1

1
1.1. VIBRATION OF A TAUT STRING
1.138J/2.062J/18.376J, WAVE PROPAGATION
Fall, 2006 MIT
Notes by C. C. Mei
Chapter 1. SAMPLE WAVE PROBLEMS
To describe a problem in mathematical terms, one must make use of the basic laws
thatgoverntheelementsoftheproblem. Incontinuummechanics,thesearetheconser-
vationlawsformassandmomentum. Inaddition,empiricalconstitutivelawsareoften
needed to relate certain unknown variables; examples are equations of state, Hookes
law between stress and strain, etc.
To derive the conservation law one may consider an innitesimal element (a line
segment,areaorvolumeelement),yieldingadierentialequationdirectly. Alternately,
one may consider a control volume (or area, or line segment) of arbitrary size in the
medium of interest. The law is rst obtained in integral form; a dierential equation is
then derived by using the arbitrariness of the control volume. The two approaches are
completely equivalent.
Let us rst demonstrate the dierential approach.
Transverse vibration of a taut string
ReferringtoFigure1,consideratautstringstretchedbetweentwoxedpointsatx= 0
andx=L. Letthecross-sectionalareabeS. IfthereisaninitialstretchingofL, the
initial tension T must be
L
T =ES
L
by Hookes law, where E is Youngs modulus.
Nowstudythelateraldisplacementofthestringfromtheinitialposition. Bythelaw
of conservation of transverse momentum, the total lateral force on the string element
must be balanced by its inertia. Let the lateral displacement be V(x, t) and consider a
dierentialelementbetweenxandx+dx. Thenettransverseforceduetothedierence
of tension at both ends of the element is
(Tsin)
x+dx
(Tsin)
x
,
_ _
_ _
2 1.1. VIBRATION OF A TAUT STRING

V
( Tsin )
x+dx
p(x,t)
dV
x x+dx
0 L
- (
Tsin
)
x
x
Figure 1: Deformation of a taut string
where
V
dV
x
sin= = _ .
dx
2
+dV
2
1 + (
V
)
2
x
Weshallassumethedisplacementtobesmalleverywheresothattheslopeisalsosmall:
V
1. The local value of sin can then be approximated by
x
_ _
3
V V
+O ,
x x
where the expression O() stands for of the order of . For any smooth function f,
Taylor expansion gives
f
2
f(x+dx)f(x) = dx+O(dx) ,
x
where the derivative is evaluated atx. Hence the net tension is
V
T dx+O(dx)
2
.
x x
The instantaneous length(x, t) of the string from 0tox is
_
_
_ _
2
_
1/2
_
_ _
2
_
x
V V
(x, t) = dx 1 + =x 1 + O .
x x
0
It follows that
_ _
2
x V
=O for all 0< x < L,
x x
which is of second-order smallness. The string length, hence the tension, is essentially
2
unchangedwithanerrorofO(V/x) ,i.e.,T canbetakenasconstantwithasimilarly
small error. Thus the net tension in the string element is well represented by

2
V
T dx.
x
2
_ _
_ _
3 1.1. VIBRATION OF A TAUT STRING
Ifthemassperunitlengthofthestringis,theinertiaoftheelementis(
2
V/t
2
)dx.
Let the applied load per unit length be p(x, t). Momentum conservation requires that

2
V
2
V
2
dx =T dx+pdx+O(dx) .
t
2
x
2
Eliminating dx and taking the limit ofdx0, we get

2
V
2
V p
= . (1.1)
T t
2
x
2
T
This equation, called the wave equation, is a partial dierential equation of the second
order. ItislinearintheunknownV andinhomogeneousbecauseoftheforcingtermon
the right-hand side.
Is the longitudinal displacement U important in this problem? Conservation of
momentumin the x direction requires that

2
U
dx
t
2
= (Tcos)
x+dx
(Tcos)
x
.
Since
_ _
2
dx 1 V

cos= _ = _ = 1 + O ,
_ _
2
(dx)
2
+ (dV)
2
1 +
V
x
x
the acceleration is of second-order smallness
_ __ _ _

2
U V
_
2
V
2
V
=O =O .
T t
2
x x x T t
2
V
Hence U = O
x
V by twice integration with respect to t, and the longitudinal dis-
placement can be ignored.
Thedierentialequation(1.1)involvessecond-orderderivativeswithrespecttoboth
x and t. Two auxilliary conditions are needed for each variable. For example, at the
initial instant, we may prescribe both the displacement and the velocity:
V(x,0)=f(x) (1.2)
and
V
(x,0)=g(x). (1.3)
t
_
4
2
1.2. VIBRATION OF AN ELASTIC ROD
Thesestatementsarecalledtheinitial conditions. Inadditionwemustalsospecifythe
boundary conditions at the ends. For a string stretched between two xed ends, we
require
V(0, t) = 0 and V(L, t) = 0. (1.4)
Together with the partial dierential equation, these auxilliary conditions dene the
initial-boundary-value problem. From the mathematical point of view, it is important
to establish whether such a problem is well posed. This question involves the proof for
the existence, uniqueness and stability of the solution.
Asseeninthisexample,Taylorexpansionisusedatalmosteverystepofthederiva-
tion. Indeed, it is indispensable not only in deriving governing equations, but also in
obtainingapproximatesolutionsoftheequations,andinanalyzingthephysicalcontent
of the solution.
Note that the dimension of the coecient T/is
_ _ _ _
2
T ML/t
2
L
2
= = = [velocity] .
M/L t
Nowintroducethenotationc= T/,whichisacharacteristicvelocityofthephysical
problem. Equation (1.1) can then be written
1
2
V
2
V p
= , (1.5)
c
2
t
2
x
2
T
which is called the wave equationarising in numerous contexts.
Longitudinal vibration of an elastic rod
Consider an elastic rod with the cross-sectional area S(x) and Youngs modulus E, as
shown in Figure (2). Let the longitudinal displacement from equilibrium be U(x, t).
The strain at station x is
U U
lim = .
x0 x x
By Hookes law, the tension atx is
U
ES .
x
_ _ _ _ _ _
_
5 1.2. VIBRATION OF AN ELASTIC ROD
U U+dU
0
L
x
S
x x+dx
Figure 2: Longitudinal deformation of an elastic rod
Now the net tension on a rod element from x tox+dx is
ES
U
ES
U
=dx

ES
U
+O(dx)
2
.
x x x x
x+dx x
Let the externally applied longitudinal force be f(x, t) per unit length. Momentum
conservation requires that

2
U
_
U
_
S dx= ES dx+fdx+O(dx)
2
.
t
2
x x
In the limit of vanishingdx, we get the dierential equation:

2
U
_
U
_
S = ES +f. (2.1)
t
2
x x
In the special case of uniform cross section, S = constant, and zero external force,
then U satises theinhomogeneous wave equation
1
2
U
2
U f
= + , (2.2)
c
2
t
2
x
2
ES
where c= E/ has the dimension of velocity.
The simplest boundary conditions are for xed or free ends. If both ends are xed,
then,
U(0, t) = 0 and U(L, t) = 0. (2.3)
If the left end is xed but the right end is free, then
U
U(0, t) = 0 and (L, t) = 0, (2.4)
x
_
_ _
1.3. TRAFFIC FLOW ON A FREEWAY 6
since thestress is proportional to the strain. Again, themost natural initial conditions
are
U
U(x, 0)=f(x), and (x,0)=g(x), (2.5)
t
where f and g are prescribed functions of x for 0< x < L.
Let us change to the integral approach in the next example.
3 Trac ow on a freeway
OneofthemathematicalmodelsoftracowisthehydrodynamicaltheoryofLighthill
andWhitham(1958). Itisasimpletheorycapableofdescribingmanyreal-lifefeaturesof
highwaytracwithremarkablefaithfulness. Consideranysectionofastraightfreeway
fromx=atox=b,Figure3. Assumeforsimplicitythattherearenoexitsorentrances,
andallvehiclesareonthego. Letthedensityofcars(numberofcarsperunitlengthof
highway) at x and t be (x, t), and the ux of cars (number of cars crossing the point
x per unit time) be q(x, t). By requiring that the number of cars within an arbitrary
section from a tob be conserved, we have

b
(x, t)dx=q(b, t)q(a, t) .
t
a
Rewriting the right-hand side
_
b
q
q(b, t)q(a, t) = dx,
x
a
we get
_
b
q
+ dx= 0 . (3.1)
t x
a
Since the control interval (a, b) is arbitrary, the integrand must vanish,
q
+ = 0. (3.2)
t x
Thisresultcanbearguedbycontradiction,whichisatypicalreasoningneededtochange
an integral law to a dierential law. Suppose that the integrand is positive somewhere
within (a, b), say, in the range (a

, b

) (a, b), and zero elsewhere in (a, b), then the

integral in (1.3.1) must be positive. But this is a contradiction. The assumption that
_ _
7
4
1.4. WAVES IN ARTERIES
q
(a) (b)
x
O

a b
Figure 3: (a). A section of the freeway. (b). The relation between trac ux rate and
trac density.
the integrand is positive somewhere is therefore wrong. By a similar argument, the
integrand cannot be negative anywhere, and hence must be zero everywhere in (a, b).
Equation(1.3.2)isthelawofconservationofcars. Havingtwounknownsq and, a
constitutiverelationbetweenandqisneededandmustbefoundbyeldmeasurements.
Heuristically,q mustbezerowhenthereisnocarontheroad,andzeroagainwhenthe
density attains a maximum (bumper-to-bumper trac), hence the relation between q
and must be nonlinear
q=q() (3.3)
as sketched in Figure 1.4.b. With this relation, (1.3.2) becomes
dq
+ = 0. (3.4)
t d x
This result is a rst-order nonlinear partial dierential equation and will be used to
deducea variety of interesting phenomenaof trac ow.
In all the examples studied so far the nal governing equation involves only one
unknown. Now we will examine a problem with several unknowns.
Wave propagation in arteries
Weshallexaminethepulsatingowofbloodinanarterywhosewallisthinandelastic.
Asarstexerciseletusassumethatthereisonlypulsationbutnonetux. Becauseof
the pressure gradient in the blood, the artery wall must deform. The elastic restoring
force in the wall makes it possible for waves to propagate.
_ _
8 1.4. WAVES IN ARTERIES
The artery radius a(x, t) varies from the constant mean a
o
in time and along the
artery (in x). Let the local cross sectional area
1
beS =a
2
, and the averaged velocity
be u(x, t). Consider a xed geometrical volume between x and x+dx, through which
uid moves in and out. Conservation of mass requires
S (uS)
+ = 0, (4.1)
t x
Next the momentum balance. The time rate of momentum change in the volume must
bebalancedbythenetinuxofmomentumthroughthetwoendsandthepressureforce
acting on all sides. The rate of mometum change is
(uS)
(4.2)
t
The net rate of momentum inux is
(u
2
S) uS u
dx=u uS (4.3)
x x x
The net pressure force at the two endsis
(pS) p S
=S p
x x x
while that on the sloping wall is
a S
2a p =p
x x
The sum of all pressure forces is
p
S (4.4)
x
Balancingthemomentumbyequating(4.2)tothesumofa(4.3)and(4.4)weget,after
making use of mass conservation (4.1),
u u p
+u = (4.5)
t x x
Let the pressure outside the artery be constant, say zero. The change in the tube
radiusmustbecausedbythechangeinbloodpressure. ReferingtoFigure4,theelastic
strain due to the lengthening of the circumference is 2da/2a = da/a. Let h be the
1
Denoted by A in Figure 4.
_ _

9 1.4. WAVES IN ARTERIES
Figure 4: Forces on the artery wall. Note: The symbol for the cross- sectional
area should be changed from A to S.
arterywallthickness,assumedtobemuchsmallerthana,andYoungsmodulusE. The
change in elastic force is 2Ehda/awhich must be balanced by the change in pressure
force 2a dp , i.e.,
2Ehda
= 2a dp,
a
which implies
dp
da
=
Eh
a
2
or
dp
dS
=

Eh
S
3/2
(4.6)
Pressure increases with the tube radius, but the rate of increase is smaller for larger
radius. Upon integration we get the equation of state

pp
o
=E(h/a) = Eh/ S. (4.7)
Eq (4.5) may now be rewritten as
S
u
+u
u
=
Sp
=C
2
S
(4.8)
t x x x
where C is dened by
S dp Eh
C = = (4.9)
dS 2a
10 1.4. WAVES IN ARTERIES
andhasthedimensionofvelocity. Inviewof(4.6),equations(4.1)and(4.8)areapair
of nonlinear equations for the two unknownsu and S.
Linearization:
For innitesimal amplitudes we can linearize these equations. Let a=a
o
+a

with
a

a
o
then the (4.1) becomes, to the leading order,
a

a
o
u
+ =0 (4.10)
t 2 x
The linearized momentum equation is
u p

o
= (4.11)
t x
The linearized form of (4.6) is
2Eh
dp=
2
da

(4.12)
a
o
which can be used in (4.11) to get
u Eh a

= (4.13)
t a
2
x
o
Finally (4.2) and (4.8) can be combined to give the wave equation:

2
a

2
a

=c
2
(4.14)
t
2
o
x
2
where

Eh
c
o
= (4.15)
2a
o
Alternately one can eliminatea to get an equation foru

2
u
2
u
=c
2
(4.16)
t
2
o
x
2
Because of (4.12), the dynamic pressure is governed also by

2
p
2

2
p
=c (4.17)
t
2
o
x
2
All unknowns are governed by the same equation due to linearity and the fact that all
coecients are constants.
Comments on linearization:
1.6. SHALLOW WATER WAVES 11
To nd out the accuracy of linearization, it is useful to estimate rst the scales of
motion. Let A, T, L, U and P denote the scales of a

, t, x, uand p

respectively. It is
natural to take L = c
o
T. From (4.1), (4.6) and (4.5) we get the relations among the
scales of dynamical quantities
a
o
A Ua
2
o
A L
= , hence U =
T L a
o
T
EhA
P =
2
a
o
U 1P 1 1 EhA
= =
T L L/T a
2
o
It follows that
A L 1 1EhA
=
a
o
T
2
L a
2
o
hence,
L
2
Eh
2
= =c
T
2
a
o
o
With these scales the ratio of a typical nonlinear term to a linear term is
u
u
U
2
/L U A
x
= =
u
U/T L/T a
o
t
Hence the condition for linearization is that
A
1
a
o
5 Shallow water waves and linearization
5.1 Nonlinear governing equations
Ifwaterinalakeoralongtheseacoastisdisturbed,wavescanbecreatedonthesurface,
duetotherestoringforceofgravity. Considerthebasiclawsgoverningthemotionoflong
wavesinshallow waterofconstantdensityandnegligibleviscosity. ReferringtoFigure
5,letthez axisbedirectedverticallyupwardandthex, y planelieintheinitiallycalm
watersurface,h(x, y)denotethedepthbelowthestillsealevel,and(x, y, t)thevertical
displacement of the free surface. Take the dierential approach again and consider the
uid ow through a vertical column with the basedxdy.
_ _
_ _
_ _
12 1.6. SHALLOW WATER WAVES
First, the law of mass conservation. The rate of volume increase in the column

dxdy
t
mustbebalancedbythenetvolumeuxintothecolumnfromallfourverticalsides. In
shallow water, the horizontal length scale, characterized by the wavelength , is much
greater that the vertical length h. Water ows mainly in the horizontal planes with
thevelocityu(x, y, t),whichisessentiallyconstantindepth. Throughtheverticalsides
normal to the xaxis,thedierencebetweeninuxthroughtheleftandoutuxthrough
the right is

[u(+h)|
x+dx
u(+h)|
x
]dy= [u(+h)]+O(dx) dxdy.
x
Similarly, through the vertical sides normal to the y axis, the dierence between inux
through the front and outux through the back is

[v(+h)|
y+dy
v(+h)|
y
]dx=
y
[v(+h)]+O(dy) dydx.
Omitting terms of higher order indx, dy, we invoke mass conservation to get

dxdy= [u(+h)] + [v(+h)]+O(dx, dy) dxdy.
t x y
In the limit of vanishingdx, dy, we have, in vector form,

+ [u(+h)]=0. (5.1)
t
This equation is nonlinear because of the quadratic product of the unknownsu and .
z
z=
O x
z=-h
dy
dx
Figure 5: A column element of uid in a shallow sea
_ _
_ _
_ _ _ _
_ _
13 1.6. SHALLOW WATER WAVES
Nowthelawofconservationofmomentum. Inshallowwatertheverticalmomentum
balanceisdominatedbypressuregradientandgravity,whichmeansthatthedistribution
of pressureis hydrostatic:
p=g(z) , (5.2)
wheretheatmosphericpressureonthefreesurfaceisignored. Considernowmomentum
balanceinthexdirection. Thenetpressureforceontwoverticalsidesnormaltothex
direction is

dxdy p dz = dxdy g(z)dz

x
h
x
h
(+h)
= g(+h) dxdy.
x
The hydrodynamic reaction from the sloping bottom to the uid is
h h
p dxdy=g(+h) dxdy.
x x
The change of uid momentum consists of two parts. One part is due to the time rate
of momentum change in the water column

[u(+h)] dxdy,
t
and the other is due to the net ux of momentumthrough four vertical sides:

[u
2
(+h)]dxdy+ [uv(+h)]dydx.
x y
Equatingthetotalrateofmomentumchangetothenetpressureforceonthesidesand
on the bottom, we get

[u(+h)] + [u
2
(+h)] + [uv(+h)]
t x y
(+h) h
=g(+h) +g(+h) .
x x
The left-hand side can be simplied to
u u u
+u +v (+h) + u + [u(+h)] + [v(+h)]
t x y t x y
u u
= +u +v (+h)
t x y
14 1.6. SHALLOW WATER WAVES
by invoking continuity (5.1). Hence thex momentumequation reduces to
u u u
+u +v =g . (5.3)
t x y x
Similarly, momentum balance in they direction requires
v v v
+u +v =g . (5.4)
t x y y
These two equations can be summarized in the vector form:
u
+u u=g. (5.5)
t
Equations (5.1) and (5.5) are coupled nonlinear partial dierential equations for three
scalar unknowns u and .
Nowtheboundaryandinitialconditions. OnashorelineS,therecanbenonormal
ux, therefore,
hu n= 0 on S, (5.6)
where n denotes the unit normal vector pointing horizontally into the shore. This
condition is applicable not only along a cli shore where h is nite, but also on a
shorelinewhereh=0,aslongasthewavesaregentleenoughnottobreak. Inthelatter
case the whereabout of the shoreline is unknown a priori and must be found as a part
of the solution.
At the initial instant, one may assume that the displacement (x, y,0) and the ver-

tical velocity of the entire free surface

t
(x, y, 0) is known. These conditions complete
the formulation of the nonlinear shallow water wave problem.
5.2 Linearization for small amplitude
For small amplitude waves
A
1, (5.7)
h h
whereAisthecharacteristicamplitude. Equation(5.1)maybesimpliedbyneglecting
the quadraticterm

+ hu= 0. (5.8)
t
_ _
_ _
_ _
15 1.6. SHALLOW WATER WAVES
Denoting the time scale by the wave period T and the horizontal length scale by the
wavelength , we equate the order of magnitudes of the remaining two terms above to
get
A uh A uT
T

, implying
h

1.
Now let us estimate the importance of the quadratic term u u in the momentum
equation by assessing the ratio
u u uT
=O 1.
u

t
Clearly the quadratic term representing convective inertia can also be ignored in the
rst approximation, and the momentumequation becomes
u
=g. (5.9)
t
Both the continuity (5.1) and momentum (5.5) equations are nowlinearized.
In view of (5.9) the boundary condition on the shoreline (5.6) can be expressed,
instead, as

h = 0 on S. (5.10)
n
Consistent with the linearized approximation, the shoreline position can be prescribed
a priori.
Equations (5.8) and (5.9) can be combined by the process of cross dierentiation.
First dierentiate (5.8) with respect tot,

+ (uh) = 0,
t t
then take the divergence of the product of (5.9) andh,
u
h =(gh).
t
The dierence of these two equations gives

t
2
= (gh). (5.11)
For a horizontal bottomh= constant,
1
c
2

t
2
=
2
, (5.12)
_ _
_ _
_ _ _ _
16
6
1.6. SHALLOW WATER WAVES

where c = gh = O(/T) is the characteristic velocity of innitesimal wave motion.

Equation(1.6.12)isthetwo-dimensionalextensionofthewaveequation. If,furthermore,
all conditions are uniform in the y direction, /y = 0, (5.12) reduces to the familiar
form
1
2

2

= . (5.13)
c
2
t
2
x
2
Sound in uids
The basic equations governing an inviscid and compressible uid are as follows. Mass
conservation:

+ (u)=0 (6.1)
t
Momentum conservation:
u
+u u =p (6.2)
t
We must add an equation of state
p=p(, S) (6.3)
whereS denotestheentropy. Whennotemperaturegradientisimposedexternallyand
the gradient of the ow is not too large, one can ignore thermal diusion. The uid
motion is then adiabatic; entropy is constant. As a result p=p(, S
o
) depends only on
S
the density. Eq. (6.1 ) can be written as
_ _ _ _

u
t
+u u =
p

S
(6.4)
We shall denote

_ _
C =
p

(6.5)
so that
u
+u u =C
2
(6.6)
t
It is easy to check that C has the dimension of velocity.
From thermodynamics we also have
p p
= (6.7)

S T
_ _
_ _ _ _
_ _
_ _
17 1.6. SHALLOW WATER WAVES
where T is the temperature and =c
p
/c
v
= ratio of specic heats.
For a perfect gas the equation of state is
p=RT (6.8)
where R is the gas constant. Hence for a perfect gas
p
=RT (6.9)

S
Liquids are much less compressible. One usually writes the equation of state as

d= dp+ dT (6.10)
p
T
T
p
Denoting
1
= (6.11)
T
p
as the coecient of thermal expansion and
1
= (6.12)
p
T
as the coecient of isothermal compressibility. Usually is small and much smaller.
Underisothermal conditions it is that counts.
The simplest limit is the case where the background density
o
and pressure
o
are
uniform,theuidisatrestandthedynamicperturbationsareinnitesimallysmall. We
can write
p=p
o
+p

, =
o
+

(6.13)
with

o
and p

p
o
, and linearize the equations to

+
o
u=0 (6.14)
t
and
u 1

= p (6.15)
t
o
Taking the curl of the second, we get

u=0 (6.16)
t
_ _
18
7
1.7. FLEXURAL WAVES IN A BEAM
thus the velocity eld is irrotational if it is so initially. We can introduce a potential
by
u= (6.17)
It follows from the momentum equation

=
o
(6.18)
t
Using these we get the wave equation.

=c
o
2

2
(6.19)
t
2
where
p
o
c
o
2
= (6.20)

o
S
Flexuralwavesinabeamonanelasticfoundation
Referring to Figure (7), we rst describe the momentum conservation of a thin beam.
Assume the beam to have a horizontal axis when it is not loaded and to have uniform
z
V
x
z
U
U
Figure 6: Deection of a beam
material properties. Let V(x) denote the upward deection of the beam axis. If the
thickness is small compared to the length and the deection small compared to the
thickness,aplanecrosssectionremainsapproximatelyplaneafterdeformation. Hence,
thelongitudinaldisplacementU atsectionxandheightz abovetheaxisisproportional
toz and to the tilt angleV/x
U

V
=z .
x
19 1.7. FLEXURAL WAVES IN A BEAM
gure
p dx
S+
S
dx M+
M
dx
M x S x
k V dy
Figure 7: Forces and moments on a beam segment fromx to x+dx.
Consequently, the strain is
U
2
V

x
=
x
=z
x
2
and the longitudinal stress is
U
2
V

x
=E
x
=Ez
x
2
, (7.1)
where E is Youngs modulus. The total moment about the mid-section z = 0 due to
the stress distribution across the section is
M =
_
h/2
h/2

x
zdz=E

2
V
x
2
_
h/2
h/2
z
2
dz=EI

2
V
x
2
, (7.2)
where
_
h/2
I = z
2
dz
h/2
isthemomentofinertiaofthecrosssectionwithrespecttoitsmid-sectionz= 0. Con-
sideralengthelementofthebeamfromxtox+dx,Thebalanceofangularmomentum
about the center of the element requires that
M
_
S
_
dx dx
3
V
M + dxM + S+ dx +S =Jdx ,
x x 2 2 xt
2
where is the mass and J is the rotatory moment of inertia per unit length of the
beam. For a beam with rectangular cross section, J = h
2
/12, where h is the height of
_ _
20 1.7. FLEXURAL WAVES IN A BEAM
the beam. Thus,
M
3
V
3
V
3
V
S = +J =EI +J . (7.3)
x xt
2
x
3
xt
2
Onthe other hand, balance of vertical forces requires that
S
2
V
S+ dxS =p dx+kV dx+ ,
x t
2
wherek istheelasticconstantofthelateralsupport,andp(x, t)isthedistributedload.
Making use of (7.3), we get

2
V
4
V
1J +EI +kV =p(x, t), (7.4)
x
2
t
2
x
4
whichisafourth-orderpartialdierentialequation,derivedrstbyLordRayleigh. Ifthe
wavelengthLismuchgreaterthanthebeamheighth/L 1,thenthetermrepresenting
rotatory inertia is negligible and (7.4) may be simplied to

2
V
4
V
+EI +kV =p(x, t). (7.5)
t
2
x
4
Nowtheboundaryconditions. Forabeamofnitelength,eachendcanbefree,clamped,
or supported on a hinge. At a free end, there is neither torque nor shear

2
V
3
V
= 0, = 0. (7.6)
x
2
x
3
At a clamped end, the deection and slope must vanish
V
V = 0, = 0. (7.7)
x
At a hinged end both the deection and the torque are zero

2
V
V = 0, = 0. (7.8)
x
2
Foraninnitelylongbeam,theboundaryconditionsatinnitydependontheloading.
For a transient loading with nite duration, V should vanish at innities. For time-
harmonic loadings, the disturbance should at most be outgoing waves.
__
__
1.7. FLEXURAL WAVES IN A BEAM 21
8 Homework No.1
1. AmembraneiskepttautoveranareaS. Themembranehasaconstantdensityper
unit area and is under uniform tension in all directions. Derive the governing equation
forthelateraldisplacmentu(x, y, t)ofthemembranevibratingunderdistributedloading
of p(x, y, t) per unit area.
2. Consider the longitudinal vibration of a cylindrical rod with one end at x = 0
xed and the other end at x = L attached to a mass M. Before t = 0 the rod is
compressed by the length L with 1. At t = 0 the compression is released. State
the goverining equation and all boundary and initial conditions.
3. Condsider the torsional vibration of a cylindrical rod of circular cross section of
radiusa. Let (x, t)=angulardisplacementofthecrosssectionatx,d=areaelement
in the cross section and located a the distance r from the axis, see gure 8. Let be
theshearstress,Gtheshearmodulusofelasticity,andtheangulardisplacmentofa
line orginally parallel to the axis. Show that

=r (8.1)
x
Invoke Hookes law =G and show that the total torqure aplied to the cross section
at x is

M =G r
2
d=GJ (8.2)
x
S
x
where
J = r
2
d (8.3)
S
is the polar moment of inertia of the cross section. Let I be the moment of inertia per
unit length of the rod. Show that

2
GJ
2

t
2
=
I x
2
(8.4)
4. (a). Derive equations (6.1) and (6.2) for a compressible uid. Use dierential
argument. For small-amplitude oscillations these equations can be linearized for exam-
ining the propagation of sound. Sound waves in air and water are dierent because of
the dierence in equations of state: p=p().
22 1.7. FLEXURAL WAVES IN A BEAM
z
d
a
A
A
r
d
x y O
A
A

Figure 8: Torsion of a circular cylinder
(b). During an earthquake, water in a reservoir exerts hydrodynamic pressure on a
damthatmayfail. Formulatethedam-reservoirinteractionproblemunderthefollowing
idealizations. Thereservoirisinnitelylongandhasauniformrectangularcrosssection.
Water is present only on one side of the dam (x > 0) and has the constant depth h.
Before t =0, all is calm. Aftert =0 the dam is forced to vibrate horizontally so that
_
u(0, y, z, t) =
_
u
o
(y, z, t)=prescribed, 0< t < T,
(8.5)
_
0, t > T.
The free surface is exposed to constant atmospheric pressure. The reservoir bottom is
rigid and does not vibrate vertically (!!!). Neglect gravity but consider compressibility
of water because of the high frequency ( O(100)Hz). Express all governing equa-
tions including the boundary conditons in terms of the velocity potential dened by
(u, v, w) = .