SPWLA 47th Annual Logging Symposium, June 4-7, 2006

INTEGRATED PETROPHYSICAL MODELS IN TIGHT GAS SANDS

Richard Merkel, SI International (now with EnCana Oil & Gas)
Copyright 2006, held jointly by the Society of Petrophysicists and Well Log Analysts (SPWLA) and the submitting authors. This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPWLA 47th Annual Logging Symposium held in Veracruz, Mexico, June 4-7, 2006.

INTRODUCTION In order to determine original gas in place (OGIP) using resistivity based saturation relationships requires the knowledge of numerous petrophysical parameters. In low porosity (<12%) and permeability (<100 microDarcy) rock, Archies cementation exponent, m, and saturation exponent, n, are both difficult and time consuming to obtain with restored state core at simulated reservoir pressures. Cleaning, drying, and resaturating core with simulated reservoir brine will often alter m and/or n in these shaly sands. Most tight gas reservoirs have either no, or a poorly defined water table (Sw = 100%). Consequently, using produced water or using a Pickett Plot to determine Rw is problematic. Water samples obtained from gas producing wells include contamination of low salinity water of hydration from the gas, resulting in anomalously low measured salinities. This problem of determining formation Rw is compounded by multiple lines of evidence that formation water salinity may change from sand to sand within a geologic formation in the reservoir. The tight gas sands in western Colorado (Piceance Basin) and western Wyoming (Green River Basin) are mineralogically complex. The mineralogy of the reservoir rock often includes varying amounts of feldspar, mica, calcite, and dolomite (Nelson, 2002). This complexity is increased by the presence of all four major clay types: smectite, illite, chlorite, and kaolinite (Pitman et al., 1989). Developing petrophysical models in this complex environment is extremely difficult. Using a combination of an NMR log (to measure the fluid properties) and stand open hole logs (for the matrix properties), an integrated model can be developed for the reservoir. Moreover, this log combination makes it possible in some circumstances, to determine m, n, Rw, and BVWI at in-situ reservoir conditions.

ABSTRACT Tight gas sand reservoirs in the Rocky Mountains typically have complex mineralogy in the reservoir rock in the form of mica, feldspars, and carbonates. Moreover shale is often some combination of the clays illite, smectite, kaolinite, and chlorite. The measured signal from most logging tools originates from the rock matrix, which in the case of these tight gas sands is often both complex and poorly defined. The measured signal for the NMR tool comes primarily from the fluid component with minimal matrix effect. Robust petrophysical models can be developed by combining the NMR (for the fluid component) with other open-hole measurements (for the matrix component) to obtain an internally consistent model. For the calculation of Sw, most petrophysical models require knowledge of Rw, m, and n (as well as PHIT, VCLAY, and CEC). Core determination of the cementation exponent (m) and the saturation exponent (n) are very difficult and time consuming in tight gas sands. This is a result of: 1) the inability to clean and dry the core plug without causing damage to the rock matrix, and 2) very low permeability which precludes a wide spread in measured saturations for the analysis. Since intervals of 100% water are not common in these reservoirs, Pickett Plot analysis to obtain values for m and Rw are often misleading. Moreover, there is considerable evidence that formation water salinities can vary between sands within a given tight gas formation. Using produced water to define Rw is problematic because it is contaminated by the low salinity water of condensation from the produced gas. With a full logging suite that includes an NMR log, the m and n exponents (and in some cases, Rw) often can be estimated at reservoir conditions. Examples are shown of what MNR measurements are required for this analysis and how these can be combined with other open-hole data to determine mutually consistent porosity-saturation models. As with any models, NMR core data results can be used to verify and/or augment the petrophysical models.

MINERALOGY AND LOG RESPONSE The reservoir sands in the Williams Fork Formation in the Piceance Basin were deposited in a fluvial

SPWLA 47th Annual Logging Symposium, June 4-7, 2006

environment. The major component on the reservoir is quartz. However, there are a considerable number of accessory minerals such as feldspar, mica, calcite and dolomite. As a result, a simple density-porosity petrophysical model for porosity is only a first approximation since grain density is highly variable. The clay mineralogy is also complex, and includes all four of the major clay types. Point count petrography data on core (Pitman et al., 1989) indicates that the clay fraction by volume is illite, smectite, chlorite, and kaolinite (most to least abundant). Crossplots of the log data suggest that chlorite may be the more abundant than the core data indicate. Crossplots for neutrondensity-GR and PE-density-GR for one of the wells included in the study is shown in Figure 1.

An example of a raw log recorded over an interval that includes two gas sands is shown in Figure 2. The triple combo data shown in Figure 2a indicate that the pay interval can be identified by a combination of GR, SP, resistivity, and density-neutron crossover (on a sandstone matrix). One of the characteristics that can be seen on this log, which will be used later in the analysis, is the lack of invasion in the reservoir sands. This is not always the case, especially in more porous/permeable sands, or when partially depleted sands are intersected.

montmorillonite

illite

chlorite

No Invasion

Fig. 1 Neutron-density-PE-GR 4-dimensional spatial relationships over 700 feet in the Williams Fork The presence of chlorite in reservoir sand is problematic. Since chlorite has no potassium in its lattice structure, it is radioactive only through associated radionuclides which may or may not be related to its volume. As a result, the GR log is often unreliable in determining its volume. Because of the high grain density of chlorite, its presence in the reservoir sands will give a pessimistic density-porosity calculation unless a variable matrix density based on its volume is used. Although low, chlorite has an inherent CEC, which lowers the resistivity in sands where it is present. Lastly, chlorite reacts with acid in frac/completion fluids generating fines that plug pore throats and reduce permeability. So in summary, chlorite is hard to quantify, reduces calculated porosity, increases calculated water saturation, and reduces permeability when contacted with acid. Figure 1 also shows that reservoir sands with a low GR have a matrix density greater than 2.65 g/cc, and quite variable. The gas effect can be seen on the cleanest sands that have a porosity between 8 and 13 pu.

Fig. 2a Triple combo log over the Williams Fork gas sands The wells that were analyzed in this study included the MRIL-C+ NMR tool provided by Halliburton. Because of the shallow depth of investigation of this tool (three inches for these sands), the measurement is adversely affected by borehole washouts. These can be identified at depths 5632 feet and 5700 feet in Figure 2b. Because of this shallow depth of investigation, identifying intervals from the resistivity log with little or no invasion as shown in Figure 2a becomes important in the analysis. Shown in Figure 2b in track 3 are the T2 bin distributions, which will be examined in some detail later. Each bin number (No) can be converted to mean T2 time (ms) by: T2 = 2^(No+1). Examining bin combinations allows one to determine the liquid component in the effective porosity volume from the

SPWLA 47th Annual Logging Symposium, June 4-7, 2006

chemically bound water and the gas saturated volume. Track 4 in Figure 2b gives the liquid distributions in the total pore volume. It is noted in this figure that the sand around 5690 feet is quite clean, and has nearly constant irreducible bulk volume water (MBVI).

sections on the logs used in this study. This depth is a function of borehole diameter over the sands, which typically do not wash out (see the caliper in Figures 2a and 2b). Since there is no resistivity tool which measures a volume comparable to the MRIL, intervals where no evidence of mud filtrate invasion were identified by examining the resistivity profile and the MRIL bin distribution. The latter was verified using the T2 distribution of core plugs measured at Swi. Using the deep resistivity measurement over intervals with little or no apparent invasion, along with the NMR porosity calculated from only the irreducible water filled bin distribution, allows for a Pickett Plot analysis for the Ro (100% water) line. This gives both Rw and the Archie cementation exponent, m. This technique was applied on numerous zones in the four wells selected in this study once the criterion was established for minimal filtrate effects, and when the resistivity log was filtered to the same vertical resolution as the MRIL. An example of the method is shown in Figure 3. In normal Pickett Plot analysis, the Ro line is selected as the lower bound of the PHIT_Rt data. However, as shown in Figure 3, with this technique, the upper bound of the data is taken to define the Ro line because the NMR porosity is PHIE rather than PHIT and much of the rock is non-Archie.

Bin distribution MPHI

Constant BVWI

P
decrease salinity

Fig. 2b NMR log response (MRIL-C+) over the gas sands identified in Figure 2a
increase salinity

COMBINED LOGS TO DETERMINE m AND Rw In the tight gas sand environment in the Rocky Mountain region, zones of 100% water are very uncommon. As a result, using Pickett Plots or Rwa analysis to determine formation water salinity errors toward low calculated salinity (high Rw). Similarly, produced water from gas producing wells is contaminated with low salinity water of hydration from the gas. This too gives a salinity lower than the formation water. In all of these cases, the anomalously high calculated (or measured) Rw translates into a high Sw calculation in water saturation models. This results in a pessimistic estimation of OGIP for the gas reservoir. It was noted above that the MRIL has a depth of investigation of about 3-4 inches in the reservoir

Fig. 3 Modified Pickett Plot using deep resistivity and NMR porosity to define the Ro line and establish Rw and m

SPWLA 47th Annual Logging Symposium, June 4-7, 2006

In the numerous sands in which this technique was applied for the four wells, it was found that there was variation vertically and laterally in the water resistivity. This is not true for m (the reciprocal slope of the line), which remained fairly constant at 1.85. Since the porosity used in Figure 3 is only the water filled component, saturation lines other than 100% are meaningless. However once this Ro line is established, total porosity (PHIT) from density-neutron analysis can be substituted on the Y-axis to give water saturation lines which are controlled by the saturation exponent, n.

the intersection with the Ro line gives a BVWI = 5.1. This gives a semi-independent crosscheck of the BVWI calculated with the NMR log or from desaturated core.

COMBINED LOGS TO DETERMINE n Measuring the Archie saturation exponent, n, from core in tight gas sands is extremely difficult and quite error prone. With rocks in the micro-Darcy range, establishing an equilibrium saturation profile at simulated reservoir pressures (NCS) is time consuming and expensive. Moreover, cleaning and drying these core plugs before resaturating with simulated reservoir brine often alters the clay morphology and hence electrical properties. Many of the tight gas sand reservoirs are at irreducible water saturation. In his 1965 publication, Buckles (1965) noted that in many reservoir sands where mineralogy and/or pore type does not change the product of irreducible water saturation and porosity is a constant. PHI*Swi = BVWI = Constant .Equation 1
BVWI

n = 1.72

Fig. 4 The determination of the saturation exponent, n, and irreducible bulk volume water (BVWI) from a Pickett Plot The application of this technique has shown that, as was noted by Buckles (1965), BVWI may change with changing pore type or mineralogy. This may lead to a series of parallel lines with different intersections on the Ro line. However, changing either pore type or mineralogy can lead to changing n, which then alters the slope of the line. With the inherent complexities and inaccuracies of measuring n on tight gas core, this technique has many advantages: 1. It calculates n over numerous sample depths rather than a single core plug (or the average of a number of plugs). 2. It calculates n at reservoir temperature and pressure conditions rather than laboratory restored state. 3. The analysis can be done immediately following logging rather than waiting months for the core analysis to be done. 4. The n calculation has a vertical resolution of the logs, for which it is used, rather than a core plug.

The rearrangement of Archies equation to take advantage of this relationship shows: BVWI^n = Rw/ {Rt*PHI^(m-n)} = C .Equation 2 Therefore: log(PHI) = {1/(n-m)}*log (Rt) + C .Equation 3 Equation 3 shows that in a Picket Plot the data at irreducible water saturation should be in the north-east quadrant of the plot, and in a straight line. The basic shapes of these data are shown in Doveton (1994). Equation 3 indicates that the slope of these data should be 1/(n-m), which is infinite (vertical) if n = m, negative slope if n<m, and positive slope if n>m. Moreover, when this line is projected to the Ro line (100% Sw), their intersection is BVWI. An example of a Pickett Plot of data at irreducible is shown in Figure 4. The negative slope indicates that n<m, and calculates to be 1.72 if m = 1.85. Note that

SPWLA 47th Annual Logging Symposium, June 4-7, 2006

Relative Amplitude

For the four wells analyzed in this study it was noted that the calculated m was quite consistent around a value of 1.85. The analysis for n also was quite constant around a value of 1.71. Core data for this reservoir typically show higher measured value of n. The use of the higher n value has a very negative economic impact since it reduces OGIP.

MRIL T2 SPECTRA 4450-4453.5 feet

25 20 15 10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 BIN No. Bin centered at T2 = 2^(No + 1)

T2 BIN DISRTIBUTION A detailed analysis of the bin distributions shown in Figure 2b was done to 1) assist in determining where the data had mud filtrate invasion, and 2) compare log spectra with each core NMR spectra at the core point. Although the core T2 spectra are not shown, they are similar enough to the log data that non-invaded and invaded intervals from the log data will suffice as examples.
MRIL T2 SPECTRA 4913-4917 feet

Fig. 6 T2 bin cumulative distribution over 3.5 feet in invaded reservoir sand

PETROPHYSICAL MODEL
14 12
Relative Amplitude

10 8 6 4 2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 BIN No. Bin centered at T2 = 2^(No + 1)

The first example of the integrated petrophysical model development is over the interval shown by the raw logs in Figures 2a and 2b. The first approximation of the mineralogy is determined by the examination of the data in density-neutron-PE-GR space as shown in Figure 7.

Sandstone

Fig. 5 T2 bin cumulative distribution over four feet in uninvaded reservoir sand The cumulative spectra shown in Figure 5 shows the rapid drop off at larger pore sizes indicating little invasion except at the very large pore sizes (BIN #9), which was likely gas filled in the reservoir prior to drilling. By contrast, Figure 6 shows the log T2 bin distribution for a mud filtrate invaded sand. Even though the larger pore sizes show invasion, there is still gas in this sand since the sum of all the bins over this interval is less than the porosity calculated by the petrophysical model (under call). The ratio of these two values is Sxo for the interval.

Limestone Dolomite Sandstone

Limestone Dolomite

Fig. 7 Density-neutron-PE-GR crossplot space of the data shown in Figure 2a to get a first pass approximation of the mineralogy over the interval These crossplots show the gas sands centered around 12 pu, dolomite cementing, illite-chlorite clays, and an apparent reservoir rock matrix density ranging between 2.66g/cc and 2.70g/cc. A NMR-resistivity modified Pickett Plot for the data in the lower sand (5675-5695 feet) to obtain m and Rw is

SPWLA 47th Annual Logging Symposium, June 4-7, 2006

shown in Figure 8. This figure is in the same format as Figure 3, giving a similar m, but different Rw. The vertical higher porosity excursion above the Ro line is attributed to slight invasion seen by the NMR tool but not the deep resistivity.

that the former provides error analysis and notes any model instabilities. With these various parameters as input, a petrophysical model generated for this interval in the Williams Fork and is shown in Figure 9. In this figure, mineralogy is shown in track 1, porosity and bulk volume fluids are in track 3, and water saturation is in track 4.

Fig. 8 Resistivity-NMR porosity Pickett Plot to define the Ro line and cementation exponent, m The analysis at irreducible water saturation for n over this interval is shown in Figure 4. With these parameters and a basic knowledge of the mineralogy (from Figure 7), a probabilistic petrophysical model can be developed. Rather than using a deterministic model, it was decided to develop a mineral based error minimization (probabilistic) model. Unfortunately from petrographic work and XRD analysis (Pitman et al., 1989), it was recognized that there were more minerals in the reservoir rock than there were log measurements. This creates an underdetermined matrix for inversion. To circumvent this problem, two curves from the NMR tool were added as inputs (MPHI and MBVI), and micas were grouped together as were the feldspar group. The only clay minerals that were included in the analysis were narrowed illite and chlorite since these seemed to have the largest log response (see Figures 1 and 7). Once log mineral matrix points were established, the matrix could be inverted and the residual between the recorded data and the synthetic theoretical curves minimized. An added advantage of using a probabilistic rather than deterministic model is Fig. 9 Petrophysical model in the upper Williams Fork, incorporating the data shown in Figures 2a, 2b, 4, 7, and 8.

PETROPHYSICAL MODEL WITH CORE The second example of this model development in the Piceance Basin includes core data that were analyzed for porosity and permeability in the standard fashion, as well as with a core NMR spectrometer at fully saturated and irreducible conditions. Although the NMR core data have not been released for publication, they did establish the T2 cutoff for irreducible water as well as confirm a Buckles number for irreducible BVW. The example is taken from the lower portion of the Williams Fork Formation in the Cretaceous Mesaverde Group. The input open hole logs are shown in Figure 10.

SPWLA 47th Annual Logging Symposium, June 4-7, 2006

BVWI
n = 1.72

Coal

Fig. 12 Resistivity-NMR and resistivity-PHIT Pickett Plots to establish Rw, m, n, and BVWI Fig. 10 Open hole logs over a gas sand in the lower part of the Williams Fork Formation Crossplots of the density, neutron PE, and GR over this interval, shown in Figure 11, indicate a mineral assemblage similar to the first example, with the exception of the addition of coal. The probabilistic petrophysical model results for this interval are shown in Figure 13. Also included in this figure are the core porosity (black dots) and the core water saturations of the spun samples (blue dots). Figure 12 indicated that either this sand was not at irreducible water saturation, or the Buckles number changed as a result of mineralogical changes or pore type changes. The saturation data in figure 13 indicate that the changes in mineralogy shown in track 1 are the likely cause of the variation in the Buckles number, and the sand is likely at irreducible.

COAL

Fig. 11 Density-neutron-PE-GR distribution for the data shown in Figure 10 The determination of Rw, m, n, and BVWI with the use of modified Pickett Plots over the gas sand interval, as previously described, is given in Figure 12. It should be noted that much of the data over this interval either is not at irreducible water saturation, or there are mineralogy/pore type changes over this interval. The logs shown in Figure 10 indicate that both may be true. However, n could be established by selecting the data in the north-east quadrant of the Pickett Plot.

Fig. 13 Petrophysical model for the gas sand in the lower Williams Fork with core porosity and irreducible water saturation The Pickett Plot in Figure 12 gives an extrapolated BVWI between 5 and 6 pu. As a model crosscheck or redundancy check, a histogram of the bulk volume

SPWLA 47th Annual Logging Symposium, June 4-7, 2006

irreducible calculated from the NMR log (MBVI) is shown in Figure 14. Although there is scatter at the low end as porosity gets low, it can be seen in this figure that the bulk of the data are between 5 and 6 pu.

Fig. 15 Permeability-irreducible water saturation relationship for the Williams Fork core Roberto Aguilera (1990) wrote a paper discussing the possibility of combining NMR log data with resistivity data since both are affected only by pore fluids in a clean formation. Unfortunately, his work was done before the downhole NMR technology developed by NUMAR was adapted by the various service companies. Consequently, the various sophisticated NMR measurements that are made routinely today were not available to him. However, from a historic and development standpoint, his work needs to be noted.

Fig. 14 Histogram of the NMR calculated bulk volume irreducible water over the gas sand

DISCUSSION One of the many applications of NMR technology is the estimation of permeability. Various NMR models capitalize on pore size distributions and/or measured irreducible water saturation. To demonstrate how effective this technique is in the Williams Fork Formation, Figure 15 shows the relationship between core measured permeability and irreducible water saturation. These types of relationships typically become more accurate when the NMR pore size distribution is added as a second independent variable. The current MRIL-Prime tool measures three activation windows below 3 ms in the T2 domain, which is in the clay bound water region. This gives a direct measurement of the volume of clay bound water, which can be used in this petrophysical model as a constraint against the clay calculations (or for a direct calculation of CEC). Recent data obtained in the Lance Formation in the Green River Basin confirms this use and further strengthens the concept of using of this type of petrophysical model in tight gas sands.

CONCLUSIONS ! Combining NMR with other open hole logs can lead to the determination of Rw, m, n, and BVWI in tight gas sands. Some (or all) of these parameters are poorly defined at reservoir conditions from core, cuttings, or well tests. Many of the petrophysical model parameters interrelate and can be used as a crosscheck in an integrated model. Core data greatly help determine the validity of the calculations and log model parameters. Probabilistic petrophysical models allow for the inclusion of NMR data in the simultaneous inversion, give error analysis, and determine model stability.

! ! !

SPWLA 47th Annual Logging Symposium, June 4-7, 2006

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author would like to express his thanks to Williams for the release of the log data and to SI-International for allowing time to do the analysis and research.

REFERENCES Aguilera, R., 1990, A New Approach for Analysis of the Nuclear Magnetic Log Resistivity Log Combination: The Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology, January-February 1990, Vol 29, No 1, pp 67-71 Buckles, R.S., 1965, Correlating and Averaging Connate Water Saturation Data: The Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology, January-March 1965, pp 42-52 Doveton, J.H., 1994, Geologic Log Analysis Using Computer Methods: AAPG Computer Applications in Geology, No.2 Nelson, P.H., 2002, A Review of the Multiwell Experiment, Williams Fork and Iles Formations, Garfield County, Colorado: Petroleum Systems and Geologic Assessment of Oil and Gas in the UintaPiceance Province, Utah and Colorado, Us Geological Survey Digital Data Series DDS-69-B, Chapter 15 Pitman, J.K., Spencer, C.W., and Pollastro, R.M., 1989, Petrography, Mineralogy, and Reservoir Characterization of the Upper Cretaceous Mesaverde Group in the East-Central Piceance Basin, Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1787-G

ABOUT THE AUTHOR Dick Merkel is a Chief Petrophysicist for SIInternational, where he works on teams that develop reservoir models. Previously, Dick was a Senior Technical Consultant at Marathon Oil Companys Petroleum Technology Center in Littleton where he worked on evaluating new logging tools and technology, and developing techniques for their application in Marathons reservoirs. Dick has a Ph.D. in geophysics from Penn State and is a past president of SPWLA.