Le 1 Amanda Le Mr. Targgart AP Biology (6) Objectives 2 Chapter 6 1. isting!is" bet#een $ro%aryotic and e!%aryotic cells. Eukaryotic &!cle!

s M!lti$le c"romosomes M!lticell!lar Membrane(bo!nd n!cle!s Linear &A )ell #alls only in $lants+ sim$le Mitosis /maller cell- 1(1.!m

Prokaryotic &o n!cle!s Plasmids 'nicell!lar &o membrane(bo!nd n!cle!s )irc!lar &A )om$le* cell #alls Ty$ically binary ,ission Larger cell- 1.(1..!m

2. 0*$lain #"y t"ere are bot" !$$er and lo#er limits to cell si1e. '$$er limit- cells t"at are too large become ine,,icient2 ass!ming t"e n!cle!s is in t"e center o, t"e cell+ it #ill ta%e longer ,or n!trients etc. to travel in+ o!t+ and #it"in t"e cell. Lo#er limit- cells t"at are too small are !nable to ,it all o, t"e necessary com$onents s!c" as organelles in it. 3. 0*$lain t"e advantages o, com$artmentali1ation in e!%aryotic cells. )om$artmentali1ation is t"e se$aration o, cell com$onents into contained organelles #"ic" can ,!nction inde$endently o, eac" ot"er. T"is se$aration increases t"e overall e,,iciency o, t"e cell in a variety o, #ays. )om$artmentali1ation allo#s ,or t"e e*istence o, di,,erent local environments ,or di,,erent $rocesses+ none o, #"ic" inter,ere #it" eac" ot"er. T"ese !ni4!e com$artments #it"in t"e cell can t"en $er,orm s$eciali1ed ,!nctions and increase t"e e,,iciency o, t"e cell.

Le 2

5. escribe t"e str!ct!re and ,!nction o, t"e n!cle!s and brie,ly e*$lain "o# t"e n!cle!s controls $rotein synt"esis in t"e cyto$lasm. T"e n!cle!s contains t"e cell6s genetic instr!ctions #"ic" are !sed by t"e ribosomes. 7ts str!ct!re consists o, a n!clear envelo$e+ n!clear lamina+ c"romosomes+ c"romatin+ and n!cleol!s. Protein synt"esis is directed and controlled by t"e m8&A t"at is synt"esi1ed by t"e n!cle!s. T"is m8&A t"en reac"es t"e cyto$lasm+ #"ere ribosomes translate t"e m8&A6s genetic in,ormation into a $oly$e$tide. 9. escribe t"e ,!nction and str!ct!re o, t"e e!%aryotic ribosome. isting!is" bet#een ,ree and bo!nd ribosomes in terms o, str!ct!re and ,!nction. 8ibosomes are organelles made o, r8&A and carry o!t $rotein synt"esis. :ree ribosomes are t"ose t"at are s!s$ended in t"e cytosol+ #"ile bo!nd ribosomes are attac"ed to t"e endo$lasmic retic!l!m or t"e n!clear envelo$e. Bot" ty$es are identical and interc"angeable. 6. List t"e com$onents o, t"e endomembrane system+ describe t"eir str!ct!res and ,!nctions+ and s!mmari1e t"e relations"i$s among t"em. T"e endomembrane system is com$osed o, many o, t"e di,,erent membranes o, t"e cell. 7t incl!des t"e n!clear envelo$e+ t"e endo$lasmic retic!l!m+ t"e ;olgi a$$arat!s+ lysosomes+ vac!oles+ and t"e $lasma membrane. <"ile t"ese com$onents are connected eit"er directly or t"ro!g" vesicles+ t"ey do not necessarily "ave t"e same ma%e!$ or ,!nction. ( 0ndo$lasmic retic!l!m (08)- net#or% o, membranes #it"in t"e cyto$lasm t"at se$arates t"e internal com$artment=cavity=cisternal s$ace o, t"e 08 ,rom t"e cytosol. T"e t#o distinct regions o, t"e 08 are t"e smoot" 08 (lac%s ribosomes on o!ter s!r,ace) and t"e ro!g" 08 ("as ribosomes on o!ter s!r,ace). T"e smoot" 08 stores calci!m ions and contains en1ymes t"at are im$ortant to t"e $rod!ction o, li$ids and ot"ers t"at "el$ deto*i,y $oisons. T"e ro!g" 08 is im$ortant beca!se o, its attac"ed ribosomes+ #"ic" $rod!ce a variety o, $roteins. 7t also serves as t"e membrane ,actory ,or t"e cell+ creating its o#n membrane $"os$"oli$ids and adding $roteins to its o#n membrane. ( ;olgi a$$arat!s- made o, ,lattened membrane sac%s=cisterns. A ;olgi sac% "as t#o $oles+ t"e cis ,ace and t"e trans ,ace+ #"ic" receive and s"i$ res$ectively. 7t is #"ere $rod!cts o, t"e 08 are modi,ied and stored be,ore being sent else#"ere. T"e ;olgi a$$arat!s also man!,act!res certain macromolec!les on its o#n. ( Lysosome- membrane sac% containing digestive en1ymes. 7ts $rimary ,!nction is to digest macromolec!les t"at enter t"e cell. 7t also serves as a #aste rece$tacle in t"at it brea%s do#n damaged organelles.

Le 3 ( >ac!oles- membrane(bo!nd vesicles. :ood vac!oles are ,ormed by $"agocytosis and ,!se #it" a lysosome to digest macromolec!les. )ontractile vac!oles $!m$ e*cess #ater o!t o, t"e cell to maintain a s$eci,ic ion concentration. )entral vac!oles+ ,o!nd in $lant cells+ store organic com$o!nds and brea% do#n metabolic by$rod!cts. ?. escribe t"ree e*am$les o, intracell!lar digestion by lysosomes. T"ree e*am$les o, intracell!lar digestion by lysosome are @. &ame t"ree ty$es o, vac!oles and e*$lain "o# t"eir ,!nctions di,,er. T"e t"ree ty$es o, vac!oles are ,ood vac!oles+ contractile vac!oles+ and central vac!oles. :ood vac!oles aid in digesting macromolec!les by ,!sing #it" a lysosome. )ontractile vac!oles $!m$ e*cess #ater o!t o, t"e cell. )entral vac!oles store organic com$o!nds and brea% do#n metabolic by$rod!cts. A. 0*$lain t"e role o, $ero*isomes in e!%aryotic cells. T"e $ero*isome is a s$eciali1ed organelle containing en1ymes t"at trans,er "ydrogen ,rom vario!s s!bstrates to o*ygen+ $rod!cing "ydrogen $ero*ide as a by($rod!ct. Pero*isomes also deto*i,y $oisons and convert ,atty acids to s!gar. 1.. escribe t"e str!ct!re o, a mitoc"ondrion and e*$lain t"e im$ortance o, com$artmentali1ation in mitoc"ondrial ,!nction. T"e mitoc"ondrion is made o, t#o membranes #it" in,oldings called cristae. 7t is divided into t#o com$artments. T"e ,irst com$artment is a narro# s$ace bet#een t"e inner and o!ter membranes+ T"e second com$artment+ t"e mitoc"ondrial matri*+ contains many di,,erent en1ymes as #ell as mitoc"ondrial &A and ribosomes. T"ese en1ymes cataly1e some ste$s o, cell!lar res$iration. )om$artmentali1ation is im$ortant beca!se it increases t"e s!r,ace area o, t"e organelle and t"!s increases t"e $rod!ctivity o, cell res$iration. 11. 7denti,y t"e t"ree ,!nctional com$artments o, a c"loro$last and e*$lain t"e im$ortance o, com$artmentali1ation in c"loro$last ,!nction. T"e t"ree ,!nctional com$artments o, t"e c"loro$last are t"e intermembrane s$ace+ t"e stroma+ and t"e t"yla%oid s$ace. )om$artmentali1ation is $ivotal in c"loro$last ,!nction beca!se it increases t"e s!r,ace area o, t"e c"loro$last and ,acilitates t"e conversion o, lig"t energy into c"emical energy d!ring $"otosynt"esis. 12. escribe t"e ,!nctions o, t"e cytos%eleton. T"e cytos%eleton is a net#or% i, ,ibers e*tending t"ro!g"o!t t"e cyto$lasm. 7t "as a variety o, %ey ,!nctions+ incl!ding s!$$ort+ motility+ and reg!lation o, t"e cell. T"e cytos%eleton gives mec"anical s!$$ort to t"e cell and maintains its s"a$e. 7t also enables motility+ or movement+ by interacting #it" motor $roteins #"ic" enco!rage t"e bending

Le 5 o, cilia and ,lagella. 7t also "el$s to reg!late bioc"emical activities o, t"e cell in res$onse to mec"anical stim!lation. 7ts transmission o, nat!rally occ!rring mec"anical signals "el$s reg!late and coordinate t"e cell6s res$onse. 13. )om$are t"e str!ct!re+ monomers+ and ,!nctions o, microt!b!les+ micro,ilaments+ and intermediate ,ilaments. ( Microt!b!les- "ollo# rods meas!ring abo!t 29nm in diameter and 2..nm(29!m in lengt". T"e #all o, t"e "ollo# t!be is made o, a glob!lar $rotein called t!b!lin. Microt!b!les s"a$e and s!$$ort t"e cell and g!ide t"e movement o, organelles #it" motor $roteins. ( Micro,ilaments- solid rods meas!ring abo!t ?nm in diameter. B!ilt ,rom a glob!lar $rotein called actin. 7ts str!ct!re is a t#isted do!ble c"ain o, actin s!b!nits. T"e str!ct!ral role o, micro,ilaments is to bear tension ($!lling ,orces). 7n t"is #ay it "el$s to maintain t"e cell s"a$e. Micro,ilaments also $lay a role in motility+ ma%ing !$ $art o, t"e contractile a$$arat!s o, m!scle cells. T"ey also ma%e !$ t"e core o, microvilli. ( 7ntermediate ,ilaments- tension(bearing t!bes #"ic" meas!re abo!t @(12nm in diameter+ #"ic" is larger t"an micro,ilaments b!t smaller t"an microt!b!les. T"ey are constr!cted ,rom a di,,erent molec!lar s!b!nit di,,erent ,rom t"ose o, microt!b!les and micro,ilaments. 7ntermediate ,ilaments are im$ortant in rein,orcing t"e s"a$e o, cells and ,i*ing t"e $osition o, certain organelles. 15. 0*$lain t"e str!ct!re and role o, centrioles and basal bodies. )entrioles are com$osed o, nine sets o, tri$let microt!b!les arranged in a ring. T"ey re$licate be,ore an animal cell divides. Basal bodies area str!ct!res similar to centrioles t"at anc"or cilia and ,lagella to t"e cell. 19. escribe t"e str!ct!re and list some o, t"e ,!nctions o, t"e e*tracell!lar matri* in animal cells. T"e e*tracell!lar matri* (0)M) are t"e glyco$roteins secreted by t"e cell. T"ese $roteins o,ten ,orm strong ,ibers o!tside t"e cell+ s!c" as collagen+ bind to s!r,ace rece$tors+ li%e ,ibronectin+ or act as rece$tor $roteins li%e integrins. 0)M can reg!late t"e cell6s be"avior by comm!nicating #it" t"e cell via integrins. 16. escribe t"e str!ct!re o, intercell!lar j!nctions ,o!nd in $lant and animal cells and relate t"eir str!ct!re to ,!nction. 7ntracell!lar j!nctions are str!ct!res t"at join cells toget"er. 7n animal cells+ t"ese are tig"t j!nctions+ desmosomes+ and ga$ j!nctions. Tig"t j!nctions e*ist #"ere t"e $lasma membranes o, adjacent cells are very tig"tly $ressed toget"er. esmosomes act li%e rivets and ,asten cells toget"er into strong s"eets. ;a$ j!nctions $rovide c"annels bet#een cells by #"ic" #ater and small molec!les can $ass. 7n $lant cells+ it is t"e $lasmodesmata+

Le 9 #"ic" are c"annels #"ic" $er,orate t"e cell #all. T"ese allo# cytosol+ #ater+ and small molec!les to $ass t"ro!g" and connect t"e c"emical environments o, adjacent cells. Chapter 7 1?. escribe "o# t"e ,l!idity o, a cell membrane is in,l!enced by tem$erat!re and membrane com$osition. A cell membrane remains ,l!id !ntil t"e tem$erat!re dro$s to a $oint at #"ic" t"e $"os$"oli$ids $ac% closely toget"er and t"e membrane solidi,ies. T"e tem$erat!re at #"ic" a cell membrane solidi,ies is a variable de$endent on t"e ty$es o, li$ids it is com$osed o,. T"e com$osition o, a cell membrane can c"ange as #ell+ as t"e concentration o, $"os$"oli$ids may increase or decrease de$ending on t"e s!rro!nding conditions. 1@. List si* major ,!nctions o, membrane $roteins. isting!is" bet#een $eri$"eral and integral membrane $roteins. T"e si* major ,!nctions o, membrane $roteins are( Trans$ort ( 0n1ymatic activity ( /ignal transd!ction ( )ell(cell recognition ( 7ntercell!lar joining ( Attac"ment to t"e cytos%eleton and e*tracell!lar matri* T"e t#o major ty$es o, membrane $roteins are( 7ntegral $roteins- $enetrate t"e "ydro$"obic core o, t"e li$id bilayer2 embedded in t"e membrane ( Peri$"eral $roteins- not embedded in t"e li$id bilayer2 a$$endages o, t"e membrane s!r,ace 1A. 0*$lain t"e role o, membrane carbo"ydrates in cell(cell recognition. )ells recogni1e eac" ot"er by binding to molec!les on t"e s!r,ace+ s!c" as carbo"ydrates on t"e $lasma membrane. Membrane carbo"ydrates are diverse in t"eir ma%e!$ and t"eir location on t"e cell s!r,ace+ c"aracteristics t"at ma%e t"em disting!is"ing mar%ers. 2.. isting!is" bet#een c"annel $roteins and carrier $roteins. T"ere are t#o di,,erent ty$es i, trans$ort $roteins called c"annel $roteins and carrier $roteins. )"annel $roteins "ave a "ydro$"ilic c"annel t"at is !sed as a t!nnel ,or atomic ions t"ro!g" t"e membrane. )arrier $roteins "old onto t"eir $assengers and $"ysically move t"em to and ,rom di,,erent locations+ #"ile c"annel $roteins are mostly sedentary.

Le 6 21. e,ine di,,!sion and e*$lain #"at ca!ses it and #"y it is a s$ontaneo!s $rocess. i,,!sion is is t"e movement o, molec!les ,rom an area o, concentration so t"at t"ey s$read evenly into t"e available s$ace. 7t is considered a s$ontaneo!s $rocess beca!se it does not re4!ire any in$!t o, energy. 22. 0*$lain #"at reg!lates t"e rate o, $assive trans$ort. T"e rate o, $assive trans$ort is reg!lated by t"e selective $ermeability o, a cell membrane. <"ile some s!bstances may be !nin"ibited in t"eir trans$ort+ ot"ers may nit be allo#ed to di,,!se as ra$idly. 23. 0*$lain #"y a concentration gradient across a membrane re$resents $otential energy. A concentration gradient is t"e region along #"ic" t"e density o, a c"emical s!bstance increases or decreases. Potential energy is t"e energy t"at matter $ossesses beca!se o, its location or str!ct!re. T"ere,ore+ concentration gradients re$resent $otential energy beca!se #"en t"ere are !ne4!al levels o, concentration+ t"e molec!les in t"e area o, "ig" concentration "ave a greater $otential to di,,!se and move to t"e areas o, lo#er concentration. 25. e,ine osmosis and $redict t"e direction o, #ater movement based !$on di,,erences in sol!te concentrations. Osmosis is t"e di,,!sion o, #ater across a selectively $ermeable membrane. <"en t"e $ores o, t"e membrane are selectively $ermeable to #ater+ t"e #ater molec!les tend to move ,rom t"e area o, lo#er sol!te concentration to t"at o, "ig"er sol!te concentration+ beca!se t"e sol!te molec!les are too large to $ass t"ro!g" t"e $ores. 29. isting!is" bet#een sol!tions t"at are "y$ertonic+ "y$otonic+ and isotonic to cell contents. ( By$ertonic- t"e concentration o, t"e sol!te is greater t"an t"at o, t"e solvent. 7, a cell is $laced in s!c" a sol!tion+ t"e #ater inside it #ill leave t"e cell in order to reac" e4!ilibri!m. 7t #ill lose #ater+ s"rivel+ and die. ( By$otonic- t"e concentration o, t"e sol!te is less t"an t"at o, t"e solvent. 7, a cell is $laced in s!c" a sol!tion+ #ater #ill enter t"e cell more ra$idly t"an it can e*it t"e cell+ so it #ill s#ell and b!rst. ( 7sotonic- t"e concentrations o, t"e sol!te and solvent are e4!al. 7n a cell+ t"is means t"at #ater #ill leave and enter t"e cell at t"e same rate+ res!lting in a net movement o, #ater o, 1ero. T"e vol!me o, t"e cell #ill remain stable. 26. 0*$lain "o# bo!nd #ater a,,ects t"e osmotic be"avior o, dil!te biological ,l!ids.

Le ? Bo!nd #ater molec!les are attac"ed to a "ydro$"ilic sol!te molec!le. 7n dil!te biological ,l!ids+ t"e sol!te concentration does not a,,ect #ater concentration signi,icantly. 8at"er+ #"en sol!te concentration is "ig"er on one side o, t"e membrane+ more #ater molec!les are occ!$ied in t"at t"ey are bo!nd to t"e "ydro$"ilic sol!te molec!les. T"!s+ t"ere are less ,ree #ater molec!les moving across t"e membrane ,rom t"at side+ and more ,ree #ater molec!les ,rom t"e side #it" lo#er sol!te concentration moving across to t"e more concentrated side. 2?. 0*$lain "o# trans$ort $roteins ,acilitate di,,!sion. :acilitated di,,!sion is di,,!sion t"at is aided by trans$ort $roteins. A4!a$orins are a ty$e o, c"annel trans$ort $rotein t"at ,acilitates t"e di,,!sion t"at occ!rs in $lant cells. )"annel $roteins $assively ,acilitate di,,!sion by allo#ing t"e s$eci,ic sol!te to $ass t"ro!g" t"e $olar(non $olar membrane. )arrier $roteins ,acilitate di,,!sion by trans$orting t"e sol!te molec!le across in t"e $rocess o, c"anging s"a$e. 2@. 0*$lain "o# active trans$ort di,,ers ,rom di,,!sion. Active trans$ort+ #"ic" is t"e movement o, molec!les against t"e concentration gradient+ re4!ires t"e in$!t o, energy+ #"ereas di,,!sion+ #"ic" is t"e movement o, molec!les in t"e same direction o, t"e concentration gradient+ occ!rs #it"o!t t"e in$!t o, energy. 2A. 0*$lain #"at mec"anisms can generate a membrane $otential or electroc"emical gradient. Membrane $otential is t"e voltage across a membrane. Mec"anisms t"at can generate a membrane $otential or electroc"emical gradient are called t"e electrogenic $!m$+ #"ic"+ in animal cells+ is t"e sodi!m($otassi!m $!m$+ and in $lants+ ,!ngi+ and bacteria+ is t"e $roton $!m$. 3.. 0*$lain "o# large molec!les are trans$orted across t"e cell membrane. Large molec!les are trans$orted across t"e cell membrane via e*ocytosis and endocytosis. 0*ocytosis is t"e $rocess in #"ic" t"e cell secretes biological molec!les by ,!sion o, vesicles #it" t"e $lasma membrane. 0ndocytosis is t"e $rocess in #"ic" t"e cell ta%es in biological molec!les by ,orming ne# vesicles ,rom t"e $lasma membrane.