Advantage CPs GJP 7wk Juniors

Border Security

Anti-Corruption Efforts
CP Text: The United States federal government should increase its anti-corruption efforts in regards to border security by thoroughly investigating all Border Patrol, Customs and Border Protection and Immigration and Customs Enforcement agents that work in relation to the U.S.-Mexico border, improving the screening process for new employees, and prosecuting all employees found to be engaging in corrupt practices. Attempts to secure the border have been undermined by a corresponding increase in corruption anti-corruption efforts are key to ensure border security Kolb 1/15/2013 (Joseph, Contributor to Fox News, Study Finds corruption on rise among border agents, rep says security at
risk http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2013/01/15/study-finds-corruption-on-rise-among-border-agents-rep-says-security-atrisk/ )//JS A government watchdog report has identified a dramatic increase in documented corruption cases among

U.S. border and immigration agents, finding nearly 150 have been arrested or indicted since 2005. In a trend one top lawmaker said puts national security "in jeopardy," the Government Accountability Office tracked the rise in corruption cases among Border Patrol, Customs and Border Protection, and Immigration and Customs Enforcement agents. The report, issued last month, found spotty standards in screening new applicants and keeping tabs on agents after they're hired. It found the trend was tied in part to the demand to beef up security, particularly along the southwest border, by hiring more agents, and has raised red flags in Congress. "Just one employee collaborating with a drug smuggler or terrorist can put our entire nation at risk," said Rep. Michael McCaul, R-Texas, chairman of the House Committee on

Homeland Security. McCaul, who along with Sen. Tom Coburn, R-Okla., requested the report, said one problem is that while the CBP now polygraphs all new hires, it does not follow up and test employees after they join. "The GAO report confirms that not only is corruption still a problem, CBP still lacks adequate controls to detect corruption, such as post-employment polygraphing," McCaul told FoxNews.com, adding that one CBP official has said that among those who become corrupt, the behavior sets in roughly 8.8 years into service. According to the GAO's findings, since 2005, 2,170 agents have been arrested for non-corruption charges such as domestic violence and driving while intoxicated. However, 144 were arrested or indicted for direct corruption-related activities such as drug and human smuggling. By Oct. 2012, 125 of these agents had been convicted. While the GAO downplayed the matter by noting the cases only represented less than 1 percent of the entire agency, a May 2012 article by the Center for Investigative Reporting showed that between 2006 and 2010 the number of corruption cases being

investigated jumped from 244 to 870. "In fiscal year 2011 alone, the DHS Inspector General received almost 900 allegations of corruption from within CBP and ICE," McCaul said. McCaul has long asserted the presence of Islamic extremists groups such as Hezbollah -- which has been found to be working in collaboration with Mexican cartels -- coupled with the prospect of a corrupt officer intentionally allowing these individuals into the U.S. could be catastrophic. The crux of the GAO's report found that the CBP was unable to handle the rapid demand for agents and that there was a disconnect between supervisors and the agency's Office of Internal Affairs, which did not maintain or track information obtained from background checks, drug tests or polygraphs. The agency has also failed to consistently conduct monthly quality assurance reviews of its adjudications since 2008, hampering efforts to prevent future incidents of corruption. A culture of resisting the efforts of the Office of Internal Affairs was also uncovered. The GAO report said that Department of Homeland Security officials have testified that CBP's increased hiring of officers and agents since fiscal year 2006 likewise increased the opportunities for attempted corruption. Between 2006 and August 2012, more than 17,000 new agents were hired, the majority of whom were stationed along the U.S.-Mexico border. There is speculation that some applicants may have applied to work for CBP with pre-existing ties to drug cartels facilitating drug trafficking. In 2010, the CBP assistant commissioner for internal affairs told the homeland security subcommittee that only one in 10

applicants was even polygraphed during the rush to hire new agents. Of this group, some

60 percent were deemed unsuitable for hiring. This prompted the passage of the Anti-Border Corruption Act of 2010 which requires that by January 2013, all applicants be polygraphed before hiring. With an estimated $40 billion in drugs crossing the U.S.-Mexico border annually, the battle against temptation is daunting. In 2005, agent Juan Alfredo Alvarez accepted some $1.5 million to let trucks loaded with more than a ton of marijuana through checkpoints in southeast Texas. Raul and Fidel Villareal were arrested in Tijuana after being charged with smuggling hundreds of undocumented immigrants through the San Ysidro area of California. In 2011, Abel Canales accepted $8,000 to allow drug shipments to pass from Mexico into the U.S. through Arizona. Solomon Ruiz was sentenced to 14 years in prison after he was caught directing drug shipments into the U.S. Ruiz asked for a $10,000 retainer fee and said that he charged $4,000 to escort a car and $6,000 to escort a van. "We must ensure that

DHS commits to an effective integrity strategy as part of a comprehensive strategy to secure our borders," McCaul said. "Until the department addresses its own Internal Affairs failures and implements clear ethical standards, our national security will be in jeopardy." A CBP representative said the agency would follow the GAO report's recommendations. "CBP agrees

with the seven recommendations the GAO report on CBP's workforce integrity has identified and will implement appropriate measures to address all of them including the feasibility of expanding the polygraph program to incumbent law enforcement officers, developing a plan to implement a comprehensive integrity strategy, and completing post-corruption analysis reports for all CBP employees who have been convicted of corruption-related activities to help identify and prevent future corruption and misconduct risks," CBP spokeswoman Joanne Ferreira said.

Extensions
Current innovations in border security are enough but a comprehensive and coordinated anti-corruption effort is needed to ensure solvency Becker 13

Andrew, Border agency report reveals internal struggles with corruption, Jan 29, http://cironline.org/reports/border-agencyreport-reveals-internal-struggles-corruption-4126//MJ Turf battles, internal dysfunction and other troubles have left U.S. Customs and Border Protection grasping to get a handle on corruption and other misconduct within its ranks, according to an internal study that has been kept secret for more than a year. The agency, the nations largest federal law enforcement force with nearly 60,000 employees, has struggled to

streamline its own disciplinary system, to stamp out an internal code of silence that protects corrupt co-workers from exposure or even to fully understand how bad the corruption problem is. These woes and more are highlighted in a study conducted by the Homeland

Security Studies and Analysis Institute, which acts as a think tank for the Department of Homeland Security. The 80-page unclassified report, reviewed by the Center for Investigative Reporting, highlights nagging problems, some of which date back to 2002. As the department has bolstered border security by adding thousands of new

agents, expanding its Southwest border fence and deploying sophisticated surveillance technology, Mexican crime syndicates increasingly have turned to bribing agency employees and have attempted to infiltrate U.S. law enforcement ranks with their own operatives to avoid those obstacles. Customs and Border Protection has
identified at least 15 attempts of infiltration, according to the study, which did not give specific examples. That number could be much higher now as the agency, as mandated by a 2010 law, has ramped up efforts to administer polygraph exams to all new applicants. As part of lie detector tests, prospective hires have admitted to drug trafficking,

human smuggling and other illegal activity, according to examples the agency previously provided to the

Center for Investigative Reporting. One applicant told examiners that he smuggled 230 people across the border and shuttled drug dealers around border towns so they could conduct their business. Another admitted to various crimes, including transporting $700,000 in drug money and 50 kilograms of cocaine across the Southwest border. Since Oct. 1, 2004, 147 agency

officers and agents have been charged with or convicted of corruption-related offenses, ranging from taking bribes to allow drugs into the country to stealing government money. About a dozen of those cases came to light in 2012. This is a small minority of the workforce, but it represents a threat to our national security, the authors wrote in the study. The most recent incident involves a Border Patrol agent in Yuma, Ariz.,
who was arrested Dec. 2 when federal agents caught the two-year veteran as he loaded nearly 150 pounds of marijuana into his patrol vehicle while on duty. The border agency has made strides to address the persistent problem of corruption, the report contends. In particular, the agency has used data to research and analyze potential threats and security weaknesses. One example, dubbed Operation Side Door, examines leads and other data from applicants who have admitted to involvement with smuggling to detect possible links to current agency employees. Another, called Operation Southern Exposure, evaluates seizure data to spot potential employee misconduct. Despite those innovations, the agency still lacks a comprehensive

and coordinated approach to ferret out corruption, the study found. Corruption is on the rise and nothing is being done about it Becker 13
(Andrew

, A journalist that has appeared in several prestigious journals. The Washington Journal, The New York Times, Jan 29, http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2013/01/29/as-obama-offers-immigration-plan-report-shows-border-patrolcorruption.html )//JS A prolonged turf battle with the departments inspector general, which has been criticized for its own

inefficiencies, has contributed to the border agencys blind spots, the internal study found. The departments inspector general has withheld information, neglected investigations and accumulated a backlog of investigations that at one point reached more than 1,000 corruption cases. Charles K. Edwards, who is leading the Homeland Security

inspector generals office, testified in August during a House government reform hearing that turf battles among the agencies have subsided and his investigators could handle the nearly 1,600 cases of alleged employee misconduct open at the time. The

neglected cases and other inefficiencies have allowed employees suspected of corruption to remain in sensitive security positions or had their careers stunted before they were found not guilty, the study found. Corruption-related cases generally have increased in recent years. Whether that is attributable to a hiring surge that in a decade has roughly doubled

the size of the U.S. Border Patrol is inconclusive, the study says. According to the report, thats because the inspector general has not shared enough information with the agency. Susan Ginsburg, a former U.S. Treasury official and 9/11 Commission member, said its critical that agencies combine information and data so the Homeland Security Department and Congress have a clear picture of corruption at the border. Its a pain in the neck for the department, but there are always going to be a few

rotten apples in law enforcement, Ginsburg said. What hurts is when youre not doing everything you can to prevent it and to weed them out.

Efforts to the secure the border will fail until steps are taken to address corruption too many new hires, too fast Guidi 11

Ruxandra, 1 in 100 border security agents under investigation, June 30, http://www.kpbs.org/news/2011/jun/30/one-out-hundredborder-agents-under-investigation-/ The CBP is now required to administer lie-detector tests to all applicants and to conduct periodic background checks of all employees. But according to critics, the current hiring drive makes it difficult to keep up with all

the testing -- some of which is contracted out to private security companies. Still, CBP Commissioner Bersin has admitted that one-third of all applicants who take the lie-detector test fail it. This

trend comes as no surprise to Terry Nelson, a registered Republican and nine-year veteran of the Border Patrol. Nelson has argued that the agency has struggled with corruption and cartel infiltration for a long time . I believe that our border security people have been infiltrated by the cartels and I think it began 12 to 15 years ago, but really it began after the attacks of September 11th, 2001, said Nelson. Nelson was an agent in the 1970s and '80s in El Paso where, he said, FBI, not by private contractors. The agents were older on average and more professional, and there

there were also many temptations. But back then, background checks were done by the was less turnover of staff, he said. Today, according to Nelson, the Border Patrol is stuck with too many new hires, too fast.

AFF Answers
Corruption is rare less than 1% of the border workforce and most arrests are for minor offenses Davidson 13 Joe, Customs and Border Protection corruption is rare, but serious when it happens, study shows, Jan 11, Washington Post, https://bangordailynews.com/2013/01/11/news/nation/customs-and-border-protectioncorruption-is-rare-but-serious-when-it-happens-study-shows/ The first thing to note about a recent report on corruption at Customs and Border Protection is that the Government Accountability Office study found very few dirty officers. Arrests of CBP employees for corruption-related activities since fiscal years 2005 account for less than 1 percent of CBPs entire workforce per fiscal year, the GAO says. Also worth noting is that most arrests, by far, were for such conduct as drunken driving and domestic violence, not such corrupt activities as drug and people smuggling. Corruption will be solved in status quo agents will be rotated Powell 12 Stewart, To stop corruption, changes may be coming to border, Jan 27, http://www.chron.com/news/houston-texas/article/Border-agents-could-be-randomlytransferred-to-2760158.php WASHINGTON - As the threat of internal corruption dogs the ranks of border security forces, the Obama administration is considering regularly rotating agents to other locations to distance them from the persuasive power and money of Mexico's drug cartels. Such a decision would subject locally recruited U.S. Border Patrol agents and Customs and Border Protection officers to the periodic relocations already required for agents within the FBI, U.S. Secret Service, the Drug Enforcement Administration and other premier federal law enforcement agencies.

Climate Change

Energy Stability Board CP

CP text: The United States federal government should initiate the creation of an Energy Stability Board. CP solves for global energy security and climate change Victor and Yueh 10 David G. Victor is a Professor at the School of International Relations and Pacific Studies at the University of California, San Diego, where he directs the Laboratory on International Law and Regulation. Linda Yueh is Fellow in Economics at St. Edmund Hall, at the University of Oxford, where she directs the China Growth Center. (David and Linda, The New Energy Order Managing Insecurities in the Twenty-first Century, Foreign Affairs V89N1, http://ilar.ucsd.edu/assets/001/500645.pdf)//SLR The other big shift in the world energy system is growing concern about the environmental impact of energy use, especially emissions of carbon dioxide, an intrinsic byproduct of burning fossil fuels with conventional technology and the leading human cause of global warming. Worries about climate change are one reason why the major
stimulus packages passed since the global financial crisis began in 2007 have included hefty green-energy measures: by some accounts, these have made up 15 percent of global fiscal stimulus spending. Some believe that such green-tinted stimulus measures will spur a revolution pushing for cleaner and more secure energy. Perhaps. But there is no doubt that energy

systems are in for a major change. Curbing global warming will likely require cutting emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases by more than half over the next few decades, and that goal cannot be achieved by just tinkering at the margins. In the face of these new realities, the international and national institutions that were created to help promote energy security over the last three decades are struggling to remain relevant. The most important one, the iea, has made little headway in involving the new giant energy consumers in its decision-making. That means that it is struggling even to fulfill one of its hallmark functionsto stand ready to coordinate government responses to energy shocksbecause a large, and growing, fraction of oil consumers fall outside its ambit and are wary of marketbased approaches to energy security. Other institutions are doing no better. European a cut in energy subsidies at a summit in Pittsburgh last Septemberenergy subsidies encourage excessive consumption, harming both energy security and the environmentbut the g-20 has no plan for actually implementing that policy, and it has too many competing issues on its agenda. The big oil producers in
opec have mobilized around the goal of promoting what they call demand security, but the cartel has no power to guarantee demand for its products. Likewise, the institutions charged with addressing new

states that depend on gas imported from Russia have signed a treaty and created an organization aimed at making those sup- plies more secure, but the practical eaect of both steps has been nil. It was a good thing for the g-20 to announce

environmental challenges are barely effective: the Kyoto Protocol has had little impact on emissions, and the disputes that arose at the international climate conference in Copenhagen in December over how to craft a successor treaty are making it hard for investors to justify spending the massive capital needed for cleaner energy systems. Despite the existence of many international institutions attending to energy matters today, dangerous vacuums in governance have appeared. The traditional solution of creating big new institutions, such as a world energy organization to replace the more exclusive iea, will not work. What is needed instead is a mechanism for coordinating hard-nosed initiatives focused on delivering energy security and environmental protection. To be effective, those measures will have to advance the interests of the most important governments, of importers and exporters alike, and they will have to align with the needs of the private and state firms that provide most of

the investment in energy infrastructure. foreign affairs. Producers and consumers, each group unsure of the other, cannot agree on how best to finance and manage a more secure energy system. A model for these efforts exists in international economic law. Once saddled with too many institutions and too little governance, the
world economic system developed a series of ad hoc arrangements during the last several decades that have evolved into an effective management system. Although the system is still imperfect, it now governs most international trade and a growing proportion of finance and banking. The Financial Stability Board, which issues standards for judging the

adequacy of banks capitalization, is a particularly apt example of the systems success. Its so-called Basel standards, created after the Asian financial crisis of the late 1990s, have been highly eaective: many
countries and banks have adopted them on the understanding that it is in their interests to run well-governed financial sectors that conform to widely recognized criteria. A similar Energy Stability Board could be created to help

govern- ments and existing international institutions better manage todays energy problems. It could work with the major new energy consumers, such as China, to set investment standards that both align with their interests and are consistent with the market rules that govern most trade in energy commodities and have worked well for some time now. It could also help the governments that are spending the most on green energy coordinate their efforts; without better governance, these green stimulus programs risk triggering trade wars and wasting vast sums of money. Following the example of economic law, success with these initiatives would undoubtedly help the existing energy institutions do a better job and could also spawn broader norms for governing energy security.

Extensions
CP catalyzes global cooperation on energy - an Energy Stability Board is uniquely able to facilitate public-private coordination Victor and Yueh 10 David G. Victor is a Professor at the School of International Relations and Pacific Studies at the University of California, San Diego, where he directs the Laboratory on International Law and Regulation. Linda Yueh is Fellow in Economics at St. Edmund Hall, at the University of Oxford, where she directs the China Growth Center. (David and Linda, The New Energy Order Managing Insecurities in the Twenty-first Century, Foreign Affairs V89N1, http://ilar.ucsd.edu/assets/001/500645.pdf)//SLR Existing institutions cannot fill these vacuums. A small, nimble body is needed: an Energy Stability Board modeled after the Financial Stability Board in the banking sector. The Energy Stability Board could gather together the dozen biggest energy producers and users. For its administration, it might rely on the secretariat of the ieaby far the most competent international energy institution at present much like the Financial Stability Board drew on help from the Bank for International Settlements to catalyze cooperation in the global financial markets. At first, the Energy Stability Boards activities would need to be ad hoc so that other institutions, such as opec and one or more of the Asian security organizations, could easily join its efforts; it would need to be especially welcoming to China, India, and the other important countries, which have been left on the sidelines of energy governance systems so far. Although the list of needed efforts is long, a priority should be engaging China (and other large new energy consumers) in developing standards for overseas investments and in coordinating the greenenergy investments that constitute a large pro- portion of many governments economic stimulus programs. In both those cases, initiatives by a small number of states, all rooted in these states national interests, could have a large practical impact. A key test for the Energy Stability Board would be for it to prove its ability to engage businesses. Firms will not provide
the trillions of foreign affairs dollars needed to develop energy infrastructure in the coming decades without credible signals that governments are serious about instituting policies that will allow the private sector to cash in on such investments. One way

to reassure these companies would be to allow them to cooperate with governments in performing some of the Energy Stability Boards tasks. For example, leading firms could formally assess governments green stimulus programs and identify those areas in which governments need to coordinate more effectively. (Governments usually are not effective coordinators of leading-edge technologies on their own because they have neither the necessary knowledge nor the necessary control over investment.) The Energy Stability Board could also become a forum for privately owned firms to work with state-owned companies, which control access to most of the worlds oil and gas resources and a large fraction of the worlds electric power grid, especially in developing countries. These national enterprises are pivotal in the world energy system yet have not been well integrated into international energy institutions. Success at these steps would create the right conditions to bring about cooperation in other important areas. Governments have repeatedly to succeed.

failed to establish a multilateral agreement on investment to govern foreign investments of all types, largely because they have taken on too many diverse and contentious topics. A sharper focus on energy infrastructure is more likely

CP solves spillover coordination is key to making existing energy efforts successful Victor and Yueh 10 David G. Victor is a Professor at the School of International Relations and Pacific Studies at the University of California, San Diego, where he directs the Laboratory on International Law and

Regulation. Linda Yueh is Fellow in Economics at St. Edmund Hall, at the University of Oxford, where she directs the China Growth Center. (David and Linda, The New Energy Order Managing Insecurities in the Twenty-first Century, Foreign Affairs V89N1, http://ilar.ucsd.edu/assets/001/500645.pdf)//SLR Support for new green technology is a second area regarding which a vacuum in governance has made it hard for governments to achieve their common interests.

The energy sector is one of the most exciting technological frontiers today. This is partly because climate change is transforming what societies expect from energy supplies, but it is also, and most immediately, because of the role that governments hope investments in energy infrastructure will play in economic recovery. Over the past year, governments have talked a great deal about coordinating their efforts to revive economic activity worldwide. Yet for the most part, each state is making decisions on its own, even though the International Monetary Fund, among other international institutions, has argued that a better-coordinated effort would do more to boost the global economy. The problem is most obvious regarding the green part of the $2.5 trillion that is being spent globally to stimulate the world economy. The United States and China alone are spending $1.5

trillion, including a large fraction on energy projects. South Korea has devoted 85 per- cent of its

stimulus package to green investments, promoting energy efficiency and low-emissions power plants. The British government has set aside hundreds of millions of pounds to support research and development in green industries. Coordination is

needed, however, because the market for green-energy technology is global; ideas promoted in one country can quickly spread to the rest of the world through the marketplace. For example, U.S. spending on renewable sources of energy can invigorate U.S., Chinese, and European firms that supply solar cells and wind turbines, boosting all three economies at the same time. And Chinese spending on new power grids can benefit the Western companies, as well as the Chinese ones, that develop the requisite technology. Coordinating these green-technology programs offers the prospect of a viable new global industry in clean technology, at

least in theory. In practice, however, such stimulus plans are prone to economic nationalism. The United States program, for example, includes rules that favor U.S. suppliers, and one of the results, to cite an ongoing example, is that a Chinese company trying to bring Chinese technology to a wind farm in Texas will find itself in a hostile investment climate. Yet a true energy revolution cannot happen if technologies are nationalized; indeed, all the best and most competitive energy technologies have been improved by global competition. One way to get coordination started would be to require the leading

spenders on green technology in decreasing order, the United States, the European Union, Japan, and Chinato offer periodic assessments of how their own programs are working and where new efforts, including joint ones, are needed. And with the right forum for coordination in place, such early endeavors could eventually spread more widely.

CP is key to the credibility of other bilateral efforts and best solves for China U.S. leadership is key Victor and Yueh 10 David G. Victor is a Professor at the School of International Relations and Pacific Studies at the University of California, San Diego, where he directs the Laboratory on International Law and Regulation. Linda Yueh is Fellow in Economics at St. Edmund Hall, at the University of Oxford, where she directs the China Growth Center. (David and Linda, The New Energy Order Managing Insecurities in the Twenty-first Century, Foreign Affairs V89N1, http://ilar.ucsd.edu/assets/001/500645.pdf)//SLR
Another disappointment has been the failure of the worlds leading governments to invest adequately in energy research and development. (Despite the worlds growing energy problems, the proportion of global economic output devoted to energy research and development is lower today than it was in the early 1980s.) Just as the Financial Stability Board, after it had proved itself, was asked to take on new tasks, such as devising internationally acceptable rules for bankers compensation in light of the globa l financial crisis, the Energy Stability Board could be asked to issue guidelines for how to

handle research and development and other issues that are difficult to keep on the agenda of existing institutions yet crucial to the long-term development of the energy system. The board could also help build support for important initiatives, such as the new U.S.- and Chinese-led efforts to build a more secure system for nuclear fuel. Getting started will require leadership. Only the United States and China can play the part, given their dominant roles as the worlds largest energy

consumers. But although the two countries have long professed their common desire to cooperate on energy issues, they have struggled to do anything practical. Moreover, strictly one-on-one dealings cannot solve the worlds most pressing energy problems; the United States and China cannot set the agenda entirely on their own. Working in tandem through the Energy Stability Board, however, would give their bilateral efforts more credibility with other important actors and with international institutions. The United States and China know that such cooperation would serve their interests. Beijings current strategy of locking up energy supplies is not sustainable without strong norms to make these investments seem less toxic politically to other important countries, especially the key Western ones . Working through the Energy Stability Board would serve the United States interests, too: Washington will achieve very little of what it wants to get done in the world of energy, such as a more effective scheme for cutting greenhouse gas emissions worldwide, without giving a prominent role to other major energy consumers and other potential technology suppliers. An effective mechanism for engaging China would also give the Obama

administration the political cover it needs to pass national legislation on global warming. One of the biggest hurdles in doing so has been its inability to convince a skeptical Amer- ican public that China, India, and other major developing countries are also willing to play useful roles. Although energy commodities and technologies are traded globally, the system for governing the markets for these important goods is fragmented and increasingly impotent. As the experience with global financial and trade regulation shows, that need not be the case. Nor is it necessary to devise grand new institutions to fix the problem. A nimble energy agency

focused on practical approaches to the new realities of the world energy market can fill the gaps.

Current international institutions aimed at energy security fail Victor and Yueh 10 David G. Victor is a Professor at the School of International Relations and Pacific Studies at the University of California, San Diego, where he directs the Laboratory on International Law and Regulation. Linda Yueh is Fellow in Economics at St. Edmund Hall, at the University of Oxford, where she directs the China Growth Center. (David and Linda, The New Energy Order Managing Insecurities in the Twenty-first Century, Foreign Affairs V89N1, http://ilar.ucsd.edu/assets/001/500645.pdf) One lesson from this experience is that any effort to coordinate global energy policy must include all the most powerful players. Yet today, the most visible institutions for governing energy do not do this. Efforts to expand the IEA have been hobbled by the requirement that the agency's members also belong to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, or OECD. Thus, the 28-strong IEA includes many countries with small and shrinking energy needs but excludes emerging giant energy consumers, such as China and India. Partial solutions have been devised -- granting various states observer status, conducting joint studies with the IEA's highly competent secretariat -- but they have not resolved the fundamental problem: when the IEA coordinates responses to an energy crisis, important players with large oil stockpiles, which could be the most helpful, have no voice. The only comprehensive solution would be to rewrite the IEA's membership rules. But this idea is a nonstarter partly because it would mean turning the organization into an even bigger forum, and existing members fear that their power would be diluted, as happened to the members of the G-8 when the G-20 grew more important. Another lesson to be drawn from the success of global economic governance is that cooperation must have broad appeal, beyond the most important players. Global trade talks have made the most progress when they have focused on actions, such as the reduction of tariffs, that have a big impact on trade, are rooted in mutual interests, andare easy to enforce. Such successes then set the stage for governments to extend existing trade rules to many more countries and to take on harder tasks, such as building the WTO's disputeresolution system. Similarly, the G-20's norms against tax havens have spread more widely following success in such states as Liechtenstein and Switzerland. Since the financial crisis

broke, many governments have seen the benefit of curtailing tax havens, not least because these havens have supported a shadow banking system that is hard to govern. That awareness, along with pressure on a few holdouts, explains why the last two years have seen much more effective tax enforcement worldwide. Applying these lessons to energy means realizing that no system will be effective unless it starts with the countries that matter most -- the large consumers and the large producers -- and serves their interests. Success will require both that those countries reap practical benefits from cooperation and that the rules be designed so that they can spread widely as their legitimacy increases.

Geoengineering

+Sunshades
CP Text: The United States federal government should develop and deploy sunshades. The counterplan solves warming better Victor et al 2009 a Professor at Stanford Law School, Director of Stanford's Program on Energy and Sustainable

Development, and an Adjunct Senior Fellow at the Council on Foreign Relations. M. Granger Morgan is Head of Carnegie Mellon University's Department of Engineering and Public Policy and Director of the Climate Decision Making Center. Jay Apt is Professor of Engineering and Public Policy at Carnegie Mellon University. John Steinbruner is Professor of Public Policy and Director of the Center for International and Security Studies at the University of Maryland. Katharine Ricke is a doctoral student at Carnegie Mellon University (David G., March/April 2009 The geoengineering option http://iisdb.stanford.edu/pubs/22456/The_Geoengineering_Option.pdf ) Each year, the effects of climate change are coming into sharper focus. Barely a month goes by without some fresh bad news: ice sheets and glaciers are melting faster than expected, sea levels are rising more rapidly than ever in recorded history, plants are blooming earlier in the spring, water supplies and habitats are in danger, birds are being forced to find new migratory patterns. The odds that the global climate will reach a dangerous tipping point are increasing. Over the course of the twenty-first century, key ocean currents, such as the Gulf Stream, could shift radically, and thawing permafrost could release huge amounts of additional greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Such scenarios, although still remote, would dramatically accelerate and compound the consequences of global warming. Scientists are taking these doomsday scenarios seriously because the steady accumulation of warming gases in the atmosphere is forcing change in the climate system at rates so rapid that the outcomes are extremely difficult to predict. Eliminating all the risks of climate change is impossible because carbon dioxide emissions, the chief human contribution to global warming, are unlike conventional air pollutants, which stay in the atmosphere for only hours or days. Once

dioxide enters the atmosphere, much of it remains for over a hundred years. Emissions from anywhere on the planet contribute to the global problem, and once headed in the wrong direction, the climate system is slow to respond to attempts at reversal. As with a bathtub that has a large faucet and a small drain, the only practical way to lower the level is by dramatically cutting the inflow. Holding global warming steady at its current rate

carbon

would require a worldwide 60-80 percent cut in emissions, and it would still take decades for the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide to stabilize. Most human emissions of carbon dioxide come from burning fossil fuels, and most governments have been reluctant to force the radical changes necessary to reduce those emissions. Economic growth tends to trump vague and elusive global aspirations. The United States has yet to impose even a cap on its emissions, let alone a reduction. The European Union has adopted an emissions-trading scheme that, although promising in theory, has not yet had much real effect because carbon prices are still too low to cause any significant change in behavior. Even Norway, which in 1991 became one of the first nations to impose a stiff tax on emissions, has seen a net increase in its carbon dioxide emissions. Japan, too, has professed its commitment to taming global warming. Nevertheless, Tokyo is struggling to square the need for economic growth with continued dependence on an energy system powered mainly by conventional fossil fuels. And China's emissions recently surpassed those of the United States, thanks to coalfueled industrialization and a staggering pace of economic growth. The global economic crisis is stanching emissions a bit, but it will not come close to shutting off the faucet. The world's slow progress in cutting carbon dioxide emissions and

the looming danger that the climate could take a sudden turn for the worse require policymakers to take a closer look at emergency strategies for curbing the effects of global warming. These strategies, often called "geoengineering," envision deploying systems on a planetary scale, such as launching reflective particles into the atmosphere or positioning sunshades to cool the earth . These strategies could cool the planet, but they would not stop the buildup of carbon dioxide or lessen all its harmful impacts.
For this reason, geoengineering has been widely shunned by those committed to reducing emissions. Serious research on geoengineering is still in its infancy, and it has not received the attention it deserves from politicians. The time has come to take it seriously. Geoengineering could provide a useful defense for the planet -- an emergency shield that

could be deployed if surprisingly nasty climatic shifts put vital ecosystems and billions of people at risk. Actually raising the shield, however, would be a political choice. One nation's emergency can be another's opportunity,
and it is unlikely that all countries will have similar assessments of how to balance the ills of unchecked climate change with the risk that geoengineering could do more harm than good. Governments should immediately begin to undertake serious research on geoengineering and help create international norms governing its use. THE RAINMAKERS Geoengineering is not a new

idea. In 1965, when President Lyndon Johnson received the first-ever U.S. presidential briefing on the dangers of climate change,

the only remedy prescribed to counter the effects of global warming was geoengineering. That advice reflected the scientific culture of the time, which imagined that engineering could fix almost any problem. By the late 1940s, both the United States and the Soviet Union had begun exploring strategies for modifying the weather to gain battlefield advantage. Many schemes focused on "seeding" clouds with substances that would coax them to drop more rain. Despite offering no clear advantage to the military, "weather makers" were routinely employed (rarely with much effect) to squeeze more rain from clouds for thirsty crops. Starting in 1962, U.S. government researchers for Project Stormfury tried to make tropical hurricanes less intense through cloud seeding, but with no clear success. Military experts also dreamed of using nuclear explosions and other interventions to create a more advantageous climate.

These applications were frightening enough that in 1976 the United Nations adopted the Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques to bar such projects. By the 1970s, after a string of failures, the idea of weather modification for war and farming had largely faded away. Today's proposals for geoengineering are

more likely to have an impact because the interventions needed for global-scale geoengineering are much less subtle than those that sought to influence local weather patterns. The earth's climate is largely driven by the fine balance between the light energy with which the sun bathes the earth and the heat that the earth radiates back to space. On average, about 70 percent of the earth's incoming sunlight is absorbed by the atmosphere and the planet's surface; the remainder is reflected back into space. Increasing the reflectivity of the planet (known as the albedo) by about one percentage point could have an effect on the climate system large enough to offset the gross increase in warming that is likely over the next century as a result of a doubling of the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Making such tweaks is much more straightforward than causing rain
or fog at a particular location in the ways that the weather makers of the late 1940s and 1950s dreamed of doing.

Extensions
CP solves Angel 06 - an astronomer and optics expert at the University of Arizona
(Roger, Feasibility of cooling the Earth with a cloud of small spacecraft near the inner Lagrange point (L1) http://www.pnas.org/content/103/46/17184.full.pdf) Projections by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change are for global temperature to rise between 1.5 and 4.5C by 2100 (1), but recent studies suggest a larger range of uncertainty. Increases as high as 11C might be possible given CO2 stabilizing at twice preindustrial content (2). Holding to even this level of CO2 will require major use of alternative energy sources and improvements in efficiency (3). Unfortunately, global warming reasonably could be expected to take the form of abrupt and unpredictable changes, rather than a gradual increase (4). If it were to become apparent over the next decade or two that disastrous climate change driven by warming was in fact likely or even in progress, then a method to reduce the suns heat input would become

an emergency priority. A 1.8% reduction is projected to fully reverse the warming effect of a doubling of CO2 (5), although not the chemical effects. One way known to reduce heat input, observed after volcanic

eruptions, is to increase aerosol scattering in the stratosphere (6). Deployment of 3 to 5 million tonsyear of sulfur would be needed to mitigate a doubling of CO2. This amount is not incompatible with a major reduction in the current atmospheric sulfur pollution of 55 million tonsyear that goes mostly into the troposphere. The approach we examine here to reduce solar

warming is to scatter away sunlight in space before it enters the Earths atmosphere. The preferred location is near the Earthsun inner Lagrange point (L1) in an orbit with the same 1year period as the Earth, in-line with the sun at a distance 1.5 million km (Gm) (Fig. 1). From this distance, the penumbra shadow covers and thus cools the entire planet. Sunshades are a feasible alternative solves warming Stiles 06 - Professor at the University of Arizona (Lori, Back to Eurek Alert, "Space Sunshade might be feasible in global
warming emergency", http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2006-11/uoa-ssm110306.php) The possibility that global warming will trigger abrupt climate change is something people might not want to think about. But University of Arizona astronomer Roger Angel thinks about it. Angel, a University of Arizona Regents' Professor and one of the world's foremost minds in modern optics, directs the Steward Observatory Mirror Laboratory and the Center for Astronomical Adaptive Optics. He has won top honors for his many extraordinary conceptual ideas that have become practical engineering solutions for astronomy. For the past year, Angel has been looking at ways to cool the Earth in an emergency. He's been

studying the practicality of deploying a space sunshade in a global warming crisis, a crisis where it becomes clear that Earth is unmistakably headed for disastrous climate change within a decade or two. Angel presented the idea at the National Academy of Sciences in April and won a NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts grant for further research in July. His collaborators on the grant

are David Miller of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Nick Woolf of UA's Steward Observatory, and NASA Ames Research Center Director S. Pete Worden. Angel is now publishing a first detailed, scholarly paper, "Feasibility of cooling the Earth

with a cloud of small spacecraft near L1," in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. The plan would be to launch a constellation of trillions of small free-flying spacecraft a million miles above Earth into an orbit aligned with the sun, called the L-1 orbit. The spacecraft would form a long, cylindrical cloud with a diameter about half that of Earth, and about 10 times longer. About 10 percent of the sunlight passing through the 60,000-mile length of the cloud, pointing lengthwise between the Earth and the sun would be diverted away from our planet. The effect would be to uniformly reduce sunlight by about 2 percent over the entire planet, enough to balance the heating of a doubling of atmospheric carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere. Researchers have proposed various alternatives for
cooling the planet, including aerosol scatterers in the Earth's atmosphere. The idea for a space shade at L1 to deflect sunlight from Earth was first proposed by James Early of the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in 1989. "The earlier ideas were for bigger, heavier structures that would have needed manufacture and launch from the moon, which is pretty futuristic," Angel said. "I

wanted to make the sunshade from small 'flyers,' small, light and extremely thin spacecraft that could be completely assembled and launched from Earth, in stacks of a million at a time. When 1/5000 of an inch thick and weigh about a gram, the same as a large butterfly. It would use "MEMS" technology mirrors as tiny sails that tilt to hold the flyers position in the orbiting constellation. The flyer's transparency

they reached L1, they would be dealt off the stack into a cloud. There's nothing to assemble in space." The lightweight flyers designed by Angel would be made of a transparent film pierced with small holes. Each flyer would be two feet in diameter,

and steering mechanism prevent it from being blown away by radiation pressure. Radiation pressure

is the pressure from the sun's light itself. The total mass of all the fliers making up the space sunshade structure would be 20 million tons. At $10,000 a pound, conventional chemical rocket launch is prohibitively expensive. Angel proposes using a cheaper way developed by Sandia National Laboratories for electromagnetic space launches, which could bring cost down to as little as $20 a pound. A total 20 electromagnetic launchers launching a stack of flyers every 5 minutes for 10 years could deploy the sunshade.

The electromagnetic launchers would ideally run on hydroelectric power, but even in the worstcase environmental scenario with coal-generated electricity, each ton of carbon used to make electricity would mitigate the effect of 1000 tons of atmospheric carbon. Once propelled beyond Earth's
" The

atmosphere and gravity with electromagnetic launchers, the flyer stacks would be steered to L-1 orbit by solar-powered ion propulsion, a new method proven in space by the European Space Agency's SMART-1 moon orbiter and NASA's Deep Space 1 probe.

concept builds on existing technologies," Angel said. "It seems feasible that it could be developed and deployed in about 25 years at a cost of a few trillion dollars. With care, the solar shade should last about 50 years. So the average cost is about $100 billion a year, or about two-tenths of one percent of the global domestic product." He added, "The sunshade is no substitute for developing
renewable energy, the only permanent solution. A similar massive level of technological innovation and financial investment could ensure that. "But if the planet gets into an abrupt climate crisis that can only be fixed by cooling, it

would be good to be ready with some shading solutions that have been worked out."

CO2 Ag NB
Sunshades is the best of both worlds solves the impact to warming while gaining the benefits of CO2 Knovel 12 (Scientists Studying Whether Geoengineering Could Offset Global Climate Change , 1/27,
http://why.knovel.com/all-engineering-news/1232-scientists-studying-whether-geoengineering-couldoffset-global-climate-change.html) Julia Pongratz=postdoc researcher at Stanford Department of Global Ecology

With global temperatures and population rising, scientists are increasingly studying how geoengineering could potentially allay food shortages, among other concerns. A shifting global climate is worrying lawmakers throughout the world, as higher temperatures and a dearth of precipitation in many regions have eroded crop yields. With total global population projected to continue to climb at a rapid clip over the next century, scientists are working to develop geoengineering schemes that could combat such negative effects. Some parts of the world are already feeling the effects of a simultaneous uptick in temperatures and drop in precipitation. Farmers in areas in the Middle East and Africa, among other locations, are struggling to cultivate crops amid current environmental conditions. If the problems are left untreated, they could wreak havoc on future food supplies, sending prices soaring. Over the past few years, the prices of many commodities have surged. Inclement weather in Australia, Russia, China and North America hurt grain production, for example. For nations that rely on others for such critical food staples, the jump in prices was particularly worrying. Researchers contend that geoengineering technologies could be used to fight global climate change. Stanford University environmental scientist Ken Caldeira noted that governments

could decide to employ geoengineering as they "do something desperate to protect our food and our people." China has famously employed geoengineering technology for the better part of the past decade. Prior to the

start of the 2008 Olympics, officials said they were working to prevent rain from affecting opening ceremonies through a geoengineering scheme. Scientists have posited a slew of geoengineering theories, with some more plausible than others, NPR reports. One such scheme involves the blasting of tiny particles into the upper atmosphere that could disperse sunlight before it reaches Earth's surface. Geoengineering enthusiasts assert that such a system would mimic the effects of volcanic ash clouds, whose sulfate droplets naturally do so. The Carnegie Institution for Science recently championed such an approach. Carnegie researcher Julia Pongratz said that by using high-flying airplanes to constantly replenish a layer of small particles in

the stratosphere, governments could cultivate food growth. Pongratz and her colleagues argued in their findings, published online in Nature Climate Change, that so-called "sunshade geoengineering" could spur the growth of crops in many regions of the world. The team of scientists concluded, moreover, that sunshade geoengineering was beneficial when compared both with current atmospheric conditions and with the future projection of doubled carbon dioxide. This, according to the researchers, is because deflecting sunlight lowers global temperatures but does not affect carbon dioxide concentrations. "In many regions, future climate change is predicted to put crops under temperature stress, reducing yields," Pongratz said. "At the same time, the beneficial effects that a higher CO2 concentration has on plant productivity remain active." Sunshades solve warming while accessing the benefits of CO2 Quick 12

(Darren, Study finds sunshade engineering could improve crop yields, 1/26, http://www.gizmag.com/sunshade-geoengineeringstudy/21225/)

In the face of potentially catastrophic effects on global food production, some have proposed drastic solutions to counteract climate change such as reflecting sunlight away from the Earth. A new study from the Carnegie Institution for Science examining the effects of sunshade geoengineering has concluded that such an approach would be more likely to improve food security than threaten it. Just as large volcanoes cool the planet by ejecting massive amounts of small particles into the stratosphere, one sunshade geoengineering proposal would involve using high-flying airplanes to release small particles in the stratosphere that would scatter sunlight back into space. Just like the volcanic particles, these would fall back to Earth within a year so they would have to be constantly replenished to stop the planet heating back up. The fear is that such an approach could have unintended

consequences for the climate, particularly in terms of its effect of precipitation. While climate change in recent decades has been found to negatively affect crop yields in many regions, a new study led by Carnegie's Julia Pongratz is the first to examine the potential effect of geoengineering on food security. To assess the impact of sunshade geoengineering on crop yields, Pongratz's team, which included Carnegie's Ken Caldeira and Long Cao, as well as Stanford University's David Lobell, used two different climate models. The team first simulated climates with CO2 levels similar to what exists today. A second set doubled CO2 levels to simulate levels that could be reached in several decades if current trends in fossil-fuel burning continued unabated. A third set doubled the

levels of CO2, but with a layer of sulfate aerosols in the stratosphere deflecting about two percent on incoming sunlight away from Earth. The team then applied the simulated changes to crop models that are commonly used to project future yields. They found that for both current and doubled CO2 levels, sunshade geoengineering would lead to increased crop

yields in most regions. This because while such an approach would reduce temperatures by deflecting sunlight back into space, it wouldn't affect the levels of CO2 . "In many regions, future climate change is predicted to put crops under temperature stress, reducing yields. This stress is alleviated by geoengineering," Pongratz said. "At the same time, the beneficial effects that a higher CO2 concentration has on plant productivity remain active."

AFF Answers
CP cant solve warming and will cause food crisis and ozone destruction Ovitz 12 - is a Collegian columnist (Kimberly, Sci-Fi Fix for carbon emissions, 1/29,

http://dailycollegian.com/2012/01/29/sci-fi-fix-for-carbon-emissions/) Though sunshade and other geo-engineering processes attempt to alleviate anthropogenic effects on the environment, they also pose serious consequences. Reducing the sunlight that reaches the earths surface could impact agricultural

yields and reduce precipitation rates, threatening food security and causing hunger and famine. Another likely consequence is ozone destruction. This would result in an increase in ultraviolet radiation into the atmosphere; a phenomenon which occurs via large volcanic eruptions, on occasion, yet not constantly over a span of 20 years by which this programs proposes. Simultaneously, sunshade geo-engineering doesnt account for the non atmospheric impacts of carbon emissions, like that of ocean acidification. A program
such as this which masks takes the impacts of human error into account would likely avert political and scientific focus on reducing the entirety of carbon impacts in favor of a low cost, high risk, quick fix of geo-engineering. By attempting to regulate one aspect of carbon emissions through geo-engineering, the uncertainty of the process creates many more uncertainties. Balancing budgets on a variety of scales is part of our daily lives, and carbon emission is one of them. Further carbon emissions with initiatives to dissipate increasing amounts of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere, appears counterintuitive to the matter of reducing an abundance of emissions. The geo-engineering process provides a cover up of carbon emissions issue

without actually reducing the amount carbon in the atmosphere.

Sunshades wont solve warming and will actually hurt the environment Vergano 2/25/11 science reporter (Dan, Can Geo-engineering put the freeze on global warming
and Earth could dim sunlight. Cost aside, rocket

http://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/environment/2011-02-25-geoengineering25_CV_N.htm) Space mirrors. Hundreds of thousands of thin reflective yard-long disks fired into a gravitational balance point between the sun

failures or collisions might lead to a tremendous orbital debris cloud circling the Earth. And a recent Geophysical Research Letters space tourism report suggests the rocket fuel burned to launch the needed number of shades would dump enough black soot which absorbs sunlight and heats the atmosphere to increase average global temperatures about 1.4 degrees. Leaving aside the environmental risks each one carries, the estimated costs tend to increase with how quickly each method removes carbon or deflects sunlight. The space reflectors would top the bill at a cost of several trillion dollars over 25 years. "Geoengineering technologies, once developed, may enable short-sighted and unwise deployment, with potentially serious unforeseen consequences," said a 2009 American Meteorological Society statement. Turning over weather management to human beings
raises, "legal, ethical, diplomatic, and even national security concerns," the statement added. Deflected storm tracks could result in floods such as the ones hitting Australia last month or Pakistan last year. And simply cutting temperatures won't

stop the rise in ocean acidification arising from increased carbon dioxide levels in the air, which may affect marine life underlying the ocean food web.

+Iron Fertilization
CP Text: The United States federal government should fertilize the Southern Ocean with iron. CP solves CO2 iron fertilization could cut emissions by up to 15% and delay the tipping point of global warming Horton 08 contributing writer, B.S. environmental studies Emory University
Jennifer, How can adding iron to the ocean slow global warming?, March 31, http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/green-science/iron-sulfate-slow-global-warming.htm

Enter forward-thinking scientists and companies like Planktos and Climos, who propose adding iron to the world's oceans to reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide levels and, in turn, to decrease temperatures. The idea of dumping iron in the oceans to lower temperatures has been around since the late 1980s and has been known variously as carbon sinking, ocean seeding or iron fertilization. The premise is actually simple. Iron acts as a fertilizer for many plants, and some, like the phytoplankton that form the base of the marine food web, need it to grow. Adding iron to the water stimulates phytoplankton growth, which in turn gobble up carbon dioxide through photosynthesis. The resulting decrease in carbon dioxide is supposed to help reduce temperatures since carbon dioxide is one of the main gases responsible for trapping heat on the earth's surface through the greenhouse effect. Numerous iron dumping trials have been conducted since oceanographer John Martin suggested the idea more than 15 years ago [source: Haiken]. One trial conducted in 2004 indicated that each atom of iron added to the water could draw between 10,000 and 100,000 atoms of carbon out of the atmosphere by encouraging plankton growth [source: Schiermeier]. Some scientists theorize that adding iron to the Southern Ocean alone could reduce carbon dioxide levels by 15 percent [source: Schiermeier]. Scientist Oliver Wingenter suggests a more cautious approach, arguing that adding massive amounts of iron to the ocean could cause a major cooling of more than 10 degrees Celsius [source: Wingenter]. He recommends fertilizing just 2 percent of the Southern Ocean to cause a 2 degree Celsius cooling and to set back the tipping point of global warming 10 or more years [source: Wingenter]. Instead of focusing on cutting carbon dioxide levels, Wingenter's research concentrated on increasing other gases that result from the phytoplankton blooms, namely dimethyl sulfide, or DMS. DMS is largely responsible for cloud formation in the polar region and could increase cloud reflectivity, which would in turn reduce temperatures. During his iron fertilization experiments, Wingenter found that adding iron increased the concentration of DMS five-fold [source: Wingenter].

Extensions
CP solves CO2 Parry12 LiveScience senior staff writer (Wynne, July 18, 2012, Could Fertilizing the Oceans Reduce Global Warming?, http://www.livescience.com/21684-geoengineering-iron-fertilization-climate.html) Some hope fertilizing tiny, floating plants in the ocean, prompting them to suck carbon dioxide out of the air, could help solve global warming. A new experiment confirms this controversial idea has some merit, although important questions remain. Using an eddy in the Southern Ocean near Antarctica, researchers used iron fertilizer the sort used to improve lawns to create a man-made algal bloom. In the weeks that followed, researchers say, this bloom funneled a significant amount of Earth-warming carbon down into the ocean's depths, where it will remain sequestered for some time, unable to contribute to global warming. This experiment provides some important insight into this potential approach to combating
climate change, said Ken Buesseler, of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, writing in Thursday's (July 19) issue of the journal Nature. A potential solution? This general approach, modifying the planet to address climate change, is known as geoengineering, and, geoengineering proposals like iron fertilization tend to raise many uncertainties and risks. Other geoengineering ideas have included pumping aerosols into the atmosphere to block out solar radiation or tucking away excess carbon in underground reservoirs. [Top 10 Craziest Environmental Ideas] Ocean fertilization is a controversial idea, prompting protest from those who fear the unintended environmental impacts it may have. "Most scientists would agree that we are nowhere near the point of recommending [iron fertilization of the oceans] as a geoengineering tool. But many think that larger and longer [iron fertilization] experiments should be performed to help us to decide which, if any, of the many geoengineering options at hand should be deployed," Buesseler wrote. Phytoplankton, which includes microscopic marine plants and photosynthetic microbes,

blooms naturally in the ocean. However, in seawater, there is only limited iron, an element these organisms need to grow, so by adding iron to seawater, it's possible to make a man-made bloom.
In this study, the researchers fertilized an eddy because it offered a largely self-contained system, or "a gigantic test tube," said lead researcher Victor Smetacek, with the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Potsdam, Germany. By

mixing an iron fertilizer into the seawater, the researchers created the equivalent of a good-size spring bloom like those seen in the North Sea or off Georges Bank off the New England coast, which turned the water from blue to turquoise, Smetacek said. Moving carbon The team found that after they added the iron, the levels of nutrients, including nitrogen, phosphorus and silicic acid, which algae called diatoms use to construct their glass shells, declined until around 24 days after the fertilizer was added. Dissolved inorganic carbon, which normally remains in equilibrium with the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, also declined more quickly than it could be replaced by the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Meanwhile, their measurements revealed particulate organic matter, including the silica the diatoms used to make their shells, and chlorophyll, the green pigment used in photosynthesis, increased within the surface waters. After day 24, however, the particulate matter the remains of the algae that had sucked up the carbon sank, traveling down from the surface layer, falling to depths between 328 feet (100 meters) to the seafloor, about 12,467 feet (3,800 m) below. If this organic matter settles into the deep ocean, it may not reach the surface for centuries or millennia, depending on ocean
circulation, Smetacek said. Much of the former phytoplankton bits are likely to have settled on the seafloor as "fluff" "like a layer of fluff that you would find under your bed if you did not vacuum it for a long time," Smetacek told LiveScience in an email. "Eventually, this loose matter flattens into the sediments and a part gets buried; this stuff is sequestered for geological time scales."

team estimated that for every iron atom they introduced into the eddy, at least 13,000 carbon atoms were taken up into the biomass of the algae, becoming available for export into deeper water. They also found that at least
(Geologists measure time in terms of millennia to many millions, even billions, of years.) His half of the organic matter associated with the bloom nearly all of it made up of glass-walled diatoms sank below, 3,280 feet (1,000 m).

CP solves warming The Guardian 12 (Damian Carrington staff writer, citing Victor Smetacek, Professor of Biological Oceanography, Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, citing Dave Reay, PhD, Senior Lecturer in Carbon Management, School of GeoSciences, University of Edinburgh, citing John Shepherd, Professorial Research Fellow in Earth System Science, School of Ocean and Earth Science, National Oceanography Centre, University of Southampton, citing Ken Buesseler, PhD in Marine Chemistry, Senior Scientist, Marine Chemistry & Geochemistry, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute, citing Michael Steinke, PhD, School of Biological Sciences, University of Essex, July 18, 2012, Dumping iron at sea can bury carbon for centuries, study shows, The Guardian, http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2012/jul/18/iron-seacarbon?newsfeed=true) Dumping iron into the sea can bury carbon dioxide for centuries, potentially helping reduce the impact of climate change, according to a major new study. The work shows for the first time that much of the algae that blooms when iron filings are added dies and falls into the deep ocean. Geoengineering
technologies aimed at alleviating global warming are controversial, with critics warning of unintended environmental side effects or encouraging complacency in global deals to cut carbon emissions. But Prof Victor Smetacek, at the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany, who led the new research, said: "The time has come to differentiate: some geoengineering techniques are more dangerous than others. Doing nothing is probably the worst option." Dave Reay, senior lecturer in carbon management at the University of Edinburgh, said: "This represents a whole new ball game in terms of iron fertilisation as a geoengineering technique. Maybe deliberate enhancement of carbon storage in the oceans has more legs than we thought but, as the scientists themselves acknowledge, it's still far too early to run with it." A 2009 report from the Royal Society, the UK's science academy, concluded that while cutting emissions is the first priority, careful research into geoengineering was required in case drastic measures such as trying to block sunlight by pumping sulphate into the atmosphere were one day needed. Prof John Shepherd, chair of the report, said on Wednesday: "It is important that we continue to research these technologies but governance of this research is vital to protect the oceans, wider environment and public interests." Smetacek's team added seven tonnes of iron sulphate to the ocean near Antarctica, where iron levels are extremely low. The addition

of the missing nutrient prompted a massive bloom of phytoplankton to begin growing within a week. As the phytoplankton, mostly species of diatom, began to die after three weeks, they sank towards the ocean floor, taking the carbon they had incorporated with them. The scientists chose the experiment location carefully, within
a 60km-wide self-enclosed eddy in the ocean that acted as a giant "test tube". This meant that it was possible to compare what happened within the eddy with control points outside the eddy. After a month of monitoring nutrient and plankton levels from the surface to the depths the team concluded at least half of the bloom had fallen to depths below 1,000m and that a "substantial portion was likely to have reached the sea floor" at 3,800m. The scientists conclude in the journal Nature that the carbon

is therefore likely to be kept out of the atmosphere for many centuries or longer. A dozen other experiments have shown that iron can prompt phytoplankton blooms, but this is the first study to show that the carbon the plants take up is deeply buried. Other researchers recognise the significance of this but warn of other issues that
might prevent the iron fertilisation of the ocean as being a useful geoengineering technique. "The ocean's capacity for carbon sequestration in low-iron regions is just a fraction of anthropogenic CO2 emissions, and such sequestration is not permanent it lasts only for decades to centuries," said Ken Buesseler, at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution in the US. Smetacek said ocean iron fertilisation could bury at most 1 gigatonne of CO2 per year compared to annual emissions of 8-9Gt, of which 4Gt accumulates in the atmosphere. But sequestering some CO2 could make the difference between crossing a climate "tipping" point, where feedback effects lead to runaway global warming, he said: "I don't see what will stop Arctic sea ice from decreasing." Michael Steinke, director of marine biology at the University of Essex, said: "Will this open up the gates to large-scale geoengineering using ocean fertilisation? Likely not, since the logistics of finding the right spot for such experiments are difficult and costly." Smetacek responded that ocean

iron fertilisation is much cheaper than other possible geoengineering techniques. He acknowledged more experiments were needed over longer periods to examine, for example, how many of the
diatoms were eaten by krill, and then by whales, meaning they did not fall to the ocean floor.

CP solves ocean biodiversity Parry 12 LiveScience senior staff writer

(Wynne, July 18, 2012, Could Fertilizing the Oceans Reduce Global Warming?, http://www.livescience.com/21684-geoengineering-iron-fertilization-climate.html) Iron fertilization has another potentially important application, one unrelated to climate change, Smetacek said, suggesting that it may have the potential to restore an ecosystem in the Southern Ocean, where whales once fed on abundant swarms of krill. In spite of the loss of whales to whaling, their prey, shrimplike krill, have declined dramatically. Smetacek believes this is because the whales played a crucial role in keeping the waters fertilized with iron, which prompted the blooms of phytoplankton, which feed the krill. He has proposed fertilizing a stretch of Antarctic sea ice with iron to see how it affects krill growth.

AFF Answers
Iron fertilization doesnt solve fails to sequester enough carbon, too costly, offset by transportation of iron to remove ocean regions, and negative side effects IPCC 07
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Ocean Fertilization and Other Geo-Engineering Options, 2007; http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg3/en/ch11s11-2-2.html

Iron fertilization of the oceans may be a strategy for removing CO2 from the atmosphere. The idea is that it stimulates the growth of phytoplankton and therefore sequesters CO2 in the form of particulate organic carbon (POC). There have been eleven field studies in different ocean regions with the primary

aim of examining the impact of iron as a limiting nutrient for phytoplankton by the addition of small quantities (1 10 tonnes) of iron sulphate to the surface ocean. In addition, commercial tests are being pursued with the combined (and conflicting) aims of increasing ocean carbon sequestration and productivity. It should be noted, however, that iron addition will only

stimulate phytoplankton growth in ~30% of the oceans (the Southern Ocean, the equatorial Pacific and the Sub-Arctic Pacific), where iron depletion prevails. Only two experiments to date (Buesseler and Boyd,

2003) have reported on the second phase, the sinking and vertical transport of the increased phytoplankton biomass to depths below the main thermocline (>120m). The efficiency of sequestration of the phytoplankton carbon is

low (<10%), with the biomass being largely recycled back to CO2 in the upper water column (Boyd et al., 2004). This suggests that the field-study estimates of the actual carbon sequestered per unit iron (and per dollar) are over-estimates. The cost of largescale and long-term fertilization will also be offset by CO2 release/emission during the acquisition, transportation and release of large volumes of iron in remote oceanic regions. Potential negative effects of iron fertilization include the increased production of methane and nitrous oxide, deoxygenation of intermediate waters and changes in phytoplankton community composition that may cause toxic blooms and/or promote changes further along the food chain. None
of these effects have been directly identified in experiments to date, partly due to the time and space constraints.

+AT Geoengineering Now

Geoengineering in its infancy needs more attention Victor et al 9 (David G., The Geoengineering Option, Foreign Affairs, March/April, http://iis-db.stanford.edu/pubs/22456/The_Geoengineering_Option.pdf)//mm Serious research on geoengineering is still in its infancy, and it has not received the attention it deserves from politicians. The time has come to take it seriously. Geoengineering could provide a useful defense for the planet -- an emergency shield that could be deployed if surprisingly nasty climatic shifts put vital ecosystems and billions of people at risk. Actually raising the shield, however, would be a political choice. One nation's emergency can be another's opportunity, and it is unlikely that all countries will have similar assessments of how to balance the ills of unchecked climate change with the risk that geoengineering could do more harm than good. Governments should immediately begin to undertake serious research on geoengineering and help create international norms governing its use.

+Politics NB
The CP is backed by a powerful geo-engineering lobby doesnt drain capital Phantom Report 12
(Bill Gates backs climate scientists lobbying for large scale geoengineering, 2-6, http://www.phantomreport.com/bill-gates-backsclimate-scientists-lobbying-for-large-scale-geoengineering)

A small group of leading climate scientists, financially supported by billionaires including Bill Gates, are lobbying governments and international bodies to back experiments into manipulating the climate on a global scale to avoid catastrophic climate change. The scientists, who advocate geoengineering methods such

as spraying millions of tonnes of reflective particles of sulphur dioxide 30 miles above earth, argue that a plan B for climate change will be needed if the UN and politicians cannot agree to making the necessary cuts in greenhouse gases, and say the US government and others should pay for a major programme of international research. Concern is now growing that the small but

influential group of scientists, and their backers, may have a disproportionate effect on major decisions about geoengineering research and policy We will need to protect ourselves from vested interests

[and] be sure that choices are not influenced by parties who might make significant amounts of money through a choice to modify climate, especially using proprietary intellectual property, said Jane Long, director at large for the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in the US, in a paper delivered to a recent geoengineering conference on ethics. The eco-clique are lobbying

for a huge injection of public funds into geoengineering research. They dominate virtually every inquiry into geoengineering. Every scientist has some conflict of interest, because we would all like to see more

resources going to study things that we find interesting, said Caldeira. Do I have too much influence? I feel like I have too little. I have been calling for making CO2 emissions illegal for many years, but no one is listening to me. People who disagree with me might feel I have too much influence. The best way to reduce my influence is to have more public research funds available, so that our funds are in the noise. If the federal government played the role it should in this area, there would be no need for money from Gates.

Geoengineering is popular specifically iron fertilization Michaelson 98 JD, Yale Law School, Yale University (Jay, 1998, Geoengineering: A Climate Change Manhattan Project, Stanford University, http://www.metatronics.net/lit/geo2.html) Some geoengineering proposals, however, may actually carry economic benefits for the parties who develop the technologies, and thus may more closely resemble politically attractive military investments than politically painful restraints on economic growth. In other words, the Big Fix may act as a plowshare but pay like a sword. Finally, geoengineering may be cheaper in politicaleconomic terms because of the relative distribution of costs among politically relevant entities . Recall from part II.C.1 that climate change regulation *113 faced the unfortunate challenge of forcing the most powerful members of the industrialized world to incur the majority of the costs of GHG emissions reduction, because existing concentrations of wealth are largely a result of the most effective wealth- maximizing activities, which presently are tied to environmentally destructive practices. Since overall growth is dependent on infrastructure, and infrastructure is dependent on greenhouse-gas-producing
activities (including energy production, industry, and transportation), it is easy to see why those who have the most resources (and thus, usually the most political power) depend the most on the environmental status quo. Geoengineering, in contrast to regulation, leaves

powerful actors and their interests relatively intact. Insofar as it does, it is logical to conclude that a geoengineered solution will be far less offensive to them, and thus more likely to succeed . Geoengineering, even if it were to carry a higher immediate price tag, would carry lower overall politicaleconomic costs than legislative solutions because the costs are relatively minor to the distributionally advantaged actors. In terms of political economy, playing well on Wall Street is a significant asset. Social costs. Even if geoengineering were expensive, and even if it were not superior to climate change regulation in terms of its effects on elites, it may yet be the cheapest available strategy in terms of political economy because it carries almost no social costs

whatsoever. No one need change lifestyles, take a bus instead of a car, or pay more at the gas pump to combat climate change, if geoengineering can offset the climate effects of business as usual. Consumptive patterns of life, which the majority of Westerners seem to enjoy, can continue unabated. [FN159] Nor (unfortunately)
does geoengineering limit destructive practices like deforestation. [FN160] While these features may make geoengineering less attractive to some environmental advocates, it

is not a trivial political point that no one will bear the significant economic and/or social *114 costs of changing those behaviors. For a policy-maker, the costs of a policy are not only the immediate financial investments or sacrifices that are necessary, they include undesirable political and social effects of implementation. Unlike reducing
automobile use in the United States, for example, with its avalanche of economic effects and perceived interference with Western

seeding iron filings in the sea and layering particulate matter in the sky carry very low social costs . To be sure, there are "social costs" associated with any government program, particularly one which may carry a large taxpayer-funded price tag. [FN162] But it should be obvious that, compared with reducing fossil fuel use, geoengineering requires very little commitment from "ordinary people." [FN163] To the
consumptive patterns, [FN161] extent that this reduced burden of social costs translates into ease of implementation, geoengineering is more likely to succeed in the long term than climate change regulation.

+AFF Answers
Geoengineering fails costly, risky, and cant be sustained - guarantees environmental catastrophe Moriarty and Honnery 10
Patrick Moriarty, Ph.D. Department of Design, Monash University, and Damon Honnery, Ph.D. Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Monash University. Why Technical Fixes Wont Mitigate Climate Change. Journal of Cosmology, 2010, Vol 8, 1921-1927. http://journalofcosmology.com/ClimateChange107.html As discussed here, geoengineering is action intended to manipulate climate on a global, or at least regional, scale. Corner and Pidgeon (2010) have pointed out that our emissions of CO2 (which have raised atmospheric CO2 levels from the pre-industrial 280 ppm to the present 387 ppm) could also be considered geoengineering. If so, we are merely arguing about different forms of the practice. The potential use of geoengineering for climate mitigation received a boost with a paper by Nobel laureate Paul Crutzen (2006). Like the present authors, he argued that conventional methods of mitigation were not workingthe CO2 atmospheric concentration continues to climb at about 2 ppm each year. His inspiration was the significant drop in global temperatures recorded in the year following the Mount Pinatubo volcanic eruption in the Philippines in June 1991. The cooling resulted from the emission of some 10 Mt of sulphate aerosols into the lower stratosphere in the tropics. Continuous deliberate placement of fine sulphate aerosols in the lower stratosphere would reflect some of the incoming short-wave solar radiation, increasing the Earths albedo, and counteracting the positive forcing from increased levels of GHGs. The options available for geoengineering use of giant space-based mirrors). Only aerosol placement in the tropical stratosphere, albedo enhancement of marine stratiform clouds and reflective mirrors in space would have the potential to counteract a doubling or more of atmospheric CO2 ppm (Lenton and Vaughan 2009). Of these global approaches, the cheapest is likely to be aerosol placement. Except for space-based mirrors, the approaches appear both far cheaper and far faster to implement than more conventional mitigation methods. Because of

can be either local in extent (such as altering the albedo of deserts, crops or urban areas) or global (such as the

the lack of progress in slowing emissions and the low cost and rapid cooling resulting from global measures, geoengineering is gaining acceptance. The U.K. Royal Society (2009) has endorsed it as a technique to be used alongside other mitigation methods. But implementing measures to reduce the planetary albedo run enormous risks. Global precipitation would on average be reducedit is not possible to bring both global temperatures and precipitation to their previous levels (Bala 2009). Acidification of the oceans would continue, potentially destabilising ocean ecosystems (Doney et al. 2009). Also, because elevated levels of CO2 will persist for centuries, so too must geoengineering the continuous placement of aerosols, for example. Any abrupt cessation because of dangerous side effects discovered would rapidly raise the forcing to levels corresponding to the GHG concentrations at that time, resulting in very rapid warming, with possibly catastrophic effects on ecosystems (Matthews and Caldeira 2007). Thus although the costs of aerosol placement may well be modest, the overall cost of countering the unwanted consequences could be very high. Recently, perhaps because of these serious drawbacks, some researchers have modelled the effects of more modest
aerosol placement schemes. Rather than global year-round aerosol coverage, they have looked at techniques that might prevent melting of the Greenhouse ice cap or Arctic summer sea ice, or summer warming of the north Atlantic during the hurricane season (Caldeira and Wood 2008, MacCracken 2009). The aerosols might be locally applied, for part of the year, to address a very specific problem resulting from climate change. But to be effective, their effects would necessarily be felt globally (Caldeira and Wood 2008), and if several of these projects were to be implemented simultaneously, the combined gobal effects might be extremely uncertain.

Geoengineering fails large technical and scientific uncertainties and doesnt eliminate the need to reduce GHGs Johnson et al. 10

Andrew Simms, policy director of New Economics Foundation, UK think tank, and head of NEF's Climate Change Programme, Dr. Victoria Johnson, researcher for the climate change and energy programme at NEF, MSc with distinction in Climate Change from the University of East Anglia and PhD in Atmospheric Physics at Imperial College, London and Peter Chowla, Policy and Advocacy Officer at the Bretton Woods Project. Growth isnt possible. New Economics Foundation, January 25,2010. http://www.neweconomics.org/sites/neweconomics.org/files/Growth_Isnt_Possible.pdf In most cases, geoengineering schemes are viewed as a stopgap between now and

some point in the future where mitigation technology is cheaper and more widespread. There are, however, large technical and scientific uncertainties. For example Professor David Victor, Director of the Laboratory on International Law and Regulation at Stanford University argues: real-world geoengineering will be a lot more complex and expensive than

currently thought because simple interventionssuch as putting reflective particles in the stratospherewill be combined with many other costlier interventions to offset nasty side effects.327 The large majority of academics working in the field of geoengineering research have been clear that their research and technical propositions are not intended to distract from the efforts of reducing greenhouse gas emissions as the first priority for controlling climate change. However, many now argue that a technological intervention may be required parallel to current mitigation
efforts.328

No solvency impractical, expensive, negative effects Govindswamy 09 Bala, climatologist at the Indian Institute of Science - Bangalore - McGill University, (Problems with geoengineering schemes to combat climate change, 9/22/08, http://indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/Problems%20with%20geoengineering%20schemes. pdf)//RN The conclusion of the 1992 NAS report13 was that most geoengineering schemes, though feasible, are impractical, cumbersome to manage, or too expensive. It suggested some further study, but did not find it worthy of great effort. In support of this conclusion, Schneider29 suggested to reduce slowly our economic dependence on carbon fuels, rather than try to counter the side effects using risky options such as centuries of injecting sulphur into the atmosphere or iron into the oceans. While acknowledging that all geoengineering schemes have serious flaws, Keith10 judged that this century is likely to
see serious debates about geoengineering. The serious debate indeed started when Nobel laureate Paul Crutzen8 published his influential editorial article on geoengineering. Since the attempts to curb fossil-fuel emissions have been unsuccessful, Crutzen suggested that the usefulness of artificially enhancing the planetary albedo to counteract the climate forcing of growing CO2 emissions might again be explored and debated. In a series of editorial comments8,3033, broad recommendations were made to pursue scientific research on the effects of geoengineering schemes. However, Bengtsson34 expressed his reservations against geoengineering schemes for the following reasons. (1) There is a lack of accuracy in climate prediction. (2)

There is large difference in the timescale between the effects of CO2 and the effects of aerosols, forcing us to commit to the artificial release of aerosols for several hundred years. (3) There are serious environmental problems such as ocean acidification, which are not mitigated by the albedoenhancing
geoengineering schemes. To address the last two issues, Wigley advocated a combination of mitigation and geoengineering to prevent both climate change and ocean acidification. And thus the debate on combating climate change via geoengineering continues3

CP cant solve for ocean acidification or other effects of warming Nicholson 12 - has spoken at MIT/Stanford VLAB, SXSW Interactive, the National Science Foundation, the National

Research Council, the Space Studies Board and Brookhaven National Laboratory (Christie, Blocking the sun to save the planet, 1/23, http://www.smartplanet.com/blog/thinking-tech/blocking-the-sun-to-save-the-planet/10004) To be sure, however, the models also predict that some areas might be harmed by the slightly darker days. Some experts also worry that such a drastic measure doesnt solve the issue of ocean acidification, which is causing massive

deterioration of coral reefs and basically impacting every corner of sea life. Plus there are plenty of political issues regarding high-flying planes traversing the Earth spewing aerosols. The climate system is not well enough understood to exclude the risks of severe unanticipated climate changes, whether due to our option than geoengineering to avert risks to global food security.

fossil-fuel emissions or due to intentional intervention in the climate system, said Julie Pongratz of Department of Global Ecology at the Carnegie Institution, in a press release. Reducing greenhouse gas emissions is therefore likely a safer

Geoengineering results in further ocean acidification and loss of biodiversity Robock 08 Alan, climatologist and Professor II in the Department of Environmental Sciences at Rutgers University, New Jersey, (20 reasons why geoengineering may be a bad idea, 2008, http://www.atmos.washington.edu/academics/classes/2012Q1/111/20Reasons.pdf)//RN If humans adopted geoengineering as a solution to global warming, with no restriction on continued carbon emissions, the ocean would continue to become more acidic, because about half of all excess carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is removed by ocean uptake. The ocean is already 30 percent more acidic than it was before the Industrial

Revolution, and continued acidification threatens the entire oceanic biological chain, from coral reefs right up to humans.7 Rapid warming if deployment stops thats worse Robock 08 Alan, climatologist and Professor II in the Department of Environmental Sciences at Rutgers University, New Jersey, (20 reasons why geoengineering may be a bad idea, 2008, http://www.atmos.washington.edu/academics/classes/2012Q1/111/20Reasons.pdf)//RN A technological, societal, or political crisis could halt a project of stratospheric aerosol injection in middeployment. Such an abrupt shift would result in rapid climate warming, which would produce much more stress on society and ecosystems than gradual global warming.17

Nuclear Terrorism

US Fund IAEA
CP Text: The United States federal government should increase its funding for the IAEAs nuclear security efforts. CP solves nuclear terrorism Schneidmiller 12 (Chris, IAEA security official seeks more money to prevent nuclear terrorism, Aug 20, http://www.nti.org/gsn/article/iaea-security-chief-seeks-more-money-prevent-nuclearterrorism)//SLR The International Atomic Energy Agencys top nuclear security official said hi s operation must have more money and people if it is to meet nations growing demand for help in ensuring their atomic facilities are protected against terrorism. As it stands, governments in some cases could wait for years to receive expert guidance in preparing a comprehensive protection program, according to Khammar Mrabit, head of the U.N. branchs Nuclear Security Office. The risk is that there will be gaps in nuclear security in some countries, in some areas, that is not acceptable, he told Global Security Newswire. This is the risk and we would like to speed up the process of establishing and strengthening nuclear security in these countries. The sooner the better. While Mrabit has an obvious reason to advocate for his office, he is not alone in promoting an enhanced IAEA nuclear security operation. The most recent multinational Nuclear Security Summit in South Korea ended in March with a call for countries to deliver increased voluntary funding for the office. Laura Holgate, the U.S. National Security Councils lead threat reduction official, in June also discussed the potential for boosting the offices clout via an upgrade to divisional status. It should not be assumed, though, that providing more money and staff would automatically translate into benefits on the ground, according to one issue expert. Focusing on those two issues as the No. 1 priorities is absolutely characteristic of large bureaucracies. They want more and a bigger department, said Roger Howsley, a former safeguards adviser to the agency and executive director of the World Institute for Nuclear Security. World leaders for years have expressed worry that bad actors might gain access to the ingredients for a nuclear weapon or a dirty bomb that would spread radioactive material with conventional explosives. The global response to the threat has been highlighted by the two Nuclear Security Summits and President Obamas 2009 announcement of a global push to lock down all unsecured material within four years. Nations reported 2,164 cases of smuggling or other incidents involving nuclear and radioactive substances between January 1993 and last December, according to the IAEA Illicit Trafficking Database. There were 16 cases of unauthorized possession of nuclear weapon-usable highly enriched uranium or plutonium, though usually only grams of the materials. Physical protection at hundreds of civilian nuclear plants and thousands of sites holding other radioactive materials worldwide sometimes go too far, Howsley said. In other locations you might be quite alarmed at how lax they are. The level of defense is based on a nations resources, attitude on the threat and other matters, he said. The Nuclear Security Offices job is to lead the IAEA component of the international push for security of atomic materials being used, stored or moved. A large part of that mission has involved providing training to more than 12,000 people, technology, expert guidance and other assistance to more than 120 nations with the intention of preventing nuclear security breaches and establishing detection and response capabilities when incidents do occur. The majority of the more than 70 broad security plans prepared for nations are being implemented, and the office has assisted with securing in excess of 4,700 radioactive sources and sending more than 1,050 kilograms of highly enriched uranium back to

the nation of origin. A June meeting led additional nations to request that the Vienna, Austriabased organization help to prepare additional nuclear security plans, he added. Now the issue is to have resources to meet those requests and those needs, Mrabit, an IAEA veteran who took over the security office in April 2011, said in a July interview. This is where exactly the resources available to us are not sufficient to meet the current and future needs of nuclear security. The office in its current spending year received more than $5.5 million from the core IAEA budget and another $24.6 million in voluntary extrabudgetary support from agency member nations. Mrabit acknowledged that the funding is a major boost from the services inception in 2002, when its total budget was slightly less than $10 million. He argued, though, that growing need for his offices services requires greater resources -- $6 million to $12 million per year, and ideally adding five to 10 personnel to its staff of about 60. As an example of the need, he said the office has only one specialist to manage a large number of requests from nations in helping to establish some level of capacity in nuclear forensics the ability to determine the point of origin of atomic material that might be seized from smugglers or used in an act of terrorism. Heads of state from more than 50 nations at the March summit in Seoul called in a final declaration for governments in a position to do so and the nuclear industry to increase voluntary contributions to the IAEAs Nuclear Security Fund, as well as in-kind contributions. There was no mention of making nuclear security a greater part of the core agency budget. The present financing plan means the office cannot be absolutely sure of its funding levels from year to year, and how the money is used is to some degree controlled by the nations providing the voluntary support, Mrabit said. U.S. funding is key Perry and Schlesinger 09 - both are former Secretaries of Defense (William and James, Congressional Commission on the Strategic Posture of the United States ,Americas Strategic Posture: The Final Report of the Congressional Commission on the Strategic Posture of the United States, http://www.dtic.mil.proxy.lib.umich.edu/cgibin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA501604, 2009)//SLR The IAEA is the worlds watchdog against the diversion of peaceful nuclear technologies and material for illicit weapons purposes. Yet the agencys safeguards budget is less than that of the police budget of Vienna, Austria, where the IAEA is headquartered. The current disparity between the agencys resources and workload must be remedied. This disparity will only grow if nuclear power usage grows as some predict. One panel of IAEA-commissioned experts last year recommended a one-time injection of approximately $100 million to the agencys Safeguards Analytical Laboratory and Incident and Emergency Response Center. Such funding would help the agency bolster its technical and human capital. That panel also urged annual budget increases equivalent to roughly $60 million, from its current base of approximately $385 million. The United States should lead the effort to make this so. The United States should persuade the IAEA Board of Governors to increase funding for the agency. It should also make adherence to the Additional Protocol (which provides for strengthened safeguards) a condition of nuclear supply to recipients. The IAEA should also be authorized to identify nuclear security weaknesses and illegal weapons activities inside countries and charged with responsibility to create an international nuclear materials database. The United States should encourage proposals by other interested parties to strengthen the IAEA and especially the process by which it coordinates its actions with the United Nations Security Council to deal with concerns about compliance.

Extensions
Funding key Boureston & Semmel 10
Jack (managing director at FirstWatch International, specialized in nuclear security and safeguards and illicit nuclear trade issues, former safeguards info analyst at IAEA, formerly worked at Center for Nonproliferation Studies) & Dr. Andrew K (private consultant at AKS Consulting, former Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for Nuclear Nonproliferation Policy and Negotiations in the Departments International Security and Nonproliferation bureau, former first executive director of US-China Security Review Commision, former senior legislative assistant for foreign policy to Senator Richard Lugar), The IAEA and Nuclear Security: Trends and Prospects, December 2010, The Stanley Foundation, http://psaonline.org/downloads/The%20IAEA%20and%20Nuclear%20Security.pdf//MJ

Slightly less than $1.5 million was included in the regular assessed budgets for nuclear security activities in 2008 and in 2009. The amount approved for 2010 increased to about $4 million and slightly more has been requested for 2011. When regular budget funds are combined with voluntary donations and unexpended funds carried over from previous years, annual funding available for all nuclear security activities around the world in 2009 amounted to roughly $36.7 million. Clearly, there is a mismatch between the resources that are needed and those that are available to manage a robust and credible nuclear security program at the international level. Failure to close this resource gap with additional funding makes it difficult for the agency to keep pace with the growing security requirements asked of it and to meet the hefty requirements expected of it during the NSS. Enthusiasm and goodwill toward securing nuclear materials and radiological sources, evidenced by pledges of additional funds by several participating states at the NSS, may translate into more resources and greater flexibility by member states in future IAEA budget decisions. Funding key Oswald 7/19

Rachel, U.S. energy chief hopes for bigger IAEA role in global nuclear security, July 19, 2013, http://www.nationaljournal.com/global-security-newswire/u-s-energy-chief-hopes-for-bigger-iaea-role-in-globalnuclear-security-20130719

WASHINGTON -- A top Obama administration official on Tuesday voiced support for the International Atomic Energy Agency expanding its role in the global nuclear security realm. We are strongly supportive of the increased attention at IAEA on nuclear security, Energy Secretary Ernest Moniz said in remarks at a State Department conference. We believe its an important mission and we believe they have an important role. Earlier this month, representatives from 125 IAEA member states convened in Vienna, Austria, for a ministerial-level conference focused on improving efforts to secure nuclear materials from potential acquisition by terrorists. The agency serves as a nuclear watchdog for the United Nations. A joint declaration released at the event highlighted the principle that the responsibility for nuclear security within a state rests entirely with that state. The declaration also affirmed the central role of the IAEA in strengthening the nuclear security

framework globally and in leading the coordination of international activities in the field of nuclear security. Moniz, who participated in the Vienna conference, said he was encouraged to see a

very, very broad base of support for having nuclear security as an additional focus at IAEA in some sense on par with safety, which has been a traditional focus of the body. The U.S. energy chief this week did not say exactly how the watchdog agency might expand its atomic protection activities. A reporters calls to the U.S. mission at the International Atomic Energy Agency seeking more information were not returned by press time. A spokesman for Moniz would not elaborate on the secretarys comments this week, but noted that the Energy leader said in Vienna that IAEA work on nuclear security should be bolstered. In his recent official

remarks to the IAEA conference, Moniz said the United States supports increased resources for all pillars of the IAEAs work,

including technical cooperation, nuclear safety and security, and safeguards. Washington, he added, remains committed to the IAEAs efforts to develop international standards on nuclear and radiological security, and hopes to see those strengthened and implemented. The security of our nuclear materials is a top priority for Secretary Moniz, Josh McConaha, spokesman for the Energy Departments National Nuclear Security Administration, said in an e-mailed statement. International venues

like the IAEA present an opportunity to share ideas and best practices that ensure that nuclear material around the globe is as safe as it can be. The U.N. agency does offer some
nuclear security assistance that member states can voluntarily seek out. Aid in the past has included the provision of radiation

detectors, as well as training of member states nuclear security professionals. In the last decade, in excess of 120 nations have taken advantage of this training, according to the watchdog organization. The agency also maintains an Incident and Trafficking Database that documents each new incident of global atomic and radiological material theft or other unpermitted uses involving such substances. Additionally, the IAEA International Physical Protection Advisory Service offers practical guidance to countries on how to develop domestic rules and regulations for the enactment of international agreements, and provides recommendations on the safeguarding of nuclear and radiological substances. Asked to respond to Monizs Tuesday remarks, IAEA spokeswoman Gill Tudor said in an e-mail that the IAEA view is that the ministerial statement, which is the collective view of its member states, speaks for itself and the IAEA does not comment on declarations made by its member states." At least one

U.S.-based expert who attended the Vienna event was not optimistic that the U.N. agency would play a greater nuclear security role anytime soon. Miles Pomper, a senior

research associate with the James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies, said if the ministerial statement was any indi cation of the IAEAs ability to take a leadership role in this issue, its not saying much. The problem is, its a political

problem, particularly on the funding level, explained Pomper, who supports additional such work. For the International Atomic Energy Agency to expand its role in nuclear security, member states would have to agree to fund such activities through the bodys regular budget. Presently nations underwrite IAEA atomic protections work through voluntary contributions made on an irregular basis. I would look for what countries
are willing to pledge in next years security summit in this regard, Pomper said, referring to a global nuclear security gathering set to take place in the Netherlands in March 2014. Monizs Vienna address did not include mention of any specific financial contributions by Washington to IAEA nuclear security activities in the future.

OAS

Firearms Convention
CP text: The United States Federal government should ratify the Inter-American Convention Against the Illicit Manufacturing of and Trafficking in Firearms, Ammunition, Explosives, and other Related Materials. CP solves arms trafficking the impact is instability and terrorism FAS 13

(Federation of American Scientists, OAS Firearms Convention, http://www.fas.org/programs/ssp/asmp/issueareas/oas.html, 2013) //SLR For arms traffickers, the world is a very small place. If the price is right, these criminals

have the capacity to move weapons from country to country, or even from continent to continent. Examples are plentiful. In January 2001, a West African arms and diamonds dealer emailed a long list of weapons, including sniper rifles, anti-tank weapons, and shoulder-launched surface-to-air missiles, to an Israeli arms dealer operating out of Guatemala. The Israeli forwarded the request to another Israeli, who forwarded it on to one of his contacts in the Nicaraguan military. The weapons were for the West African's "friends in Africa." The West African had many friends, included the horrifically brutal Revolutionary United Front in Sierra Leone and America's enemy number one, al Qaeda. Fortunately, the deal fell

through but not because Nicaragua's arms export controls were air tight. Less than a year later, the same arms dealer duped the Nicaraguan government into selling them 3000 AK series assault rifles and 2.5 million rounds of ammunition, which he claimed was for the Pananamian National Police. Instead, the weapons were shipped via boat to Turbo, Colombia, where they ultimately ended up in the hands of the United Self-Defenses Forces of Colombia (AUC) - a paramilitary organization that is on the State Department's list of international terrorist organizations. In addition to arming terrorists, the illicit

trade in small arms and light weapons (SA/LW) fuels internal conflicts which, in turn, breed the lawlessness in which terrorism, drug trafficking and other transnational crime thrives. Latin America is a textbook example of the ill effects of this
trade. From armed guerrillas and paramilitaries in Colombia to street gangs in El Salvador, illicitly trafficked and manufactured SA/LW contribute to many of the region's most pressing problems. On 14 November 1997 the Organization of

American States (OAS) took a significant step toward reining in this deadly trade by adopting the Inter-American Convention Against the Illicit Manufacturing of and Trafficking in Firearms, Ammunition, Explosives, and other Related Materials - the first legally binding regional agreement on illiicit firearms trafficking. Currently,
33 states have signed the Convention and 24 have ratified it. By signing the Convention, these states commit to: establishing as criminal offenses the illicit firearms manufacturing and trafficking; setting up and maintaining an effective system of licenses and authorizations for the export, import and transit of firearms; marking firearms at the time of manufacture, and when they are imported; sharing information that is needed by law enforcement officials who are investigating arms trafficking offenses; strengthening controls at export points; and and ensuring that law enforcement personnel receive adequate training. Through these requirements, the Convention raises regional standards for firearms export controls. By

creating a mechanism for exchanging information, cooperating on investigations, and ensuring that law enforcement personnel are adequetely trained, it also increases the regional capacity to identify, investigate and prosecute illicit firearms manufacturers and traffickers. CP solves for US and OAS credibility FAS 13

(Federation of American Scientists, OAS Firearms Convention, http://www.fas.org/programs/ssp/asmp/issueareas/oas.html, 2013)//SLR The United States and the Convention: While the United States was among the first countries to sign the Convention, it is

now one of only a handful of other countries that still have not ratified it. Ratification would boost the credibility of the Convention and U.S. exhortations to comply with its provisions. It would require no new laws, and any modifications to

US regulations and policies needed to comply with the Convention would be minimal. Even though U.S. laws are already largely in compliance with the provisions of the Convention, ratification by the United States is important for several reasons: Failure to ratify reduces U.S. credibility in OAS Meetings. By not ratifying the Convention, the U.S. has relegated itself to observer status at meetings of the Convention's Consultative Committee. While observer states are permitted to attend meetings and make statements, their status detracts from the persuasive power of their statements and recommendations; representatives of full States Parties to the Convention have expressed annoyance with observers that make strong recommendations at Consultative Committee meetings. Failure to ratify undermines U.S. efforts to compel other states to implement the Convention's many important provisions. As revealed by a recent OAS survey of compliance with the Convention, several member states have yet to implement many of the Convention's key provisions. U.S. exhortations to comply with the Convention ring hollow when the U.S. itself has not ratified it. Ratification would boost the credibility of the Convention. Officials from member states and the OAS General Secretariat emphasize the importance of U.S. ratification, claiming that it would provide an immediate boost to the Convention's credibility. Conversely, continued failure on the part of the United States to ratify the convention would damage its prestige over time. Ratification would help to reduce resentment generated by our refusal to adopt other popular international agreements. This resentment has a direct impact on the pursuit of U.S. foreign policy objectives. For example, the international community took the unprecedented step of voting the U.S. off the UN Human Rights Commission in May 2001 in part because of U.S. rejection of the Kyoto Protocol and the International Criminal Court Statute. Ratification of the OAS Convention would send a strong signal to the international community that the United States does in fact recognize the value of, and need for, international cooperation on terrorism and other important issues.

Extensions
CP solves for U.S. influence in Latin America and OAS legitimacy U.S. action against weapons trafficking sends a key signal Sweig 13

Julia, A strategy to reduce gun trafficking and violence in the Americas, Council on Foreign Relations, July 2013, http://www.cfr.org/arms-industries-and-trade/strategy-reduce-gun-trafficking-violenceamericas/p31155//MJ

The flow of high-powered weaponry from the United States to Latin America and the Caribbean exacerbates soaring rates of gun-related violence in the region and undermines U.S. influence in the Western Hemisphere. Though the Senate rejected measures to

expand background checks on firearms sales, reinstate a federal assault-weapons ban, and make straw purchasing a federal crime, the Obama administration can still take executive action to reduce the availability and trafficking of assault weapons and ammunition in the Americas. With the launch of the Merida Initiative in 2007, the U.S. and

Mexican governments agreed to a regional security framework guided by the principle of shared responsibility. Among its domestic obligations, the United States committed to intensify its efforts to combat the illegal trafficking of weapons and ammunition to Mexico and elsewhere in the Americas. Six years later, little has changed: the U.S. civilian firearms market continues to supply the region's transnational criminal networks with high-powered weaponry that is purchased

with limited oversight, especially from unlicensed individuals at gun shows, flea markets, pawn shops, and on the Internet. Lax U.S. gun laws enable straw purchasers, including those under investigation in Operation Fast and Furious, to legally procure thousands of AK-47 and AR-15 variants every year and traffic them across the border to sell them illegally to criminal factions. U.S. government data highlights the problem. The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives' (ATF) Web-based firearm trace request and analysis system, eTrace, enables law enforcement officials to collaborate with ATF to track the path of recovered weapons from the manufacturer or importer though the distribution chain to the first retail purchase. Over 70 percent of the ninetynine thousand weapons recovered by Mexican law enforcement since 2007 were traced to U.S. manufacturers and importers. Likewise, 2011 eTrace data for the Caribbean indicates that over 90 percent of the weapons recovered and traced in the Bahamas and over 80 percent of those in Jamaica came from the United States. The ATF has not released data for Central America, but the numbers are likely similar. The UN Office on Drugs and Crime reports that easy access to firearms is a major factor influencing homicide trends in Latin America and the Caribbean; the gun-related homicide rate in Latin America exceeded the global average in 2010 by more than 30 percent. The World Bank estimates that crime and violence cost Central America nearly 8 percent of its GDP when accounting for the costs of law enforcement, security, and health care. The U.S. government has empowered law enforcement in the region to recover and investigate the source of weapons used by criminal factions. In December 2009, the ATF introduced the Spanish version of eTrace. Since 2012, the State Department has funded the Organization of American States' (OAS) program to provide firearm-marking equipment and training to law enforcement in twenty-five countries. Yet, these efforts notwithstanding, the ATF intercepted only 15 percent of the roughly 250,000 guns smuggled into Mexico between 2010 and 2012. In effect, the

United States undermines its own efforts at preventing arms trafficking with its unwillingness to strengthen oversight of the firearms industry and lukewarm support for multilateral agreements. The United States is one of three countries that have not ratified the Inter-American Convention Against the Illicit Manufacturing of and Trafficking in Firearms, Ammunition, Explosives, and Other Related Materials (CIFTA). In addition to requiring parties to criminalize the illegal manufacture, import, or export
of high-powered weapons, the treaty encourages information exchange and cooperation on initiatives including the marking and tracing of weapons and the identification of criminal transit routes. President Bill Clinton signed CIFTA in 1997 and submitted it for ratification to the Senate, where it has lingered for over a decade. Likewise, although the United States voted in favor of the United Nations' Arms Trade Treaty in April 2013, it has yet to sign or ratify the treaty. Given the political complexity of legislative action to reduce arms trafficking, Latin American governments have moved to disarm criminal networks by tightening their own gun codes: Mexico prohibits the sale of handguns with calibers greater than .38 and Colombia bans civilians from carrying firearms in Medellin and Bogota. Brazil, Mexico, and El Salvador have implemented gun buyback programs. At the 2012 Summit of the Americas, heads of state demanded a new approach to the failed war on drugs, including greater efforts to disarm criminal networks. U.S. allies

have repeatedly urged the United States to reinstate the federal assault-weapons ban and take action against weapons trafficking. Their patienceand the United States' credibility as a responsible partneris waning. U.S. action will strengthen those regional heads of state who want to work with the United States and who also regard lax U.S. gun laws as fueling violence and anti-Americanism among their own publics. Across the board, Latin American governments are turning

toward the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States and the Union of South American Nations, which pointedly exclude the United States, to handle regional political and security dilemmas. Stronger action to regulate the southward flow of weapons represents an opportunity for the Obama administration to enhance U.S. relevance in the region, especially at the early stages of new regional institutions and security protocols.

AFF Answers
CP fails OAS empirically fails to influence arms trafficking Columbia and Venezuelas behavior proves Bromund et al 10-Phd , Senior Research fellow in Anglo American relations at the Margaret Thatcher Center for Freedom (Theodore, Ray Walser and David Kopel, The OAS Firearms Convention Is Incompatible with American Liberties, http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2010/05/the-oas-firearmsconvention-is-incompatible-with-american-liberties, Heritage Foundation, 5/19/2010)//SLR A Poor Track Record. The conventions record in enforcement and utility should also be considered. When current Colombian President Alvaro Uribe took office at the height of the conflict in 2002, a range of armed non-state actors, notably narco-terrorists belonging to the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) and paramilitaries of the United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia (AUC), were maintaining field armies of more than 50,000 heavily armed combatants. Yet the OAS failed to take a single action to sanction or punish those who provide arms to these illicit organizations. Arms shipments continue today, with weapons arriving from military stocks throughout the Americas.[53] The OAS does not even consider the FARC to be a terrorist organization. Venezuelas response to the Colombian militarys capture of sophisticated, Swedish-made AT-4 anti-tank weapons from the FARC illustrates the increasing lack of cooperation. Both Colombia and Venezuela have ratified the convention. Yet when Colombian officials sought an explanation through diplomatic channels as to how the weapons reached the FARC, Venezuela and Hugo Chvez responded with silence, denial, outrage, and finally an explanation that the FARC had stolen the weapons years earlier from a Venezuelan arsenal.[54] Venezuela made no commitment to Colombia or the OAS to cooperate in an investigation or fact-finding process. In an increasingly polarized hemispheric environment, noncooperation on critical matters relating to the illicit sale and transfer of small arms and light weapons remains distressingly the norm. CP doesnt solve for arms trafficking or OAS credibility faulty stats and other member states wont abide Bromund et al 10-Phd , Senior Research fellow in Anglo American relations at the Margaret Thatcher Center for Freedom (Theodore, Ray Walser and David Kopel, The OAS Firearms Convention Is Incompatible with American Liberties, http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2010/05/the-oas-firearmsconvention-is-incompatible-with-american-liberties, Heritage Foundation, 5/19/2010)//SLR Those seeking ratification of the convention must also ask whether it will truly address the security challenges that the U.S. and other states face in the Western Hemisphere. The primary reason
that the Obama Administration has revived the treaty at this point is that the Administration views it as a deliverable that would send a political and diplomatic signal to Mexico and other OAS members that the U.S. is serious about supporting Mexicos authorities in addressing the ongoing challenge to law and order in Mexico. President Clinton and President Ernesto Zedillo of Mexico first negotiated the convention in 1997, using it as a signaling device during a previous episode of heightened concern over drug-related violence in Mexico. As President Clinton proudly asserted in his remarks, the convention was conclude[d]in record time, taking only seven months from a public agreement to negotiate in May 1997 to signing in November of that year.[45] An

arms control agreement of such scope and complexity would normally take years to negotiate. The rapidity with which it was concluded raises doubts about the care with which it was negotiated and the extent to which it was ever intended as a serious diplomatic response to illegal arms trafficking. Lack of Statistical Support. The convention
promises to serve as a legal mechanism for stemming the flow of firearms into Mexico, where weapons legally purchased in the U.S. but illegally exported to Mexico help to fuel drug violence. Supporters argue that 87 percent of the guns seized in Mexico from drug cartels originate in the U.S.[46] However, this figure is not supported by the data from the Government Accountability Office (GAO) that they cite. Jess T. Ford, Director of International Affairs and Trade at the GAO, testified before the House Subcommittee on the Western Hemisphere on June 19, 2009, that it is impossible to know how many firearms are illegally trafficked into Mexico in a

It is therefore impossible to know what proportion of firearms is illegally trafficked into Mexico from the U.S. in a given year. Of the weapons that have been seized in Mexico
given year.[47]

and given to the ATF for tracing from 2004 through 2008, the GAO reports that approximately 87 percent originated in the U.S. However, this number says nothing about the percentage of guns seized in Mexico that originated in the U.S., because the ATF did not trace the majority of guns seized in Mexico. The figure shows only that over the past five years, Mexican authorities have been 87 percent accurate in their preliminary assessment that a seized weapon originated in the U.S. and should be traced through the U.S.s eTrace system. It says nothing about the percentage of guns in Mexico that originated in the U.S. because, as Ford stated, no one knows how many guns enter Mexico illegally, much less how many are acquired or manufactured illegally inside Mexico. Mexican officials have occasionally refused ATF requests to trace the guns found in huge arms caches or used in the murders of police officers.[48] It is reasonable to infer that these requests were refused because ATF tracing might have uncovered arms smuggling operations that corrupt Mexican government officials wished to protect. Figures like 87 percent sound

impressive, but actual numbers are more illustrative. According to the GAO, the number of guns

seized in Mexico that have been traced back to the U.S. has ranged from 5,260 in 2005 to 1,950 in 2006 to 3,060 in 2007 to 6,700 in 2008.[49] Information on the total number of guns seized in Mexico annually is much less precise, but a recent study reported in mid-2009 that 55,000 guns have been seized since 2006.[50] This implies that only about 12,000 of the seized guns (the total for 2006, 2007, and 2008 plus an unknown number for part of 2009) were ultimately traced back to the U.S. In other words, no

more than 25 percent of the seizures were traced back to the U.S. Thus, according to the data cited by some of the conventions strongest supporters, it is misleading to argue that the most significant source of illegal firearms in Mexico is guns purchased in the United States and then smuggled into Mexico.[51] Mexicos problems are fundamentally homegrown, but this implies that U.S. ratification of the convention, especially as it is intended as a signal, will not substantively improve the situation on the ground in Mexico. More broadly, it points out that, while U.S. ratification may demonstrate U.S. commitment to the convention, it does nothing to guarantee that other member states, which often have weak enforcement regimes and different political agendas, will vigorously enforce its requirements. For example, Venezuela is acquiring its own manufacturing plant for AK-47s.[52] It is unlikely to abide by the
conventions provisions.

CP hurts free trade Bromund et al 10-Phd , Senior Research fellow in Anglo American relations at the Margaret Thatcher Center for Freedom

(Theodore, Ray Walser and David Kopel, The OAS Firearms Convention Is Incompatible with American Liberties, http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2010/05/the-oas-firearms-convention-is-incompatible-with-americanliberties, Heritage Foundation, 5/19/2010)

The convention has broad implications for international trade. All countries require official authorization for the commercial import or export of firearms, but authorization is not required in most cases for the import or export of items such as slings, springs, or screws. Yet the convention requires a license for commercial or noncommercial cross-border transfer of the same set of items for which a manufacturing or assembly license is required. It defines illegal trafficking as the import, export, acquisition, sale, delivery, movement, or transfer of firearms, ammunition, explosives, and other related materials from or across the territory of one State Party to that of another State Party, if any one of the States Parties concerned does not authorize it.[14] This phrasing, like the phrasing of Article 9, Export, Import, and Transit Licenses or Authorizations, implies that all relevant states parties must outlaw all trade in this broad range of items, except when the trade is explicitly authorized. This requirement would impose serious burdens on currently legal trade far beyond the firearms industry. It also raises both Second Amendment and free trade concerns. CP restricts free speech and undermines U.S. democracy promotion Bromund et al 10-Phd , Senior Research fellow in Anglo American relations at the Margaret Thatcher Center for Freedom

(Theodore, Ray Walser and David Kopel, The OAS Firearms Convention Is Incompatible with American Liberties, http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2010/05/the-oas-firearmsconvention-is-incompatible-with-american-liberties, Heritage Foundation, 5/19/2010)//SLR Even more troubling, the convention criminalizes the counseling of any of the activities that it prohibits. In other words, the convention seeks to restrict the freedom of speech and requires signatories to afford each other the widest measure of mutual legal assistance in enforcing these restrictions. Under its provisions, it would be illegal for a citizen of a signatory foreign tyranny to say that his fellow victims should seek to arm themselves. In the United States, such a restriction on speech is inherently undesirable and impossible under the First Amendment, and it would need to be the subject of a

Senate reservation. The convention acknowledges this necessity by stating that the requirement to criminalize counseling is [s]ubject to the respective constitutional principles and basic concepts of the legal systems of the signatories.[30] The Senate would need to enter two additional reservations: The U.S. will not provide any legal assistance to any investigation by signatories of supposed crimes based on the counseling of activities prohibited by the convention, and the U.S. will not extradite foreign nationals for exercising their free speech rights, even if other signatories regard their speech as an extraditable offense. However, such reservations, even if their validity were universally accepted, would not fully resolve the problem. First, by ratifying

the convention, the U.S. would be approving the creation of international legal instruments that restrict free speech. This is undesirable both on principle and because it would give dictatorial governments (for example, the Chvez regime in Venezuela) legal justification to curtail free speech on the grounds that they are only fulfilling their international obligations. Of course, dictators will curtail free speech in any case, but the U.S. should not give them legal sanction for their tyranny. Both conservatives and liberals, including the Obama
Administration, have opposed other international instruments, such as the U.N.s effort through the Durban Review Conference to prevent the defamation of religion, that sought to curb free speech for the sake of other supposedly desirable ends.[31] The

convention embodies a philosophy on free speech that has been widely rejected in the U.S. because of the correct perception that it is contrary to American freedoms and the American desire to see those liberties
flourish abroad as well as at home. Second, the conventions subject raises particular concerns about its restrictions on spe ech. In a democracy, politics must proceed through the democratic process. Under a tyranny, the right of rebellion applies. The Founding Fathers appealed to this right when they broke away from Great Britain in 1776. By criminalizing the

counseling of any of the measures that it defines as illegal, the convention strikes a blow against the efforts of citizens of foreign countries to resist tyrannical authoritarian and MarxistLeninist leaders. Under the convention, Patrick Henrys famous Give me
liberty or give me death oration in 1775with its claim that An appeal to arms and to the God of hosts is all that is left us!could be ruled illegal in a signatory that lacked protections akin to those of the First Amendment.[32] The existence of First

Amendment protections in the United States is no reason for the U.S. to offer aid and comfort to regimes that would deny the freedom of speech in other countries.

Third, while the First Amendment protects the free speech rights of Americans and foreign nationals living in the United States, it would not protect exiles who speak in the U.S. and then travel to an OAS member state that is less vigilant in protecting free speech and less willing to reject extradition requests. The convention thus creates a chilling effect on free

speech throughout the hemisphere, against which the First Amendment offers only partial and limited

protection. Other OAS member states may have assented to this by signing and ratifying the convention, but the Senate should consider carefully before doing likewise.

Trafficking

IOM CP
Text: the International Organization for Migration should increase its efforts to combat human trafficking along the U.S.-Mexico border. CP solves trafficking IOM 13 (International Organization for Migration, Countertrafficking, International Organization for Migration Online, June 20
2013, http://www.iom.int/cms/countertrafficking)

IOM operates from the outset that trafficking in persons needs to be approached within the overall context of managing migration. Its broad range of activities is implemented in partnership with governmental institutions, NGOs and international organizations. The approach is based on three principles that govern all its counter-trafficking activities: Respect for human rights Physical, mental and social wellbeing of the individual and his or her community Sustainability through institutional capacity building of governments and civil society IOM conducts both quantitative and qualitative research as an essential information source to improve its - and others - fight against human trafficking. Specific areas of focus have included human trafficking routes and trends, the causes and consequences of human trafficking both for the individual trafficked person and for society as well as the structures, motivations, and modioperandi of organized criminal groups. While much of this work has been done at national level, IOM increasingly collects and analyzes data on human trafficking from a regional perspective to better support cooperation between states to combat cross-border trade. To support these efforts, IOM carries out considerable research in the areas of legislation and policy. IOM's Vision Building on its individual commitment and global presence, IOM strengthens the capacities of its partners in government and civil society and sets operational standards to achieve sustainable results that will: provide protection and empower trafficked women, men, girls and boys; raise awareness and understanding of the issue; and bring justice to trafficked persons. IOM has been working to counter the trafficking in persons since 1994. In this time, it has implemented more than 800 projects in over 100 countries, and has provided assistance to approximately 20,000 trafficked persons. Its primary aims are to prevent trafficking in persons, and to protect victims from the trade while offering them options of safe and sustainable reintegration and/or return to their home countries. Prevention Prevention is better than cure, and IOM carries out information campaigns in both source and destination countries to educate the general public about trafficking in persons, encourage people to report suspected cases, and equip vulnerable populations with the information necessary to better protect themselves from the recruitment tactics of traffickers. IOM's use of mass media ensures that the information reaches large populations quickly, while it also works with local media, such as community theatre, posters, and interpersonal communicative methods, to target particular populations with bespoke messages. Technical Cooperation IOM's technical cooperation activities build capacities of both government and civil society institutions to better address the challenges posed by human trafficking. This includes training non-governmental organizations and government officials, such as police, technical support in the development of counter-trafficking legislation, policies and procedures, and infrastructural upgrades. Direct Assistance IOM offers direct assistance to victims of trafficking in collaboration with its partners. This includes accommodation in places of safety, medical and psychosocial support, skills development and vocational training, reintegration assistance, and the options of voluntary, safe and dignified return to countries of origin, or resettlement to third countries in extreme cases. IOM estimates that as many as one-third of trafficked persons are minors, and adheres to a policy of offering specialized protection to this most vulnerable group. All of IOM's counter-trafficking activities are developed and implemented within a
framework centered on the well-being of the trafficked person. IOM recognizes that each victim is unique and requires and desires

bespoke assistance. Likewise, the

nature of trafficking differs from area to area and keeps evolving, requiring changing responses.

Extensions
Lone governments have insufficient support networks international organizations are key to coordination Wickham 9 (Leah, staff member at the Virginia Tech School of Public and International Affairs, The Rehabilitation and

Reintegration Process for Women and Children Recovering from the Sex Trade, The Institute for Policy and Governance, April 21 2009, http://www.ipg.vt.edu/)

http://www.ipg.vt.edu/papers/Wickham_Sex%20Trafficking%20Victims.pdf Overall, supportandprotectionbygovernmentsandinternational organizations forthe rehabilitationandreintegrationofwomenandchildrenrecoveringfromthe sex tradeisextremelylimited.Consequently,themajorityofrehabilitationand reintegration programsmustbedevelopedandimplementedbyNGOs. Whilebothlocaland
internationalNGOsprovide recoveryservicestoprevious sexslavesandsexworkers,themajorityoforganizationsand centersworkinginthis areaaresmall,autonomouswomensgroups(Ploumen,2001).Asoftenaspossible, NGOs

workwithgovernmentsandinternationalorganizationstoprovidelegaland financialsupport,recoveryfacilities,counseling,medicalcare,andeducation.Following

isanoverviewoftherangeofrehabilitationandreintegrationeffortsofferedbyNGOs.

Reintegration is a long-term effort that only coordination between NGOs and international organizations can solve Wickham 9 (Leah, staff member at the Virginia Tech School of Public and International Affairs, The Rehabilitation and

Reintegration Process for Women and Children Recovering from the Sex Trade, The Institute for Policy and Governance, April 21 2009, http://www.ipg.vt.edu/) Rehabilitationandreintegrationprogramsandstrategiestargetingindividuals recoveringfromviolenceandexploitation withinthesextraderequiremultifaceted approachesinvolvingavarietyofactors.Recoveryeffortsmustsimultaneously address thephysical,psychological,behavioral,social,andeconomicissuesencounteredby theseindividuals.Moreover,

successfulrecoverymustinclude servicecoordinationby governments, internationalorganizations,NGOs,localagencies,surrounding communities,andfamilies(Crawfordand

Kaufman,2008). Regardlessofhowwomenandchildrenfirstbecameinvolvedinthetrade, whetherassexworkersorsexslaves,therehabilitationand
reintegrationstrategiesfor theirrecoveryaresimilar.Allsurvivorsrequireacentrallocationforsupport,counseling, educationandskillstraining,medical services,andasupportivecommunity(Crawford andKaufman,2008;Farr,2005;Jayasree,2004;Kara,2009;KempadooandDoezema, 1998).However,for thosewhowereremovedfromtheiroriginalcommunities counselorsoftensuggestthataperiodofrecoverybasedonindividualneedprecede reintegrationinto society(Chatterjeeetal,2006). SheltersversusDropinCenters Manywomenandchildrenrecoveringfromthesextraderequiretemporary housing.Such individualsweremorethanlikelytraffickedintothesextradeandare unabletoreturntotheircommunitiesduetodistance,dangerfromcriminalnetworks, orcommunityrejection.Recoveringsexslavesmayalsorequireextensivepsychological counselingandlongtermcare(Chatterjeeetal,2006;Crawfordand Kaufman,2008). Otherwomenandchildrenenteredthesextradeneartheirownhomesandtherefore requirelocalfacilitiesinwhichtheycanaccessservices. Someoftheseindividualsmay alsoremainactiveintheindustryandseekservicestoimprovetheirexperiencessuchas condomdistribution,safesextraining, healthclinics,sleepingandbathingfacilities, childcare,andsecurity(Jayasree,2004). Counseling Becauseoftheextensivepsychologicalandbehavioral effectsarisingfrom involvementinthesextrade,counselingservicesareimperative.Fewnongovernmental organizationsareabletoemploystaffcounselorsof theirown. Instead,recoverycentersLeah Wickham 11 oftenpartnerwithprivatecarefacilitiesandpublicsocialworkersinordertooffer counselingservices. IncreasingnumbersofNGOsarerecognizingtheimportanceof providingcounselorswithpreviousexperiencesofviolenceandexploitationaswellas thesame ethnicandculturalbackgroundofsurvivors.Individualsparticipatingin counselingarebetterabletoidentifywithsomeonewhohasundergonesimilar experiencesorsufferedsimilarethnicorculturaldiscrimination.Additionally,group therapysessionsandfamilyintegrationarealsoincreasinglyincorporated into counselingprograms(Chatterjeeetal,2006;KempadooandDoezema,1998;Robinson andPramo,2007).Overall,counselingservicesaredevelopedto accommodateeach individualasappropriate. MedicalCare Mostsheltersordropincentersareonlycapableofprovidingbasichealth servicessuchas nutrition,hygiene,andprimarycare.Similartocounselingservices, medicalcareisprovidedlargelybyprivateorpublichealthcareproviders.Doctorsor nurses periodicallyvisitrehabilitationcentersorindividualsmustbetakentoclinics or hospitals(Chatterjeeetal,2006; TheMinistryofWomenandChildDevelopment of India). EducationandEmployment Theincorporationofwomenandchildrenintothesextradeisoftenattributed toalackofeducationalandeconomic opportunities.Thus,educationandemployment playalargeroleintheirrehabilitationandreintegration.Becauseeachcommunityhas uniqueculturesand industries,educationandemploymenttrainingmustbelocally applicable.Forexample,anorganizationinNepalfocusesonprovidingeducationand skillssuch asdriving,hotelcooking,communityheath,andmicrocreditopportunities (CrawfordandKaufman,2008).AlocalorganizationinIndiacalledShaktiSamuha providesvocationaltrainingtopreparewomenforelectricalwork,rolesinbeautysalons andofficeworktheNGOalsoprovidesloanstosupportsmallbusinesses suchasgoat rearing,astationeryshopandagroceryshop (ShaktiSamuha,2007).Becausemany womenandchildrenwereoftendeniedaccesstoschooland educationalopportunities, itisimportantforthemtolearntoreadandwrite. Rehabilitationcentersseekto provideliteracyprograms. Empowerment While therehabilitationandreintegrationprocessdependonavarietyof services, developingincreasedselfesteemandasenseofselfempowermentamong recovering womenisperceivedasthemostimportantelementforrecoveryfromLeah Wickham 12 violenceandexploitation,especiallysexualabuse(CrawfordandKaufman, 2008; Jayasree,2004;Kara,2009;KempadooandDoezema,1998; ShaktiSamuha,2007).As mentionedabove,affectedindividualsinvolvedinthesextrade developadistorted perceptionofthemselvesassexobjectswiththeironlyskilltopleasemen. Empowermentprogramsenablewomenandchildrentorecognize thesourcesoftheir lowselfesteemandtoconstructamorepositiveidentity.RobinsonandPramo(2007) refertothisprocessascognitiverestructuring whichenablesthe identificationand alterationofabusedistortedthoughts,beliefsandassumptionsbygentlychallenging abusedistortedviewsofoneselfandof others,aswellasofonesfutureandthe world. Empowermentprogramsoftenincludeleadershiptraining,education, employmentskills,andlegalsupport (CrawfordandKaufman,2008).Inaddition,some organizationsusearttherapyasameansofemotionalandeconomicempowerment. Forexample,FAIR Fund,anonprofitorganizationfocusedontheempowermentof younggirlsrecoveringfromgenderviolence,hasimplementedaprogramtitled JewelGirlsin whichsurvivorsofsextraffickingmakeandselljewelry.Thesegirlsreporta senseofselfworthintheirabilitytocreatesomethingthatotherswanttopurchase (FAIRFund).Manyprogramshavealsofoundwhensurvivorsofviolenceand exploitationassistothersurvivorsintheirrecoverytheydevelopalargersense

of purposeintheirownlives.Mentorshipsandpeereducationbythosewhohave experiencedsimilarsituationsalsoenablewomenandchildrentoenvisiona future withoutviolenceandexploitation(Chatterjeeetal,2006;CrawfordandKaufman,2008; Jayasree,2004;Ploumen,2001). Reintegration Ultimately,

sheltersanddropincentersforindividualsrecoveringfrom involvementin

thesextradeseektoreintegratetheirclientsintosociety,preferablyin theirhome
communities.However,reintegrationisoftenoneofthegreatestchallenges forindividualsbecauseofthestigmaattached tothesextraderegardlessofhowthey wereinvolved.Withoutthesupportoftheirfamiliesorthepossibilityof marriage,many womenandchildrenrequiremarketableskillstobeselfsufficient,alargechallengein economically poorareas.Nonetheless,despitethedifficultiesinherentinreintegration, manyNGOs

reportthatsuccessfulstrategiesincludefamilyvisitsduringrehabilitation, gradualreintroductioninto
thecommunity,jobtraining,andseedmoneytoestablisha selfsufficientlivelihood(Chatterjeeetal,2006;Crawford andKaufman,2008). Mostaidorganizationsadvocatethattherecoveryprocessnotendonce

reintegrationintosocietyhasbeenachieved.Womenandchildrenrecovering fromthe sextradeneedconsistentandreliableaccesstocounseling,medicalcare,andtraining. Most

importantly,theycontinuouslyneedtofeelempoweredinordertoconfrontthe manyobstaclestheywillencounter.In otherwords,therehabilitationprocessshould continuefarintothefutureand

potentiallymayneverend. IOM successfully addresses gender issues IOM 13 (International Organization for Migration, Migration and Gender, International Organization for Migration Online,
June 20 2013, http://www.iom.int/cms/iom-and-gender)

A network of Gender Focal Points was set up throughout the IOM Missions and HQs who

currently number over 102 persons (20 in HQs and 82 in the Missions). These staff members volunteered to devote between 5 and 10% of their time to further the understanding of gender issues in IOM. This goes beyond being a simple post-box for information dissemination. The Terms of Reference inter alia involve: Contributing to the formulation of gender-

sensitive programming (for example, identifying relevant gender information, liaising with the field Missions on gender issues, promoting migrant gender issues in public administration programmes of countries). Advocating for the inclusion of migrant gender issues in project/programme formulation (such as identifying and updating gender issues relevant to programmes,
participating in project design, ensuring that all background information is disaggregated by age, sex and ethnic origin, raising gender issues in project meetings). Supporting the inclusion of gender issues in all migration

project/programme implementation activities (for example, promoting gender balance among staff, training and meetings, including gender knowledge and experience as a requirement in Terms of Reference, ensuring that final project reports specifically identify gender gaps). Supporting migrant gender-sensitive project or

programme evaluation (such as providing Missions with documentation on relevant gender issues, understanding and applying indicators of success). Contributing gender migration information and analysis to general policy (for example: preparing documentation reflecting IOM's policy on gender issues, ensuring that both migrant
women and men have information on IOM services, programmes and projects).

IOM creates sustainable migration practices that mitigate gender discrimination IOM 13 (International Organization for Migration, Migration and Gender, International Organization for Migration Online,

June 20 2013, http://www.iom.int/jahia/webdav/site/myjahiasite/shared/shared/mainsite/published_docs/brochures_and_info_sheets/gender _factsheet_en.pdf) But migration holds more dangers for women than men. They are more vulnerable to physical, sexual

and verbal abuse when travelling. And they are more likely to fall prey to human traffickers for the sex industry. However, in some cases, men are also the target of trafficking, and since the focus is usually on women, these men can find themselves in an even more precarious situation. Migrants move between two cultures their culture of origin and the culture of their new home. Psychosocial pressures and divergent sets of cultural expectations often bring marginalization in the host country and the dual responsibility of work and family hit women hardest. As women and foreigners, migrant women often face double discrimination in the labour market. Their status as
dependants often limits their access to employment, social and health programmes, and their residence may depend on their relationship with an employed male partner. If the relationship changes, a migrant woman may lose her legal status and face deportation. IOMS GENDER POLICY In 1995 IOM adopted a gender mainstreaming policy. IOM is committed to ensuring that the particular needs of all migrant women are identified, taken into consideration and addressed by IOM projects and services.

Gender mainstreaming is now an integral part of IOMs work. It tries

to ensure that women and men are provided with equal opportunities to develop and utilize their skills and to participate in decisions affecting their lives. Mainstreaming works upstream to sensitize policy-makers in gender issues, and downstream to ensure that the needs and contributions of migrant men and women are addressed by the organizations programmes, projects
and services. Here are some examples of gender mainstreamed projects implemented by IOM throughout the world:

Counter-Trafficking Voluntary return and reintegration of trafficked and other vulnerable migrant women and children in the Mekong region in South-East Asia. This project is establishing a sustainable cross-border working arrangement in six countries by strengthening the ability of governments and NGOs to provide voluntary return and reintegration assistance to the victims, and to promote the necessary cooperation in the region to counter trafficking effectively through legal, administrative, policy and advocacy measures. Targeted research also provides timely information on trafficking in the countries concerned and maps the regional networks and routes that facilitate the trade. Solida, Director

of the IOM-supported Battambang Reception Center: Its all step by step. There are many things to do, many children to help. But they are all Cambodian children. Like bamboo shoots they need a chance to grow. That is what we aim to do, to help them grow, with warmth, care and dignity

IOM solves reintegration key to improving lives of women after being rescued IOM 13 (International Organization for Migration, Assisted Voluntary Return and Reintegration, International Organization for
Migration Online, June 20 2013, http://www.iom.int/cms/return-assistance-migrants-governments) Assisted Voluntary Return and Reintegration (AVRR) is an indispensable

part of a comprehensive approach to migration management aiming at orderly and humane return and reintegration of migrants who are unable or unwilling to remain in host countries and wish to return voluntarily to their countries of origin. The successful implementation of AVRR programmes requires the cooperation and participation of a broad range of actors, including the migrants, civil society and the governments in both host countries and countries of origin. The partnerships created by IOM and a diverse range of national and international stakeholders are essential to the effective implementation of AVRRs from the prereturn to the reintegration stages. IOMs Assistance Over the Years 1.2+ million migrants assisted since 1979 400,000+ migrants assisted over the last ten years 25,000 to 30,000 migrants assisted per year on average Beneficiaries For migrants who need to return home but lack the means to do so, IOMs AVRR programmes are often the only solution to their immediate plight. Beneficiaries of IOMs assistance include: individuals whose application for asylum was rejected or withdrawn stranded migrants victims children, or those with health-related needs. Vision As a core activity of IOM, AVRR

assistance to thousands of migrants returning home every year. Building on experience and a world-wide network of offices and partners, IOMs AVRR programmes promote international dialogue and cooperation on migration

of trafficking, and other vulnerable groups, including unaccompanied migrant activities provide vital

management issues among host countries and countries of origin. Objectives The provision of reintegration assistance to migrants in their countries of origin is an essential element to ensure sustainability of returns. IOM and partners in countries of origin provide migrants with socio-economic support to promote their self-sufficiency and contributions to their local communities. The sustainability of returns may, however, ultimately only be ensured in tandem with socio-economic development. AVRR

Activities In host countries: Awareness-raising for AVRR Gathering of country-of-origin information Profiling of diasporas Outreach and information dissemination to migrant communities, including referral systems to public services Individualized counselling on return and reintegration assistance, including country-of-origin information Specialized assistance and referral services to vulnerable individuals Temporary accommodation Facilitating travel documentation Travel arrangements Arrangement of escorts, if required In transit: Assistance with travel in transit Assistance with escort in transit, if required. In countries of origin: Assistance through immigration and customs on arrival at the airport Post-arrival reception arrangements, including information and referral to local partners if necessary Onward travel to the final destination Short- and/or medium-term reintegration assistance (depending on the respective AVRR project and resources made available by donors), including business set-ups, vocational training, formal education, medical assistance and other tailor-made assistance according to the returnees special needs; and Capacity-building activities with emphasis on: linking return to local development access to services
strengthening of local networks improving local capacity to deliver reintegration assistance. IOMs Approach IOM is mandated by

its Constitution to ensure orderly migration, inter alia, through voluntary return and reintegration assistance. In particular, IOM emphasizes that voluntariness remains a precondition for all its AVRR activities. In line with its mandate, IOMs key policy considerations when developing and implementing AVRR projects encompass: safeguarding

dignity and rights of migrants in operating returns, while seeking adherence to applicable international principles and standards preserving the integrity of regular migration structures and asylum procedures enhancing dialogue and cooperation between origin, transit and host countries

involved in the return process and reinforcing the responsibility of countries of origin towards their returning nationals addressing, to the extent possible, the root causes of irregular migration advocating for the adoption of

comprehensive approaches towards voluntary return, including post-return reintegration assistance; and working with national and international partners in both host country and country of origin, to promote international dialogue and implement capacity-building for AVRR initiatives. Strong reintegration programs key to promote independence Lane 13 (peace activist, Re-entry. Rapha House Online, 2013, http://www.raphahouse.org/what-we-do/reentry)

Four doors lead to lasting freedom for a rescued girl. Marriage Employment Business ownership And strengthening families. MARRIAGE Marriage is an institution

ordained by God to benefit and strengthen society. At Rapha House, we guide our girls in appropriate interactions with the opposite sex. And we encourage relationships that are culturally appropriate and in keeping with high values. This is huge. For in many of the cultures in which we work, trafficked and exploited girls are

regarded as throwaways. By encouraging respectful and appropriate opposite-sex relationships, some of our girls have gone on to create families of their own. This is a remarkable achievement. One that we continue to promote. And one that opens the door to lasting freedom for a rescued girl. EMPLOYMENT All of our girls deserve to live freely. But not all of our girls

will marry or become business owners. For these girls, we seek to find opportunities for meaningful and dignified employment. Some work in factories. Others in marketplaces. Still others in offices. Some even work for Rapha House! Restaurants. Banks. Travel agencies. Hotels. The list is endless. The goal is the sameto find reasonable employment that allows girls to remain free. BUSINESS OWNERSHIP Rapha House has an aggressive and generous program that encourages girls with an entrepreneurial spirit to launch

businesses of their own. Some have started their own sewing shops. Others have begun their own beauty salons. While others run their own retail shops. All have found real independence. STRENGTHENING FAMILIES Its a fact. Many families of trafficked children were not complicit with the traffickers. Rather they were duped. And its a fact that many of our girls return home whenever their families are evaluated by our social workers to be safe. For this reason, we work hard to strengthen families with solid information to avoid revictimization; and we offer them with economic opportunities that help them and their children to remain free.