthn kbantik  jew-

rÐa pedÐou
1.3.1 Sunarthsiak  Genn tria gia bajmwtˆ pedÐa
An jewr soume èna pedÐo φ(x) me antÐstoiqh phg  J(x) tìte se analogÐa me thn
sqèsh (1.12) mporoÔme na orÐsoume to plˆtoc metˆbashc kenoÔ (vacuum to vacuum

4
amplitude) wc:
Z · Z µ ¶¸
i
Z[J] = N Dφ exp i d4 x L(φ) + J(x)φ(x) + ²φ2
2 (1.20)
J
∝ h0, ∞|0, −∞i
ìpou L(φ) eÐnai h Lagkranzian  puknìthta kai o ìroc 2i ²φ2 exasfalÐzei thn epilog 
thc jemeli¸douc katˆstashc. Gia èna eleÔjero pedÐo me L0 = 12 (∂µ φ∂ µ φ − m2 φ2 )
to antÐstoiqo plˆtoc pijanìthtac eÐnai
Z · Z µ ¶¸
4 1 µ 2 2
Z0 [J] = Dφ exp i d x {∂µ φ∂ φ − (m − i²)φ } + Jφ (1.21)
2
R R
Autì mporeÐ na grafeÐ qrhsimopoi¸ntac th sqèsh ∂µ φ∂ µ φd4 x = − φ¤φd4 x
kai wc
Z · Z µ ¶¸
1
Z0 [J] = Dφ exp −i d4 x φ(¤ + m2 − i²)φ − Jφ (1.22)
2
MÐa katallhlìterh morf  tou Z0 [J] mporeÐ na brejeÐ me th genÐkeush tou
Gaussian oloklhr¸matoc gia n-diˆstatouc q¸rouc sthn suneq  perÐptwsh twn
pedÐwn φ(x)
Z
1 1 −1
e{− 2 (x,Ax)+(b,x)+c} dn x(2π)−n/2 = e 2 (b,A b)−c (detA)−1/2 (1.23)
Z · ¸ · ¸
1 1
Dφ exp − φ(x)Aφ(x) + J(x)φ(x) = exp (J(x)A J(x)) (detA)−1/2
−1
2 2
(1.24)
brÐskoume
· Z ¸
i 2 −1
Z0 [J] = exp − dxdyJ(x)(¤ + m − i²) J(y) [det i(¤ + m2 − i²)]−1/2
2
(1.25)
kai h orÐzousa grˆfetai
Z · Z ¸
i
Dφ exp − dxφ(x)(¤ + m − i²)φ(x) = [det i(¤ + m2 − i²)]−1/2 (1.26)
2
2
pou eÐnai apl¸c ènac arijmìc opìte h sunarthsiak  genn tria tou eleÔjerou baj-
mwtoÔ pedÐou eÐnai
· Z ¸
i 2 −1
Z0 [J] = N exp − dxdyJ(x)(¤ + m − i²) J(y) (1.27)
2
MporoÔme epÐshc na antikatast soume ton telest  (¤ + m2 − i²)−1 me ton
diadìth Feynman ∆F (x) pou orÐzetai apì th sqèsh (¤ + m2 − i²)∆F (x) = −δ 4 (x)
grˆfontac telikˆ:
· Z ¸
i
Z0 [J] = N exp − dxdyJ(x)∆F (x − y)J(y) (1.28)
2

5
1.3.2 Sunarthsiak  Genn tria gia bajmwtˆ allhlepidr¸nta
pedÐa
Gia thn Lagkranzian  L = L0 + Lint h normalismènh sunarthsiak  genn tria eÐnai
se antistoiqÐa me thn perÐptwsh tou eleÔjerou pedÐou
R £ R ¡ ¢¤
Dφ exp i d4 x L(φ) + J(x)φ(x) + 2i ²φ2 + Lint (φ)
Z[J] = R £ R ¤ (1.29)
Dφ exp i d4 x(L(φ) + 2i ²φ2 )
£ R ¤
Ston arijmht  to ekjetikì exp i Lint (φ)dx mporeÐ na bgei aristerˆ apì to
£ R ¤
olokl rwma wc proc to pedÐo φ(x) an grafeÐ ¸c exp i Lint ( 1i δJ δ
)dx opìte den
exartˆtai tupikˆ apì to pedÐo φ. 'Etsi gia allhlepidr¸nta pedÐa èqoume
· Z ¸
1 δ
Z[J] = exp i Lint ( )dx Z0 [J] (1.30)
i δJ
  pl rwc me sunj kh kanonikopoÐhshc Z[J = 0] = 1
£ R ¤ £ R ¤
δ
exp i Lint ( 1i δJ )dx exp − 2i J(x)∆F (x − y)J(y)dxdy
Z[J] = © £ R ¤ £ R ¤ª¯ (1.31)
exp i Lint ( 1i δJ
δ
)dx exp − 2i J(x)∆F (x − y)J(y)dxdy ¯J=0

1.3.3 Sunarthsiak  Genn tria gia spinor pedÐa

Ta pedÐa fermionÐwn perigrˆfontai me telestèc pou ikanopoioÔn antimetajetikèc sqè-
seic. Ston formalismì ìmwc twn oloklhrwmˆtwn diadrom c oi wc proc olokl rwsh
posìthtec eÐnai sunart seic kai ìqi telestèc. Epomènwc gia na enswmat¸soume tic
jemeli¸deic antimetajetikèc sqèseic tou pedÐou prèpei na qrhsimopoi soume Gras-
smann metablhtèc.
H ˆlgebra twn antimetajetik¸n arijm¸n melet jhke apì ton Hermann Gras-
smann to 1855. SÔmfwna me thn ˆlgebra aut  an η kai ξ dÔo Grassmann arijmoÐ
tìte {η, ξ} = 0   ηξ = −ξη . EpÐshc η 2 = 0 opìte h genik  sunˆrthsh miac Gras-
smann metablht c eÐnai h grammik  f (η) = a + bη me a, b ∈ C
H olokl rwsh epitugqˆnetai apì ta jemeli¸dh oloklhr¸mata:
Z Z
dη = 0, ηdη = 1 (1.32)

pou me th seirˆ touc odhgoÔn sto Gaussian me η, η̄ anexˆrthtouc Grassmann arij-

moÔc kai a ∈ C:
Z Z Z
η̄aη
dηdη̄e = dηdη̄(1 + η̄aη) = dηaη = a = e+ log a (1.33)

H genÐkeush thc 1.33 sthn perÐptwsh poll¸n diastˆsewn eÐnai profan c: An

η = (η1 , η2 , . . . , ηN ) kai ìmoia gia to η̄ en¸ A = Aij antisumetrikìc N × N pÐnakac
tìte: Z
dηdη̄eη̄Aη = det A (1.34)

6
 Sth suneq  perÐptwsh oi genn torec thc ˆlgebrac Grassmann pou grˆfontai
C(x) ikanopoioÔn tic sqèseic
{C(x), C(y)} = 0 (1.35)
∂C(x)
= δ(x − y) (1.36)
∂C(y)
Z
dC(x) = 0 (1.37)
Z
C(x)dC(x) = 1 (1.38)

Gia to pedÐo Dirac h Lagkranzian  eÐnai L = iψ̄γ µ ∂µ ψ − mψ̄ψ . An jewr soume

phgèc η̄(x) gia to ψ(x) kai η(x) gia to ψ̄(x) tìte h sunarthsiak  genn tria gia to
eleÔjero pedÐo eÐnai:
Z · Z ¸
1
Z0 [η, η̄] = Dψ̄Dψ exp i [ψ̄(x)(iγ · ∂ − m)ψ(x) + η̄(q)ψ(x) + ψ̄(x)η(x)]dx
N
(1.39)
me Z · Z ¸
N= Dψ̄Dψ exp i [ψ̄(x)(iγ · ∂ − m)ψ(x)]dx (1.40)

An orÐsoume S −1 = iγ · ∂ − m kai Q(ψ, ψ̄) = ψ̄S −1 ψ + η̄ψ + ψ̄η tìte to Q

elaqistopoieÐtai gia ψm = −Sη kai ψ̄m = −η̄S me elˆqisth tim  Qm = −η̄Sη kai
to olokl rwma sto ekjetikì grˆfetai:
Z · Z ¸
1
Z0 [η, η̄] = Dψ̄Dψ exp i [Qm + (ψ̄ − ψ̄m )S −1 (ψ − ψm )]dx
N
Z · Z ¸
1 −1
= exp [iQm ] Dψ̄Dψ exp i [(ψ̄ − ψ̄m )S (ψ − ψm )]dx
N
· Z ¸
1
= exp −i η̄(x)Sη(y)dxdy det(iS −1 )
N
ìpou qrhsimopoi jhke h sunarthsiak  ekdoq  tou Gaussian oloklhr¸matoc
1.34, dhlad  h
Z · Z ¸
Dψ̄Dψ exp i (ψ̄ − ψ̄m )S (ψ − ψm )dx = det(iS −1 )
−1
(1.41)

H teleutaÐa sqèsh orÐzei to N opìte h genn tria gia to eleÔjero Dirac pedÐo

eÐnai: · Z ¸
Z0 [η, η̄] = exp −i η̄(x)Sη(y)dxdy (1.42)

GenikeÔontac thn 1.30 gia thn perÐptwsh tou Dirac pedÐou parousÐa allhlepi-
drˆsewn èqoume:
· Z µ ¶ ¸
1 δ 1 δ
Z[η, η̄] = exp i Lint , dx Z0 [η, η̄] (1.43)
i δη i δ η̄

7
1.3.4 Sunarthsiak  Genn tria gia to H/M pedÐo
H Lagkranzian  tou hlektromagnhtikoÔ pedÐou eÐnai L = − 14 Fµν F µν me F µν =
∂ µ Aν − ∂ ν Aµ . H sunarthsiak  genn tria orÐzetai wc
Z · Z ¸
µ
Z[J] = DAµ exp i (L + J Aµ )dx (1.44)

H L mporeÐ na grafeÐ L = 21 Aµ [gµν ¤−∂µ ∂ν ]Aν , an kˆnoume to ginìmeno Fµν F µν

kai qrhsimopoi soume ton nìmo tou Gauss gia na mhdenÐsoume ìrouc thc morf c
∂µ (Aµ ∂ν Aν ). H suntag  gia ton diadìth wc o antÐstrofoc tou tetragwnikoÔ ìrou
thc Lagkranzian c dèn efarmìzetai sthn perÐptws  mac miac kai o ìroc gµν ¤ −∂µ ∂ν
dèn èqei antÐstrofo. Prˆgmati h drˆsh tou se sunˆrthsh thc morf c ∂ µ Ω(x) dÐnei
mhdèn ˆra o telest c èqei mhdenik  idiotim .
H L eÐnai profan¸c analloÐwth se metasqhmatismoÔc bajmÐdac (gauge) tic mor-
f c Aµ → Aµ + ∂µ Λ(x). 'Omwc h sunarthsiak  olokl rwsh gÐnetai se ìlec tic
sunart seic Aµ ˆra se ˆpeirec sunart seic pou sundèontai me èna tètoio metasqh-
matismì pou ìlec eÐnai fusikˆ isodÔnamec. Autì dÐnei mÐa ˆpeirh suneisforˆ sto
olokl rwma ˆra to Z[J] apoklÐnei.
MporoÔme na diorj¸soume to prìblhma apomon¸nontac ton endiafèronta ìro
sto sunarthsiakì olokl rwma pou metrˆei kˆje fusikˆ isodÔnamh diamìrfwsh mìno
mÐa forˆ me th mèjodo Faddeev-Popov. R
Ac jewr soume to olokl rwma (aplì   diadrom c) I = DA exp[iS(A)] to o-
poÐo eÐnai analloÐwto se metasqhmatismoÔc A → Ag , to Ðdio kai to mètro DA = DAg
kai h upì olokl rwsh posìthta S(A) = S(Ag ). Oi metasqhmatismoÐ sunistoÔn R mÐa
omˆda. To zhtoÔmeno eÐnai na grˆyoume to olokl rwma sth morf  I = ( Dg)J me
to J anexˆrthto touR g . H posìthta Dg eÐnai to mètro thc omˆdac metasqhmatism¸n
kai to olokl rwma Dg eÐnai o ìgkoc thc omˆdac.
OrÐzoume thn orÐzousa Faddeev-Popov ∆(A) apì th sqèsh
Z
∆(A) Dg δ (f (Ag )) = 1 (1.45)

H orÐzousa eÐnai analloÐwth stouc metasqhmatismoÔc afoÔ

Z
¡ ¢
[∆(Ag )]−1 = Dg δ f (Ag0 g )
Z
¡ ¢
= D(g 0 g) δ f (Ag0 g )

= [∆(A)]−1 (1.46)
Opìte
Z
I = DA exp[iS(A)]
Z Z
= DA exp[iS(A)]∆(A) Dg δ (f (Ag ))
Z Z
= Dg DA exp[iS(A)]∆(A)δ (f (Ag )) (1.47)

8
Sto teleutaÐo olokl rwma kˆnoume mÐa allag  metablht c A → Ag−1 opìte allˆzei
mìno o ìroc sth sunˆrthsh f (Ag )
µZ ¶Z
I = Dg DA exp[iS(A)]∆(A)δ (f (A)) (1.48)

Eidikˆ ston hlektromagnhtismì t¸ra o metasqhmatismìc mac eÐnai Ag = Aµ −

∂µ Λ(x), t¸ra g = Λ, kai dialègontac f (A) = ∂A − σ(x)
Z
[∆(A)] = DΛδ(∂A − ∂ 2 Λ − σ)
−1
(1.49)

H dèlta sunˆrthsh sthn 1.48 mac Repitrèpei na jewr soume to f (A) = ∂A −

σ mhdèn opìte sqhmatikˆ [∆(A)] = [ DΛδ(∂ 2 Λ)]−1 . 'Omwc autì den exartˆtai
apì
R to A opìte mporeÐ na aporrofhjeÐ sthn stajerˆ kanonikopoÐhshc. 'Etsi I =
DAexp[iS(A)]δ(∂A − σ). To olokl rwma eÐnai anexˆrthto apì thn epilog  thc
sunˆrthshc f ˆra kai thc σ(x), ˆra mporoÔme na oloklhr¸soume
R me èna opoiod pote
sunarthsiakì tou σ(x) kai bèbaia dialègoume to exp[− 2ξi d4 xσ 2 (x)]
Z ½ Z ¾Z
i 4 2
Z = Dσ exp − d xσ (x) DA exp{iS(A)}δ(∂A − σ)
2ξ
Z ½ Z ¾
i
Z = DA exp iS(A) − d4 x(∂A)2 (1.50)
2ξ
HR parapˆnw exÐswsh mac epitrèpei na metabˆlloume th drˆsh katˆ ton ìro
− 2ξi d4 x(∂A)2
Z ½ · µ ¶ ¸ ¾
4 1 2 µν 1 µ ν µ
S(A) = d x Aµ ∂ g − 1 − ∂ ∂ Aν + Aµ J (1.51)
2 ξ
T¸ra o tetragwnikìc ìroc thc Lagkranzian c èqei antÐstrofo opìte o diadìthc
tou fwtonÐou mporeÐ na grafeÐ se q¸ro orm c
· ¸
i kµ kν
Dµν (k) = − 2 gµν − (1 − ξ) 2 (1.52)
k k
Gia ξ → 1 èqoume ton diadìth (  bajmÐda) Feynman, en¸ gia ξ → 0 èqoume ton
diadìth (  bajmÐda) Landau.
Enallaktikˆ, mporoÔsame na diorj¸soume to prìblhma dialègontac mÐa bajmÐda.
An epibˆlloume th sunj kh Lorentz ∂µ Aµ = 0 h L grˆfetai:
1
L = Aµ gµν ¤Aν (1.53)
2
Autì mporeÐ na jewrhjeÐ kai wc prìsjesh sthn L0 = − 14 Fµν F µν enìc ìrou
epibol c bajmÐdac (gauge fixing) thc morf c
1
LGF = − (∂µ Aµ )2 (1.54)
2ξ

9
me thn pl rh Lagkranzian :

1 1
L = − Fµν F µν − (∂µ Aµ )2 (1.55)
4 2ξ
pou grˆfetai kai · µ ¶ ¸
1 µ 1
L = A gµν ¤ − 1 − ∂µ ∂ν Aν (1.56)
2 ξ
kai odhgeÐ ston prohgoÔmeno diadìth.

1.3.5 Sunart seic Green kai Diadìtec

H sunarthsiak  anˆlogh thc anˆptuxhc mÐac sunˆrthshc k metablht¸n se dunamo-
seirˆ:
∞ X
X k k
X 1
F (x) = F (x1 , x2 , . . . , xk ) = ··· Tn (i1 , . . . , in )xi1 · · · xin (1.57)
n!
n=0 i1 =0 in =0
¯
∂ µ F (x) ¯
me Tn = ∂x 1 ···∂xn
¯ eÐnai
x=0

∞ Z
X 1
F [y] = dx1 · · · dxn Tn (x1 , . . . , xn )y(x1 ) · · · y(xn ) (1.58)
n!
n=0

me ¯
δ δ δ ¯
Tn (x1 , . . . , xn ) = ··· F [y]¯¯ (1.59)
δy(x1 ) δy(x1 ) δy(xn ) y=0

Dhlad  h F [y] eÐnai h sunarthsiak  genn tria (functional generator) twn su-

nart sewn Tn (x1 , . . . , xn ). 'Etsi to sunarthsiakì Z0 [J] eÐnai genn tria twn sunar-
t sewn ¯
1 δ n Z0 [J] ¯
τ (x1 , . . . , xn ) = n ¯ (1.60)
i δJ(x1 ) · · · δJ(xn ) ¯y=0
To deÔtero mèloc lìgw thc 1.19 eÐnai Ðso me h0|T (φ(x1 ) · · · φ(xn ))|0i opìte

τ (x1 , . . . , xn ) = h0|T (φ(x1 ) · · · φ(xn ))|0i (1.61)

Oi anamenìmenec timèc kenoÔ (vacuum expectation values) twn qronodiatetagmè-

nwn ginomènwn telest¸n twn pedÐwn onomˆzontai sunart seic Green   sunart seic
n-shmeÐwn thc jewrÐac. ¯
δ 2 Z0 [J] ¯
Eidikìtera h sunˆrthsh 2-shmeÐwn τ (x, y) = i12 δJ(x)δJ(y) ¯ isoÔtai me ton
J=0
diadìth apì to shmeÐo x sto y .

10
 Prˆgmati me sunarthsiak  parag¸gish tou bajmwtoÔ pedÐou:
· Z ¸
1 δZ0 [J] 1 δ i
= exp − dx1 dx2 J(x1 )∆F (x1 − x2 )J(x2 )
i δJ(x) i δJ(x) 2
Z
= − ∆F (x − x1 )J(x1 )dx1
· Z ¸
i
× exp − dx1 dx2 J(x1 )∆F (x1 − x2 )J(x2 ) (1.62)
2
kai
½ Z
1 δZ0 [J] 1 δZ0 [J] δ
= − ∆F (x − x1 )J(x1 )dx1
i δJ(y) i δJ(x) δJ(y)
· Z ¸¾
i
× exp − dx1 dx2 J(x1 )∆F (x1 − x2 )J(x2 )
2
· Z ¸
i
= i∆F (x − y) exp − J∆F J +
2
Z Z
+ ∆F (x − x1 )J(x1 )dx1 ∆F (y − x1 )J(x1 )dx1
· Z ¸
i
× exp − dx1 dx2 J(x1 )∆F (x1 − x2 )J(x2 ) (1.63)
2

opìte ¯
1 δZ0 [J] 1 δZ0 [J] ¯¯
= τ (x, y) = i∆F (x − y) (1.64)
i δJ(y) i δJ(x) ¯J=0
Apì thn (1.62) blèpoume ìti jètontac J = 0 èqoume τ (x) = 0 opìte h sunˆrthsh
1-shmeÐou eÐnai mhdèn. 'Omoia apodeiknÔetai eÔkola ìti τ (x, y, z) = 0, kai genikì-
tera kˆje sunˆrthsh (2n+1)-shmeÐwn, afoÔ h sunarthsiak  parag¸gish ja af nei
èna eleÔjero ìro phg c J pou mhdenÐzetai . ParagwgÐzontac 2 forèc thn (1.63)
brÐskoume ìti:
· Z ¸
1 δ 4 Z0 [J] i
= −∆F (x1 − x2 )∆F (x3 − x4 ) exp − J∆F J +
i4 δJ(x1 )δJ(x2 )δJ(x3 )δJ(x4 ) 2
· Z ¸
i
−∆F (x1 − x3 )∆F (x2 − x4 ) exp − J∆F J +
2
· Z ¸
i
−∆F (x1 − x4 )∆F (x2 − x3 ) exp − J∆F J +
2
+O(J) (1.65)

Opìte

τ (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) = = −[∆F (x1 − x2 )∆F (x3 − x4 )

+∆F (x1 − x3 )∆F (x2 − x4 )
+∆F (x1 − x4 )∆F (x2 − x3 )] (1.66)

11
 H parapˆnw exÐswsh 1.66 mac lèei ìti h sunˆrthsh tessˆrwn shmeÐwn eÐnai
isodÔnamh me diˆdosh dÔo swmatidÐwn metaxÔ tessˆrwn shmeÐwn x1 , x2 , x3 kai x4 me
ìlouc touc dunatoÔc trìpouc.
Genikìtera ìlec oi sunart seic 2k-shmeÐwn katal goun metˆ th sunj kh J = 0
na eÐnai ˆjroisma ginomènwn sunart sewn 2-shmeÐwn (je¸rhma Wick).
Gia allhlepidr¸nta pedÐa prèpei na qrhsimopoi soume thn exÐswsh 1.30   thn
1.31 Se aut  to ekjetikì analÔetai se dunamoseirˆ wc proc sth stajerˆ allhlepÐ-
drashc (coupling constant). Jewr¸ntac thn apl  perÐptwsh (allˆ m  realistik )
Lint = − 4!g φ4 kai se pr¸th tˆxh wc proc g :
" Z µ ¶4 # · Z ¸
ig 1 δ 2 i
1− dz + O(g ) exp − J(x)∆F (x − y)J(y)dxdy (1.67)
4! i δJ(z) 2

Metˆ apì tèsseric paragwgÐseic sto ekjetikì to apotèlesma eÐnai:

µ ¶4 · Z ¸
1 δ i
exp − J(x)∆F (x − y)J(y)dxdy =
i δJ(z) 2
( ·Z ¸2
= −3[∆F (0)]2 + 6i∆F (0) ∆F (z − x)J(x)dx + (1.68)
·Z ¸4 ) · Z ¸
i
∆F (z − x)J(x)dx exp − J(x)∆F (x − y)J(y)dxdy
2

ìpou ∆F (0) = ∆F (x − x) eÐnai h diˆdosh swmatidÐou apì to shmeÐo x sto Ðdio

shmeÐo kai paristˆnetai me èna kÔklo ° en¸ o ìroc [∆F (0)]2 paristˆnetai wc °°.
Oi aploÐ diadìtec sumbolÐzontai me −− kai me −°− en¸ o teleutaÐoc ìroc me ×
Opìte èqoume sqhmatikˆ gia ton arijmht  thc 1.31:
µ ¶4 · Z ¸ n o · Z ¸
1 δ i ° i
exp − J∆F J = −3[°°] + 6i[− −] + × exp − J∆F J
i δJ(z) 2 2
(1.69)
en¸ o paronomast c eÐnai Ðdioc me thn parapˆnw allˆ gia J = 0 pou mhdenÐzei touc
ìrouc [−°−] kai ×
µ ¶4 · Z ¸¯¯ Z
1 δ i ¯ ig
exp − J∆F J ¯ =1− {−3[°°]} dz (1.70)
i δJ(z) 2 ¯ 4!
J=0

Telikˆ h genn tria mporeÐ na grafeÐ se tˆxh g :

h R i £ R ¤
1 − ig
4! (−3[°°] + 6i[− °−] + [×])dz exp − i
2 J∆F J
Z[J] = R (1.71)
1 − ig
4! −3[°°]dz

  isodÔnama qwrÐc na perièqei to grˆfhma kenoÔ (vacuum graph) °° afoÔ genikˆ oi

kanonikopoihmènec genn triec den perièqoun graf mata kenoÔ. Telikˆ h genn tria

12
eÐnai se morf  katˆllhlh gia na upologistoÔn oi sunart seic n-shmeÐwn
· Z ¸ · Z ¸
ig i
Z[J] = 1 − (6i[−°−] + [×])dz exp − J∆F J (1.72)
4! 2

H sunˆrthsh dÔo shmeÐwn τ (x1 , x2 ) brÐsketai me dÔo sunarthsiakèc paragwgÐseic

thc 1.72. O pr¸toc ìroc lìgw tou ekjetikoÔ mac dÐnei ton diadìth tou eleÔjerou
swmatidÐou −−, en¸ o ìroc × epeid  èqei 4 J ja mhdenisteÐ ìtan tejeÐ J = 0. O
deÔteroc ìroc eÐnai
Z · Z ¸
g i
dxdy∆F (x − z)J(x)∆F (0)∆F (y − z)J(y)dz exp − J∆F J (1.73)
4 2
kai metˆ apì dÔo paragwgÐseic kai th sunj kh J = 0 eÔkola èqoume
Z
g
τ (x1 , x2 ) = i∆F (x1 − x2 ) − ∆F (0) ∆F (x1 − z)∆F (x2 − z)dz + O(g 2 ) (1.74)
2

  sqhmatikˆ τ (x1 , x2 ) = i[−−] − g2 [−°−] + O(g 2 ). O deÔteroc ìroc sto ˆjroisma

eÐnai h tropopoÐhsh ston diadìth pou eisˆgei h allhlepÐdrash. O ìroc ìmwc thc
tropopoÐhshc eisˆgei èna ˆpeiro afoÔ o diadìthc Feynman apeirÐzetai tetragwnikˆ
wc proc k gia x1 = x2 .
Z
1 e−ik·(x1 −x2 )
∆F (x1 − x2 ) = d4 k (1.75)
(2π)4 k 2 − m2 + i²

Tèloc h sunˆrthsh tessˆrwn shmeÐwn τ (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) mporeÐ na upologisteÐ

ˆmesa me paragwgÐseic thc 1.72. To apotèlesma eÐnai:

τ (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) = −[∆F (x1 − x2 )∆F (x3 − x4 ) + ∆F (x1 − x2 )∆F (x3 − x4 )

+∆F (x1 − x3 )∆F (x2 − x4 ) + ∆F (x2 − x3 )∆F (x1 − x4 )]+
Z
ig
− ∆F (0) dz[DF (x1 − z)∆F (x2 − z)∆F (x3 − x4 )+
2
+DF (x1 − z)∆F (x3 − z)∆F (x2 − x4 )+
+DF (x1 − z)∆F (x4 − z)∆F (x2 − x3 )+
+DF (x2 − z)∆F (x3 − z)∆F (x1 − x4 )+
+DF (x2 − z)∆F (x4 − z)∆F (x1 − x3 )+
+DF (x3 − z)∆F (x4 − z)∆F (x1 − x2 )]−
Z
−ig dz[DF (x1 − z)∆F (x2 − z)∆F (x3 − z)∆F (x4 − z)]
(1.76)

pou diagrammatikˆ mporeÐ na perigrafeÐ

ig −°−
τ (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) = −3[−−
−−] − 6 [ ] − ig[×] (1.77)
2 −−−

13
 Oi dÔo pr¸toi ìroi eÐnai qwrÐc endiafèron afoÔ perigrˆfoun apl¸c thn diˆdosh
dÔo swmatidÐwn metaxÔ tessˆrwn shmeÐwn me ìlouc touc dunatoÔc trìpouc allˆ
me ta swmatÐdia na m n allhlepidroÔn. Ston deÔtero ìro o ìroc allhlepÐdrashc
èqei allˆxei ton diadìth tou enìc swmatidÐou. Tètoia graf mata lègontai asÔndeta
(disconnected) kai den suneisfèroun sth skèdash. AntÐjeta o teleutaÐoc ìroc ×
perièqei sÔndesh ìlwn twn gramm¸n kai suneisfèrei sto m -tetrimmèno mèroc tou
pÐnaka-S.
MporeÐ na apodeiqjeÐ[8] ìti an orÐsoume èna sunarthsiakì W [J] wc Z[J] =
e [J] autì parˆgei mìno sundedemèna graf mata. Me th bo jeia tou W [J] mpo-
iW

roÔme na orÐsoume thn m -anag¸gimh sunˆrthsh n-shmeÐwn iφ(x1 , . . . , xn )   sunde-

(n)
demènec sunart seic Green GC (x1 , . . . , xn )
¯
(n) 1 δ n W [J] ¯
iφ(x1 , . . . , xn ) = GC (x1 , . . . , xn ) = n−1 ¯ (1.78)
i δJ(x1 ) · · · δJ(xn ) ¯J=0

1.3.6 Telest c autoenèrgeiac kai sunˆrthsh kìmbwn

g 4
H sunˆrthsh dÔo shmeÐwn τ (x1 , x2 ) gia thn perÐptwsh thc − 4! φ brèjhke Ðsh me
g ° 2
τ (x1 , x2 ) = i[−−] − 2 [− −] + O(g ). An antikatast soume touc diadìtec sthn
parapˆnw èkfrash èqoume:
Z −ip·(x1 −x2 )
i 4 e
τ (x1 , x2 ) = d p −
(2π)4 p2 − m2 + i²
Z
g∆F (0) 4 4 4 e−ip·(x1 −z) e−iq·(x2 −z)
− d pd qd z
2(2π)8 p2 − m2 + i² q 2 − m2 + i²
Z −ip·(x1 −x2 ) Z
i 4 e g∆F (0) 4 4 4 e−ip·(x1 −x2 )
= d p − d pd qδ (p − q)
(2π)4 p2 − m2 + i² 2(2π)4 (p2 − m2 + i²)2
Z " #
−ip·(x1 −x2 ) 1
i 4 e 2 ig∆F (0)
= 4
d p 2 2
1 +
(2π) p − m + i² p − m2 + i²
2

Z " #−1
−ip·(x1 −x2 ) 1
i e ig∆ F (0)
≈ d4 p 2 1 − 22
(2π)4 p − m2 + i² p − m2 + i²
Z
i 4 e−ip·(x1 −x2 )
= d p (1.79)
(2π)4 p2 − m2 − 12 ig∆F (0) + i²

kai o metasqhmatismìc Fourier thc τ (x1 , x2 ) èqei pìlo sto shmeÐo m2 + 12 ig∆F (0) =
m2 +δm2 . Profan¸c h mˆza m2r = m2 +δm2 eÐnai h metr simh mˆza tou diadidìmenou
swmatidÐou. H kbantik  jewrÐa problèpei ˆpeirh mˆza gia to swmˆtio afoÔ o ìroc
δm2 perièqei ton diadìth ∆F (0) pou apeirÐzetai tetragwnikˆ. Kai autì se pr¸th
tˆxh wc proc g .
(n)
OrÐzoume pl rh diadìth me sÔmbolo GC kai grafikˆ −◦− to ˆjroisma tou
(n)
diadìth G0 kai ìlwn twn dunat¸n diatˆxewn autoÔ me kuklikoÔc ìrouc (loops) se
ìlec thc tˆxeic tou g .

14
 Oi diatˆxeic autèc perièqoun anag¸gimec morfèc grafhmˆtwn (pou mporoÔn na
kopoÔn se dÔo anexˆrthta graf mata me thn tom  mÐac eswterik c gramm c) allˆ kai
m -anag¸gimec morfèc (pou den mporoÔn na qwristoÔn me thn tom  mÐac eswterik c
gramm c). Ta deÔtera onomˆzontai m -anag¸gima graf mata enìc swmatidÐou (1-
particle irreducible, 1PI gia suntomÐa) kai to ˆjroisma ìlwn twn 1PI grafhmˆtwn
onomˆzetai sunˆrthsh autoenèrgeiac (proper self energy) me sÔmbolo 1i Σ(p). H
sunˆrthsh autoenèrgeiac Σ(p) den perièqei exwterikèc grammèc diadot¸n kai ètsi
(2)
mporeÐ na qrhsimopoihjeÐ gia na grˆyoume ton pl rh diadìth GC (p) wc ˆjroisma

 
(2)
mÐac gewmetrik c seirˆc me pr¸to ìro ton eleÔjero (bare) diadìth G0 (p) wc ex c:

(2) (2) (2) 1 (2) (2) 1 (2) 1 (2)

GC (p) = G0 (p) + G0 (p) Σ(p)G0 (p) + G0 (p) Σ(p)G0 (p) Σ(p)G0 (p) + · · ·
i i i
(1.80)
  sqhmatikˆ:

= + +

+ + ···

'Omwc h gewmetrik  seirˆ mporeÐ na ajroisteÐ dÐnontac

· ¸
(2) 1 1 1
GC (p) = G0 1 + ΣG0 + ΣG0 ΣG0 + · · ·
i i i
· ¸−1
1
= G0 1 − ΣG0
i
· ¸
−1 1 −1
= G0 − Σ
i
· 2 2
¸−1
p −m 1
= − Σ
i i
i
= (1.81)
p2 − m2 − Σ(p)

Apì thn teleutaÐa sqèsh dikaiologeÐtai kai to ìnoma thc Σ(p) wc sunˆrthshc
autoenèrgeiac afoÔ h metr simh mˆza m2phys t¸ra eÐnai m2phys = m2 + Σ(p)
H sunˆrthsh
Γ(2) (p) = p2 − m2 − Σ(p) (1.82)
orÐzetai sunˆrthsh kìmbou (2-shmeÐwn) kai eÐnai h antÐstrofh tou pl rh diadìth
(2-shmeÐwn) afoÔ apì thn parapˆnw sqèsh èqoume
(2)
GC (p)Γ(2) (p) = i (1.83)

15


1.3.7 Sunˆrthsh kìmbou gia to hlektrìnio
H allhlepÐdrash hlektronÐwn - fwtonÐou parˆgetai apì ton ìro allhlepÐdrashc
ieψ̄γ µ ψAµ thc Lagkranzian c. Sto diˆgramma Feynman aut  antistoiqeÐ ston kìm-
bo

ìpou p, p0 h eiserqìmenh, exerqìmenh orm  twn hlektronÐwn kai q h orm  ttou fw-
tonÐou.
An jewr soume ìlec tic diorj¸seic sto grˆfhma kìmbou pou prokÔptoun apì
eisagwg  dunˆmei fwtonÐwn (me mÐa pr¸th diìrjwsh to diˆgramma kìmbou sthn pa-
rˆgrafo thc epakanonikopoÐhshc thc QED parakˆtw) mporoÔme na orÐsoume mÐa
sunˆrthsh kìmbou Γµ (p, p0 ) pou na ekfrˆzei to ˆjroisma ìlwn aut¸n twn diagram-
mˆtwn. H sunˆrthsh aut  upeisèrqetai sto plˆtoc skèdashc apì dunamikì Coulomb
p.q. (Aµ (p) h metasqhmatismènh katˆ Fourier tou dunamikoÔ Aµ (x))

iM (2π)δ(p00 − p0 ) = −ieū(p0 )Γµ u(p) · Aµ (p0 − p) (1.84)

Se pr¸th tˆxh Γµ = γ µ .
To analloÐwto katˆ Lorentz mac epibˆllei na grˆyoume th sunˆrthsh Γµ (p, p0 )
(pou prèpei na metasqhmatÐzetai wc diˆnusma) wc sunduasmì twn dianusmˆtwn γ µ ,
pµ kai p0µ
Γµ = Aγ µ + B(p0µ + pµ ) + C(p0µ − pµ ) (1.85)
ìpou ta A, B, C eÐnai sunart seic bajmwt¸n posot twn (p.q. mˆza) epÐ to genikì-
tero m  tetrimmèno bajmwtì q 2 = −2p0 · p − m2 .
H tautìthta W ard (1.88) periorÐzei akìma perissìtero th morf  thc Γµ (p, p0 )
afoÔ prèpei qµ Γµ (p, p0 ) = 0 opìte C = 0. Tèloc h tautìthta Gordon (2.85) mac
epitrèpei na ekfrˆsoume thn Γµ wc sunˆrthsh thc γ µ kai thc σ µν qν me tic ˆgnwstec
sunart seic F1 (q 2 ) kai F2 (q 2 ) na onomˆzontai sunart seic morf c (form factors).
iσ µν qν
Γµ (p, p0 ) = γ µ F1 (q 2 ) + F2 (q 2 ) (1.86)
2m
Se pr¸th tˆxh F1 = 1 kai F2 = 0.

1.3.8 Tautìthta Ward-Takahashi

H tautìthta Ward [13] kai h genÐkeus  thc apì ton Takahashi eÐnai mÐa sqèsh meta-
xÔ sunart sewn kìmbou kai diadot¸n, alhj c se kˆje tˆxh tou anaptÔgmatoc thc
jewrÐac diataraq¸n. EÐnai de sunèpeia thc summetrÐac bajmÐdac thc kbantik c hle-
ktrodunamik c, kai mporeÐ na apodeiqjeÐ[8] me mejìdouc oloklhrwmˆtwn diadrom c

16
epibˆllontac sth genn tria sunˆrthsh Z thc jewrÐac to analloÐwto se metasqh-
matismì bajmÐdac.
Ac jewr soume mÐa diadikasÐa plˆtouc M me n eiserqìmena fermiìnia orm¸n
p1 , p2 , · · · pn kai n exerqìmena fermiìnia orm¸n q1 , q2 , · · · qn èna eiserqìmeno fwtìnio
orm c k kai tuqaÐo arijmì exerqìmenwn fwtonÐwn. H Ðdia diadikasÐa qwrÐc to fwtìnio
orm c k èqei plˆtoc M0 . Tìte h sqèsh W ard − T akahashi orÐzei [7]
X
kµ M µ (k; p1 , p2 , · · · pn ; q1 , q2 , · · · qn ) = e (M0 (p1 , · · · pn ; q1 , · · · qi − k, · · · qn )
i
−M0 (p1 , · · · pi + k, · · · pn ; q1 , · · · · · · qn ))
(1.87)

H prohgoÔmenh eÐnai h genÐkeush thc sqèshc Ward sÔmfwna me thn opoÐa an M (k) =
²µ (k)M µ (k) eÐnai to plˆtoc gia kˆpoia diadikasÐa me èna exwterikì fwtìnio orm c
k tìte h antikatˆstash tou ²µ me to kµ mhdenÐzei to plˆtoc

kµ M µ (k) = 0 (1.88)

Sthn aploÔsterh perÐptwsh me èna mìno eiserqìmeno (orm c p) kai exerqìmeno

fermiìnio (orm c p + k ) sto dexÐ mèroc thc 1.87 èqoume touc pl rhc diadìtec S(p)
kai S(p + k)
i
S(p) = (1.89)
/p − m − Σ(p)
en¸ to aristerì mèloc mporeÐ na grafeÐ wc ginìmeno twn diadot¸n S(p) kai S(p + k)
epÐ th sunˆrthsh kìmbou −eΓµ (p + k, p)

S(p + k)(−ekµ Γµ (p + k, p))S(p) = e(S(p) − S(p + k)) (1.90)

pou me pollaplasiasmì epÐ S −1 (p + k) kai S −1 (p)

−kµ Γµ (p + k, p) = S −1 (p + k) − S −1 (p) (1.91)

(sth bibliografÐa aut  h eidik  perÐptwsh anafèretai suqnˆ wc h tautìthta Ward-

Takahashi) Jewr¸ntac to ìrio k → 0 h prohgoÔmenh grˆfetai

∂S −1
Γµ (p, p) = (1.92)
pµ
gnwst  kai wc tautìthta Ward

1.3.9 PÐnakac S
Oi metr simec posìthtec sth fusik  twn stoiqeiwd¸n swmatidÐwn eÐnai oi qrìnoi hmi-
zw c twn diasp¸menwn swmatidÐwn kai ta embadˆ diatom c skèdashc. Oi posìthtec
autèc sqetÐzontai me to plˆtoc skèdashc Sβα apì thn katˆstash α sthn katˆstash

17
β . Oi posìthtec twn Sβα mporoÔn na jewrhjoÔn wc stoiqeÐa pÐnaka S tou pÐnaka
skèdashc   scattering matrix, S − matrix.

Sβα = hβ|αi (1.93)

  isodÔnama
φout (x) = S † φin (x)S (1.94)
An jewr soume ton telest  φ(x) ìso eÐnai upì thn ep reia twn ìrwn allhlepÐ-
drashc (gia thn perÐptwsh bajmwtoÔ pedÐou) tìte me Lagrangian L = 12 ∂µ φ∂ µ φ −
1 2 2
2 m φ + Lint ja isqÔei
∂Lint
(¤ + m2 )φ(x) = (1.95)
∂φ(x)
me lÔsh
Z
∂Lint
φ(x) = φin (x) + dy∆ret (x − y) (1.96)
∂φ(y)
Z
∂Lint
φ(x) = φout (x) + dy∆adv (x − y) (1.97)
∂φ(y)

ìpou ∆ret (x − y) h kajusterhmènh sunˆrthsh Green kai ∆adv (x − y) h prwjÔ-

sterh sunˆrthsh Green. Zhtˆme th morf  tou pÐnaka S epibˆllontac thn asjen 
asumptwtik  sunj kh LSZ (apì touc Lehmann, Symanzik kai Zimmermann)

lim hα|φ(x)|βi = hα|φout (x)|βi (1.98)

t→±∞ in
¡ £ R ¤¢
OrÐzoume to sunarthsiakì I[J] = T exp i J(x)φ(x)dx gia to opoÐo h ana-
menìmenh tim  kenoÔ (vev) eÐnai h Z[J]   Z[J] = h0|I[J]|0i. Pollaplasiˆzontac tic
1.97 me I[J] kai T
Z
T (φ(x)I[J]) = I[J]φin (x) + dy∆ret (x − y)Ky T (φ(y)I[J]) (1.99)
Z
T (φ(x)I[J]) = φout (x)I[J] + dy∆adv (x − y)Ky T (φ(y)I[J]) (1.100)

δI[J]
kai qrhsimopoi¸ntac thn iδJ(x) = T (φ(x)I[J])
Z
δI[J] δI[J]
= I[J]φin (x) + dy∆ret (x − y)Ky (1.101)
iδJ(x) iδJ(y)
Z
δI[J] δI[J]
= φout (x)I[J] + dy∆adv (x − y)Ky (1.102)
iδJ(x) iδJ(y)

afair¸ntac:
Z
δI[J]
φout (x)I[J] − I[J]φin (x) = i dy∆(x − y)Ky (1.103)
δJ(y)

18
me ∆(x − y) = ∆adv (x − y) − ∆ret (x − y) kai Ky o telest c ¤ + m2 . Sthrizìmenoi
sthn unitarity tou telest  S , S † S = SS † = 1:

φout (x)I[J] − I[J]φin (x) = S † φin (x)SI[J] − I[J]φin (x)

S (φout (x)I[J] − I[J]φin (x)) = SS † φin (x)SI[J] − SI[J]φin (x)
= φin (x)SI[J] − SI[J]φin (x)
= [φin (x), SI[J]] (1.104)

opìte Z
δ(SI[J])
[φin (x), SI[J]] = i dy∆(x − y)Ky (1.105)
δJ(y)
H lÔsh thc parapˆnw eÐnai
·Z ¸
δ
SI[J] = exp dzφin (z)Kz F [J] (1.106)
δJ(z)

ìpwc mporeÐ eÔkola na deiqjeÐ me antikatˆstash kai me qr sh thc [φin (x), φin (y)] =
i∆(x − y). H sunˆrthsh F [J] mporeÐ na brejeÐ paÐrnontac tic anamenìmenec timèc
kenoÔ thc 1.106 (afoÔ pr¸ta kˆnoume qronik  tˆxh -normal order- sto ekjetikì) kai
qrhsimopoi¸ntac to ìti h0| : eA : |0i = 1 gia kˆje telest  A. Telikˆ F [J] = Z[J].
An epiprìsjeta pˆroume J = 0 tìte I[J = 0] = 1 kai
·Z ¸ ¯
δ ¯
S = : exp dzφin (z)Kz : Z[J]¯¯ (1.107)
δJ(z) J=0

H exÐswsh 1.107 mporeÐ na qrhsimopoihjeÐ anaptÔssontac to ekjetikì, dhlad 

diataraktikˆ. Se tˆxh n ja pˆroume èna ìro me th niost  sunarthsiak  parˆgwgo
thc Z[J] pou eÐnai h sunˆrthsh n-shmeÐwn. Gia kˆje exerqìmeno swmatÐdio èqoume
ton telest  K pou metatrèpei ton diadìth se d-sunˆrthsh. Tèloc pollaplasiˆzoume
me thn sunˆrthsh φin (z) tou exerqìmenou swmatidÐou. Autì dÐnei èna sugkekrimèno
stoiqeÐo tou pÐnaka S .

19
Kefˆlaio 2

Efarmogèc
2.1 EpakanonikopoÐhsh
Apì thn exÐswsh 1.79 gia thn sunˆrthsh dÔo shmeÐwn τ (x1 , x2 ) blèpoume ìti Ôpar-
xh tou ìrou allhlepÐdrashc kai h anˆptuxh me th jewrÐa diataraq¸n mac èfere se
epaf  me èna ˆpeiro olokl rwma. H katˆstash aut  den eÐnai prwtìgnwrh. 'H-
dh h klassik  hlektrodunamik  upologÐzei th hlektrostatik  mˆza-enèrgeia enìc
fortismènou swmatidÐou
Z 2 Z ∞ µ 2 ¶
3 E 21 q q2
me = d x = dr4πr = (2.1)
2 r 2 4πr2 8πr2

pou apeirÐzetai gia shmeiakì swmatÐdio. 'Enac trìpoc na apofÔgoume ton apeirismì
eÐnai na jewr soume ìti to swmˆtio èqei mÐa orismènh aktÐna. Gia to hlektrìnio
h aktÐna re gia thn opoÐa h prohgoÔmenh exÐswsh dÐnei mˆza Ðsh me thn metr simh
mˆza tou eÐnai gnwst  wc klassik  aktÐna tou hlektronÐou kai upologÐzetai re ≈
2, 8 · 10−15 m. Genikˆ h mèjodoc me thn opoÐa prospajoÔme na antimetwpÐsoume touc
apeirismoÔc onomˆzetai epakanonikopoÐhsh (renormalization).
H kÔria idèa thc epakanonikopoÐhshc eÐnai h diìrjwsh thc arqik c Lagkranzia-
n c thc jewrÐac me èna pl joc apì ìrouc diìrjwshc (  akÔrwshc) (counter terms)
gia kˆje apoklÐnousa posìthta sta diagrˆmmata Feynman. Gia thn perÐptwsh thc
Kbantik c Hlektrodunamik c (QED) eÐnai dunatì na tropopoi soume tic paramè-
trouc thc jewrÐac (mˆza, fortÐo) antikajist¸ntac autèc me apoklÐnousec posìth-
tec ètsi ¸ste na èqoume peperasmèna apotelèsmata stic metr simec posìthtec. Oi
arqikèc posìthtec mporoÔn na apoklÐnoun giatÐ den antistoiqoÔn se fusikèc (metr -
simec) paramètrouc, gi' autì kai onomˆzontai bare parˆmetroi. AntÐjeta oi fusikèc
posìthtec (rujmoÐ metˆbashc, qrìnoi hmizw c...) prèpei na ekfrˆzontai se sqèsh me
tic metr simec posìthtec pou onomˆzontai epakanonikopoihmènec   fusikèc. H tim 
twn fusik¸n paramètrwn dèn orÐzetai apì th jewrÐa allˆ metrˆtai apì ta peirˆmata.
An h jewrÐa mac eÐnai epakanonikopoi simh tìte oi diorjwtikoÐ ìroi èqoun thn
Ðdia morf  me touc antÐstoiqouc ìrouc sth Lagkranzian  opìte mporoÔn na apor-
rofhjoÔn stouc arqikoÔc ìrouc. Dhlad  den epitrèpetai na eisˆgoume diorjwtikì

20
ìro aujaÐrethc morf c, giatÐ tìte me katˆllhlh eisagwg  ìrwn ja  tan dunatì
na epakanonikopoi soume opoiad pote jewrÐa. H Ðdia suntag  prèpei na isqÔei se
opoiad pote tˆxh anˆptuxhc sth jewrÐa diataraq¸n.
'Ena apoklÐnon olokl rwma ìpwc to Σ(p)
R ∞, 2.19 parakˆtw, apoklÐnei tetragwnikˆ
gia megˆla k , dhlad  apoklÐnei ìpwc to rdr. Diˆforec mèjodoi kai teqnikèc
èqoun anaptuqjeÐ gia thn omalopoÐhsh tètoiwn oloklhrwmˆtwn.
H plèon fusikˆ diˆfanh eÐnai h omalopoÐhsh Pauli-Villars sÔmfwna me thn opoÐa
h olokl rwsh wc proc k prèpei na gÐnei mèqri mÐa megˆlh tim  Λ (cutoff ) kai ìqi
mèqri to ˆpeiro. Enallaktikˆ jewroÔme thn Ôparxh enìc (upojetikoÔ) swmatidÐou
me mˆza M , pou tropopoieÐ ton diadìth

1 1 m2 − M 2
− = (2.2)
p2 − m2 p2 − M 2 (p2 − m2 )(p2 − M 2 )

O diadìthc t¸ra sumperifèretai wc 1/p4 prˆgma pou metatrèpei ta apoklÐnonta

oloklhr¸mata se peperasmèna. Metˆ jewroÔme M 2 → ∞.
H mèjodoc aut  ousiastikˆ shmaÐnei ìti upˆrqei èna ìrio stic timèc thc orm c
pèra apì to opoÐo h jewrÐa mac den èqei nìhma. Prˆgmati an jewr soume thn skè-
dash dÔo hlektronÐwn, se qamhlèc enèrgeiec aut  perigrˆfetai apì th sunhjismènh
jewrÐa mac kai ta gnwstˆ diagrˆmmata Feynman. Se pr¸th tˆxh p.q.

'Oso megal¸nei h enèrgeia perimènoume na dhmiourghjoÔn kai ˆlla dunˆmei swmatÐdia

p.q. to mpozìnio Z , opìte h jewrÐa paÔei na eÐnai h apl  kbantik  hlektrodunamik 
kai gÐnetai hlektrasjen c.
MÐa ˆllh mèjodoc omalopoÐhshc eÐnai h omalopoÐhsh diktu¸matoc (lattice re-
gulasization), me thn opoÐa jewroÔme ìti o qwroqrìnoc eÐnai èna sÔnolo shmeÐwn
diatetagmèna se mÐa uperkubik  dom . Aut  h dom  perièqei ek kataskeu c èna elˆ-
qisto sthn apìstash opìte dhmiourgeÐ èna an¸tero ìrio sthn enèrgeia (cutoff ) pou
exaleÐfei touc apeirismoÔc, den diathreÐ ìmwc to analloÐwto katˆ Lorentz.
H plèon uposqìmenh diadikasÐa omalopoÐhshc pou diathreÐ to analloÐwto baj-
mÐdac kai Lorentz eÐnai h diastasiak  omalopoÐhsh (dimensional regulasization) me
thn opoÐa oi upologismoÐ twn oloklhrwmˆtwn gÐnontai se q¸ro me diˆstash d > 4
ston opoÐo ta oloklhr¸mata eÐnai peperasmèna. Me analutik  sunèqeia d → 4 pro-
kÔptoun pìloi pou mac epitrèpoun na aporrof soume tic apoklÐseic stic fusikèc
paramètrouc.
Bèbaia h diadikasÐa thc epakanonikopoÐhshc ja èprepe na gÐnei akìma kai an
ìla ta oloklhr¸mata tou q¸rou orm c  tan sugklÐnonta [14]. Autì giatÐ prèpei
na apait soume apì èna epakanonikopoihmèno pedÐo na èqei diadìth pou na èqei thn
Ðdia sumperiforˆ ston pìlo tou me thn sumperiforˆ tou eleÔjerou diadìth. O

21
pìloc de tou pedÐou prèpei na eÐnai h epakanonikopoihmènh mˆza. Gia parˆdeigma an
jewr soume mÐa Lagkranzian 

1 1
L = − ∂m ΦB ∂ m ΦB − m2B Φ2B − VB (ΦB ) (2.3)
2 2
Den upˆrqei lìgoc na perimènoume ìti to pedÐo ΦB ja eÐnai tètoio ¸ste o pìloc tou
diadìth na eÐnai sto q 2 = m2B . MporoÔme ìmwc na eisˆgoume èna epakanonikopoih-

mèno pedÐo Φ = Z −1/2 ΦB kai mÐa epakanonikopoihmènh mˆza m2 = m2B + δm2 ètsi
¸ste o pìloc tou diadìth na eÐnai sto q 2 = m2

2.2 EpakanonikopoÐhsh thc QED se pr¸th tˆxh

Sthn Kbantik  Hlektrodunamik  se pr¸th tˆxh (1-loop) upˆrqoun sunolikˆ 5 dia-

grˆmmata pou dÐnoun ˆpeira oloklhr¸mata. Autˆ eÐnai:
To diˆgramma autoenèrgeiac tou hlektronÐou:

To diˆgramma autoenèrgeiac tou fwtonÐou (pìlwsh kenoÔ):

To diˆgramma kìmbou:

Kaj¸c kai ta diagrˆmmata:

Skèdash fwtìc apì fwc:

22
kanìnwn Feynman mÐa sunˆrthsh

ie2 Σ(p) =
Z


Apì ta prohgoÔmena diagrˆmmata Feynman to pr¸to dÐnei me efarmog  twn

d4 k
(2π) 4

To deÔtero (gnwstì kai wc pìlwsh kenoÔ)

(−ieγµ )
−ig µν 1
k /p − /k − m
2
(−ieγν ) (2.4)

Z · ¸
2 µν d4 p i µ i ν
ie Π (q) = − Tr (−ieγ ) (−ieγ ) (2.5)
(2π)4 /p − /q − m /p − m

Kai to trÐto
Z
2 µ 0 d4 k i i −igαβ
e Λ (p, p ) = (−ieγ α ) 0 γµ (−ieγ β ) 2 (2.6)
(2π) 4 /p − /k − m /p − /k − m k

En¸ to tètarto diˆgramma lìgw summetrÐac C enallag c fortÐou - swmatidÐ-

ou - antiswmatidÐou thc Lagkranzian c dÐnei mhdenik  suneisforˆ, ìpwc kai kˆje
diˆgramma me monì arijmì exerqìmenwn fwtonÐwn (je¸rhma Furry). Prˆgmati an
jewr soume to Ðdio grˆfhma me thn anˆpodh forˆ sta hlektrìnia sto eswterikì
brìgqo autì mporeÐ na jewrhjeÐ wc enallag  tou fortÐou ston kìmbo. 'Omwc u-
pˆrqoun treic kìmboi ˆra to sunolikì prìshmo eÐnai arnhtikì, dhlad  antÐjeto apì
to arqikì diˆgramma. 'Etsi h sunolik  suneisforˆ twn diagrammˆtwn aut¸n eÐnai
mhdèn.
To pèmpto diˆgramma (skèdash fwtìc apì fwc) lìgw summetrÐac bajmÐdac dÐnei
telikˆ peperasmèno apotèlesma.
To ˆpeiro mèroc tou Σ(p) mporeÐ na aporrofhjeÐ sthn tropopoÐhsh thc mˆzac
tou hlektronÐou kai thc kumatosunˆrths c tou. To apoklÐnon mèroc tou Πµ ν mporeÐ
na aporrofhjeÐ sthn tropopoÐhsh thc kumatosunˆrthshc tou fwtonÐou (h mˆza
tou lìgw summetrÐac bajmÐdac telikˆ den tropopoieÐtai, paramènontac mhdenik ).
Tèloc to apoklÐnon mèroc tou Λµ (p0 , p) allˆzei ton orismì thc posìthtac e, en¸ to
diˆgramma autì eÐnai upeÔjuno gia thn tropopoÐhsh pr¸thc tˆxhc tou parˆgonta g
tou Landé thc magnhtik c rop c.

2.2.1 OmalopoÐhsh twn oloklhrwmˆtwn

Me thn mèjodo thc diastasiak c omalopoÐhshc jewroÔme ta oloklhr¸mata se q¸ro
d diastˆsewn (d > 4) kai metˆ ton upologismì jètoume d = 4   kalÔtera d → 4. Gia
d 6= 4 ta oloklhr¸mata eÐnai kalˆ orismèna kai den apoklÐnoun. Prin ìmwc prèpei
na skeftoÔme tic diastˆseic thc Lagkranzian c. Epeid  h drˆsh S se d diastˆseic

23
prèpei na eÐnai adiˆstath sunepˆgetai ìti h diˆstash thc Lagkranzian c puknìthtac
eÐnai [L] = L−d   se diastˆseic mˆzac [L] = d.

L = iψ̄γ µ ∂µ ψ − mψ̄ψ − eAµ ψ̄γ ψ −

1 1 (2.7)
− (∂µ Aν − ∂ν Aµ )2 − (∂µ Aµ )2
4 2
Gia na èqoume swstèc diastˆseic o trÐtoc ìroc prèpei na pollaplasiasteÐ me
µ2−d/2 ìpou m tuqaÐa mˆza.
O ìroc thc autoenèrgeiac tou hlektronÐou grˆfetai:
Z
4−d dd k /p − /k + m 1
Σ(p) = iµ d
γµ 2 2
γµ 2 (2.8)
(2π) (p − k) − m k
Qrhsimopoi¸ntac thn parametropoÐhsh Feynman
Z 1
1 dz
= 2
(2.9)
ab 0 [az + b(1 − z)]

èqoume
Z 1 Z
4−d dd k /p − /k + m
Σ(p) = iµ dz γµ γµ (2.10)
0 (2π)d [(p − k)2 − m2 z + k 2 (1 − z)]2
O paronomast c gÐnetai metˆ apì prˆxeic

[· · · ] = p2 z − m2 z + k 2 − 2p · kz (2.11)

kai o ìroc 2p · kz exafanÐzetai me thn allag  metablht c k = k 0 + pz

[· · · ] = k 02 − m2 z + p2 z(1 − z) (2.12)

opìte to olokl rwma olìklhro grˆfetai

Z 1 Z
dd k 0 /p(1 − z) − /k 0 + m
Σ(p) = iµ4−d dz γ
d µ [k 02 − m2 z + p2 z(1 − z)]2
γµ (2.13)
0 (2π)

To mèroc tou oloklhr¸matoc pou eÐnai grammikì sto /k 0 eÐnai mhdèn lìgw tou
oloklhr¸matoc 4.14 opìte to olokl rwma 4.13 dÐnei
Z 1
4−d 1 d/2 Γ(2 − d/2) /p(1 − z) − /k 0 + m
Σ(p) = iµ dz iπ γµ (2.14)
0 (2π)d Γ(2) (m2 z − p2 z(1 − z))2−d/2
jètontac
4−d=² (2.15)
kai kˆnontac tic prˆxeic me touc pÐnakec g èqoume:
Z 1
1 / (1 − z) + (4 − ²)m
(² − 2)p
Σ(p) = −µ² dz 4−²
π 2−²/2 Γ(²/2) (2.16)
0 (2π) (m2 z − p2 z(1 − z))²/2

24
 Z 1 · ¸−²/2
1 m2 z − p2 z(1 − z)
Σ(p) = Γ(²/2) / (1−z)−4m−²(p
dz[2p / (1−z)−m)]
16π 2 0 4πµ2
(2.17)
Sthn èkfrash aut  anaptÔssoume wc proc ² kai agnooÔme ìrouc tˆxhc ² kai
megalÔterouc. 'Etsi x−²/2 = 1 − (²/2)µln x + · · · kai qrhsimopoioÔme
¶ th sqèsh
1 1
Γ(²/2) = 2² − γ + O(²), ìpou γ = lim 1 + + · · · + − ln n = 0, 5772157 h
n→∞ 2 n
stajerˆ Euler - Mascheroni. Opìte
Z 1 ·
1 1
Σ(p) = 2
dz (4p / (1 − z) − 8m) − 2(p/ (1 − z) − m)−
16π 0 ²
µ · 2 ¸¶¸ (2.18)
m z − p2 z(1 − z)
/ (1 − z) − 4m) γ − ln
(2p
4πµ2

kai kˆnontac tic stoiqei¸deic oloklhr¸seic

1 1
Σ(p) = 2
/ − 4m) −
(p / − 2m + γ(p
[p / − 4m)
8π ² 16π 2
Z 1 · µ 2 ¶¸
1 m z − p2 z(1 − z)
− 2 / (1 − z) − 2m) ln
dz (p
8π ² 0 4πµ2
1
= / − 4m) + f inite
(p (2.19)
8π 2 ²
To Πµν (q) thc pìlwshc kenoÔ grˆfetai

· Z ¸
µν dd p 4−d 1 µ 1 ν
Π (q) = iµ Tr γ γ
(2π)d /p + /q − m /p − m
Z
dd p T r[γ µ (p
/ + m)γ ν (p
/ + /q − m)]
= iµ4−d (2.20)
(2π) ((p + q)2 − m2 )(p2 − m2 )
d

Eisˆgontac pˆli thn parˆmetro z tou Feynman

Z 1 Z
dd p
Πµν (q) = iµ4−d dz
0 (2π)d
T r[γ µ (p
/ + m)γ ν (p
/ + /q − m)]
× 2 (2.21)
[(p − m )(1 − z) + ((p + q)2 − m2 )z]2
2

O paronomast c grˆfetai metˆ apì tic algebrikèc prˆxeic

[· · · ] = p2 − m2 + q 2 z + 2p · qz (2.22)

kai metˆ apì thn antikatˆstash p = p0 − qz exafanÐzetai o miktìc ìroc 2p · qz

[· · · ] = p02 − m2 + q 2 z(1 − z) (2.23)

25
opìte
Z 1 Z
µν 4−d dd p
Π (q) = iµ dz
0 (2π)d
T r[γ µ (p
/ − /q z + m)γ ν (p
/ + /q (1 − z) + m)]
× (2.24)
[p − m + q z(1 − z)]2
2 2 2

QrhsimopoioÔme tic sqèseic 4.12 gia ta Ðqnh twn pinˆkwn-g èqoume gia to Ðqnoc
twn ˆrtiwn ginomènwn:

T r[· · · ] = T r[γµ/pγν /p] − T r[γµ/q γν/q ]z(1 − z) + m2 T r[γµ γν ]

= [pλ pκ − q λ q κ z(1 − z)]T r[γµ γκ γν γλ ] + m2 T r[γµ γν ]
= f (d)[2pµ pν − 2z(1 − z)(qµ qν − gµν q 2 )
−gµν (p2 − m2 + q 2 z(1 − z)] (2.25)

kai telikˆ
Z ·1 Z
µν 4−d dd p 2pµ pν
Π (q) = iµ f (d) dz
0 (2π) [p − m + q 2 z(1 − z)]2
d 2 2
¸
2z(1 − z)(qµ qν − gµν q 2 ) gµν
− 2 − 2 (2.26)
[p − m2 + q 2 z(1 − z)]2 p − m2 + q 2 z(1 − z)

O pr¸toc ìroc ìtan oloklhrwjeÐ exoudeter¸nei ton trÐto sto parapˆnw olokl rwma
lìgw thc sqèshc 4.15 pou grˆfetai gia k = 0:
Z
pµ pν Γ(1 − d/2)
dd p 2 = −igµν π d/2 2 1−d/2 (2.27)
[p − b2 ]2 (b )

en¸ apì th sqèsh 4.13

Z
dd p Γ(1 − d/2)
2 2
= −iπ d/2 2 1−d/2 (2.28)
[p − b ] (b )

'Etsi èqoume telikˆ logarijmikì apeirismì sto olokl rwma pou grˆfetai

Πµν (q) = −iµ4−d f (d)(qµ qν − gµν q 2 )

Z 1 Z · ¸
dd p 2z(1 − z)
× dz (2.29)
0 (2π)d [p2 − m2 + q 2 z(1 − z)]2

kai metˆ thn olokl rwsh wc proc p

Πµν (q) = −iµ4−d f (d)(qµ qν − gµν q 2 )

Z 1
iπ d/2 2z(1 − z)Γ(2 − d/2)
× dz (2.30)
0 (2π)d [m2 − q 2 z(1 − z)]2−d/2

26
 2
Jètontac pˆli thn ² apì th 2.15 kai Γ(²/2) = ² − γ + O(²) kai agno¸ntac ìrouc
tˆxhc ² → 0 èqoume
Z 1
π 2−²/2 2z(1 − z)Γ(²/2)
Πµν (q) = 2µ² f (4 − ²)(qµ qν − gµν q 2 ) dz
0 (2π)4−² [m2 − q 2 z(1 − z)]²/2
Z 1 · 2 ¸−²/2
2 2 m − q 2 z(1 − z)
= f (4 − ²)(qµ qν − gµν q ) dz z(1 − z)Γ(²/2)
16π 2 0 4πµ2
Z 1 µ ¶h i
2 2 2 ²
= f (4 − ²)(qµ q ν − g µν q ) dz z(1 − z) − γ 1 − ln C
16π 2 0 ² 2
Z 1 µ ¶h i
1 8 ²
= (qµ qν − gµν q 2 ) dz z(1 − z) − 4γ 1 − ln C
8π 2 0 ² 2
1 2
= (qµ qν − gµν q )
2π 2 µ · 2 ¸¶
Z 1
1 γ m − q 2 z(1 − z)
× − − dz z(1 − z) ln
3² 6 0 4πµ2
µ ¶
1 1 q2
= 2
(qµ qν − gµν q 2 ) + + ···
2π 3² 30m3
1
= (qµ qν − gµν q 2 ) + f inite (2.31)
6π 2 ²
To grˆfhma kìmbou mac dÐnei:
Z
µ 0 4−d dd k α i i 1
Λ (p, p ) = −iµ γ 0 γµ γα 2 (2.32)
(2π) d /p − /k − m /p − /k − m k

Qrhsimopoi¸ntac thn dipl  parametropoÐhsh Feynman

Z 1 Z 1−x
1 1
=2 dx dy (2.33)
abc 0 0 [a(1 − x − y) + bx + cy]3

to parapˆnw gÐnetai:

Z
Z 1 Z 1−x
dd k
Λµ (p, p0 ) = −2iµ4−d dx dy
(2π)d 0 0
(2.34)
/ 0 − /k + m)γ µ (p
γ α (p / − /k + m)γα
× 2
[k (1 − x − y) + (p − k) x − m2 x + (p0 − k)2 y − m2 y]3
2

O paronomast c grˆfetai

[· · · ] = k 2 − m2 (x + y) + p2 x + p02 y − 2k · (px + p0 y) (2.35)

kai h allag  metablht c k = k 0 + px + p0 y metatrèpei thn parˆstash se

[· · · ] = k 02 − m2 (x + y) + p2 x(1 − x) + p02 y(1 − y) − 2p · p0 xy (2.36)

27
kai to olokl rwma se (k 0 → k )
Z
Z 1 Z 1−x
µ 0 dd k
4−d
Λ (p, p ) = −2iµ dx dy
(2π)d 0 0
(2.37)
/ 0 (1 − y) − /px − /k + m)γ µ (p
γ α (p / (1 − x) + /p0 y − /k + m)γα
× 02
[k − m2 (x + y) + p2 x(1 − x) + p02 y(1 − y) − 2p · p0 xy]3

Apì th sqèsh 4.14 parathroÔme ìti oi ìroi tou oloklhr¸matoc me èna k ston
arijmht  mhdenÐzontai, en¸ to apoklÐnon mèroc tou oloklhr¸matoc eÐnai autì me
ton ìro γ α/k γ µ/k γα . An onomˆsoume Λµ = Λµ(1) + Λµ(2) tìte qrhsimopoi¸ntac to
olokl rwma 4.15 brÐskoume gia to apoklÐnon mèroc
Z Z 1 Z 1−x
dd k γ α/k γ µ/k γα
Λµ(1) (p, p0 ) = −2iµ4−d dx dy
(2π)d 0 0 [k 02 − c2 ]3
Z d Z 1 Z 1−x
d k γ α γλ γ µ γσ γα k λ k σ
= −2iµ4−d dx dy
(2π)d 0 0 [k 02 − c2 ]3
Z 1 Z 1−x µ ¶
4−d iπ d/2 (−1)3 1
= −2iµ dx dy −
0 0 Γ(3) 2
α µ
γ γλ γ γσ γα g λσ
×Γ(2 − d/2)
[c2 ]2−d/2
µ ¶d/2 Z 1 Z 1−x
1 4−d 1
= m Γ(2 − d/2) dx dy
2 4π 0 0
γ α γλ γ µ γ λ γα
× 2
[m (x + y) − p2 x(1 − x) − p02 y(1 − y) + 2p · p0 xy]2−d/2
(2.38)

kai lìgw thc 4.8 èqoume

µ ¶d/2 Z 1 Z 1−x
1 4−d 1
Λµ(1) (p, p0 ) = µ (2 − d)2 Γ(2 − d/2)γ µ dx dy
2 4π 0 0
1
×
[m2 (x + y) − p2 x(1 − x) − p02 y(1 − y) + 2pp0 xy]2−d/2
(2.39)

28
Jètontac ² = 4 − d katˆ ta gnwstˆ kai anaptÔssontac se dunˆmeic tou ²
µ ¶2−²/2 Z 1 Z 1−x
1 ² 1
Λµ(1) (p, p0 ) = µ 2
(² − 2) Γ(²/2)γ µ
dx dy
2 4π 0 0
1
×
[m2 (x
+ y) − − x) − p02 y(1 − y) + 2p · p0 xy]²/2
p2 x(1
µ ¶ Z 1 Z 1−x
1 2 µ
= − γ (4 − 4²)γ dx dy
32π 2 ² 0 0
· 2 ¸−²/2
m (x + y) − p2 x(1 − x) − p02 y(1 − y) + 2p · p0 xy
4πµ2
µ ¶ Z 1 Z 1−x h i
1 2 µ ²
= − γ (4 − 4²)γ dx dy 1 − ln C
32π 2 ² 0 0 2
1 µ
= γ + f inite (2.40)
8π 2 ²
Gia to sugklÐnon mèroc Lµ(2) (p, p0 ) mporoÔme na jèsoume kateujeÐan d = 4 kai na
èqoume apì thn 2.37:
Z 1 Z 1−x
µ 0 i iπ 2 (−1)3
Λ(2) (p, p ) = − 4 dx dy
8π 0 0 Γ(3)
0
α
γ (p / (1 − y) − /px + m)γ µ (p / (1 − x) + /p0 y + m)γα
× 2
[m (x + y) − p2 x(1 − x) − p02 y(1 − y) + 2p · p0 xy]
Z 1 Z 1−x
1
= − dx dy
16π 2 0 0
/ 0 (1 − y) − /px + m)γ µ (p
γ α (p / (1 − x) + /p0 y + m)γα
× 2 (2.41)
[m (x + y) − p2 x(1 − x) − p02 y(1 − y) + 2p · p0 xy]

2.2.2 EpakanonikopoÐhsh
H arqik  Lagkranzian  puknìthta thc jewrÐac tou HlektromagnhtikoÔ pedÐou eÐnai
1 1
/ − m)ψ − eψ̄γµ ψAµ − Fµν F µν − (∂µ Aµ )2
LB = ψ̄(i∂ (2.42)
4 2
kai se aut  emfanÐzontai oi arqikèc parˆmetroi (mˆza, fortÐo, kumatosunart seic)
pou onomˆzontai t¸ra bare parˆmetroi. Upojètoume ìti h Lagkranzian  me tic
fusikèc paramètrouc eÐnai
1 1
/ − m)ψ − eψ̄γµ ψAµ − Fµν F µν − (∂µ Aµ )2
Lp = ψ̄(i∂ (2.43)
4 2
Se aut  eisˆgoume ìrouc akÔrwshc (counter terms) me paramètrouc (A, B, C,
D, E).
C E
/ ψ − Aψ̄ψ − eDψ̄γµ ψAµ −
Lct = iB ψ̄∂ Fµν F µν − (∂µ Aµ )2 (2.44)
4 2

29
kai apaitoÔme to ˆjroisma twn dÔo aut¸n Lagkranzian¸n na eÐnai Ðso me thn ar-
qik  grammènh me ìrouc bare paramètrwn. AjroÐzontac kai agno¸ntac touc ìrouc
epibol c bajmÐdac, èqoume
1+C
/ ψ − (m + A)ψ̄ψ − e(1 + D)ψ̄γµ ψAµ −
L = i(1 + B)ψ̄∂ Fµν F µν + g.f. (2.45)
4
OrÐzoume tic paramètrouc epakanonikopoÐhshc twn pedÐwn
Z1 = (1 + D), Z2 = (1 + B), Z3 = (1 + C) (2.46)
me tic opoÐec
1/2 1/2
ψB = Z2 ψ, AµB = Z3 Aµ (2.47)
h Lagkranzian  grˆfetai:
m+A eZ1 1
L = iψ̄B /∂ ψB − ψ̄B ψB − 1/2
ψ̄B γµ ψB AµB − FB,µν FBµν + g.f. (2.48)
Z2 Z2 Z3 4

kai tèloc grˆfontac th mˆza kai to fortÐo

m+A eZ1
mB = , eB = 1/2
(2.49)
Z2 Z2 Z3
èqoume gia th bare Lagkranzian 
1
L = iψ̄B /∂ ψB − mB ψ̄B ψB − eB ψ̄B γµ ψB AµB − FB,µν FBµν + g.f. (2.50)
4
kai apomènei na oristoÔn oi parˆmetroi A, B, C, D twn akurwtik¸n ìrwn.

Autoenèrgeia hlektronÐou
O ìroc Σ(p) metabˆllei ton antÐstrofo diadìth (sqèsh 1.82) opìte se tˆxh e2 pou
br kame gia thn sunˆrthsh autoenèrgeiac to apotèlesma 2.19 èqoume:
Γ(2) (p) = SF (p)−1 − e2 Σ(p)
e2
= /p − m − 2 (p / − 4m)
µ 8π ¶ ² µ ¶
e2 e2
= /p 1 − 2 −m 1− 2 (2.51)
8π ² 8π ²
Eisˆgontac touc dÔo pr¸touc ìrouc thc Lagkranzian c twn akurwtik¸n ìrwn
/ ψ − Aψ̄ψ
Lct,1 = iB ψ̄∂ (2.52)
o diadìthc metabˆlletai lìgw twn akurwtik¸n ìrwn kai eÐnai
µ ¶
i i Bp / − A −1
= 1−
/ − (m + A)
(1 + B)p /p − m /p − m
i i i
≈ + / − iA)
(iBp (2.53)
/p − m /p − m /p − m

30
kai o pl rhc diadìthc sthn dedomènh tˆxh
i i i
SF (p) = + (ie2 Σ(p) + iBp
/ − iA) (2.54)
/p − m /p − m /p − m
Blèpoume ìti h diìrjwsh ston diadìth mporeÐ gÐnei peperasmènh an orÐsoume tic
paramètrouc
2
B = − 8πe 2 ² (2.55)
me2
A=− 2π 2 ²
(2.56)

Pìlwsh kenoÔ
Gia to diˆgramma thc pìlwshc kenoÔ o ìroc Πµν dÐnei mÐa diìrjwsh ston diadìth
tou fwtonÐou thc morf c:
−igµν −igµλ 2 λρ −igρν
Dµν (q) = + ie Π + ···
q2 q2 q2
−igµν −igµλ 2 λ ρ −igρν
= + ie (q q − g λρ q 2 )Π(q 2 ) 2 + · · ·
q2 q2 q
−igµν qµ qν
= [1 − e2 Π(q 2 )] − ie2 4 Π(q 2 ) + · · · (2.57)
q2 q
ìpou Π(q 2 ) = 6π12 ² + f inite
An t¸ra prosjèsoume sthn Lagkranzian  pou aforˆ to fwtìnio
1 1
L2 = Fµν F µν − (∂µ Aµ )2 (2.58)
4 2
touc ìrouc
C E
Lct,2 = − Fµν F µν − (∂µ Aµ )2
4µ 2 ¶
1 µν 1 µ 2 E−C
= −C Fµν F − (∂µ A ) − (∂µ Aµ )2 (2.59)
4 2 2
o diadìthc tou fwtonÐou lìgw twn ìrwn aut¸n ston q¸ro orm c ikanopoieÐ thn
exÐswsh:
[(1 + C)q 2 gµν − (C − E)qµ qν ]Dνλ (q) = −igµλ (2.60)
pou lÔnetai jètontac Dµν (q) = α(q 2 )gµν + β(q 2 )qµ qν me apotèlesma o diadìthc apì
th Lagkranzian  mazÐ me touc akurwtikoÔc ìrouc na eÐnai
−igµν qµ qν
Dµν (q) = 2
[1 − C] − i 4 (C − E) (2.61)
q q
kai o pl rhc diadìthc

0 −igµν qµ qν
Dµν (q) = [1 − C − e2 Π(q 2 )] − i 4 (C − E + e2 Π(q 2 )) (2.62)
q2 q

31
 An epilèxoume E = 0 pou ephreˆzei ton ìro epibol c bajmÐdac blèpoume ìti
akur¸nontai oi apeirismoÐ epilègontac

e2
C=− (2.63)
6π 2 ²
H prohgoÔmenh exÐswsh gia ton diadìth grˆfetai tìte (upologÐzontac kai to
peperasmèno mèroc tou Πµν (q) pou ac to onomˆsoume Πf

0 −igµν qµ qν
Dµν (q) = 2
[1 − Πf ] − i 4 (Πf )
q q
· ¸
−i qµ qν
= gµν + 2 (Πf ) (2.64)
q 2 (1 + Πf ) q

O diadìthc exakoloujeÐ na èqei pìlo sto q 2 = 0 ˆra to fwtìnio paramènei qwrÐc mˆza
metˆ thn epakanonikopoÐhsh. Autì eÐnai anamenìmeno afoÔ h den upˆrqei metr simh
(fusik ) mˆza fwtonÐou. H Ôparxh mˆzac ja tropopoioÔse to dunamikì Coulomb
apì ˆpeirhc se peperasmènhc embèleiac.
Prˆgmati ènac diadìthc fwtonÐou me mˆza thc morf c
µ ¶
−1 kµ kν
Dµν (k) = 2 g µν − (2.65)
k − m2 m2

sto sunarthsiakì
Z µ ¶
1 d4 k µ ∗ −1 kµ kν
W [J] = − 4
J (k) 2 gµν − J ν (k) (2.66)
2 (2π) k − m2 + i² m2

lìgw diat rhshc fortÐou pou ston q¸ro orm c gÐnetai kµ J µ (k) = 0 mporeÐ na
agnohjeÐ o ìroc kµ kν me apotèlesma
Z
1 d4 k µ ∗ 1
W [J] = 4
J (k) 2 Jµ (k) (2.67)
2 (2π) k − m2 + i²
R
Grˆfoume touc ìrouc phg c J µ = d4 xe−ikx J µ (k) kai jewroÔme Ji (x) = eδ 3 (~x−~xi )
kai J(x) = J1 (x) + J2 (x). Antikajist¸ntac kai agno¸ntac ìrouc autoallhlepÐdra-
shc to sunarthsiakì gÐnetai
Z Z Z ~
2 0 0 dk 0 ik0 (x−y)0 d3 k eik·(~x1 −~x2 )
W [J] = e dx dy e (2.68)
2π (2π)3 k 2 − m2 + i²

Metˆ thn y 0 olokl rwsh

µZ ¶Z ~
2 0 d3 k eik·(~x1 −~x2 )
W [J] = −e dx (2.69)
(2π)3 ~k 2 + m2 − i²

32
To sunarthsiakì Z[J] = CeiW [J] paristˆnei to h0|e−iHT |0i = e−iET me E thn
enèrgeia lìgw twn phg¸n, opìte to olokl rwma wc proc x0 eÐnai to qronikì diˆsthma
T . Telikˆ iW = −iET kai
Z ~
d3 k eik·(~x1 −~x2 )
E = e2 (2.70)
(2π)3 ~k 2 + m2

MÐa migadik  olokl rwsh dÐnei gia thn enèrgeia (dunamikì)

e2 −mr
E= e (2.71)
4πr
To dunamikì pèftei ekjetikˆ me klÐmaka apìstashc 1/m. EpÐshc to jetikì prìshmo
sto dunamikì ekfrˆzei thn ˆpwsh metaxÔ twn Ðdiwn fortÐwn, èna shmantikì apotè-
lesma pou brèjhke me sunarthsiakèc mejìdouc kbantik c jewrÐac pedÐou. H jewrÐa
exhgeÐ giatÐ dÔo omìshma fortÐa apwjoÔntai.
Apì thn pr¸th seirˆ thc 2.64 èqoume gia ton epakanonikopoihmèno diadìth

0 −igµν e2 q 2
Dµν (q) = [1 − + ···] + ··· (2.72)
q2 60π 2 m2
ìpou èqoume krat sei ton pr¸to ìro tou peperasmènou mèrouc thc diìrjwshc 2.31.
Autì dÐnei mÐa tropopoÐhsh sto parapˆnw dunamikì (gia m → 0) pou t¸ra perièqei
kai ton diorjwtikì ìro Uehling

e2 e2
E= + δ 3 (r) + · · · (2.73)
4πr 60π 2 m2
O epiplèon ìroc tropopoieÐ tic atomikèc stˆjmec tou atìmou tou udrogìnou kai
suneisfèrei sthn metatìpish Lamb twn stajm¸n 2S 1 kai 2P 1 . H jewrhtik  tim 
2 2
eÐnai 1057.9 M Hz gia thn 2S 1 pˆnw apì thn 2P 1 me −27.1 M Hz h suneisforˆ thc
2 2
pìlwshc kenoÔ. H peiramatik  tim  diafèrei katˆ 0.1 M Hz apì th jewrhtik  ˆra
h jewrÐa eÐnai se polÔ kal  sumfwnÐa me to peÐrama.

Grˆfhma kìmbou
Apì thn exÐswsh 2.40 blèpoume ìti h diìrjwsh ston ìro thc Lagkranzian c L =
−eψ̄γµ ψAµ eÐnai anˆlogh tou γµ . Prosjètontac ton akurwtikì ìro:

L3,ct = −Deψ̄γµ ψAµ (2.74)

o pl rhc kìmboc gÐnetai

−ie(γ µ + e2 Λµ + D) (2.75)
kai mporoÔme na epilèxoume
e2
D=− (2.76)
8π 2 ²
¸ste na apallagoÔme apì to ˆpeiro thc sunˆrthshc kìmbou.

33
 Apì ton orismì twn Z1 , Z2 parathroÔme ìti
e2
Z1 = Z2 = 1 − (2.77)
8π 2 ²
en¸
e2
Z3 = 1 − (2.78)
6π 2 ²
H taÔtish twn suntelest¸n Z1 = Z2 den eÐnai mÐa parenèrgeia twn upologism¸n
thc pr¸thc tˆxhc, allˆ mÐa sqèsh pou isqÔei se kˆje tˆxh thc jewrÐac diatara-
q¸n lìgw thc sqèshc W ard − T akahashi 1.87, pou eÐnai sunèpeia thc summetrÐac
bajmÐdac thc hlektrodunamik c.
O suntelest c Z1 orÐzetai (se tˆxh α2 ) apì thn Γµ (p, p) = Z1−1 γ µ en¸ o sun-
telest c Z2 apì thn S = Z2 SB opìte S −1 (p) = Z2−1 (γµ pµ − m) kai h tautìthta
Ward 1.92 dÐnei
Z1 = Z2 (2.79)
H isìthta twn dÔo stajer¸n eÐnai polÔ shmantik  afoÔ lìgw aut c isqÔei gia
−1/2
to hlektrikì fortÐo tou hlektronÐou eB = eZ1/2
1
= Z3 e. To bare kai to epaka-
Z2 Z3
nonikopoihmèno fortÐo exart¸ntai mìno apì th stajerˆ Z3 thc epakanonikopoÐhshc
tou pedÐou Aµ . Autì èqei wc sunèpeia to hlektrikì fortÐo na m n exartˆtai apì
to eÐdoc tou swmatidÐou pou allhlepidrˆ (hlektrìnio, miìnio ktl) allˆ na èqei thn
Ðdia tim  gia ìla ta eÐdh. H stajerˆ Z3 upologÐzetai apì to diˆgramma pìlwshc
kenoÔ, opìte h epakanonikopoÐhsh tou fortÐou exartˆtai apì ton trìpo pou diadÐ-
detai to fwtìnio ston q¸ro. Autì èqei megˆlh fusik  shmasÐa afoÔ exhgeÐ katˆ
kˆpoio trìpo thn isìthta twn fortÐwn hlektronÐou - prwtonÐou pou qwrÐc aut  ja
emfanizìtan metr simh hlektrostatik  dÔnamh se makroskopikì epÐpedo. An jew-
r soume Ðsec bare timèc gia thn tim  eηλ kai eπρωτ den perimènoume en gènh kai Ðsec
timèc stic kanonikopoihmènec posìthtec. To prwtìnio emplèketai kai sthn isqur 
allhlepÐdrash kai ètsi upˆrqoun pollˆ perissìtera diagrˆmmata pou suneisfèroun
sthn hlektromagnhtik  skèdash metaxÔ dÔo prwtonÐwn ìmwc oi kbantikèc diakumˆn-
seic telikˆ den diaforopoioÔn to fortÐo tou prwtonÐou apì autì tou hlektronÐou,
akrib¸c giatÐ h epakanonikopoÐhs  tou èqei na kˆnei me to fwtìnio. Ki autì eÐnai
sunèpeia thc summetrÐac bajmÐdac.
H isìthta eÐnai epÐshc shmantik  giatÐ (mazÐ me thn tautìthta Ward-Takahashi)
eÐnai to basikì ergaleÐo gia thn apìdeixh tou epakanonikopoi simou thc kbantik c
hlektrodunamik c se kˆje tˆxh.

2.3 Magnhtik  rop  tou hlektronÐou

Apì thn exÐswsh tou Dirac
(iγ µ Dµ − m)ψ = 0 (2.80)
ìpou Dµ h sunalloÐwth parˆgwgoc Dµ = ∂µ − ieAµ mporoÔme na doÔme ìti to
magnhtikì pedÐo antidrˆ me th stroform  lìgw spin tou hlektronÐou kai mˆlista me

34
diplˆsia èntash apì ìti h troqiak  stroform . Pollaplasiˆzontac me (iγ µ Dµ + m)
thn 2.80 èqoume:

−(γ µ γ ν Dµ Dν + m2 )ψ = 0
µ ¶
1 µ ν µ ν 2
({γ , γ } + [γ , γ ]) Dµ Dν + m ψ = 0
2
e
(Dµ Dµ − σ µν Fµν + m2 )ψ = 0 (2.81)
2
ìpou qrhsimopoi jhke h 4.5, o orismìc −2iσ µν = [γ µ , γ ν ] kai h 21 [Dµ , Dν ] = −ieFµν .
An jewr soume magnhtikì pedÐo thc morf c B ~ = ẑB kai epilèxoume dianusmatikì
1 2 1 1
dunamikì A1 = − 2 Bx , A2 = 2 Bx ètsi ¸ste F12 = ∂1 A2 − ∂2 A1 = B tìte
agno¸ntac touc ìrouc A2i èqoume:

(Di )2 = ∂i2 − ie(∂i Ai + Ai ∂i ) + O(A2i )

= ∂i2 − ie(∂i (Ai ) + Ai ∂i + Ai ∂i )
= ∂i2 − 2ieAi ∂i
µµ ¶ ¶
~ 2 1 2 1 1
= ∇ − 2ie − B x ∂1 + Bx ∂2
2 2
~ 2 1 2
= ∇ − ieB(x ∂2 − x ∂1 )
~ 2 − eB3 (~x × p~)3
= ∇
~ 2 − eB
= ∇ ~ · (~x × p~)
~ 2 − eB
= ∇ ~ ·L
~ (2.82)

Se sÔsthmaµanaforˆc
¶ ìpou ta hlektrìnia eÐnai akÐnhta èqoume pµ = (m, ~0) kai o
φ
spinor ψ = apì thn exÐswsh tou Dirac (γ 0 − 1)ψ = 0 èqei χ = 0. 'Ara gia
χ
argˆ kinoÔmena hlektrìnia mporoÔme na proseggÐsoume χ ≈ 0. µTìte o ìroc ¶ me to
σ k 0
σ µν sthn anaparˆstash Dirac twn pinˆkwn γ ìpou σ ij = ²ijk , σ i oi
0 σk
pÐnakec Pauli, grˆfetai
µ ¶
e µν e µνk σ k 0
σ Fµν = ² Fµν
2 2 0 σk
µ ¶
e σ3 0
= (F12 − F21 )
2 0 σ3
e 3
≈ σ (F12 − F21 )
2
e 3
= σ 2(∂1 A2 − ∂2 A1 )
2
σ3 ~σ ~ ~ ·S ~
= 2eB = 2e · B = 2eB (2.83)
2 2

35
An jewr soume φ = e−imt Ψ kai to Ψ talant¸netai pio argˆ apì to ekjetikì tìte
(∂ 2 + m2 )e−imt Ψ ≈ e−imt (−2im∂t Ψ) opìte telikˆ èqoume
³ ´
−2im∂t − ∇~ 2 − eB
~ · (L
~ + 2S)
~ Ψ=0 (2.84)

Apì thn parapˆnw faÐnetai amèswc ìti h stroform  lìgw spin antidrˆ me to
magnhtikì pedÐo me diplˆsia èntash apì ìti h troqiak  stroform , kai ìti o parˆ-
gontac g gia ton guromagnhtikì lìgo tou hlektronÐou eÐnai 2.
H klasik  jewrÐa problèpei gia to g thn tim  1. O Dirac me th jewrÐa tou brÐskei
thn tim  2 pou eÐnai polÔ kontˆ sthn pragmatik  tim , pou s mera upologÐzetai se
ge = 2.0023193043617(15)
H tim  eÐnai elafr¸c megalÔterh apì thn problepìmenh apì thn kbantik  jew-
rÐa kai h diìrjwsh gÐnetai an lˆboume upìyh mac thn kbantik  jewrÐa pedÐou. O
sugkekrimènoc upologismìc apì ton Schwinger [9] kajièrwse thn kbantik  hlektro-
dunamik  wc mÐa akrib  jewrÐa.
Apì thn tautìthta Gordon gia to reÔma enìc Dirac swmatidÐou
µ 0 ¶
0 µ 0 (p + p)µ iσ µν (p0 − p)ν
ū(p )γ u(p) = ū(p ) + u(p) (2.85)
2m 2m
parathroÔme amèswc ìti g = 2 afoÔ o ìroc me ton tanust  σ µν apaiteÐ sÔndesh
e
me to hlektromagnhtikì pedÐo thc morf c 2m σµν F µν . Genikˆ apì thn diat rhsh
tou fortÐou kai to analloÐwto Lorentz to stoiqeÐo pÐnaka tou hlektromagnhtikoÔ
reÔmatoc prèpei na èqei th morf 
µ ¶
0 0 µ 0 µ 2 iσ µν (p0 − p)ν 2
hp , s |J (0)|p, si = ū(p ) γ F1 (q ) + F2 (q ) u(p) (2.86)
2m
me q = p0 − p kai F1 (q 2 ), F2 (q 2 ) ˆgnwstec sunart seic (parˆgontec morf c). Se
pr¸th tˆxh gia th metaforˆ orm c q èqoume qrhsimopoi¸ntac thn tautìthta Gordon
µ 0 ¶
(p + p)µ iσ µν qν
ū(p0 ) F1 (0) + (F1 (0) + F2 (0)) u(p) (2.87)
2m 2m
O suntelest c tou pr¸tou ìrou eÐnai to metr simo hlektrikì fortÐo pou ex'
orismoÔ eÐnai Ðso me 1. Tìte h diaforˆ sto suntelest  g apì thn tim  pou problèpei
h jewrÐa Dirac eÐnai Ðsh me (1 − F2 (0)). Apomènei na upologisteÐ o suntelest c
F2 (0) se tˆxh α = e2 /4π dhlad  se diagrˆmmata me èna kuklikì tm ma to polÔ.
Apì autˆ to mìno pou mac endiafèrei eÐnai to diˆgramma kìmbou, afoÔ ta upìloipa
bgaÐnoun anˆloga tou γ µ kai ètsi suneisfèroun sto F1 (0). Apì thn morf  tou Λµ(1)
(exÐswsh 2.40) blèpoume ìti kai autì eÐnai anˆlogo tou γ µ opìte apomènei to Λµ(2)
pou eÐnai:
Z 1 Z 1−x
µ 0 1
Λ(2) (p, p ) = − dx dy
16π 2 0 0
/ 0 (1 − y) − /px + m)γ µ (p
γ α (p / (1 − x) + /p0 y + m)γα
× 2 (2.88)
[m (x + y) − p2 x(1 − x) − p02 y(1 − y) + 2p · p0 xy]

36
 Ja upologÐsoume thn tim  tou stoiqeÐou pÐnaka

e2 ū(p0 )Λµ(2) (p0 , p)u(p) (2.89)

gia on-shell ormèc kai se pr¸th tˆxh wc proc q , agno¸ntac ìrouc anˆlogouc tou
γ µ . O paronomast c grˆfetai

Παρ = m2 (x + y)2 (2.90)

O arijmht c

/ 0 (1 − y) − /px + m)γ µ (p
Aρ = ū(p0 )γ α (p / (1 − x) + /p0 y + m)γα u(p) (2.91)

An qrhsimopoi soume tic sqèseic /pγα = −γα/p + 2pα kai /p0 γα = −γα/p0 + 2p0α
mporoÔme na metafèroume to /p0 aristerˆ ¸ste na drˆsei sto ū(p0 ) dÐnontac mū(p0 )
apì exÐswsh Dirac, kai to /p sta dexiˆ ¸ste na drˆsei sto u(p) dÐnontac paromoÐwc
mu(p) ja grˆyoume ton arijmht 

Aρ = ū(p0 ){myγ α + 2p0α (1 − y) − γ α/px}γ µ {2pα (1 − x) − /p0 yγα + mγα x}u(p) (2.92)

Ston arijmht  emfanÐzontai ìroi me ginìmena pinˆkwn γ pou upologÐzontai apì

tic sqèseic 4.6 - 4.7 jètontac d = 4. Oi ìroi γα γµ γν γ α kai γα/pγ µ/p0 γ α upologÐzontai
eÔkola

γα γµ γν γ α = (−γµ γα + 2gµα )(−γ α γν + 2gνα )

= γµ γα γ α γν − 2γµ γα gνα − 2γ α γν gµα + 4gµα gνα
= 4γµ γν − 2γµ γν − 2γµ γν + 4gµν = 4gµν (2.93)
ν µ ρ α ν µ ρ α
γα γ γ γ γ = −γ γα γ γ γ + 2gαν γ µ γ ρ γ α
= −4γ ν g µρ + 2γ γ γ µ ρ ν

= −2(−γ µ γ ρ + 2g µρ )γ ν = −2γ ρ γ µ γ ν (2.94)

Kˆnontac tic prˆxeic ston arijmht  èqoume:

Aρ = ū(p0 ){mxy 2 γ α γ µ γ α + 2my(1 − x)γ α γ µ pα − my 2 γ α γ µ/p0 γα

+2mx(1 − y)p0α γ µ γα + 4(1 − x)(1 − y)p0α γ µ pα − 2y(1 − y)p0α γ µ/p0 γα
−mx2 γ α/pγ µ γα − 2(1 − x)xγ α/pγ µ pα + xyγ α/pγ µ/pγα }u(p)
= ū(p0 ){−2m2 xyγ µ + 2my(1 − x)(−γ µ γα + 2gαµ )pα − 4my 2 g µν p0ν
+2mx(1 − y)p0α (−γα γ µ + 2gαµ ) + 4m2 (1 − x)(1 − y)γ µ − 2m2 y(1 − y)γ µ
−4mx2 g µν pν − 2m2 x(1 − x)γ µ + xy(−2γ ρ γ µ γ ν pρ p0ν )}u(p)
= ū(p0 ){−2m2 xyγ µ − 2m2 y(1 − x)g µ + 4my(1 − x)pµ − 4my 2 p0µ
−2m2 x(1 − y)γ µ + 4mx(1 − y)p0µ + 4m2 (1 − x)(1 − y)γ µ − 2m2 y(1 − y)γ µ
−4mx2 pµ − 2m2 x(1 − x)γ µ − 2xym2 γ µ }u(p) (2.95)

Kai to mèroc tou arijmht  pou den eÐnai anˆlogo tou γ µ eÐnai:

Aρ → 4m ū(p0 ){(y − xy − x2 )pµ + (x − xy − y 2 )p0µ }u(p) (2.96)

37
 Qrhsimopoi¸ntac ton arijmht  kai ton paronomast  pou upologÐsame èqoume gia
to mèroc tou kìmbou pou dèn eÐnai anˆlogo tou γ µ
Z 1 Z 1−x ½ ¾
2 0 µ 0 4e2 0 y − xy − x2 µ x − xy − y 2 0µ
e ū(p )Λ(2) (p , p)u(p) → dx dy ū(p ) p + p u(p)
16mπ 2 0 0 (x + y)2 (x + y)2
(2.97)
Ta oloklhr¸mata upologÐzontai me allag  metablht c z = x + y
Z 1 Z 1−x Z 1 Z 1
y − xy − x2 z − x − zx
dx dy 2
= dx dz
0 0 (x + y) 0 x z2
Z 1 Z 1 µ ¶
1−x x
= dx dz + 2
0 x z z
Z 1
= dx (1 − x ln(1 − x) − 1 + x)
0
Z 1
= dx (x ln x − ln x + x − 1)
0
1 1
= − +1+ −1
4 2
1
= (2.98)
4
kai ìmoia gia to deÔtero. Antikatast¸ntac èqoume
e2 © ª
e2 ū(p0 )Λµ(2) (p0 , p)u(p) →2
ū(p0 ) pµ + p0µ u(p) (2.99)
16mπ
Qrhsimopoi¸ntac thn tautìthta Gordon xanˆ kai agno¸ntac thn suneisforˆ tou
ìrou γ µ èqoume
e2
e2 ū(p0 )Λµ(2) (p0 , p)u(p) → ū(p0 )σµν q ν u(p) (2.100)
16mπ 2
Prosjètontac thn diìrjwsh ston kìmbo gia p0 = p èqoume
· ¸ · µ µ ¶ ¸
0 ie2 ν 0 p + p0µ i e2 ν
ū(p ) γµ + σµν q u(p) = ū(p ) + 1 + 2 σµν q u(p)
16mπ 2 2m 2m 8π
(2.101)
e2
blèpoume ìti h diìrjwsh eÐnai (α = stic monˆdec pou qrhsimopoioÔme
4π )
e e ³ α´
→ 1+ (2.102)
2m 2m 2π
Epeid  o guromagnhtikìc lìgoc g orÐzetai wc o lìgoc thc dipolik c magnhtik c
rop c proc th stroform  tou sust matoc èqoume ìti
g α
=1+ + O(α2 ) (2.103)
2 2π
Telikˆ h diìrjwsh pou upologÐzetai gia thn tim  2 eÐnai se pr¸th tˆxh 0, 00232343
swst  mèqri to tètarto dekadikì yhfÐo.

38
2.4 Skèdash Compton
JewroÔme th skèdash hlektronÐou - fwtonÐou e− + γ → e− + γ kai ja upologÐsoume
sth mikrìterh tˆxh th diatom  skèdashc, xekin¸ntac ìqi apì touc kanìnec Feynman
allˆ apì th sunarthsiak  genn tria gia to hlektromagnhtikì pedÐo kai th morf 
1.107 gia ton pÐnaka-S .
H Lagkranzian  gia to hlektromagnhtikì pedÐo suzeugmèno me to pedÐo Dirac
eÐnai:
1
L = −ψ̄γµ (∂ µ + ieAµ )ψ − mψ̄ψ − Jµ Aµ − η̄ψ − η ψ̄ − Fµν F µν (2.104)
4
me ìro allhlepÐdrashc ton ieψ̄γµ ψAµ . H genn tria eÐnai
· Z µ ¶ ¸
1 δ 1 δ 1 δ
Z[Jµ , η, η̄] = exp i Lint , , dx Z0 [Jµ , η, η̄] (2.105)
i δJµ i δη i δ η̄
me to ekjetikì na paÐrnei th morf 
· Z µ ¶ ¸
δ δ µ δ
exp i ie γ dz (2.106)
δJµ (z) δη(z) δ η̄(z)

kai to Z0 [Jµ , η, η̄] eÐnai

½ Z µ ¶ ¾
1 µ ν
Z0 [Jµ , η, η̄] = exp −i J (x)Dµν (x − y)J (y) + η̄(x)S(x − y)η(y) dxdy
2
(2.107)
ìpou Dµν (x − y) kai S(x − y) oi diadìtec twn fwtonÐwn kai hlektronÐwn. O pÐnakac
S t¸ra grˆfetai
Z µ ¶
−
→ δ −
→δ δ ←
−
S =: exp φin K µν + ψ̄in D − Dψin : Z (2.108)
δJµ δ η̄ δη
→
− → − ← −
me :: dhl¸netai normal ordering kai ta bèlh deÐqnoun ìti oi telestèc K , D , D droun
sta φ, ψ, ψ̄ pou prokÔptoun apì thn parˆgwgo tou Z kai ìqi sta φin , ψin , ψ̄in . Oi
−
→ − → ← −
telestèc K , D, D eÐnai tètoioi ¸ste na isqÔoun

Kµν Dµν (x − y) = −δ 4 (x − y)
−
→
DS(x − y) = δ 4 (x − y)
←−
S(x − y) D = δ 4 (x − y) (2.109)

H arqik  mac katˆstash eÐnai èna hlektrìnio orm c p kai katˆstashc spin s kai
èna fwtìnio orm c k kai katˆstashc pìlwshc λ en¸ sthn telik  katˆstash èqoume
p0 , s0 kai k 0 , λ0 antÐstoiqa.

|p, s; k, λi = b†s (p)a†λ (k)|0i

hp0 , s0 ; k 0 , λ0 | = h0|bs0 (p0 )aλ0 (k 0 ) (2.110)

39
ZhtoÔmeno eÐnai to stoiqeÐo pÐnaka
Sf i = hp0 , s0 ; k 0 , λ0 |S|p, s; k, λi (2.111)
pou gÐnetai anaptÔssontac to ekjetikì ston pÐnaka S
µ ¶
→
− δ →
− δ δ ←
−
Sf i = h0|bs0 (p0 )aλ0 (k 0 ) 1 + φin K µν + ψ̄in D − D ψin i + · · · Z
δJµ δ η̄ δη
×b†s (p)a†λ (k)|0i (2.112)
O ìroc mhdenik c tˆxhc antistoiqeÐ se skèdash qwrÐc allhlepÐdrash. H suneisforˆ
tou ìrou pr¸thc tˆxhc eÐnai mhdèn afoÔ antikajist¸ntac pq to φin
XZ d3 q h i
µ −iqx ∗µ † iqx
φin = 3 1 ² (q, λ)a(q, λ)e + ² (q, λ)a (q, λ)e (2.113)
λ (2π) 2 (2ω) 2

qrhsimopoi¸ntac tic antimetajetikèc sqèseic eÔkola metafèrontai ta a na droun sto

|0i kai ta a† na droun sto h0|, kai parìmoia gia ton fermionikì ìro.
³ ´2
O ìroc deÔterhc tˆxhc gia to ekjetikì perièqei ton ìro 12 K δJδµ kai o sunte-
lest c tou perièqei ìrouc a(q, l)a(q 0 , l0 ) kai a† (q, l)a† (q 0 , l0 ) pou mhdenÐzontai katˆ
th drˆsh touc sta h0| kai |0i. Apomènoun ìroi
h0|a(k 0 , λ0 )a† (q 0 , l0 )a(q, l)a† (k, λ)|0i = (2π)6 2ω 0 2ωδ 3 (k 0 − q 0 )δ 3 (k − q)δλl δλ0 l0
(2.114)
0 0 † 0 0 † 6 0 3 0 3 0
h0|a(k , λ )a (q, l)a(q , l )a (k, λ)|0i = (2π) 2ω 2ωδ (k − q)δ (k − q )δλ0 l δλl0
(2.115)
ìpou èqoun grafeÐ oi telestèc katastrof c dexiˆ twn telest¸n dhmiourgÐac (normal
ordered) kai qrhsimopoi jhkan oi metajetikèc sqèseic. Eisˆgontac autèc tic ekfrˆ-
³ ´2
seic ston suntelest  tou ìrou 12 K δJδµ èqoume
Z ³
3 qd3 q 0
dx1 dx2 d 4ωω 0 ²µ (q, l)²∗ν (q 0 , λ0 ) e−i(qx1 −q 0 x2 ) δ 3 (k 0 − q 0 )δ 3 (k − q)
0 4ωω

0
´
+ ei(qx1 −q x2 ) δ 3 (k 0 − q)δ 3 (k − q 0 )
Z ³ ´
µ ∗ν 0 0 −i(kx1 −k0 x2 ) i(k0 x1 −kx2 )
= dx1 dx2 ² (k, λ)² (k , λ ) e +e
(2.116)
¯
¯
ParathroÔme ìti o suntelest c tou ìrou 12 Kµν (x1 ) δJµδ(x1 ) Kµν (x2 ) δJµδ(x2 ) Z[J, η, η̄]¯
0
eÐnai summetrikìc ¸c proc thn enallag  x1 ↔ x2 ˆra mporeÐ na jewrhjeÐ ìti h su-
neisforˆ sto stoiqeÐo pÐnaka S wc
Z
0 −
→ δ δ ←−
dx1 dx2 eik x2 ²∗ν (k 0 , λ0 ) K µν (x2 ) Z[J, η, η̄] K µν (x1 )e−ikx1 ²µ (k, λ)
δJµ (x2 ) δJµ (x1 )
(2.117)

40
 Me teleÐwc anˆlogo trìpo h èkfrash
Z · ¸
0 −
→ δ δ ← −
dx3 dx4 h0|bs0 (p ) : ψ̄(x4 ) D ( x4 ) − ψ(x4 ) D(x4 )
δ η̄(x4 ) δη(x4 )
· ¸
−
→ δ δ ← −
× ψ̄(x3 ) D ( x3 ) − ψ(x3 ) D(x4 ) : b†s (p)|0i (2.118)
δ η̄(x3 ) δη(x3 )

gÐnetai
Z
0 →
− δ δ ←−
dx3 dx4 eip x4 ū(p0 , s0 ) D(x4 ) Z[J, η, η̄] D(x3 )e−ipx3 u(p, s) (2.119)
δη(x3 ) δ η̄(x4 )

Sunduˆzontac tic dÔo ekfrˆseic èqoume se deÔterh tˆxh

Z
0 0 −
→→ −
Sf i = dx1 dx2 dx3 dx4 eip x4 ū(p0 , s0 )eik x2 ²∗ν (k 0 , λ0 ) D K µν
←−←−
×τ (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) D K µν e−ikx1 ²µ (k, λ)e−ipx3 u(p, s) (2.120)

pou eÐnai èna sugkekrimèno stoiqeÐo pÐnaka me th suntag  thc reduction formula
sth sunarthsiak  ekdoq  thc. H sunˆrthsh τ (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) eÐnai h sunˆrthsh
tessˆrwn shmeÐwn gia thn perÐptwsh thc QED kai mporeÐ na brejeÐ paragwgÐzontac
th genn tria sunˆrthsh Z[J, η̄, η]. O grhgorìteroc trìpoc eÐnai sqediˆzontac ta m -
topologikˆ isodÔnama graf mata gia thn perÐptwsh thc allhlepÐdrashc ieψ̄γ µ ψAµ .
Apì th morf  tou ìrou parathroÔme ìti kˆje kìmboc sundèei èna fwtìnio me dÔo
hlektrìnia. Se deÔterh tˆxh ja upˆrqoun dÔo kìmboi kai ta dunatˆ diagrˆmmata

pou mporoÔn na sqediastoÔn metaxÔ tessˆrwn shmeÐwn kai dÔo kìmbwn eÐnai ta
parakˆtw:
p, s p0 , s

k, ² (a) s-channel k 0 , ²0
k, ² p0 , s0

p, s k 0 , ²0
(b) u-channel

41
 Apì ta sq mata faÐnetai ìti
Z
2
τ (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) = (ie) dy1 dy2 iDµν (x4 − y2 )iS(x3 − y2 )iγ µ iS(y2 − y1 )iγ ν
×iS(x1 − y1 )iDµν (x2 − y1 ) +
Z
2
+ (ie) dy1 dy2 iDµν (x4 − y1 )iS(x3 − y2 )iγ ν iS(y2 − y1 )iγ µ
×iS(x1 − y1 )iDµν (x2 − y2 ) (2.121)

An antikatast soume thn èkfrash aut  sto stoiqeÐo pÐnaka kai qrhsimopoi -

soume tic sqèseic 2.109 ja pˆroume δ sunart seic sth jèsh twn diadot¸n plhn tou
eswterikoÔ diadìth S(y2 − y1 ). Antikatast¸ntac kai autìn me thn èkfrash
Z
dq /q + m −iq(y1 −y2 )
S(y1 − y2 ) = e (2.122)
(2π)4 q 2 − m2
èqoume
Z
2 0 0
Sf i = ie dx1 · · · dx4 dy1 dy2 eip x3 ū(p0 , s0 )eik x4 ²∗µ (k 0 , λ0 )
dq /q + m −iq(y1 −y2 ) ν
×δ(x3 − y2 )δ(x4 − y2 )γ µ e γ δ(x2 − y1 )δ(x1 − y1 )
(2π)4 q 2 − m2
×e−ikx2 ²ν (k, λ)e−ipx1 u(p, s) +
Z
2 0 0
+ ie dx1 · · · dx4 dy1 dy2 eip x3 ū(p0 , s0 )eik x4 ²∗ν (k 0 , λ0 )
dq /q + m −iq(y1 −y2 ) µ
×δ(x3 − y2 )δ(x4 − y1 )γ ν e γ δ(x2 − y2 )δ(x1 − y1 )
(2π)4 q 2 − m2
×e−ikx2 ²µ (k, λ)e−ipx1 u(p, s)
Z
0 0
= ie2 dy1 dy2 eip y2 ū(p0 , s0 )eik y2 ²∗µ (k 0 , λ0 )
dq /q + m −iq(y1 −y2 ) ν −iky1 ν
×γ µ e γ e ² (k, λ)e−ipy1 u(p, s) +
(2π)4 q 2 − m2
Z
2 0 0
+ ie dy1 dy2 eip y2 ū(p0 , s0 )eik y1 ²∗ν (k 0 , λ0 )
dq /q + m −iq(y1 −y2 ) µ −iky2 µ
×γ ν e γ e ² (k, λ)e−ipy1 u(p, s)
(2π)4 q 2 − m2
(2.123)

kai metˆ tic oloklhr¸seic ¸c proc y1 , y2 èqoume

Z
0 0
dy1 dy2 ei(p +k −q)y2 ei(q−k−p)y1 = (2π)8 δ 4 (p0 + k 0 − q)δ 4 (q − p − k)

= (2π)8 δ 4 (p0 + k 0 − p − k)δ 4 (q − p − k)

= (2π)8 δ 4 (Pf − Pi )δ 4 (q − p − k) (2.124)

42
kai antÐstoiqa
Z
0 0
dy1 dy2 ei(p −k−q)y2 ei(q−k +p)y1 = (2π)8 δ 4 (p0 − k − q)δ 4 (q + p − k 0 )

= (2π)8 δ 4 (p0 − k − p + k 0 )δ 4 (q − p − k 0 )
= (2π)8 δ 4 (Pf − Pi )δ 4 (q + p − k 0 ) (2.125)

Opìte kˆnontac kai thn olokl rwsh ¸c proc q èqoume gia to plˆtoc metˆbashc

/p + /k + m
Sf i = ie2 (2π)4 δ 4 (Pf − Pi )ū(p0 , s0 )²∗µ (k 0 , λ0 )γ µ γ ν ²ν (k, λ)u(p, s) +
(p + k)2 − m2
/p − /k 0 + m
+ ie2 (2π)4 δ 4 (Pf − Pi )ū(p0 , s0 )²ν (k 0 , λ0 )γ ν γ µ ²∗µ (k, λ)u(p, s)
(p − k 0 )2 − m2
(2.126)

pou eÐnai akrib¸c to plˆtoc metˆbashc pou ja upologÐzame efarmìzontac touc tu-
popoihmènouc kanìnec Feynman gia thn kbantik  hlektrodunamik . H parapˆnw
èkfrash mporeÐ antÐstrofa na orÐsei touc kanìnec Feynman gia thn allhlepÐdrash
fwtonÐwn - fermionÐwn.
Wc sun jwc to analloÐwto katˆ Lorentz plˆtoc skèdashc Feynman M orÐzetai
wc

Sf i = (2π)4 i δ 4 (Pf − Pi )M (2.127)

opìte
½ ¾
2 0 0 0∗ /p + /k + m /p + /k + m 0∗
M = e ū(p , s ) /² /² + /² /² u(p, s) (2.128)
(p + k)2 − m2 (p + k)2 − m2

kai apì autì prokÔptei h diaforik  diatom  dσ wc

(2π)4 d3 p0 d3 k 0
dσ = δ 4 (p0 + k 0 − p − k)|M |2 (2.129)
4v (2π)3 p00 (2π)3 k 00
p
ìpou genikˆ v = (p1 p2 )2 − m21 m22 /E1 E2 . Sthn perÐptws  mac m1 = 0 opìte
p
v = p|p·k| 0
0 k 0 me p = p~2 + m2 kai k 0 = |~k|. An jewr soume m -sqetikistik  kÐnhsh
sta hlektrìnia tìte èqoume ìti p ~ = ~0 kai p0 = m me apotèlesma telikˆ v = 1. Gia
aploÔsteush grˆfoume tic enèrgeiec twn fwtonÐwn ω = k 0 kai ω 0 = k 00 .
To δ 4 (p0 + k 0 − p − k)d3 p0 mporeÐ na grafeÐ

δ 4 (p0 + k 0 − p − k)d3 p0 = δ(p00 + k 00 − p0 − k 0 )

p
= δ( (k − k 0 )2 + m2 + ω 0 − m − ω)
= δ(f (ω 0 ))
δ(ω 0 − ω0 )
= ∂f (ω )
(2.130)
0
∂ω 0

43
 p
ìpou f (ω0 ) = 0. Kˆnontac prˆxeic brÐskoume ìti o mhdenismìc thc f (ω 0 ) = (k − k 0 )2 + m2 +
ω 0 − m − ω gÐnetai sthn tim 
mω
ω0 = (2.131)
ω(1 + cos ϑ) + m
en¸ h parˆgwgoc ston paronomast  grˆfetai, qrhsimopoi¸ntac thn tim  ω0 :
ω 0 − ω cos ϑ mω
+1 = (2.132)
p00 ω 0 p00
EpÐshc to diaforikì d3 k 0 mporeÐ na grafeÐ d3 k 0 = ω 02 dω 0 dΩ opìte
1 0 00
2 02 ω p
dσ = |M | ω δ(ω 0 − ω0 )dω 0 dΩ
4(2π)2 ω 0 mω
ω02 p00
= |M |2 dΩ (2.133)
4(2π)2 mω
Apomènei o upologismìc tou plˆtouc skèdashc M . An den metrˆme arqik  kai
telik  katˆstash spin ìpwc sun jwc, prèpei na pˆroume thn mèsh tim  gia tic
katastˆseic spin opìte antikajistoÔme sthn prohgoÔmenh sqèsh
1X
|M |2 → |M |2 (2.134)
2 0
s,s

'Omwc to plˆtoc M eÐnai thc morf c ūAu me A èna telest  pinˆkwn γ . To ginìmeno
autì sto tetrˆgwno kai me ˆjroish sta spin gÐnetai
X¯ ¯ X¡ ¢³ ´
¯ū(p0 , s0 )Au(p, s)¯ = ū(p0 , s0 )Au(p, s) ū(p, s)γ 0 A† γ 0 u(p0 , s0 )
s,s0 s,s0
X
= Aba ua (p, s)ūc (p, s)(γ 0 A† γ 0 )cd ud (p0 , s0 )ūb (p0 , s0 )
s,s0
½ ¾
/p + m 0 † 0 /p0 + m
= Tr A γ Aγ (2.135)
2p0 2p00
Qrhsimopoi¸ntac thn èkfrash 2.128 èqoume:
X ½· ¸
2 e4 0∗ /p + /k + m /p − /k 0 + m 0∗
|M | = T r /² /² + /² /² (p/ + m)
4p0 p00 (p + k)2 − m2 (p − k 0 )2 − m2
s,s0
· ¸ ¾
∗ / p + /k + m 0 0 /p − /k 0 + m ∗ 0
× /² /² + /² /² (p / + m) (2.136)
(p + k)2 − m2 (p − k 0 )2 − m2
H èkfrash aut  aplopoieÐtai shmantikˆ afoÔ (p+k)2 −m2 = 2p·k kai (p−k 0 )2 −m2 =
−2p · k 0 . EpÐshc ˆn epilèxoume grammik  pìlwsh sta fwtìnia me ²0 = ²00 = 0 kai
² = ²∗ , ²0 = ²0∗ tìte epeid  èqoume epilèxei sÔsthma sto opoÐo p~ = ~0 ja isqÔoun
/p/² = −²
//p + 2² · p = −²
//p (2.137)
0 0 0 0
/p/² = −²
/ /p + 2² · p = −²
/ /p (2.138)

44
me apotèlesma (kai ìmoia gia to ²0 )

/ + m)²
(p /(p
/ + m) = /²(−p
/ + m)(p
/ + m) = 0 (2.139)

opìte
X ½· ¸ · ¸ ¾
2 e4 /²0/k/² /²/k 0/²0 /²/k/²0 /²0/k 0/² 0
|M | = Tr + / + m)
(p + / + m)
(p
4p0 p00 2p · k 2p · k 0 2p · k 2p · k 0
s,s0
(2.140)

Epeid  to Ðqnoc perittoÔ ginomènou pinˆkwn γ eÐnai mhdèn kˆnontac touc pollapla-
siasmoÔc èqoume ta Ðqnh
£ ¤ £ ¤ £ ¤ £ ¤
T r /²0/k/²/p/²/k/²0/p0 T r /²0/k/²/p/²0/k 0/²/p0 T r /²/k 0/²0/p/²/k/²0/p0 T r /²/k 0/²/p/²0/k 0/²/p0
+ + +
(p · k)2 (p · k)(p · k 0 ) (p · k)(p · k 0 ) (p · k)2
£ 0 ¤ £ ¤ £ ¤ £ 0 0 0 0 ¤
2Tr / ² /k/²/²/k/²0 2Tr / ²0/k/²/²0/k/² 2Tr / ²/k 0/²0/²/k/²0 2Tr / ²/k /² /² /k /²
+m 2
+m 0
+m 0
+m
(p · k) (p · k)(p · k ) (p · k)(p · k ) (p · k 0 )2
(2.141)

Ta Ðqnh pou aforoÔn ginìmeno 8 pinˆkwn γ aplopoioÔntai qrhsimopoi¸ntac tic

sqèseic 2.137 - 2.138 kaj¸c kai tic k · k = k 0 · k 0 = 0 kai ² · ² = ²0 · ²0 = 1, kai
upologÐzontai apì tic sqèseic 4.2 - 4.4. EpÐshc qrhsimopoioÔme tic

/²/p/² = −p
//²/² + 2(² · p)²
/ = −p
/ (2.142)
0 0 0 0 0 0
/² /p/² //² /² + 2(² · p)²
= −p / = −p
/ (2.143)
/²/k/² = −k
//²/² + 2(² · k)²
/ = −k
/ (2.144)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
/² /k /² / /² /² + 2(² · k )²
= −k / = −k
/ (2.145)
/k/p/k = −p
/ /k/k + 2(k · p)k
/ = 2(k · p)k
/ (2.146)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
/k /p/k / /k /k + 2(k · p)k
= −p / = 2(k · p)k
/ (2.147)

allˆ kai tic sqèseic:

² · p0 = ² · (p + k − k 0 ) = −² · k 0 (2.148)
0 0 0 0 0
² ·p = ² · (p + k − k ) = ² · k (2.149)
2 0 0 2 0 0
(p + k) = (p + k ) ⇔ p · k = p · k (2.150)
0 2 0 2 0 0 2
(p − p ) = (k − k ) ⇔ p · p = k · k + m (2.151)

Grˆfontac ta megèjh qwrÐc slash mèsa sta Ðqnh gia aploÔsteush thc emfˆnishc
èqoume gia to pr¸to Ðqnoc:

T r[²0 k²p²k²0 p0 ] = −T r[²0 kpk²0 p0 ] = −2(p · k)T r[²0 k²0 p0 ]

¡ ¢
= −2(p · k)4 (²0 · k)(²0 · p0 ) − (²0 · ²0 )(k · p0 ) − (²0 · p0 )(k · ²0 )
¡ ¢
= −8(p · k) 2(²0 · k)(²0 · p0 ) − (k · p0 )
= −16(p · k)(²0 · k)2 + 8(k · p0 ) (2.152)

45
 To deÔtero Ðqnoc:

T r[²0 k²p²0 k 0 ²p0 ] = −T r[²0 k²p²0 ²k 0 p0 ] + 2(k 0 · ²)T r[²0 k²p²0 p0 ]

= T r[²0 k²p²²0 k 0 p0 ] − 2(² · ²0 )T r[²0 k²pk 0 p0 ] +
¡ ¢
+2(k 0 · ²) −T r[k²0 ²p²0 p0 ] + 2(k · ²0 )T r[²p²0 p0 ]
= −T r[²0 kp²0 k 0 p0 ] − 2(² · ²0 )T r[²0 k²pk 0 p0 ] +
¡ ¢
+2(k 0 · ²) T r[k²²0 p²0 p0 ] − 2(² · ²0 )T r[kp²0 p0 ] + 2(k · ²0 )T r[²p²0 p0 ]
= T r[k²0 p²0 k 0 p0 ] − 2(k · ²0 )T r[kpk 0 p0 ] − 2(² · ²0 )T r[²0 k²pk 0 p0 ] +
¡ ¢
+2(k 0 · ²) −T r[k²pp0 ] − 2(² · ²0 )T r[kp²0 p0 ] + 2(k · ²0 )T r[²p²0 p0 ]
= −T r[kpk 0 p0 ] − 2(k · ²0 )T r[p²k 0 p0 ] − 2(² · ²0 )T r[²0 k²pk 0 p0 ] +
−2(k 0 · ²)T r[k²pp0 ] − 4(k 0 · ²)(² · ²0 )T r[kp²0 p0 ]
+4(k 0 · ²)(k · ²0 )T r[²p²0 p0 ] (2.153)

H èkfrash aut  eÐnai plèon katˆllhlh gia na efarmìsoume tic sqèseic 4.3 kai
4.4. Metˆ apì tic prˆxeic ja pˆroume:

T r[²0 k²p²0 k 0 ²p0 ] = −4(k · p)2 + 4m2 (k · k 0 ) + 4(k · k 0 )2 + 4(k · p0 )(k 0 · p)

+8(²0 · k)2 (k 0 · p) − 8(² · k 0 )2 (k · p) + 8m2 (² · ²0 )(²0 · k)(² · k 0 )
−8m2 (² · ²0 )2 (k · k 0 )(p · k 0 ) + 16(² · ²0 )2 (k · p0 )(p · k) (2.154)

Me ton Ðdio trìpo upologÐzetai kai to trÐto Ðqnoc pou dÐnei apotèlesma Ðso me
to prohgoÔmeno. To tètarto Ðqnoc upologÐzetai eukolìtera

T r[²k 0 ²0 p²0 k 0 ²p0 ] = −T r[²k 0 pk 0 ²p0 ] = −2(k 0 · p)T r[²p²p0 ]

= 16(² · k 0 )2 (k 0 · p) + 8(k · p)(k 0 · p) (2.155)

To pèmpto Ðqnoc grˆfetai

T r[²0 k²²0 ²k²0 ] = T r[k²²0 ²k²0 ²0 ] = −T r[k²²0 ²k²0 ²0 ]

T r[²0 k²²0 ²k²0 ] = 0 (2.156)

To ìgdoo Ðqnoc grˆfetai ìmoia

T r[²k 0 ²0 ²0 ²k 0 ²] = T r[k 0 ²0 ²0 ²k 0 ²²] = −T r[k 0 ²0 ²0 ²k 0 ²²]

T r[²k 0 ²0 ²0 ²k 0 ²] = 0 (2.157)

To èkto kai to èbdomo Ðqnoc èqoun thn Ðdia tim 

T r[²0 k²²0 k 0 ²] = T r[k²²0 k 0 ²²0 ]

= −T r[k²²0 k 0 ²0 ²] + 2(² · ²0 )T r[k²²0 k 0 ]
= T r[k²k 0 ²] + 2(² · ²0 )T r[k²²0 k 0 ]
¡ ¢
= T r[²k²k 0 ] + 2(² · ²0 )4 (k · ²)(²0 · k 0 ) − (k · ²0 )(² · k 0 ) − (k · k 0 )(² · ²0 )
= −T r[kk 0 ] − 8(² · ²0 )(k · ²0 )(² · k 0 ) − 8(² · ²0 )(k · k 0 )(² · ²0 )
= −4(k · k 0 ) − 8(² · ²0 )(k · ²0 )(² · k 0 ) − 8(² · ²0 )2 (k · k 0 ) (2.158)

46
 Me antikatˆstash sthn èkfrash 2.141 parathroÔme ìti oi ìroi akur¸nontai kai
mènei
8(k · k 0 )2
+ 32(² · ²0 )2 (2.159)
(k · p)(p · k 0 )
opìte to ˆjroisma 2.140 eÐnai
X µ ¶
2 e4 8(k · k 0 )2
|M | = + 32(² · ²0 )2 (2.160)
4p0 p00 (k · p)(p · k 0 )
s,s0

kai h diaforik  diatom  grˆfetai

µ ¶
1X e4 ω 02 8(k · k 0 )2
dσ = + 32(² · ²0 )2 (2.161)
2 0 16(2π)2 m2 ω 2 (k · p)(p · k 0 )
s,s

Allˆ sto sÔsthma ergasthrÐou pou qrhsimopoioÔme èqoume

µ ¶
0 0 0 0 1 10
k·k = ωω (cos ϑ − 1) = mω − mω = mωω − (2.162)
ω ω
p · k = −mω (2.163)
0 0
p·k = −mω (2.164)
kai h diatom  grˆfetai (Nishina-Klein)
µ 0 ¶2 µ ¶
1X e4 ω ω ω0 0 2
dσ = dΩ + − 2 + 4(² · ² ) (2.165)
2 0 16(2π)2 m2 ω ω0 ω
s,s

An den metrˆme ta eiserqìmena fwtìnia tìte prèpei na pˆroume to mèso ìro gia
tic dÔo katastˆseic arqik c pìlwshc opìte apì th sqèsh
1X 1³ ´
²i ²j = δij − k̂i k̂j (2.166)
2 ² 2

4(² · ²0 )2 = 4²i ²0i ²j ²0j = 4²i ²j ²0i ²0j = 2(δij − k̂i k̂j )²0i ²0j
= 2(²0i ²0i − k̂i ²0i k̂j ²0j ) = 2(1 − (k̂ · ²0 )2 ) (2.167)
kai h diatom 
µ 0 ¶2 µ ¶
1 X e4 ω ω ω0 0 2
dσ = dΩ + − 2(k̂ · ² ) (2.168)
4 0 16(2π)2 m2 ω ω0 ω
s,s ,²

Apì thn parapˆnw kai thn ²0 · k 0 = 0 blèpoume ìti ta skedazìmena fwtìnia eÐnai
polwmèna kˆjeta sthn arqik  kai thn telik  dieÔjunsh. An oÔte oi telikèc pol¸seic
eÐnai metr simec anˆloga ja èqoume
µ 0 ¶2 µ ¶
1 X e4 ω ω ω0 2
dσ = dΩ + − sin ϑ (2.169)
4 0 0 8(2π)2 m2 ω ω0 ω
s,s ,²,²

47
 Se qamhlèc enèrgeiec ìpou ω ¿ m mporoÔme na jewr soume ω ≈ ω 0 kai ètsi

1 X e4 ¡ ¢
dσ = 2 2
dΩ 2 − sin2 ϑ (2.170)
4 0 0 8(2π) m
s,s ,²,²

kai h olokl rwsh sth stereˆ gwnÐa dΩ gÐnetai eÔkola me apotèlesma h olik  diatom 
na eÐnai h diatom  Thomson

e4
σ= (2.171)
6πm2
'Eqei endiafèron na upologÐsoume th diatom  thc allhlepÐdrashc fwtonÐou -
hlektronÐou me mejìdouc klassik c hlektrodunamik c. To fwtìnio t¸ra jewreÐtai
èna hlektromagnhtikì kÔma mikr c èntashc me to hlektrikì mèroc tou na eÐnai thc
morf c E ~ = E0 ²̂i exp[i~k · ~r − ωt] pou sunantˆ kai jètei se kÐnhsh èna hlektrìnio.
H mikr  èntash E0 ja prokaleÐ mikr  kÐnhsh sto hlektrìnio opìte h taqÔthtec ja
eÐnai m -sqetikistikèc ètsi ¸ste na agno soume thn epÐdrash tou magnhtikoÔ pedÐou
sth dÔnamh Lorentz. Sthn prosèggish aut  mporoÔme na jewr soume thn kÐnhsh
tou hlektronÐou wc hlektrik  talˆntwsh me exÐswsh reÔmatoc J(~ ~ r)eiωt .
To dianusmatikì dunamikì
³ ´
Z r0 |
J~ ~r0 , t − |~r−~
c
~ r, t) = d3~r0
A(~ (2.172)
0
c|~r − ~r |

Gia megˆla r ìpou |~r − ~r0 | ≈ 1 − r̂ · ~r0 kai gia reÔma pou metabˆlletai armonikˆ me
ton qrìno to dunamikì grˆfetai
Z
~ 1 iωr ~ r0 )ei ωc r̂·~r0
A(~r → ∞) = e c d3 r0 J(~ (2.173)
cr

Sthn jewroÔmenh prosèggish r0 ¿ c/ω mporoÔme na grˆyoume Ji = ∇ ~ · (xi J)

~ −
~ ~ ~ ~
xi ∇ · J = ∇ · (xi J) − iωxi ρ(~r) pou mac epitrèpei na grˆyoume to olokl rwma wc
proc th hlektrik  dipolik  rop 
Z
~ r0 ) = −iω d~
d3 r0 J(~ (2.174)

kai to dianusmatikì dunamikì

i ωc r
~ r → ∞) = −iω d~ e
A(~ (2.175)
cr
To magnhtikì kai hlektrikì pedÐo upologÐzontai apì autì eÔkola
ω
~ r) = −ω 2 d~ × r̂ ei c r
B(~ c2 r
(2.176)
ω
~
~ r) = −ω 2 [r̂ × (r̂ × d)] ei c r
E(~ 2
c r
(2.177)

48
 Makruˆ apì thn phg  h ekpempìmenh isqÔc se stereˆ gwnÐa kai me diˆnusma
pìlwshc ²f eÐnai
c ~
lim |E · ²̂f |2 r2 dΩ (2.178)
r→∞ 8π

pou mac epitrèpei na upologÐsoume thn diaforik  diatom 

dσ e4
= 2 4 |²̂i · ²̂f |2 = r02 |²̂i · ²̂f |2 (2.179)
dΩ m c
An pˆroume touc mèsouc ìrouc gia ta dianÔsmata pìlwshc brÐskoume thn diaforik 
diatom  Thomson
dσ r2
= 0 (1 + cos2 (ϑ)) (2.180)
dΩ 2
kai olik  diatom  Thomson

8π 2 e4
σ= r0 = (2.181)
3 6πm2
ParathroÔme ìti parìlo ton dÔskolo formalismì thc kbantik c jewrÐac pedÐou
o upologismìc thc diatom c skèdashc tautÐzetai me autìn pou brÐskoume me th klas-
sik  hlektrodunamik  gia hlektrìnio pou allhlepidrˆ me asjenèc hlektromagnhtikì
pedÐo.

49
Kefˆlaio 3

SÔnoyh - Sumperˆsmata
H kbantik  jewrÐa pedÐou anaptÔssetai me th qr sh oloklhrwmˆtwn diadrom c se
klassikˆ pedÐa. H kentrik  posìthta eÐnai h sunarthsiak  genn tria Z[J] apì
thn opoÐa prokÔptoun oi anamenìmenec timèc kenoÔ twn ginomènwn twn pedÐwn dhla-
d  oi sunart seic Green thc ekˆstote jewrÐac. H Ôparxh allhlepÐdrashc metaxÔ
twn pedÐwn tropopoieÐ thn sunarthsiak  genn tria h opoÐa grˆfetai wc ginìmeno
dÔo ekjetik¸n kai gia praktikˆ apotelèsmata anaptÔssetai wc dunamoseirˆ. H su-
narthsiak  genn tria dÐnetai gia to bajmwtì, to spinor, kai to hlektromagnhtikì
pedÐo. H summetrÐa bajmÐdac thc hlektrodunamik c ekfrˆzetai mèsw twn sqèsewn
Ward-Takahashi pou prokÔptoun m  diataraktikˆ kai isqÔoun se kˆje tˆxh thc
jewrÐac diataraq¸n. O pÐnakac S , ousiastik c shmasÐac gia upologismoÔc ruj-
m¸n metˆbashc kai diatom¸n skèdashc, ekfrˆzetai me th bo jeia thc sunarthsiak c
genn triac. San efarmog  upologÐzetai h diatom  thc skèdashc hlektronÐou - fw-
tonÐou, xekin¸ntac apì thn morf  tou pÐnaka S kai thn sunarthsiak  genn tria
thc hlektrodunamik c, kai sugkrÐnetai me èna aploðkì upologismì me thn klassik 
hlektrodunamik . H Ôparxh allhlepÐdrashc dhmiourgeÐ apoklÐnonta oloklhr¸mata
akìma kai sth qamhlìterh tˆxh tou anaptÔgmatoc diataraq¸n, pou tropopoioÔn touc
antÐstoiqouc diadìtec me apoklÐnonta trìpo. Autì, en¸ dÐnei thn entÔpwsh ìti kˆ-
poio eggenèc majhmatikì prìblhma upˆrqei sth jewrÐa, telikˆ h apotelesmatik  kai
susthmatik  antimet¸pish twn apeirism¸n parˆgei pollˆ kai endiafèronta apotelè-
smata. Ta apoklÐnonta graf mata thc kbantik c hlektrodunamik c se qamhlìterh
tˆxh (1-brìgqo) exetˆzontai kai omalopoioÔntai me th mèjodo thc diastasiak c o-
malopoÐhshc pou eis qjhke apì touc G. ’t Hooft kai M. Veltman. To diˆgramma
autoenèrgeiac tou hlektronÐou eÐnai upeÔjuno gia th tropopoÐhsh thc mˆzac tou kai
thc kumatosunˆrths c tou. H epakanonikopoÐhsh tou pedÐou Aµ lìgw summetrÐac
bajmÐdac (dhlad  lìgw sqèsewn Ward-Takahashi), tropopoieÐ thn tim  tou fortÐou
e tou hlektronÐou. H tropopoÐhsh tou diadìth tou fwtonÐou sunepˆgetai alla-
g  sto dunamikì Coulomb prˆgma pou dÐnei metr simec metabolèc stic energeiakèc
stˆjmec tou atìmou tou udrogìnou. H omalopoÐhsh thc sunˆrthshc kìmbou su-
neisfèrei ston parˆgonta g thc magnhtik c rop c tou hlektronÐou kai exhgeÐ thn
peiramatik  apìklish apì thn tim  2 thc jewrÐac Dirac. Oi dÔo autèc sumfwnÐec

50
peiramatikoÔ kai jewrhtikoÔ upologismoÔ edraÐwsan thn empistosÔnh sthn kbantik 
jewrÐa pedÐou genikˆ kai sthn kbantik  hlektrodunamik  eidikìtera, jewr¸ntac thn
teleutaÐa wc mÐa apì tic jewrÐec me thn kalÔterh peiramatik  epibebaÐwsh. EpÐshc
èdeixan ìti h mèjodoc thc epakanonikopoÐhshc eÐnai epibeblhmènh ìqi mìno gia thn
majhmatik  sunèpeia thc jewrÐac allˆ giatÐ exhgeÐ kai ermhneÔei sugkekrimèna pro-
bl mata kai prosfèrei epÐshc mÐa bajÔterh katanìhsh se ènnoiec ìpwc to fortÐo
kai h mˆza twn stoiqeiwd¸n swmatidÐwn.

51
Kefˆlaio 4

Parˆrthma
4.1 'Iqnh g pinˆkwn

T r[odd] = 0 (4.1)
T r[γµ γν ] = 4gµν (4.2)
T r[γµ γν γλ γκ ] = 4(gµν gλκ − gµλ gνκ + gµκ gνλ ) (4.3)

T r[γµ γν γλ γκ γρ γσ ] = 4(gµν gλκ gρσ − gµν gλρ gκσ + gµν gλσ gκρ
−gµλ gνκ gρσ + gµλ gνρ gκσ − gµλ gνσ gκρ
+gµκ gνλ gρσ − gµκ gνρ gλσ + gµκ gνσ gλρ
−gµρ gνλ gκσ + gµρ gνκ gλσ − gµρ gνσ gλκ
+gµσ gνλ gκρ − gµσ gνκ gλρ + gµσ gνρ gλκ ) (4.4)

4.2 g pÐnakec se d diastˆseic

{γµ , γν } = 2gµν (4.5)

µ
γ γµ = d (4.6)
µ
γµ γν γ = (2 − d)γν (4.7)
γµ γρ γν γ ρ γ µ = (2 − d)2 γν (4.8)
T r[odd] = 0 (4.9)
T r[I] = f (d) (4.10)
T r[γµ γν ] = f (d)gµν (4.11)
T r[γµ γν γλ γκ ] = f (d)(gµν gλκ − gµλ gνκ + gµκ gνλ ) (4.12)
ìpou f (d) kˆpoia sunˆrthsh me mình apaÐthsh f (4) = 4

52
4.3 Oloklhr¸mata
Z
dd p Γ(a − d/2) 1
= iπ d/2 (−1)a (4.13)
[p2 − b2 ]a Γ(a) 2
(b ) a−d/2

Z
pµ Γ(a − d/2) −kµ
dd p = iπ d/2 (−1)a (4.14)
[p2 + 2p · k + b2 ]a Γ(a) (k 2 − b2 )a−d/2

Z
pµ pν 1
dd p = iπ d/2 (−1)a
[p2 2
+ 2p · k + b ]a Γ(a)(k − b2 )a−d/2
2
· ¸ (4.15)
1 2 2
× Γ(a − d/2)kµ kν − gµν (k − b )Γ(a − d/2 − 1)
2

53
BibliografÐa
[1] Kuriˆkoc Tambˆkhc. Eisagwg  sthn Kbantomhqanik . Leader Books, 2003.

[2] Aitchison I. J. R., Hey A. J. G. Gauge Theories in Particle Physics, Vol 1,

2. IOP Publishing, 2003.

[3] Fujita T., Kanda N., et al. New Renormalization Scheme of Vacuum Polari-
zation in Q.E.D. arXiv:0901.3421v1, 2009.

[4] Greiner Walter, Reinhardt Joachim. Field Quantization. Springer-Verlag,

1996.

[5] Jackson, John D. Classical Electrodynamics. John Wiley, 2005.

[6] Mandl F., Shaw G. Quantum Field Theory. John Wiley and Sons, 1984.

[7] Peskin Michael, Schroeder Daniel. An introduction to Quantum Field Theory.

Addison-Wesley, 1995.

[8] Ryder, Lewis H. Quantum Field Theory. Cambridge, 1988.

[9] Schwinger, J. S. Physical Review, 73:416, 1948.

[10] Siegel Warren. Fields. Stony Brook S.U., 2005.

[11] Srednicki Mark. Quantum Field Theory. Cambridge University Press, 2006.

[12] ’t Hooft G., Veltman M. Diagrammar. CERN, 1975.

[13] Ward, J. C. An Identity in Quantum Electrodynamics. Phys. Rev., 78(2):182,

Apr 1950.

[14] Weinberg, Steven. The Quantum Theory of Fields, Vol 1. Cambridge, 2005.

[15] Weinberg Steven. Living with infinities. arXiv:0903.0568v2, 2009.

[16] Xinwei Kong and Finn Ravndal. Quantum Corrections to the QED Vacuum
Energy. Nuclear Physics B, 526:627, 1998.

[17] Zee, A. Quantum Field Theory in a nutshell. Princeton, 2003.

54