Sounds of the Night

Activity for Frogs and Toads Program

How do frogs communicate? Why? What do they sound like? Listen

to short excerpt from frog chorus tape. Divide class into five groups. Give
each group a frog call card. Children make a frog chorus with their voices.

What other way can we make frog sounds? Pass out frog call
instruments for "Sounds of the Night" activity. Children make chorus using
instruments.

Materials: tape player, frog chorus tape, balloons, marbles, combs,

small plastic boxes with rubber bands

Leopard Frog: rub a balloon with a wet finger

Cricket Frog: click two marbles together
Chorus Frog: run finger over tooth of comb
u Green Frog: sn~p a rubber band over plastic box opening

*** Please add this to your Frogs and Toads program outline! You
may not have time to do the frog chorus with voices and the
instruments. Choose which one you want to do.
 PROGRAM SCRIPT:
u TADPOLES TO FROGS
First Station:
Amphibians are animals that start their lives as eggs in the water. Then they
live their adult lives on land but not far from water. Can anyone tell me an animal
that is an amphibian? Frogs, toads. And what do we call these animals when they
are very young ...they are no longer in the egg, but are not yet adults? Tadpoles.
Use life cycle pictures and chart to show eggs (in string if toad and ill bunch if frog),
then tadpole, then with back legs, then 3-legged, then four ... along t~e way losing
gills and developing lungs, tail shrinking, moving onto land, breathing air, tail
completely absorbed. The developing amphibian, while in the egg, gets its
nutrition from the protein jelly surrounding it. Amphibian eggs have no shells.
Tadpoles eat algae, decaying plant parts and small aquatic insects. Adult frogs
and toads eat insects ... flies, mosquitoes, etc. How do they catch their dinner?
They use their long, sticky tongues.
Does a salamander develop the same way frogs and toads do? It is very similar ...
they start as eggs, develop into a juvenile stage with gills, then into an adult with
lungs. Some species never get lungs and always live in the water. They are called
neotenic. Gills are generally on the outside of the body and appear feathery.

What's the difference between a frog and a toad?

Frogs have smooth skin Toads have bumpy skin
Can toads give you warts? No, the bumps are part of their skin, not warts. Warts
that people get are caused by bacteria, which toads donlt carry.
Frogs lay eggs in a bunch Toads lay eggs in a line
Do they both lay their eggs in water? Of course they do; all amphibians do.
Frogs have long, strong legs Toads have short, wimpy legs
This is easy to remember because have frog-jumping contests, but not toad-
jumping contests. Also people eat frog's legs, but not toad's ... they'd have to eat
too many to get full.
Frogs must keep their skin wet Toads skin may be drier therefore ...
Frogs live vel}' near water Toads may live in drier climates
Frogs use their skin for respiration, so it must be moist at all times. It is also very
sensitive to pH changes and such caused by contact with human skin.
What's the difference between a salamander and a lizard?
Sal is an amphibian Liz is a reptile
Sal lays eggs without shell Liz lays eggs with soft shell '
Sal lays eggs in water Liz lays eggs on land
Sal has smooth skin Liz has scaly skin
Sal has no claws Liz has clawed fingers and toes
Sal must live near water Liz may live in vel}' dl}' climates

Frogs and toads that live in Texas have an easy life compared to frogs and
toads in tropical regions. Toads and frogs here lay their eggs early in the spring
while most predators are still hibernating. But tropical amphibians donIt have a
cold season in which to lay their eggs to protect them from being eaten. So they've
developed other ways to protect their eggs from predators until the baby frogs and
u toads can hop away from danger on their own. Examples: (1) Lay eggs in pockets
of water between leaves of bromeliads or epiphytes -- this keeps eggs hidden and
above the reach of many predators --- only works in areas of heavy rainfall where
puddles are maintained daily; (2) Eggs are laid then almost immediately swallowed
F, T, S - Prog Script continued
by the male. The young incubate in a pouch in his body. This way, if a predator
threatens, the father hops away and the eggs go safely with him. When the young
are ready, they hop out of the father's mouth; (3) Surinam toad scoops up her eggs
right after she lays them. They stick to her back and her skin grows over them to
protect the eggs. They pop out of her back like pimples when they are ready.
Does anyone know why frogs and toads make sounds? There are several
reasons. To attract a mate by making the best noise. To help find olle another in
the dark, especially when there are many kinds of frogs of frogs in a Small area. To
warn each other of dangers.

Second Station:
Toad Gulf Coast Toad Commonly seen in this part of Texas. Notice its
small, short legs, rough skin, camouflage colors. Compare to photos of toads with
warning coloration. A Texas toad IS best defense is to remain hidden hence the
camouflage. But many tropical toad's use poison secreted onto their skin as a
defense; the warning colors keep enemies from biting into a mouthful of poison.
. Frog Southern Leopard Frog or Gray Tree Frog Both occur in central
TX. The leopard frog is usually seen actually in a body of water, sitting on a
projecting rock. The tree frog is quite small and sits on leaves of plants near water.
Notice that the legs are longer compared to body size than the toad's, the skin is
smooth and moist, there are large ear patches, the leopard frog has a humped
back, and both have camouflage colors. Again, compare to photos of frogs with
warning colors.
Tadpole species varies Most common in spring in shallow ponds.
Notice its stage of development ... has it grown any legs yet? How many? Are they
in front or back?
Salamander Tiger Salamander Found in rivers, ponds and streams
in this area. Breathes through lungs, uses tail for propulsion (swimming). Note its
color patterns -- color of murky, bottom water with shadows.

Environmental issues: amphibians are indicator species because they are

susceptible to pollution in either water or on land. The first amphibians lived about
350 million years ago in the Paleozoic Era. They evolved in and adapted to a very
clean, pure environment. Many have been unable to adapt to the changes in the
environment caused by people in the last million (or less) years. Pollution and
contaminants also effect them because many breathe through their skin --- pores
must be kept clear/open for breathing. Anoth~r factor is that many amphibians
(esp. salamanders) have very limited habitat ranges. The Texas Blind
Salamander, the Barton Spriongs Salamander, the San Marcos Salamander, the
Comal Blind Salamander and the Blanco Blind Salamander all live in small rivers
(the Comal is the shortest in the world -- 2.4 miles) or in chambers of the
underground aquifer. These are just a few examples, there are many others.
These limited habitats keep the populations small and unconnected. If a particular
portion of the aquier dries up (due to overpumping for municipal uses) or rivers
become too shallow/dry (due to drought), then these animals have no corridors to
travel through to other, more suitable habitat. Similarly if their water becomes
polluted, they have no way to get to a cleaner habitat. They are stranded and die.
Because they are so sensitive to changes, they are among the first animals to be
effected. What happens to them will effect the food webs they are a part of, the
balance of the ecosystem, and eventually us. For this reason they are known as
 F, T, S - Prog Script continued
u indicator species. They give us an indication of how our actions will effect the
balance of nature.

Third Station:
Slide show:

/'

U:
 Tadpole to Frog Prog Script continued
u Frog Southern Leopard Frog or Gray Tree Frog Both occur in central
TX. The leopard frog is usually seen actually in a body of water, sitting on a
projecting rock. The tree frog is quite small and sits on leaves of plants near water.
Notice that the legs are longer compared to body size than the toad's, the skin is
smooth and moist, there are large ear patches, the leopard frog has a humped
back, and both have camouflage colors. Again, compare to photos of frogs with
warning colors. ,
Tadpole species varies Most common in spring in sHallow ponds.
Notice its stage of development ... has it grown any legs yet? How many? Are they
in front or back?

Third Station:
Frog chorus: Does anyone know why frogs and toads make sounds? There
are several reasons. To attract a mate by making the best noise. To help find one
another in the dark, especially when there are many kinds of frogs of frogs in a
small area. To wam each other of dangers. We1re going to try an make this room
sound like a pond full of amphibians in the evening, which is when most are
vocalizing ... so that if anyone walks by outside, they will think there are only frogs
and toads in here. Divide the kids into groups with at least, then assign a sound to
each group. Some sounds to try:
wood frog creaky door noise
spring peeper (frog) high-pitched Dpeepeepeepeepeeepil
bullfrog deep & gruff IIjig-a-rum jig-a-rumph ll
tree frog high trill or series of short whistles U
E. TX pig frog snort through nose like a pig
Life cycle activity: Have the whole group act out the life stages. Begin with
all students curled up in a ball (the eggs). As you describe what is happening,
slowly let them lay down and wiggle their feet while eating imaginary water plants
(tadpoles). Have them pop out on arm -still eating - then the other arm. Start
swimming to the surface for occasional gulps of air. Hop out onto land (use hands
behind for the remains of the tail) and catch insects with tongue while hopping
about. Keep hopping and lose the tail. Finish with all the frogs sleeping.

u u
 PROGRAM DESCRIPTION:
AMPHIBIANS

Part I Basis for Program

~ Frogs, Toads and Salamanders
Course Descriptions: Amphibians serve as environmental barometers.
They breathe through their skin and are very sensitive to pollution.
Students will meet a live frog, toad and salamander whi~
discussing life cycles, characteristics and how amphibiatts are
different from reptiles. We will listen to calls of several local frogs
and see a short slide show featuring examples of local frogs.
Age Leyel: Grade 3-5 -
~ 1 hour
~ Participants wilileam distinguishing characteristics of frogs, toads
and salamanders, as well as understanding diverse defense,
reproductive and parenting strategies. Participants will also learn
why many amphibians are endangered species and how they act as
indicators of environmental quality.

Part II Instructional Plan

Course Outline: Three 20 minute sessions:
1st Program box-plastic examples and pictures to explain
differences between frogsltoads and their
reproductive/parenting strategies. Also variety of defense
needs and color strategies. Listen to frog calls.
2nd: Animals-toad, frog, tadpole if available, salamander and lizard
for comparison; discussion of environmental issues and
endangered species status.
3rd: Short slide show (should be extension of endangered species
discussion as well as 1.0.. of amphibs) and tour of Small
Wonders (if available) or pond walk (weather permitting).

Part III Resource Support

Site Needs· Large group-3 classrooms
Small group-1 classroom.
If outreach, we must have a room suitable for shOwing slides.
participant Thresholds· No more than 30 kids per instructor up to 90 kids.
Transportation Needs· Outreach programs possible, but animals must be
kept cool (and some wet) throughout program and transport.
Resource Needs: Frog chorus tape and tape player
Program box
Amphibians and carriers
Slide show and projector
 FROG POND CHORUS
This is a great activity for kids of just about any age. It would be helpful if
you had access to a tape of real frog calls but that is not necessary.

Explain to children that frogs and toads come to ponds and even puddles in spring
to mate and lay their eggs. The males are singing to attract females.

Play tape first, then demonstrate frog calls, having group repeat each call after you.

Here are some good calls to use:

Spring peeper .... high pitch..... peep peep peep

Wood frog ... 2 variations one sounds like a slow creaky foor, the other like a hoarse
duck, also two air sacs come out under arm pits cool visual for kids to do!

Pig frog ...makes a grunting sound

Green frog... sharp Bang! sounds like a rubber band being snapped; this frog calls
mostly in early morning

Bull frog ••. low drawn out sound like "Jug O'rum", cans throughout day

Strecker's Chorus frog... clear high pitched repeated whistle (2 per second)

''-1 Spotted Chorus frogs ... rasping trill... wrrrank, wrrrank wrrrank
lt
Green tree frog •.. repeateclnasal "wank

Gray tree frog ... flutelike trill

Cricket frogs ... metallc measured clicking..... click click click click click

Red spotted toad .. high pitched trill

Gulf Coast toad .. low pitq,.ed rattling trill

Great Plains Narrow Mouthed Toad ... Mid tone nasal trill NEEEEEEE

After demonstrating sounds, divide children up into various frog sounds.

. 'You play the Itmaestro". Explain how in a real pond situation the frogs sudden!y
stop singing all at once when a potential predator is heard (like a raccoon for ex.),
you will be imitating that predator. When you wave your arm over t~e whole group
they should stop. Use the conductor's "start up" motion to indicate the danger is
gone. Do this a few times until they are able to "stop on a dime". ~

U J
 -
Central Texas Amphibian List
Class Amphibia
Order Caudata
Amphibians with tails: Tail-less amphibians:
Tiger Salamanders Northern Spring Peeper
Texas Salamander** Pickerel Frog
Slimy Salamanders Mexican Tree Frog**
Lesser Sirens Sheep Frog**
Smallmouth Salamander Couch's Spadefoot
Dwarf Salamander Hurter's Spadefoot
Cascade Caverns Salamander** New Mexico Spadefoot
Valdina Farms Salamander Eastern Barking Frog
Blanco Blind Salamander* Rio Grande Chirping Frog
Texas Blind Salamander* Cliff Chirping, Frog ,
Carnal Blind Salamander** Blanchard's Cricket Frog
Central Newt , Gray Treefrog
Southern Dusky Salamander Green Treefrog
San Marcos Salamander** Squirrel Treefrog
Barton Springs Sala,mander** Spotted Chorus Frog
Jolleyville-Plateau Salamander** Strecker1s Chorus frog
Salado Springs Salamander** Upland Chorus Frog
Georgetown Salamander** Eastern Green Toad
Houston Toad*
Red-spotted Toad
Texas Toad'
Gulf Coast Toad
Woodhouse1s Toad
Rio Grande Leopard Frog
Plains Leopard Frog
Bronze Frog
Southern Leopard Frog
Eastern Narrowmouth Toad
Grt. Plains Narrowmth. Toad
Bullfrog
* This amphibian is an endangered species as of September 1993.
** This amphibian is a threatened species as of September 1993..
 chIna vIrtual museums animal Page 1 of2

u """ ' ,. . '.... :j~: ,:~,;,;~~~::~~~:~::::~-::: . "";i::;',,<,~~:

. .,(, ~. . . . .
.'~ ....... .

---
III Home III Chinese Ceramics lit What are the Panda Cubs doing?
lit China Giant Panda Museum more ••.

Thriving Beasts
Birds, the Spirits
Reptiles,the Overlord
Chinese Giant Salamander( Andrias
davidianus)
Amphibians,the
Pioneers
Multi-colored Fish
Habitat: reside in mountain Tips For Amus
Charming Butterflies streams in-between el. 200
to 1500 m, where the water The World Of J
is rapid, clear and where
Are aII beasts there are many cracks and A Cinema Of
near-sighted? holes on rocks.
Cursorial and A Concert 0
swimming birds Feeding habits: it won It attack positively to get its food;
U 'Language" of the
instead, It will open its mouth to wait for its prey to enter its Rare AI
mouth. It likes to eat fish, crabs, frogs, snakes and other
birds
aquatic animals.
Loser on the arena
Features: the largest specie of all amphibians with a total
Red panda, you may
never know. body length of 1.8-2.0 m and a weight of 20-25 kg. During
the mating season, It often cries. Its crying sound is like that
Pekin Robin, the loyal of a baby, therefore, common people often call it "baby fishll.
lover.
It has a big head, on which there are apparent grains.
Lizard or snake? Chinese giant salamander has a ,large mouth, but its eyes and
nostril are very small. Its tail is flat and its skin is soft and
Watch the snakes! smooth. Normally, its skin color is brown and it has no scales
at all. Its four li~.l;>s are short and fat. Its mating season is
Listen! The Birds are from .June to August each year, and it lays its eggs on rocks.
singing!
It accepts sperm outside and young salamanders will be
I am small and lovely, hatched out within 21 days naturally. Young salamanders
I am a Intermediate grow very slowly.
Slow Loris.
Category: Amphibia, Urodela, Cryptobranchidae
Clouded leopard I

where are you?

Distribution: in mountain streams of Northeast and
Southeast Yunnan. Another 17 provinces of China.
U Butterfly, the beauty.

Protection level: since its flesh is deliCiOUS, it incurs wanton

http://www.kepu.com.cnlenglishlanimallc1ass/c1s403.html 3/28/2006
 cnina Vlnual museums anlffial ·Page 2 of2

over killing. The number of giant salamanders is reducing in

all original habitats and it even becomes distinct in some

u places. It has been listed as Class II state protection animal

and in Appendix I of CITES.

Your Comments Contact Info 8iteMap Copyright Statement

Computer Network Information Center of Chinese Academy of Sciences

- All rights reserved

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 Untltlea uocument Page 1 of2

~
~J Smithsonian
u National Zoologica.l Park
Close \1y'indow

Giant Salanlanders on Asia Trai I

Giant Salal11anders
Two species of giant salamanders live in Asia. A sitnilar huge amphibian. the Eastern
hellbender, lives in the eastern United States. National Zoo staff are exploring which of two
Asian species will do best on Asia Trail.

Japanese Giant Salamander

Order: Urodela
Family: Cryptobranchidae
Genus and Species: Andrias japonicus

Size: Japanese giant salamanders are about 55 pounds and 5 feet long.

Distribution and Habitat: Japanese giant salamanders inhabit the cold!, fast-flowing
mountain streams and rivers of northern Kyushu Island and western Honshu in Japan.

u Diet: Japanese giant salamanders eat almost anything they can, from insects to fish to mice to
small invertebrates like crabs. Giant salamanders have a very slow metabolism, and go weeks
without eating, if necessary.

Reproduction: Japanese giant salamanders begin reproduction in late august, when herds
congregate at nest sites. Males compete, viciously, with many dying due to injuries from
fights. Females lay between 400 and 500 eggs in the fall, which may be fertilized by several
nlales. Males aggressively guard the nests, which may contain eggs from several females,
until they hatch in the early spring.

Conservation: This giant sal81nander was first put under protection in 1951, and was
recognized as endangered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in 1976. It has no natural
predators, but has been hunted by local popUlations for food, and is losing its habitat to
deforestation.

Chinese Giant Salamander

Order: Urodela
Family: Cryptobranchidae
Genus and Species: Andrias davidianus

Size: Chinese giant salamanders range fI'om 5.5 to 6.6 feet long and weigh 45 to 55 pounds
u Distribution: Chinese giant sal81nanders are found in fast mountain streams at 650 to 3,300
feet above sea level, in the tributaries of the Pear), YeIJo\¥~ and Yangzi rivers~ across 17

http://nationalzoo.si.eduIPrintPage/default.cfm 3/28/2006
 untltlea lJocument Page 2 of2

regions of China. Nocturnal creatures, they live in muddy~ dark rock crevices along
riverbanks.

Diet: They eat crabs~ fish, snakes, aquatic insects, water rats~ twiles, frogs and crabs. Giant
salanl~ders have a very slow nletabolism, and go weeks without eating, if necessary.

Reproduction: Little is known.

Consen'ation: Chinese giant salamanders are considered a delicacy~ and their body parts are
used in traditional Chinese medicines. They were recognized as endangered by the US Fish
I

and Wildlife Service in ] 976:- and are fully protected in China. Despite having no natural
predators, Chinese giant salanlanders are highly endangered due to habitat loss and
deforestation, as well as poaching.

http://nationalzoo.si.edulPrintPage/default.cfm 3/2812006
 Amphibian Teeth
u From !:he. Popular Series "'Mzat All Girls (;md boys) Need to Know"
By Sherry Wilmette

Frogs have teeth. Salamanders have teeth. Caecilians have teeth.

Toads do not have teeth.

Amphibian teeth are different to human teeth. Amphibian teeth

are called "pedicellate teeth". A pedicel (pedestal) sticks into the
jawbone and is attached to the crown of the tooth by cartilage. ;
;'

B.oth the pedicel.and crown are made of dentin. Dentin in human

teeth is the main, calcareous part of the tooth. It is beneath the enamel.
and surrounds·the pulp·chamber -and root canals. The amphibian· tooth
has no enamel or pulp; only the dentin, which is simllar to bone but
harder and denser. The pedicel and crown are separated by a zone of
uncalcified dentin made of fibrous connective tissue. See below:

Amphibians with teeth do not chew their prey. The t~eth exist to
ho~_d the prey until the amphibia;n swallows it whole.

Amphibians in the subclass Lissamphibia (extant amphibians) are

·in the orders Anura, Caudata and Gymnophiona or Apoda.

The order Anura (without a tail) is comprised of the frogs and

toads. Technically toads are frogs, but there are differences-body
covering, habitats, parotid glands, etc., and teeth.

Toads have no teeth. They have special mucus glands in their

mouths that coat the prey and make swallowing easier.

u
 Frogs have two kinds of teeth:
Maxillary teeth- a ridge of very small cone teeth around the
upper edge of the jaw
and
Vormine teeth- two knob-like backward slanting teeth on the roof
of the mouth.
These teeth are used to hold the prey and keep it in place until
they get a good grip on it. Both the frogs and the toads swallow their
food whole. They close their eyes and squash their eyeballs down to
swallow their meal.

The order Caudata (tailed amphibian) includes the salamanders,

newts, mudpuppies, waterdogs and sirens. These animals have teeth on
both the upper and lower jaws. Still, they swallow their prey whole.

The order Gymnophiona or Apoda (no legs) is the order of the

caecilians. The caecilians have sharp teeth on their lower jaw, upper
jaw, and on their palate. Still, they swallow their food whole.
Some other interesting facts about caecilians:
• They produce their young in two different ways,
depending on the species. Some species lay eggs in
damp holes near the water. The larvae have gills and a
short, finned tail. They feed on plankton.
Some species bear live young that are fully developed
inside the mother before they are born.
• Caecilians are the only amphibians that have tentacles.
These tentacles are located between the nostrils and the
eyes. Many caecilians do not have eyes, none have ear
openings, they either burrow or live in the water. The
sensitive tentacles enable them to locate their prey and
find their way around.
• They have dozens of needle-sharp teeth to hold their
prey. They eat worms, termites, beetle pupae,
mollusks, small snakes, frogs, lizards and even other
caecilians.
• Caecilians have toxic glands in their skin which
sometimes protect them from being eaten by other
animals.

Pictures have been added to the Amplnbian Box to illustrate many of these points.

THE END
 . Page 1 of4

·a legless, tailless
ropical amphibian. And
since I had never heard of
them until I started looking
up amphibians, I decided to
include a page about them.
u. They make up the order
Cymnophiona (also known as
Gymnophiona), one of the
three orders from the class
Amphibia.

AP~EARANCE : Though eel-like or earthworm-like in

appearance, they are neither of these. They have
vertebrate characteristics such as jaws and teeth.
Their eyes are nearly functionless and even nonexistant
on some. They have a groove on either side of the head
which contains a retractable sensory tentacle. Most are
between 5 to "14 inches long and 1/4 to 1 inches in
diameter, but I read that some can get to 4 1/2 feet
longl

WHAT THEY EAT: Caecilians are carnivorous. They

eat things like insect larvae, termites, and earthworms
that are found in the swampy places where they live.

http://www.naturehaven.comlFrog/caecilian.html 3/612006
 page'2of4

WHERE THEY LIVE : Caecilians are found on four

continents in their terrestrial forms, and at least one
fully aquatic sub-family (Typhlonectinae) lives in South
America. Being amphibians, even land-bound caecilians
require a moist climate in which to live. So they are
found in swampy places in most tropical parts of the
world, but are seldom seen because of their burrowing
behavior. Many of the land-bound caecilians live their
entire lives burrowed underground. There are no known
species in Europe, North America, Australia,
Madagascar, or Antarctica.

GENERAL
CHARA
Caecilians Bve 5 to
20 years. Some
caecilians are
oviparous (egg-
layers), some
viviparous
(livebearers), and a few are ovoviviparous (meaning that
the eggs hatch inside the mother and the young live in
her until maturity). The skin of the caecilian is folded,
giving it the same ringed look as an earthworm. Under
the epidermis of some species is a layer of scales. This
is considered a primitive characteristic because the
ancestors of modern amphibians had them, while most
modern amphibians no longer have them. Their eyes are
covered with skin and/or bones of the skull, making
them virtually blind. In front of the eye is a small
tentacle that they can put out and gather information
which they send to the; r Jacobson s organ that lies
I

behind their nose. Caecilians come in some strikingly

colored varieties, including orange and gray with yellow
stripes. At least one type of caecilian (Typhlonectes) is
kept as an aquarium pet. Typhlonectes is a fully aquatic

http://www.naturehaven.com!Frog/caecilian.html 3/6/2006
 Caeclllans PageJ <?f 4

caecilian found only in South America. They are called

"rubber eels" or "black eels" in aquarium shops, but
u they are not eelsl They go up for air several times a
day, and like to burrow into the gravel and live under
the substrate.

CLASSIFICATION: There are about 50 species of

caecilians, divided into 16 genera. They are classified in
the phylum-Chordata, subphylum - Vertebrata, class -
Amphibia, order -Cymnophiona (also known as
Gymnophiona), family -Caecilidae.

References and Links

• Microsoft Encarta 98 Encyclopedia
• Caecilian Taxonomy - University of Glasgow
u ':....
• The Great Old Internet - random searching ...

To find out more about amphibians just find

and click on the frogs in the coconut treel

Click here to return to Caribbean Amehibian

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", l animal bytes home , reptiles , birds , insects , mammals , amphibians I e 15 "I'

Quick facts Amphibians: Caecilian

Range: Central Africa, Southeast Asia, southern Me>
to Argentina
Habitat: loose soil and ground litter in tropical forests
in rivers or streams

Legless amphibians
CaeciJians (pronounced seh-SILL-yens) are
tropical amphibians that look like large worms
. . Photo Bytes or slick snakes. They have no arms or legs,
and sometimes it's hard to tell which end is the
Class: Amphibia (Amphibians) head and which is the tail! Their shiny skin is
Order: Gymnophiona ringed with skin folds called annuli, and they
Families: 5 families usually come in shades of gray, brown, black,
Genus: 26 genera have been orange, or yellow. Some species have tiny,
identified so far fishlike scales within the rings.

u Species: 124 species have been

identified so far
Length: longest-Caecilia
Different types of young
Like salamanders, caecilians produce young in
thompsoni, almost 5 feet (2.4
two different ways, depending on the species.
meters); shortest-Idiocranium
Some female caecilians lay eggs in damp
rosseli, 3.5 inches (90 millimeters)
holes near water. When the larvae hatch they
Weight: up to 2.2 pounds (1
have gills and a short, finned tail to help them
kilogram), depending on species
swim in the water, feeding on plankton.
Life span: up to 13 years in zoos
Through a series of changes the gills are
Number of young produced:
replaced by a single lung, the skin becomes
some species lay 30 to 60 eggs,
other species give birth to 2 to 25 thi.cker, the annuli d~velop,. and sensory tentacles appear. At this point the.
live young developed adult returns to the land and goes underground. Some species,
live young that are fully developed inside the mother before they are born.

@
Conservation
status: Basilan
Island caecilian At home in the dirt 0
Ichthyophis
glandulosus is the water
endangered Most caecilians are burrowers.
Endangered network of tunnels undergroun
thick, pointy skull helps these i
Fun fact dig in soft dirt. Because of thei
• Caecilians are the only underground lifestyle, caeciliar
amphibians to have tentacles! need to see or hear. Therefore
are very tiny in some species,
under the skin or skull in other
making just tiny gray bumps fa
species in South America spend their lives in water instead of on land. Caecilians don't have ear openings, so it is do-
can hear sounds the way we do. They rely on their sensitive tentacles, located between the nostrils and the eyes, to I,
u prey and find their way around.

http://sandiegozoo.org/animalbytes/t-caecilian.html 3/612006
 Page '2 ot '2

My, what sharp teeth you have! n

They may look soft on the outside, but inside a caeciJian's mouth are dozens of needle-sharp teeth. The teeth are use
worms, termites, beetle pupae, mollusks, small snakes, frogs, lizards, and even other caecilians! All food is swallowe<
Caecilians have toxic glands in their skin that sometimes protect them from being eaten by other animals.

Still a mystery
Imagine-over 120 species of animals, some as long as we are, that number in the millions on at least 4 continents, c
one knows they're there, let alone ever sees one. That's probably why almost nothing is known of caecilians' habits a
We still have much to learn about this unusual amphibian!

Terms of Use I Privacy Policy I Contact us I About Us I Zoo Jobs Ace

© 2006 Zoological Society of San Diego

http://sandiegozoo.org/animalbytes/t-caecilian,html 3/612006
 Page 1 of2

Goliath Frog
u C~onraua goliath

Threats Mysterious C;iant

habitat loss through The goliath is the
d,~f()reslation. dam \.vorld's largest frog;
building. privette its hody can be nlore
I
collectors than a foot long~ and
1 its entire length. back legs extended, is often
ll10re than t\\'o and a haIr feet. They have been
kno"vn to vveigh lnore than seve11 pounds.
Despite their enonnous size as adults: eggs
and tadpoles of goliath frogs are about tbe
sanle size as those of other frogs. \Vhy it
becoD1es a giant:- nobody knows.

Like Dlany other species that are the largest

n1enlbers of an evolutionary group, goliath
STATUS: frogs have a very slllalJ nU1f!e. Thev're found
~ ~ ~ ~

Jl)C:N. -- VLlL.NEBl\)3.,LE only in a fe",' S\,,-ift-lnoving rivers that V\.rind

through a fringe of dense rain forest in coastal
SIZE: sections of Canleroon and Equatorial Guinea
Head an.d Body Length: in \Vesten1 Africa. This habitat is rapidly
Up to 12.5 inches (32 em)
disappearing as rain forests are cut down and
u WEIGHT
7.2 pounds (3.3 kg)
cOl1velied to agri cultural uses, druns are built
across rivers~ and wilderness is replaced by
villages.
HABITAT:
Swiftly flowing rivers in Goliath frogs are also victitns of their O\~l1
dense rain forests giant size. Private collectors and zoos have
been avidly collecting them since the species
POPULAT.ION: was first identified in 1906. Goliath frogs are
Unknown
not currently protected by CITES:, so there are
almost no restrictions on trade in these
CURREl\"T RANGE:
rain forest of coastal a~als. Cameroon allows 300 goliath frogs
Cameroon and Equatorial to b~ exported each year~ but luckily they're
Guinea. western Afiica Dot easy to find; even the best professional
.~.
collectors rarely catch nlore than a fe\¥ dozen
CONSERVATION: per trip. Rare equals expensive: an adult
No existing'trade goliath frog has sold for as lTIuch as $3~OOO in .
restrictions
Alnerica, although the collecting frenzy no",'
seenlS to have abated in this cOlllltry. A 1991
survey found goliath frogs in only two U.S.
zoos.

Goliath fi'ogs don't breed or survive \vell in

captivity. The only real hope for their survival
u is the preservation of "vild populations. One

http://WWW .amnh.org/nationalcenter/Endangeredlfrog/frog.html 3/28/2006

 . Page 2 of2

suggestion: \velJ-111anagcd local populations

could be Jightly harvested eac11 yeaL so that
export incolne could be earned withoul further
endangering the species.

• Goliath fi·ogs are mute. End of the Amphibians?

They have no vocal sac. Amphibian species allover the "world may be
undergoing serious populatioll decreases.
• Adu 11 goliath frogs eat Scientists are nol slire exactly what's causing
insects: crustaceans, fish this~ but there's no doubt that it'~ happening. A
and amphibians (newts,
salamanders~ and smaller
1992 study in Yosenlite N"ational Park showed
frogs. for example). Goliath that populations of all seven frog species
tadpoles~ however. are native to the park have fallen sllarpJy in the
vegetarians. feeding past 80 years. Three species have disappeared
exclusiveJy on certain
u waterplants found only near
waterfcllls and rapids. This
entirely. This study has attracted \-vide interest
because Yosemite -- established more than
may help explain their 100 years ago -- is sti 11 in a largely pristine
restricted range. state. This indicates that hwnan-induced
pressures may n01 be to blrune for the decline.
"Treat the earth Around the world nlany potential causes for
well. It 11;as not the disappearance of anlphibians have been
given to you by your cited -- acid rain, chenucal pollution~ disease,
increasing exposure to ultra violet light -- but
parents, it l1las
there is no hard evidence to support any of
loaned to you by them. C}earlv. thoUQh. if the trend continues.
your children. " nl8l1Y locaJ populations of amphibian' species
will be wiped out, and in sonle cases, entire
-- Kenyan proverb species may beconle extinct.

© 1996 The American Museum ofNaturai History. All Rights Reserved.

http://wvvw.amnh.org/nationalcenter/Endangered/frog/frog.html 3/2812006
 ruu.u.) ~LV.lUa. L.ll;;.1lllWlJ lUi1 VU! UWU Page 1 of2

Amb.ystom.a ligrinnm mavortinm

Barred Tiger Salamander

.• Diagnostic Features:
o Size: 6-12 1/2 inches
o Color:
:. Black or very dark brown with yellow "bars" or splotches on dorsum and sides
o Other:
J.
Large salamander
1.
Broad, flat head
). 'Small protruding eyes
'. Four ~oes on front feet, and·five on hind feet
'. Hind feet have digging tubercles
.• Tail is long and flattened at tip
.• Eleven to fourteen costal grooves
• Black and yellow ventral surfaces

• Natural History:
u o Habitat:
This salamander may be observed in moist environments or near water, forested areas or
grasslands, in cultivated farmland near water, or in mammal or crawfish burrows.
o Behavior:
Nocturnal, it remains underground or under cover near water during the day. It feeds on
earthworms, insects, and small vertebrates. Several may congregate near ponds during
breeding times.
o Breeding:
Breeding typically occurs after late winter rains, but may occur anytime with sufficient rain.
Eggs masses are attached to submerged vegetation and rocks .

• Range:
o In North America, the Barred Tiger Salamanders is found in the U.S. Central Plains states from
Nebraska to Texas. ..'
o In Texas, it is found throughout the state, except in the eastern quarter.

http://www.zo.utexas.edulresearchltxherps/salamanders!ambystoma.tig.mavortium.html 4/4/2006
 .rUu.~y:SlUIHi:l UgUllUID mavomum Page 2 of2

. ~,

..::.... .
.
~

'~:

.This project furided by the UniversityofTex.as ·C~~ofNat.!.uJll S,J;;jenc.es and the Texas Memorial Mu~eum ..
' .. 3 ... p .......... ._ .... _A ..... t ..... _. xc .... c: ... ;; •. ~ .... __ ~ ............ t ___ .0_· ... # ~-. . .; ~ , •• : ; , . : ; ... _,.,.~ _ • • .- • • • ' . ~ ............. - ••• , .... '.~..... ,........... _.....4 ". . _...."' __ .. ~ ......... _"., ..... . . ..... z .. _•• x..... ' ....... 1iJ
Last revised' 6/26/97.
Comments welcome. .
. Texas'Memorial Museum at UT AuStin
.Copyright 2000 '. ":.-

- "". -

http://www.zo.utexas.edulresearchltxherps/salamanders/ambystoma.tig.mavortium.html 4/4/2006
 .Page 1 of2

search TEXAS PARKS AND WILDLIFE print friendly

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DOING BUSINESS I
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----------------- --~------- •... -------..----.-.---

Barred 'Tige:r .Salamander (Ambystoma tigrinum mavortium)

OTHER NAMES
Tiger Salamander

DESCRIPTION
The tiger salamander is the largest land~dwelling salamander in the world. The barred tiger salamander
typicaitY growsfrom 6- 8112 inches. Overall,·the body is dark brown to black with yellow bars and spots
giving it the ''tiger-stripe'' look.

LIFE HISTORY

These large salaF!'anders make a nice meal for many animals such 'as snakes, turtles, herons and fish.
They, in turn, may predate on insects, earthworms, small mice and even other amphibians. Barred tiger
salamanders best avoid predators by a nocturnal and secretive lifestyle. They are active under the cover of
darkness and spend most of their time in underground burrows or in thick vegetation near water. This
u salamander may take cover in mammal burrows or, if the soil is soft enough, they will dig out their own
shelter.

.-....
.~--","""- ---.
Tiger salamanders have a fascin~tJ!1g and adaptable life process. Typically, tiger salamander larvae feed
and grow during therS~g and early summer.pnd metamorphose two to five months after hatching .
----=- ., . . .....--".-
However, some populations never ii,-elimorphose. If the water system where they live is permanent and
the environment surroundingthe ponded area is dry and inhospitable, they may retain gills and a wide tail
fin, crucial larval characteristics that allow them to live underwater. These salamanders mature in the water
and even are able to mate and reproduce, although they maintain the body of an immature salamander.
This process is calleqf["eoten]J'gther tiger salamanders, in response to the seasonal drying out of their
aquatic habitat, must be able to metamorphose on demand. They even may metamorphose if they are
removed from water and handled temporarily.

Those barred tiger sal~manders that are lucky enough to breed,_...;e...it...

h.;..er;...a;;;.;s;..t.;.;;e_rrr
....e..,s_tr...ia_l_o.;.r....
a..:q_ua
....t.;.ic
sa!amanders, usually do so in late winter, but breeding may take place whenever there is enough moisture.
Once the female has attached her egg masses to underwater debris in temporary pools, she has nothing
more to do with them. They hatch three to five weeks later, depending on water temperature.

HABITAT
They can be found near water in forested and prairie areas where there is adequate moisture.

DISTRIBUTION
The barred tiger salamander ranges from central Nebraska to northeastern Mexico. They are distributed
throughout Texas except for the eastern quarter.

http://www.tpwd.state.tx.uslhuntwildlwildlspecies/tigersal/ 4/412006
 p.~ge
.1Ja1l.CU ~.~~ta Lli:1.lWUi:lUUc::r - .fUIlqYSLUma ugnnum mavornum . 1 of2
,

.J

:.J:('IUT !I~~ :"IJlk',:'.l::' :::.;r'Lc.:':\~r-:c, E-:: zou :'IE'N:; ... E\:Ef';T5 1.'.Et,~RE:\.5HIP LE ..;mJlNG CELEBr:'~.TIi.JG PU·.Ni'J:i,;"G ':':)Un: VISIT Gm!i'.'c,1

-- -@Sedgwick CounlY.zo~ •.e#~dlt: Brent 'Ward

.. _~."~"'~ _;~.~:£~::\_F _ _ ~ ~,,:_. -" ........

.~airr~·~.,··.T,ig~t~,~ll~m·~nde.r n
Amb.ystorlla -~tigrin~in ins'(oitium

'.- Ttlis salam~nqer-:h~S·:a·t~bust_.bOdy with 6 -36.bri.ght yellow or olive spots, blotches

'or·:.bars,o·n'bacICand:sides· b~tween front and hind limbs. The background is dark.
.. Sizeof.average :adult
o .length: 6 ~o8'iJ1ches·.-

:D:iet
.:. ,"~ ..
• Wild: any animal-small enough to swallow'such a.s inse.ct~, worms,fish, tadpoles,
frogs; ·t,?ads,-salam~pders and mic~ __ " - '.

. .
'. Spends much ofitstimein caves, crayfish burrows, or even in the burrows of prairie
dogs where ies moist ~7 -
• Will emerge at nig~f
-. Reproduc,tio.n._ ~'-:., . . ': -
.
.. , .- -' '. . .' ; :: .
_
.
n
o sexii~fmatuiity: may be attained as larvae- (ne~teny) or after metamorphosis
into adulth9()d.. .

http://www.scz.org/animaIs/s/btslmdr.1:ltml 4/4/2006
 - --- - - - -0-- .........UVJ ..... "' ............ UO .. ·L.UU.,u..l .lllQ.VV11.1W.U rageL OIL.

o breeding se,ason: December - March after sufficient rain

o female lays 1000 eggs in 2 - 3 small clumps which are attached to sticks and
weed masses along water's edge . ~ '.' .

u o hatch in a few weeks as gil/ed larvae

Environmental/G'lobal
• Habitat: prairies, forests, forest ponds, limestone streams
.. Distribution: throughout Kansas and most of the southern Great Plains

~
~b ::OPYRfGlff 2,:'(Ir; S{!:i"wi:::k C;;.ur.\y 7.:;.0./11 SI'rig'~'I:::k C;;.tmty 7.\ir,> i:'.n:·::rctiltp.d by thl~ A~sc-::iati:;on ;",f ,t\S's';)Ci
'\Il\":j , f .
-\~\\'ril ':' '. . " ; ,.. rI:;Jr.t:;ri:5crvcd. N:)D:Jrt·:;. thl5Wc.bsltcmnl{ ZC:iS 1:;: AquJrIl1rr,5. L~:;.k for their b;JO whenever .,,;;u visit ..'\ ';:: "::
,,1' /)J . . ... , " . be rt;prc.~1U::;:;.j, stort=o tf) a r;:;,tmdal systf:rr.. a ::e-o!)~ .qU:JfIUrr. 25 YDur assumnw thnt ycu <lIe .~\:~;;;~j·L6·1 .
·~v N t!21\Smitttd 11\ cl)y' f0rm by cl)}' ~b::tl r:1:l. ~upp~'11Inp a f2::;lhty ~!!::Jj::.::t~j tD pr~,tli:.lill;? t:-x:::~lh:.nt C=I~
m,,::h'Ir..~~!I, ph::':::~:lryin:!. rl'::ir:irn;] nU:,ln:; nr ::thl:rwi5l' with;)ll! pri::r wflttc:n f::1 Illlilllr.1::, ,: ?n~l~t ~~Xl'i!li:,:n::!~ [::1 y:;.u, ':I~:J I~ bdt:~1 fU\l1rt': r:~r '!lIliviIY:11hil\~;. Wil
perrr.Issl:·n c·! the ph:it';;·::;Jr<Jphcr -:or ;Juth:::·r. L'nh:S5 IT'onrkcd othr: ro'll::c. IT.~ tcriills <Jr~ m:~rr. thiln lei;' ,::::::n::;l',tJ::,1 mcrnbcr:;, thr. A~;'::;"::I.:tbn i-;;: h:.t:ir;r in ~I::-,b<ll \'HI:ihk u,n
tr:)m the !l"o;r.·, 1::1: C::.·unty ~:;<J. ilnd y-c-ur Imk t::, hclDm~ <lnim<J1s in their nnti'lc habit;Ju;. For m:Jrc rnbrrnJtion visit

http://www .scz.org/animals/s/btslmdr.html 4/4/2006

 Page 1 of.1

__C::_'~·_~~_,·_._'_.C5I
_'I ___~_:_~_._I_,~_-_.~
__' _:®_A_rn__er_I~__~_W_J_ld_II_~_'R_e_S_Ou_r_ce__________________~._.;__________________r-)
Ask..an.Expert >

:Related 1:o1:his Question

tspeci~s:
1:iger.s~in·Am·arlI10
'01 ·found·:cLvery oddjookiJ1g:salamander in 'my
flower.bedthe other:day. J looked, up the type ,It·
.m.i9:htbe:-a,n~ ~~hl.rjk{~t Isa tiQ.er:.(barredJ,.Jt.ls·... : .. ~. yjg"er$alamatid~
. 'Iar:ge (5+ In.J ·and~II.l?IC:lck with ribbons .o~ ,'. " dcpI2J!StoinBt19lif!Y.llr·.
';.:.
.0'

. ;'ye:U6'w :co,or~run'riiri.9.CJHovef: ]~!.s,bodY·(Whattyp¢::.; . . '.~

,is Jtand how did ·It find .mYO:fiower :bed In the . ' .~ . !:- ; - ,
<niiddle·:oJ'ca. :tJ~u~rn.9:-area;ln£thl~ iJ~cfimate7 j-.'.~. '.:
'tnirik:it·+ras:been;;(i~inl(wlth.usfor ~while since ;1 fNewSearch' .
~found .:evidence··:of:Somethin.Q .:burrowil"!.9 under
the ~plantS:lTl:onths:ag~, ~thought it 'mighthad
.' :beenia.tarantula(=?).;1s-thereany .othertype of
:Sp'~C:ies~It"mtght :be and are these salamanders
commonin'thls'part ofTexas.Onefinal question
:-". doyouthlnki-tf'has 'any chance to: make it .
.
'.through our winter? Thanks;": .: ....... ' " .•...

Ithlnk:you are,:right,lt-. yiILDL1.Ft 7~', L

. sounds IikeaTigei""···> . EXPERT .

Salamander. They are
membersofa family ot'
David·
Herlocker
salamanders: called the RESPONDS
"Mole Salamanders''' due to
thei~habi~of livi.ng cUnderground. I am not sure
whether this .animalfound it's way to your yard by
traveling overland at night during the .rainy season,
. or'l{it arrivedvlcf'draina:ge lines :and' networks of
rodent .burrows. 1 suppose It is also.posslble thatthls .
individual might have .been living in the area .since
before it became:a h9using area. These salamanders ,
'. dO' not :di.g::theif'ownholes; they, r-eside IIl'abandoned .
. ' and:active .burrows of animals like prairie dogs. Tiger
Salamanders are capable of
tolerating both
extremely.dry ~habitats and extremely cold winters;
.~hoeir:range ext~l1ds.' ab.o~t 400 '~Hes north of the
U.S. Canada .border in Alberta' and Saskatchewan.
©2005 eNature.com

.1.

http://enature.nationalg~ographic.com/expert/expert_show_question.asp?questionID=7329 4/4/2006
 Breeding
In early spring Tiger Salamanders migrate to nearby permanent
or semi-permanent lakes and ponds to breed. There is no
~1J:lI~lexus, instead courtship consists of much nudging,
pushing and lashing of tails. Finally, the male will crawl ahead
of the female and lifting his tail, lay a spermatophore for the
female to pick up. There is a great deal of competition for
mates when the salamanders congregate together. Males try to

push and shove their chosen ones to more secluded spots but
males will often interfere with one another's courting. Males
also tend to lay their spermatophores on top of other
spermatophores to cover them up. Many spermatophores are
produced by a male during a bout of courtship.

Eggs are laid shortly after mating,

sometimes singly and sometimes in
small masses. They are attached to
stones, twigs or plants. The eggs
hatch in two to three weeks. The
larvae grow rapidly and transform in
three to four months. They usually prefer warm areas of the
pond where there is considerable growth of algae to hide in.
u The larvae eat aquatic insects and invertebrates and are not
above cannibalism. NeQte.J1Y. is frequent in the Tiger
Salamander in many parts of its range.

Another apparent adaptation to dry conditions is that some

adults are paedogenic (individuals become sexually mature
while retaining larval characteristics and an aquatic habitat).
Although paedogenesis is common in many parts of the
salamanders' range, only two paedogenic populations are
known in British Columbia Several environmental factors are
thought to influence paedogenesis.

Behaviour
Tiger Salamanders can live for up to 20 years. Cannibal
morphs help to .ensure population survival by ensuring that
some of the population reach maturity in harsh conditions.

Diet or Growing requirements

Tiger Salamander's food consists of earthworms, insects or
molluscs as well as the occasional frog or baby mouse.
Neotonic Tiger Salamanders may live in deep, permanent
pools. They will eat small fish, aquatic insects and worms or
other larval Tiger Salamanders.
u
Predators
Predatory fish that have been introduced into interior lakes.
 v ISIDle gillS

For determination larvae must be lar er than 10mm!

Vith external gills »>

,wts. salamanders)

Without external gills »>

(frogs. toads)

Attention! Some species of frogs and toads show young

larvae (tadpoles) wearing external gills. When they grow
larger than 1Omm the external gills are covered by a special
pocket of skin and become internal gills.
<previous

u
Tadpole
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A tadpole (also known as a pollywog or polliwog) is a

,~_
ii
. _, _,___,_ -..-._. - _. ~-----. . . -_n
larval amphibian, the juvenile form of a frog, toad, newt,
salamander, or caecilian.

In this stage it breathes by means of external or internal

I
gills, is at first lacking legs, and has a fin-like tail with I
which it swims as most fish do, by lateral undulation. As
a tadpole matures, it metamorphoses by gradualJy
growing limbs and then (in the case of frogs and toads)
I
I
absorbing its tail by apoptosis (controlled celJ death). IL - -____
Ten-day-old tadpoles
._ ... ____
~,._____ ~

Tadpoles depend vel)' much on clean water. Most I I

tadpoles are herbivorous, subsisting on algae or other ; Embryos,(and one tadpole) of the i
greens such as boiled lettuce in captivity. However, they i wrinkled frog (Rana rugosa) 1i
_ !_ _ _ _ _

are true omnivores, being able to adapt to a carnivorous

life style as well. When,kept under herbivorous
conditions, the gut becomes long and spiral. Under carnivore conditions, the gut becomes shorter. In a few species, some tadpoles
tum cannibalistic under harsh conditions and feed on other tadpoles living in the pond.

Frog tadpoles, like their adult form, are eaten in certain regions of France (Charente-Maritime especially). Tadpole soup is a
common dish amongst the Charentais but is relatively unknown outside their region.

External links
• Frog's Life Cycle (http://www.seagrant.wisc.edu/frogs/frogs- life.html)
n ,I
,

Retrieved from ''http://en.wikipedia.orglwikifTadpole"

Categories: Amphibians I Developmental biology I Amphibian stubs I Developmental biology stubs

• This page was last modified 02: 19, 6 September 2006.

• All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License.
(See Copyrights for details.)
Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.
 _UP! Il~UL ~"".I, au ngntS reservea

WONUEH. QUEST with April Holh,day, A Weekly Column * April 25, 2001 * Albuquerque

0ogs' Hearing
:Q: WhHt structures does tile frog hear with? How do they
work? Is there any other animal that 'hears the same way'! I
anl doing ~l project on the physiology of frogs' hearing.

A: It's true frogs do not have outside ears that direct sound
inward to the ear drum as ours do. But they do have an ear drurr
of sorts (see figure), an inner ear, a brain, and most frogs have a
middle ear. They hear with these structures and one more--their
lungs!

Figure: [Jon Glase, Cornell University] Label 3 points to the

s eardrum.

The ear structures function much as ours. The eardrum of most

frogs is a membrane surrounded by a cartilage ring. Sound
waves vibrate the eardrum, which wiggles a rod connected to
the eardrum, which sloshes fluid in the inner ear, which waves hairs in hair cells. The hair cells contact nerve fibers,
which generate electrical pulses. Nerve fibers carry the signals to the brain, which interprets the nerve signals as sound.
That's how the ear structures work.

: - -:0lungs are a different story. Suppose a tree falls in the night. And suppose a frog squats within hearing range of the
Ue. Then, just as we discussed, his eardrums vibrate in response to the noise. But there's more: his lungs do, too.
11.Lo.Leed, his lungs are only slightly less sensitive than his eardrums.

In 1988 Peter Narins, a physiological science professor at the University of California at Los Angeles, and his
colleagues from Germany found that a frog has an unbroken air link from the lungs to the eardrums. Narins thinks this
link serves two purposes: to help the frog locate..- sound and__to...possibly_pro1ect its ears from its own raucous calls.
-_.-_.---~ -~-----'------

Suppose the falling tree is directly to the left of the frog. When the tree-fall sound reaches the frog's left ear, it also
reaches his left lung and this causes a pressure difference across the left eardrum. The pressure difference is different
for the right ear since the sound must travel farther to get there. The frog can sense direction by this difference.

Locating a sound is important to frogs. A female frog locates her mate by the direction of his booming calls. Similarly,
a male respects another male's territory by not moving too far in the call direction.

Frog calls are extremely loud. The forested areas of Puerto Rico are dense with male coqui frogs: one every ten square
meters. So each male stridently calls his loudest to drown out the others and attract a distant female. If you wander
within a half a meter of one of the little creatures, you hear a croak near the pain threshold: between 90 and 95 decibels-
-almost as loud as ajack hammer (100 dB).

The frog's lungs protect his ears by equalizing pressures between the inner and outer surfaces of the eardrum. The
eardrum does vibrate in response to his own call but only with a very small amplitude.

~k if any o.ther animal uses its lungs to hear. Many fish do. They hear with an lung-like air bladder, specialized
f )und reception. Sound travels underwater to the air bladder, vibrates the air sac, which, in tunl, vibrates the fish's
inner ear. Frogs may be using the same system as their ancient ancestors, the fish, do.

Further Surfing:
EARLESS FROG USES LUNGS, HAND SIGNALS TO COMMUNICATE

COLUMBUS, Ohio.;... An earless species 'ofPanamanian frog hears by picking up sound waves through its lUngs; .
according to a new Ohio State University study.

The finding may shed light on the evolution of hearing systems in early vertebrates.

The Panamanian golden frog'hasn't come under study much before now, because it lives only along remote mountain'
streams. The species is endangered, partly because it's very choosy. about its habitat. But a bigger threat comes from
frog collectors, who prize the species forits
brilliant yellow color.

The frog lacks both a middle and external ear, but it does possess a typical amphibian inner ear. Despite being earless,
the frogs call out to each other and respond to sound, a fact that has puzzled zoologists. .

To gauge the frog's hearing ability, Ohio State researchers set up speakers in the wild, and played recordings of frog
calls. The frogs turned to face the speakers and called out in reply. '. .

"Not only can they hear, but they can also localize sounds, and all this without a middle ear," said Thomas .
Hetherington, professor of zoology, who is collaborating with Erik Lindquist, a doctoral student, on this study.

The researchers think the frog's lungs have taken on a second role, as ear substitutes. The lungs lie very close to the
surface, just beneath the frog's skin. When sound waves hit the frog's side, the lungs vibrate.

"In a sense, the frog's lungs act as eardrums," said Hetherington. "But we still don't know how the vibrations get from
the lungs to the inner ear. That's the rest of the story."

In tests, the frogs responded to sound waves that bounced off their lungs, but didn't hear as well when the researche~
set up barriers that blocked sound waves from reaching that area. (. ,-)

The study, part of which appeared in a recent issue of the Journal ofHerpetology, also found that when taking an
aggressive stance, the frogs supplement audio communication with visual -- they wave their forearms at foes in a kind
of semaphore signal.

The researchers found that the males of the species will wave at their own reflections in a mirror, as well as at a
miniature flag that flashes the frog's characteristic yellow color. Even during the speaker experiments, some male frogs
waved at the speakers as if the sound indicated a rival's presence.

This study proved that the frogs employ the wave to relay a specific message. They gesture with whichever forearm is
closest to the recipient, in a move that resembles the beginnings of a step forward in attack. "The frogs wave in the
same way a bull makes a fake charge. It seems to be an aggressive signal that says 'stay away,'" said Hetherington.

The signal comes in handy. Solitary male golden frogs claim territory along a mountain stream, then wait for fertile
females to arrive and lay eggs in the w~ter. In the meantime, the males ward off potential rivals .with the wave.

When two males come face.;.fo-fa~e,they callout and wave to each other. If one doesn't back down, they meet in a
ritualistic battle of intimidation. The frogs don't hurt each other, but rather attempt to assert their dominance in a
waving contest.

One frog jumps on top of the other and starts waving, and the subordinate frog waves back. Only when one frog stops
waving and admits defeat does the fight end. n
"Most people tend to think that frogs are pretty simplistic," said Hetherington. "But when we looked at theln closely,
we found them engaged in a long series of very subtle behaviors."

For example, males will wave away females that don't appear ready to mate, but will permit fertile females to enter
 their territory unhindered.

Fertile females turn the tables, however, by waving aggressively at the males. If a male approaches despite her warning
the female may mate with him. If he appears discouraged by the wave, she wonlt. "The female may be testing the
Valve of the male," said Hetherington.

how did this behavior evolve? Only a few other frog species use hand signals, and they live as the Panamanian golden
frogs do, along torrential mountain streams where the sound of flowing water drowns out nearly everything else. lilt
may be that in noisy habitats, visual signaling is just more reliable," said Hetherington.

Hetherington thinks the frog's method of communication is nothing new. "Perhaps the oldest way of hearing in
vertebrates was using the lung as a sound transducing organ," he said.

In fact, many fishes today use an air bladder, a lung-like organ specialized for sound reception. Under water, sound
readily penetrates to the air bladder, and passes into a fishls inner ear.

"These frogs may be using the very primitive system that their distant,fish ancestors used, only on land," said
Hether~gton.

Hetherington and his colleagues want to return to Panama and continue their studies of the frog, to discover exactly
how the lungs send signals to the inner ear. They also want to find out whether the calls or the hand-waves are more
important to the frogls system of communication.

Contact: Thomas Hetherington, (614) 292-0832; ll~tbe.ringt()n..J@J)~~l&d~JI-'!

Written by Pam Frost, (614) 292-9475; Frost.18@Dsu.edu

Uitor's Note: Photos and video of the Panamanian golden frog are available on request by bona fide news
~~dia by contacting University Communications at (614) 292-9475.
-----,~~~------~--~------------------~-----

Return to the Research page

Return to the OSU HOlnepage

u
 Barton Springs Salamander
Scientific Name: Eurycea sosorum
Federal Status: Proposed for listing as Endangered

Description of Barton Springs. These salaman- Threats and Reasons

A slender, long-limbed salamander, ders are often found under rocks or for Decline
about 2.5 inches in total length, in gravel in water several inches to Because the Barton Springs Sala-
with a small narrow head and 15 feet deep. They can also be mander relies on the clear, pure
greatly reduced eyes. They vary in found hiding in aquatic plants and water of the Barton Springs
color, and can be dark gray, gray, algae. They rely on a clear, clean, Aquifer, protection of the quality
purplish-gray, gray-brown, or continuous flow of spring water. and quantity of water flowing from
yellowish-brown. Most. individuals The Barton Springs Salamander is Barton Springs is essential for its
have a dark "salt-and-pepper" mot- clearly capable of living under- survival. Threats to water quality
tling on their back. These salaman- ground, but also inhabits surface such as urban runoff, increased
ders have external gills which are environments. Although not known development in the Barton Creek
red in color. The Barton Springs for certain, some scientists believe watershed, and the risks of a toxic
Salamander is entirely aquatic the salamander is primarily a sur- chemical spill or sewer line break-
throughout its life. face-dweller that is adapted for life age in the urban zone surrounding
underground when surface condi- Barton Springs remain a concern.
Distribution tions become unsuitable. Also of concern are reduced
Spring outlets at Barton Springs in groundwater supplies due to
Austin, Texas. '. Life History increased urban water use.
Although relatively little is known Prior to 1989, aquatic plants
Habitat about the biology of the Barton were abundant in Barton Springs
The Barton Springs Salamander Springs Salamander, new informa- Pool. Surveys in the early 1970's
occurs only at the spring outflows tion is rapidly becoming available. showed that the Barton Springs
Recently hatched young have been Salamander was quite abundant.
found in November, March, and and many could be found by
April, and females with well- searching through submerged
u developed eggs have been found in
September through January. They
leaves in Eliza Springs. From 19iO
to 1992 the population of this
are known to eat amphipods (tiny species dropped sharply. We now
aquatic crustaceans) and other know that certain pool mainte-
small aquatic animals. Captive nance practices, such as the use of
specimens feed on amphipods, high pressure hoses, hot water, and
earthworms, whiteworms, and chemicals were harmful to the sala-
brine shrimp. manders and the aquatic plants in
the pool and nearby spring outlets
Barion Springs Salamander that provide their habitat. Today~
USFWS Wyman Meinzer
c)
the pool is maintained in ways that
do not damage the salamander or
its habitat Since the new pool
Eliza maintenance practices began, the
Springs ~~~ habitat in the pool and nearby
(Polio Pit) springs has rapidly improved. The
City of Austin's Environmental and
Conservation Services Department
has planted aquatic vegetation in
the deep end of the pool. Although
Borton Spn'ngs Pool the salamander has expanded into
its former range in the Barton
Springs Pool, scientists believe it
probably has not reached the extent
of its pre-1970 distribution.
Residents and visitors to Austin
will be happy to know that swim-
.'0 ming in Barton Springs Pool does
not pose a threat to the salamander
,
10 2p 30
, or its habitat. With proper manage·
meters

KIIOWII distriblltiOll of tile BartOli Springs Salama"der. Solid dols mark sprillg ollr/loU'S. Barton Springs Salamander I
menl, 'the pool will continue to pro· evening or early morning to reduce
vide refreshing enjoyment for peo· evaporation, and installing a rain-
pIe and habitat for the Barton water collection system for your
Springs Salamander. home, are other effective ways to
conserve water.
Recovery Efforts The Barton Springs Salaman-
The population level of the Barton der is dependent on vegetation to
Springs Salamander will be rou· provide food and cover. Do not
tinely monitored to assess the pull up or otherwise damage
effects of new pool maintenance aquatic plants at Barton Springs.
practices and other factors impact· Also, exotic species often pose sig-
ing the habitat Austin's Parks and nificant threats to native wildlife
Recreation Department has estab- and plants, inciudlng listed species.
Eliza Springs
lished an advisory team to review Do not release aquatic animals or C USfWS Wyman Meinzer

and coordinate all pool mainte· plants into waters they did not
nance procedures that could affect come from' originally.
the Barton Springs Salamander. Soil erosion and runoff which
The City of Austin is conducting causes siltation of streams is a seri-
sun'eys to assess the population ous threat to water quality and a
stu liS of the salamander in Barton healthy aquatic ecosystem. Manage-
fprings Pool. Finally, research is ment of surface vegetation is the
key to preventing soli erosion and
underway to better understand the runoff, and encouraging rainfall
life history and habitat needs of . infiltration and aquifer recharge.
this species. . Finally, you can support the
city'S efforts to protect the sala-
How You Can Help mander by being tolerant of
Keeping our springs, creeks and changes that are occurring at
underground water clean benefits Barton Springs Pool. Swimmers Barton Springs Pool
o USfWS Wyman Meinzer
the people and wildlife of the can continue to enjoy a more nat- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Austin area. Lawn and agricultural ural Barton Springs Pool and the Ecological Services Field Office
chemicals and pesticides should be ecosystem of plants and animals, 10711 Burnet Road, Suite 200
used sparingly and only according including the salamander, that it Austin, Texas 78758
to label directions, particularly· supports. Visit Zilker Park in (512) 490-0057
within the recharge zone of the Austin to learn more about the
aquifer. Carefully follow recom· Barton Springs Salamander.
mended procedures for disposing of
containers and rinse water. Take For More Information
used motor oil to auto maintenance Contact
businesses that can use or dispose Texas Parks and Wildlife Department
of it properly. Be careful with Endangered Resources Branch
household chemicals and dispose of 4200 Smith School Road
the containers according to label Austin, Texas 78744
directions. The City of Austin has a (512) 912-7011 or (800) 792-1112
designated dropoff location for haz- or
ardous household material.· Call the
Household Hazardous Waste Collec-
tion Facility at (512) 416-8998 for
more information. Keep trash and References
other pollutants out of our natural Chippindale, P.T., A.H. Price, and D.M. Hillis. 1993. A new species of
waters. perennibranclziate salamander (Eurycea, Plethodontidae) from
Do what you can as an individ- Austin, Texas. Herpetologica 49(2):248-259.
ual to conserve water, particularly Martyn-Baker, j., R. Fieseler, and B. Smith (Eds.). 1992. Hill Country
during drought periods. In the Oasis: Barton SpringS-Barton Creek-Edwards Aquifer. Austin Parks
home, you can save water by and Recreation Department, Edwards Aquifer Conservation District,
installing fIXtures, appliances, and and Save Barton Creek Association, Austin, Texas.
toilets designed to use less water, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1992. Endangered and Threatened
repairing leaky faucets, and turning Wildlife and Plants,' Notice of Finding on Petition to List Barton
off the tap while brushing teeth or Springs Salamander. Federal Register 57(239):58779-58781.
doing dishes. Landscaping with U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1994. Endangered and Threatened
native, drought tolerant plants Wildlife and Plants; Proposal to List the Barton Springs Salamander
(xeriscaping), watering lawns in the as Endangered. Federal Register 59(33):7968-7978.

2 Barto" Sprillgs Salamander Funds (or lhe produ(tion o( Ihls learlel were provided by lhe U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. under SectIon 6 of lhe Endangered Species ,'(t.
 " -':IONS & CA YES 14 http://www.caver.neticaca14.htm

IFrog in the flume: Management of the Rio Grande leopard frog-

by David Roemer
The Rio Grande leopard frog (Rana berlandieri) ranges from west Texas and southeastern New
Mexico, south to Mexico and Central America (Fig. 1). In New Mexico, the frog is known only from
Eddy County, where it lives along streams, spring runs, and other pennanent water sources, including
stock tanks (Degenhardt, et al. 1996). The riparian areas and developed water sources in the lower
IPecos River valley constitute the northwest range limit for the species, except for an introduced
population in the lower Colorado River in Arizona (platz 1991).

Fig. 1 - Natural range of the Rio Grande leopard frog (shaded area), based on Platz (1991).
Description

The Rio Grande leopard frog is a rather large frog, reaching an adult size of 56-112 mm (platz 1991).
Non-breeding young of the year individuals that Krupa (1997) observed at Rattlesnake Springs were
30-44 mm. Rio Grande leopard frogs have dark dorsal spots that are usually ringed with a light halo,
and have pronounced dorsolateral folds of skin. Both of these characteristics are visible in the
photograph below (Fig. 2).

Another frog found at Rattlesnake Springs, the bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana), is highly variable in color
and usually much larger than the leopard frog - often greater than 200 mm. Also, the bullfrog lacks the
long dorsolateral folds of the leopard frog. With practice, it is easy to distinguish the two species. The
mating calls are also very different. The bullfrog call is a deep, booming br-wum, often heard near the
I picnic area at night and in the early morning. The voice of the Rio Grande leopard frog is a quiet short I

guttural trill, heard near the spring pond and along the west portions of the irrigation flume.

70f21 9/281003:08 PM
CANYONS & CAVES 14 http://www.caver.net/cacaI4.htm

Fig. 2 - The Rio Grande leopard frog (Rana berlandieri). (photo by Jim Krupa)
Leopard Frogs and Bullfrogs

The leopard frog and the bullfrog were the only two true frogs (Family Ranidae) found at Rattlesnake
Springs by Jim Krupa in 1997. The non-native bullfrog was probably introduced to the Rattlesnake
Springs area in the 1950s. Thebullfrog is a yoraGigll S predator that can aDd will. eat virtually ijpything
that it can fit into its mouth. The bullfrog has been implicated as a potential cause for the decline of
native aquatic vertebrates in Oregon, Arizona, and Chihuahua (see Conant 1977, Degenhardt et al.
1996). When Krupa (1997) examined the stomach contents of bullfrogs from Rattlesnake Springs, he
found that bullfrogs consumed a smorgasbord of native insects, vertebrates, and vegetative matter.
ITbeir diet included wasps? sticks crayfish snails, a Iexas bUDd snake (Leptotyph/ops du/cis), and a
Isilky pgcket mouse {Perognathus flavus}. One adult leopard frog and one tadpole were also found,
confirming that bullfrogs do indeed eat leopard frogs.

\...) · While leopard frogs didn't constitute a large portion of the diet of bullfrogs that were examined, Krupa ,
(1997) observed that bullfrogs greatly outnumbered leopard frogs at Rattlesnake Springs, particularly
in the natural stream drainage (Table 1). The only area in which leopard frogs appeared to be doing
well was the irrigation flume, where bullfrogs were never observed.
I

i My informal observations at Rattlesnake Springs this year agree with Jim Krupa's findings from 1997.
On several nights in June and July, I walked the length of the stream and irrigation system listening
for adult frog calls and counting the juvenile leopard frogs that would jump into the water as I passed
by. Along the flumes there were as many as 15 leopard frogs, and no bullfrogs. Along the stream there
were only bullfrogs near the picnic area, but there were two leopard frogs calling closer to the pond.
At the pond there were two more leopard frogs, and apparently no bullfrogs.

Table 1. Bullfrogs and Leopard Frogs at Rattlesnake Springs, from Krupa (1997).

u
9/28/003:08 PM
80f21
 - Special Section -
::l,.""". ~:
~. .'.:"'""1 '.'
::. ~ ~~ .:~"

~...-#'. •• ~- • • ' -
... - ,~- - ...
- ~

U Meta-MORPH-osis:
A Fu:n-Filled Craft Demonstrating the Life Cycle of a Frog
by Jennit~.r Cru~P' Naturalist, Nonhwest Trek Wtldlife Park, Washington

At.:pur urban nature center, we have Step 3. You are now ready to show
been s~eing more and more groups vis- the life cycle of the frog! Simply start
iting from kindergartens, preschools, with all pieces tucked behind the plate.
and daycare facilities. Teachers and This is the egg. Next, pull out the tail
care providers are finding that nature and head-this is the tadpole stage.
is a great way to introduce science to Next come the back legs-here is the
young minds, and nature appreciation froglet. Fmally, the front legs emerge
is a great place to start. These "little and the tail disappears, tucked back
explorers" come to our center for a under the plate. Your egg has become a
tour of the wetland in our 54-acre pre- frog!
serve, a look at live toads and turtles,
and the opportunity to create some Jennifer Crump can he reachedat Northwest
nature art to keep. Trek Wildlife Park, 1I610 Trek Drive East,
Here is a fun activity to tty at any Eatonville, ~ 98328, {,J6o)832-7160 .•
facility where amphibians live and a
great learning tool too. Kids create a
frog egg that "morphs" into tadpole,
froglet, and, finally, frog. It is a great
way to teach metamorphosis and give
.-"t------- Front leg
u kids the opportunity to create some-
thing to keep. At home, kids can teach
their parents about amphibians and re-
Head
Rear leg
inforce their own learning at the same
time. Tail
Supplies needed for each child: Rear leg _ - - - - " " "
t/ One paper plate
t/ Six paper fasteners ("brads")
t/ Green, blue, brown, red, or other
frog-colored construction paper with
head, tail, and legs drawn (these will re-
quire two pieces of construction paper)
t/ Scissors
t/ Markers or crayons
Here's the process:
Step :I. Start with a paper plate,
and· have the kids color the center
circle black. Either before or during
the program, use a hole punch to
punch six holes around the edges as
shown.
Step ~. Have the kids cut out and Front/rear leg
color or decorate the leg, head, and tail
; . pieces. Punch holes and attach the
V!>ieces onto the plate with the paper
fasteners as shown in the diagram.

July/August 2000 LEGACY 31

 PROGRAM SCRIPT:
INVERTEBRATES

First station:
.
1 What can you tell me about insects? They have 3 body parts: head, thorax and
abdomen; an exoskeleton; 3 pairs of jointed legs (6 legs); and most adults have 2
pairs of wings (4 wings).
Head: one pair of segmented antennae, a pair of compound eyes and usually two
or three simple eyes, and mouth parts (ex: fly has sucker mouth, mosquito has
needle-like, grasshoppers grasp like pliers, butterflies and moths have a roll-up
straw like a party favor.
Thorax: made up of 3 segments, each with a pair of legs attached. The second and
third segments each also have a pair of wings ·attached.
Abdomen: usually has eleven segments; the spiracles are on the abdomen,
openings through which air passes for respiration.
Most insects go through 4 life stages:
The first is the egg. The next is the larva--the worm-like or caterpillars--these
mostly just serve as a feeding stage to prepare for the long metamorphosis (a few
days to a few months). The third stage is the pupa--the cocoon or dormant stage---
in this stage the insect goes through metamorphosis, it changes form. In butterflies,
the cocoon is called a chrysalis (plural is chrysalids). The cocoon or chrysalis is
the covering that surrounds the pupa. The last stage is the adult. This is the most
active phase including honey production in honey bees, nest building in wasps,

v and reproduction in all insects.

There are nearly 700,000 described species of insects in the world. That is more
than twice the number of all other animals andplants combined. Insects are
adapted to virually every kind of habitat.
Relatives of insects:
Crustaceans---crabs, lobster, crayfish, shrimp
Diplopoda---millipedes
Chilopods---centipedes
Arachnids---spiders, scorpions, ticks, mites

Second station:
Discuss bees on the way to VP and while looking at bees in hive. See attached
bee info.
Give each kid a magnifying glass and mealworm larva
-have them look at body segments
-show pupa stage, or if time one to each
-pick up larvae (if not already done) or pupae
-give mealy bugs (beetles) and have them Ld. head, thorax and abdomen,
six legs, two antennae
pick up beetles

Third station:
Collect invertes in and around main pond, Ld. as much as possible.
If this station is rained out, visit Small Wonders and note black widow, tarantula,
centipede.

-- --.-.....
 PROGRAM DESCRIPTION:
INVERTEBRATES

Part I Basis for Programs

Title: Secret Life of Arthropods
Course Description: Examine some live critters without backbones and
learn about how these extraordinary creatures with jointed legs and
an exoskeleton have colonized almost every habitat on our planet.
We will discuss unique and "out of sight" life styles and adaptations
of different specimens.
Age Level: Grade 3-6
Time: 1 hour
Goal: Participants wilileam the unique characteristics of arthropods, their ~
adaptations and the niches they fill in the environment.

Part II Instructional Plan

Course Outline: Three 20 minute sessions:
1st: Program box---parts of insects and their life cycles; other
arthropods.
2nd: Bugs and bees---hold meal worm stages and watch/discuss
bees at VP.
3rd: Tour of Small Wonders and pond walk to find invertes in and
near the pond.

Part III Resource Support - ./

Site Needs: At least one classroom.

Participant Thresholds: No more than 15 kids per instructor up to 45 kids.
Transportation Needs: Not a good program for outreach.
Resource Needs: Invertes program box
Enough meal worms, pupae, and adults for @ kid
Enough magnifying glasses for @ kid
Enough nets for @ kid and some jars

~--
/

Organs for Moving--Insects have different types of feet for swimming or

walking. Some, like mes and bees, have sticky pads and hooks on their feet.
Insects move on a series of tripods-they move front and rear legs on one side of
the body and the middle leg on the other side of the body.
The wings of the insect move in a figure eight pattern.Some insects, like
flies, have two wings. Dragonflies have four wings, and other insects have no
wings at all.

Senses-Insects have both simple and complex eyes. The insect's sense of smell
is usually located on the antennae in olfactory pits or cones. The sense of taste is
usually around the mouth or sometimes in the lower part of the legs. Some
insects have no sense of hearing,but others have hearing organs on various parts
of their bodies-katydids have ears on their legs, and locusts hfive ears on the
sides of their bodies.
Insects have small spines on their bodies which allow them to feel
nearness to objects around them. Some insects have heat detectors which help
them find endothermic prey.

u Arachnids

The class Arachnida conSists of spiders, ticks, mites, scorpions and daddy
longlegs (harvestmen). Arachnids have no wings. They have two body parts--
the cephalothorax and the abdomen. Arachnids have one to six pair of simple
eyes-no compound eyes. The respiration of arachnids is varied. Some have air
tubes, some have breathing organs somewhat like lungs called ''book lungs"--
small sacs within the abdomen connected to the outer air by small openings.
The cephalothorax of the arachnids contain the eyes, mouth, and "motor
box". The abdomen of the arachnids contain the digestive system, respiratory
system, heart, reproductive organs, and in the case of spiders, spinning organs.
Spiders
Spiders have two pair of mandibles. The first pair end in poisonous fangs
for killing prey. The eight legs of the spider end in claws. In front of the claws
are the palpi-feelers.
Spiders have three pairs of spinnerets. Spider spin webs with silk. They
coat their legs with an oily substance from their mouths so they can walk over
their own webs.
Females usually spin the webs and catch food. The males are smaller. The
palpi of the males are used to fertiliie the female. The female lays eggs in a silky
sac.Some mothers open sacs, some die when they lay their eggs, some spider
young stay in their egg sacs until they are old enough to make their own webs
u and capture insects. Some spiders live one year, others live two years or more.
 Arthropods: Background Information

Arthropods are in the Kingdom AnimaIia, Phylum Arthropoda (meaning

"having jointed feet"). Arthropods make up 3/4 of the Earth's animal
population. They have jointed feet and bodies. Arthropods have "exoskeletons"
made of chitin. Arthropods must molt to grow. Nearly all arthropods have a
heart and blood system and a well-organized nervous system.
The groups of arthropods are:
Insects
Arachnids--mites, ticks, spiders, scorpions
Crustaceans-- crabs, lobsters, shrimp, barnacles
Chilopods--centipedes
Oi plopods--milli pedes

Insects

Insects are in the class Hexapoda (six legs). Insects are the largest group
of arthropods. More than 800,000 kinds of insects have been named.
Entomologists believe that there may be as many as 2-4 million species, with
billions of individuals within each species. Scientists estimate insects to be about
200,000 years older than humans.
The jointed body of the insect has three body parts:
Head--contains the brain, antennae, eyes (both simple and complex-the simple
eyes are light sensing organs called ocelli), and mouth
Thorax--muscles for flying, walking, swimming--legs and wings are attached to
. the thorax
Abdomen-digestive, reproductive, excretory organs, spiracles for respiration

Outer Body--The outer body of the insect is made of chitin. The muscles are
attached to the inside of Th. exoskeleton. The insect, like other arthropods, must
shed its exoskeleton in order to grow. The period between molts is called
"instar".

Internal Organs--The heart of the insect is located in the abdomen. The heart
pumps blood, which can be yellow, green, or colorless. The nervous system of
the insect is a simple system of ganglia (paired nerve cords) which run down the
underside of the body. Some ganglion are capable of functioning alone-
therefore some insects with no heads can continue to walk.

--
; A\. \CA ST\C\ \IV n
I
Cf\u\oS
f
Insects and Relatives • 1
u Why Care About Insects?

Insects are incredibly successful

With around a million named species, and maybe several times that many unnamed and
unknown, insects are the large majority of anima] species on earth. They have colonized
almost every possible terrestrial and freshwater niche. Almost any substance with any
nutritive value is eaten by some group of insects.

Insects are important to Biology

Study of the huge variability of insects in lifestyle, behavior, social evolution, mating
behavior, and parental investment has greatly advanced our understanding of
evolutionary biology. Insects are ideal research subjects for genetics, developmep.t, and ""
molecular biology as well.. "

Insects are old

Arthropods appear in terrestrial fossils by 400 million years ago. Insects are present by
350 million years ago, and were flying by 300 million years ago. When the first
amphibians lived on land, insects were already there. Most modem groups of plants and
anirna1s evolved in close association with insects, and have adapted to them in important
ways.

u Insects are our best friends and worst enemies

We often think of insects in negative terms. They feed on our crops, suck our blood,
contaminate our homes, and 1ransmit terrible diseases. The mosquito is arguably the
most dangerous anjmal in the world to humans. "

However, without insects, the world we know could not exist. Some important
contributions of insects include:
• They pollinate m~y, perhaps most, higher plants. Most of our fruit and vegetable
crops and most other flowering plants could not exist without them
• Termites, in.particular, are "a vital part of the terrestrial carbon and nitrogen
cycles. Without them, dead plants would decompose only slowly
• Ants turn over and help create more soil than earthworms
• They are a vital food source for many other animals
• They control populations of other insects and invertebrates
• They provide some products directly (silk, shellac, honey, etc.).

! c:--
:..;
• M~wtvs tAo, \ ,'\i'\t5le ~~\,.\e .-\.~CL~" OJJ\V) O-t~e,v- ctV\,I)1C\ \
~,:",
~)c, of cLiset\se, trt\V\~\NUSS\ on·
3.5"
 insects and Reiatives - 2

Phylum Arthropoda

Arthropods are an incredibly diverse group, with far more species than all the other phyla
combined. All arthropods have several features in common, including:

1. Segmented bodies, both internally and externally

2. Some segments fus~d into body regions (tagmata)
3. Exoskeletons made of chitin, along with other proteins, waxes, and calcium
carbonate
4. Body segments have pairs ofjointed appendages, which are specialized for
feeding, locomotion, sensing, etc.
5. Growth occurs by inolting (ecdysis) - kev~ _ .
6. Compound eyes plus one to several simple eyes bz.vf ci'" ~de. ,(,;~~I'\.I.
7. Breathing occurs through gills, tracheae, or book hmgs I " ~ fs -I!u s?R-
8. Nervous system has a "brain" or cerebral gan~on, connected to a pair of
ventral nerve cords with addition8.1 ganglia aece.dnl;r
Major groups of Arthropods
There is some disagreement about the exact relationships of arthropods, but this is a
popular scheme. I have left out several minor classes.

Subphylum. Chelicerata
• Class Meristomata (horseshoe crabs)
• Class Pycnogonida (sea spiders) ~ It.t'., ~ ':
• Class Arachnida (spiders, sco;rpions, ticks, mites) - 2500 spiders, 30,000 ticks & mites .f.?lo&~ So I ~Jr

Subphylum Crustacea -about 30,000 species identified

• Class Brachiopoda (fairy shrimp, water fleas, brine shrimp)
• Class Maxillopoda (ostrocods, copepods, barnacles)
.. Class Malacostraca (pill bugs, krill, crabs, shrimp, lobsters)

Subphylum UnUmnia
• Class Chilopoda (centipedes)
• Class Diplopoda (millipedes)
• Class Insecta - about 1 million species known
 Insects and Relatives • 3

u Key for Classifying Common Arthropods

1a. Two pairs of antennae (one may be greatly reduced), variable number of legs
Class Crustacea, 2
1 b. One pair of antennae or none go to 3

2a. Two body regions (cephalothorax, abdomen), 5 pairs of legs Order Decopoda
(crayfish, lobsters, shrimp)
2b. Three body regions (head, thorax, abdomen), 7 pairs of legs Order Isopoda
(marine isopods, sowbugs, pill bugs)

3a. No antennae, two body regions (cephalothorax, abdomen), 4 pairs of legs

.. Class Arachnida
(spiders, ticks, mites, scorpions)
3b. One pair antennae go to 4

. 4a. Three body regions (head, thorax, abdomen), 3 pairs of legs, may have wings
Class Insecta
4b. Two body regions (head, trunk) go to 5
u 5a. One parr of legs per trunk segment Class Chilopoda
(centipedes)
5b. Two pairs of legs per trunk segment Class Diplopoda
(millipedes)

u
 insects and Relatives - 4

Class Insecta

~ Insect Characteristics Jf
I, Three body regions (head, thorax, abdomen)
2. Pair of compound eyes, plus (usually) three simple eyes on the head
3, Pair of antennae on the head
4, Varied and adapted mouthparts, derived from a labrum, a pair of mandibles, a pair
of maxilla, and a labia
5. Three pairs of walking legs (s61",etimts JUS} fu boJa.nce,)
6, TWQ pairs of wings, derived not from limbs, but from outgrowths of the body wall
"".'AIp~ '#Vl4""'~ 'I'\~~ ( . 1. __ ,1
"1I~Pllc:S, I.et:9.s 'hnl=. H.u. ;; -h . 9'er~tc l"OIep~,""IJ'1
• I
)
Important Advan~ges ot Insec s 0
• Extreme adaptability
• Small size
• Flight
• Complete Metamorphosis

Life Cycles of Insects

Simple Metamorphosis ,,'

Example: silverfish. The juveniles are essentially miniature adults, having
the same lifestyle.

Incomplete Metamorphosis
Examples: dragonflies, cicadas. The juveniles (nymphs) are somewhat
like the adult, but have important differences and lead a different lifestyle,

Complete MeUUnorphosis
The juveniles (larvae) are very different from the adults and have a very
different lifestyle. When the larval stage is done, the insect goes through a
second phase of embryonic-type development (the pupa) and emerges as
an adult. This adaptation has been very successful, and about 88% of
known insect species have a complete metamoxphosis. J_ A~ .

tP~I/M"- ~.,.~ 1HftG, ,,~~ IF ~ F";; ~ .fLu. ....Ac.U f:,~

I!It:>/c ~ u - ~fLrt1+ t:l..~
.hI \J ve5~'
Wh~ ~x~ 'n5e~tS 5D SlACtessv:\ _. , ("')
• ve.n:1 5Mo-.H) SffiClU Iuc.h.e ) sma.,L\ o.\~-t · .Of e»\~'1 tu <;U\VI Ve-
"me-mmorj>l\,iS1'S tUAuu.l~ +h6fY\ til /A)e 1I11nG'lA.5 fesUUfces
- t\.cA tl btA- }Ji IA· ty
 insects and Relatives· 5

Class Insecta

The Big Four: the most successful Orders

Order Coeloptera (beetles) Ya.( MA~li~

.s{>ec,ies. 1d~1'\~f\eJ./I"\o.-i\~cI
Name means "sheath-winged". elI bIg adaptatlon IS Wing covers.
There are over 250,000 named sp cies. ~
_~5 ~~
Order Lepidoptera (butterniei and mols) \60,000 spec.i6 flo--t-I\~d
The name means "scaly-winged". There are about 150,000 named specles.

Order Hymenoptera (ants, bees, llnp. wasps) \20.000 ,",e0M.ec\ C 5000. \ \ '(\'seeks )
elLn <The name means "membrane-Winged". There are about 120,000 named species, of
) W~t which the majority are ants. These insects determine gender by _~plodil?loidy. _./ "fr - ~ ~~
)<;e _ s;~~ ~ b'1l 3h! ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ J:D sls.Jer.s ~ -It. ~~ ..
O-$Vrw"~ .,."-.~II~m -~" (t\,iVlS\oY\S ~ 'o...hD"l) ~ VJc,\<.)\Ctl\\l1- {~~ s ~S t.-0\r\ ~
l"WAJ Order JJlptera (true flies) -t~evj d("e SDG\.tiL ~
~t\t. Order includes gnats, flies, and mosquitoes. The name means ''two wings", because
these insects do not have a second pair of wings; the second pair have evolved into
halteres. There are over 90,000 named species.

Other Major Orders of Insects

There are many other kinds of insects, and not everyone agrees on how to classify them. For
example, some sources put termites under Isoptera and group mantids and roaches with
Orthoptera. I present one version here, but not a definitive one. I have left out several minor
unfamiliar orders. '
Order Neuroptera (lacewings, ant lions, dobsonflies, etc.)
Order Mecoptera (scorpionflies)
Order Siphonaptera (fleas)
Order Trichoptera (caddisflies)
Order Anoplura (sucking-lice)
Order Hemiptera (true bugs and relatives)
Order Mallophaga (biting lice, bird -lice)
Order Psocoptera (book lice, bark lice)
Order Homoptera (white flies, aphids, scale insects, cicadas)
Order Thysanoptera (thrips)
Order Orthoptera (crickets, grasshoppers, locusts)
Order Dictyoptera (termites, manticis, cockroaches)
Order Dennaptera (earwigs)
'Order Plecoptera (stoneflies)
Order Ephemeroptera (mayflies)
Order Odonata (dragonflies and damselflies)
Order Phasmida (walking sticks and leaf insects)
Order Thysanura (bristletails, silverfish)
Order Collembola (snow flies and springtails)
)
Or- &\~ r '1y\'\\e ll\.O £\t:Ka...,

SpeC,I-t<; ,breed . 11\1/ ~ i bb 1i ~15 ole.-penoli t)~ /YYl MIN -1'\'] e,

CAJ'\ (JY\i \'\ dUl \\~.. S:lm'\e h f\'\e s -t\\e Queen bee Iotti? \ eS
~o Ott ~ stan: I'\e-w u>\lrV\~. SuiV\e,h~V\es NOI.
 ·NGOMPLETE (I
METAMORPHOSIS COMPLETE FOUR COMMON INSECTS
METAMORPHOSIS OF THE POND

~-.
~:.....-;;1
.. :..

EGGS EGG I>

L

4JIIJIIt 'r;: .

•
YOUNG NYMPH
:::;::: ,

LARVA, (CATERPILLAR)
§:..¥'
~k~
r.
....~.

."~' :
~".

,,~ ADULT DRAGONFLY

MAYFLY LARVA
ADULT MAYFLY

,;' DRAGONFLY LARVA

,,'
,';
The adult mayjly has a shi".,! hod."1 with
>:~:;. The dragonfly and damseljly are similar two or three conspiclious tai/ fila""mls,
in that bolk have two pairs of large, often longer than ils bOlly. lis Irans/Jar-
'.:',
filmy wings, shorl antennae and long ent, veined wings have mort of a hut-
bodies. But the damselfly's body is gen- terfly than a drago'!fly shape. The ma,:tI?'1
~~\:.
LATER NYMPH :t:.::: erally thinner and it can close ils wings yowg is aquatic, lilce the olher ".'Imphs
j: over its back when at resl, Dragor!/lies on these pages, Imt is distingllished by
#.: ...
invariably keep their wings out jlat in the gills along its abdomen. 71Ie molh/ike
CHRYSALIS (PUPA)
the position shown above, and are strong- caddisjiy adult has long antennae, chew-
er, faster .fliers_Its bulging eyes meel ing moulh paris and fOllr wings which
;;:.' each other on top oj the head. The young, fold over ,ils body. lis larval life is UJ'uol-
~,,:

too, are similar, hut the damselfly nymph ('I pQSJ'ed in a prolective casing /)/ debris.
has Ihree finlike gills attached to its tail.

ADULT
ADULT
{I; "/,,,,, il Irm'f..f Iht. ,:g,g, all illJt'ti li'-
I
JI.'III ·/,'1 lilt! {ulllil /;11'111 il will II/lima/til' If the egg yields an inseel form which is'" '..
a,nl ,'t', tlllt! ~/ it gmh'J "I' wi/Illmi Jim',,:. mt;rely different from the final adult, and ' ,
illg :':!ilt~!J/1 II 1IIIIIflI, ",. rrJlu~lJ. ,'/((g/!, il if this laroa must pass through a pupal ' ADUlTCADDISFLY ~
is "'(11./ /" I,,' lfI"/I'rg";'~1J ;".."",pldl~ /II,.lfI- stage, perhaps in a cocoon, then the spe-"
1Il1ll/'h,/.I'i.r, '/7,,: //fIr/I'lI',ill c'ab/Ja.gt' 11I~!f ,ies is characleri~ed by complete meta-
ullll/'", II ~/illk bllg, ;,1' ,1"11(11 (Ill ill,I"'tl, ..11- morph'lJiis. The painted lady bUllerjly
lllllll~" il,l "II(~I' 1II(1/'ki/~gJ' dUlIlgc' ,l'ligh'~)' shown here is first a caterpillar and then ' ADULT DAMSELFLY
lI.f ;1/':IJJ/',I'II'I'11I1,1,:h J""/'mll~I'II/I)11lI1 111/1/1.1', a chrysalis before becoming the ck/icate
lIIlIl '''llllIlIgll i/.lil/t//~I' ,gl'l.l' If'il~gl'. il iJ t',\,-
,fflllltllll'l'
..J
J""""'" il,I'I(lJ'I"t/ (lui
.
III hI',
adull creature which in no way resembles
Ihe slow-moving, segmented calerpillar, ',":~,.
not even in its habits Dr food preferences.' ' ..
,
) DAMSELFLY LARVA
LARVA
INCASINR
'l "ADDISH Y
 /I

INSECT MOUTH PARTS

BITING AND CHEWING

(GRASSHOPPER)
A WORKSHOP OF lEGS ~ 13(A.~b'e. Bees &I

ha..\J (J, "\:t)D \ 'Do'/. es

(5'\ ~.e-\c \.e'j <; •
; .

lJeveAq>ec\ftJf
dAff· \\Vi\\C)
,
1
eundit\on~.
I'
l :"
~ ... : ~f'IERCING AND SUCKING
, . (MOSQUITO)
5· '.
!:~.~.:...

fr':
it:·
CHEWING AND LAPPING
(HONEY BEE)
ANTENNA
CLEANER

t;.
~~: ..
~;/l:.:,:.
·;1t~·\·
Em COMB
Each pair of a bee's legs performs a spe-
};!';. SPONGING cial junction. The rear Jegs scrap! pollen
1-1'.
(HOUSEFLy)
from each other and deposit it on pollen
.~;:. baskets ( sluu.kd in green at top). The stiff
~;" hairs of the middle legs brurh pollen from
the thorax and front legs. Tht sharp little
spur ( in green, center) removes wax from
Although the mouth parts of insects are wax glands on the abdomen. Each front
superficially dissimilar, theJ' have all de- leg has bTanthed,feathery hairs for collect-
veloped and bun modified from the same ing pollen. It also has a special joint ( en-
origiTUlI plan-still retained by insects largement, bottom) with a comb JOT clean-
like the grasshopper. Essentiall)·, these ing the e.:),ts! and a hairlined notch through
mouth parts consist of a labrum, or upper which antennae are drawn JOT cleaning.
lip (7); a labium, or lower liPJ2),: and
two pairs of h'?"kontal(,· lC'orkmg Jaws:
the mandibles (3) and the maxillae (4).
 Austin Nature Center
Honey Bee Facts

BODY PARTS
u Head:
The bee has 3 body parts: head, thorax and abdomen. (The head has 5
eyes- 3 simple eyes on the top and 2 compound eyes on the front). The
antennae have tiny plates on the end which provide a keen sense of smell.
The mouth of the honey bee consists of a tongue which is actually an
underlip rolled into a slender tube, and jaws. The tongue has a bristly pad
on the end, which is used to collect nectar. Once collected,the nectar goes
to a special stomach called a "honey bag". This is the frist step in the
production of honey. When the bee returns to the hive with the nectar that
it has collected from plants, it places the nectar in storage cells where
the process of turning nectar into honey is completed. The jaws are used
to shape wax for making honeycombs.
Thorax:
The wings and legs of the honey bee are located on the thorax. The
wings are moved over 12,000 times per minutes by powerful muscles
which enable the bee to carry loads heavier than itself. The bee has 6
legs which are covered with tiny hair-like bristles. Pollen is attached to
the bristles as the bee collects nectar. Some of the pollen is brushed off
onto other flowers. This causes pollination, enabling flowers to ripen
seeds. Most of the pollen is carried back to the hive on openings in the
hind legs called "pollen baskets·.
Abdomen:
The abdomen has scales called wax plates which collect the wax
the bees produce from their own bodies. This wax is used by the worker
bees to build the hive. The stinger is located at the rear of the abdomen.
The worker beels stinger has a barbed end which becomes lodged in the
animal that it stings. When the worker bee stings, it dies. The queen bee
has a straight stinger and she can sting without dying. She uses her
stinger to kill rival queens. Drones have no stinger.

LIFECVCLES
All bees begin life as eggs laid by the queen. The queen lays 1 ,000
to 2,000 eggs per day in !tbrood combs·. Brood combs are in a part of the
hive set aside as a nursery. Each egg is laid in a cell made of wax. The
cells are sealed with beeswax.. The worker bee cells are the smallest in
the hive, the drones are medium sized and the queen cells are the largest.
The bee larvae hatches in 3 days. The worker bees feed the larvae as
many as 1,000 meals a day. All larvae are fed "royal jellyl' at first. Royal
jelly is produced in glands in young worker beesl heads. After 2 or 3 days,
worker bee larvae are shifted to a diet of ·bee-bread", a mixture of honey
and pollen. Queen larvae are fed royal jelly throughout the larval stage.
 The wormlike larvae covers itself with silky fibers to form a
cocoon. The body of the larvae forms into the shape of the adult bee. The
adult queen bee hatches in 7 days. The adult worker hatches in 21 days
and the adult drone in 24 days.
Queen:
Larvae which grow in the largest brood cells are fed a constant diet
of royal jelly. These larvae become the queen larvae. The old queen
attemps to sting and kill her rival daughters. The worker bees allow this
if the queen is not too old. If the queen workers decide that the queen is
too old, they press around her until she dies. The queen is always attended
by 10-15 worker bees. The young worker bees feed and stroke her
to encourage her to lay eggs.
A queen bee lives 4 to 5 years. She mates once with a drone and then
lays eggs for the rest of her life. The young queen who is the first to
leave her cell stings the other young ones to death. She then flies out of
the hive and mates with one of the drones.
Workers:
In a hive of 10,000 bees, about 9,500 are workers. They are female
bees and they rule the hive. They never stop working until they die. They
live for different lengths of time depending on when they are born. If they
are born during a busy time for the hive, they work themselves to death in
2 or 3 months. If they are born in the fall, they usually live to be 8 or 9
months old.
A woker bee has different jobs at different times in her life. First
she feeds the larvae and pupae. Next she guards the hive entrance. She
also beats air rapidly with her wings to cool the hive and keep the air
fresh. Finally the bee begins to gather nectar and pollen. A worker bee
does a upollen danceu in the hive to sign~1 the other bees the location of a
patch of flowers.
Drones:
The male bees are called drones. They do no work in the hive. One
drone mates. with the queen, then dies. The other drones are allowed to
stay in the hive if the hive is doing well. Before winter comes, the
workers drive out the drones and sting them to death if necessary. If the
drones find no other hive to welcome them, they starve or freeze to death.

VALUE OF THE HONEY BEE

Honey bees are extremely valuable insects to humans. Most live in
man-made hives. Escaped swarms usually nest in hollow trees. They are
valuable for the honey and wax they produce, but especially for their jobs
as pollinators. The yield of crops such as orchard fruits and clover seeds
can be greatly increased by introducing hives of honey bees into orchards. 0
compiled by Sherry Winriette 10/93
Picture Glossarv ~

u How Bugs Grow

SIAtIPLE METAMORl)HOSIS
E~aa:lplt' Silverfish

o
!'gg

.... -.
--------~~~~------~-­
n)'1nph stages
INC()MPLETE illT:~10RPHOSIS
Examplt: Dragonfly

I.ldult
egg

aquatic n·ymph.
or naiad

COMPLETE ME1:l\.L\tlC)RPHOSIS
.Exampl::: H('llsetly

o
egg
PUp~7:':!lnf

,·J'oJd.s
pup,,))

u ;.ldllit

. 36 .
 lUre Glossary

, Examples of Growth Stages

THE EGG AND EGG CASE

(holds 21-2.J eggs)

Lace1.£.'ing Fleu Apple Aphid GernZLl17 Cockroacb ( :itrlts Red Mite

egg case

LARVA Larvae of some flies are MAGGOTS

Salt-marsh
Mosquito LanlQ H ouset7,)' Maggot

Larvae of beetles are GRUBS LarVae of buttertlies and rnoths

are CATERPILbARS

BL71zded Woo/lybear
LuTlJc1 olIsabell'1 Tiger M Of"
Japanese Beetle Grub

. 38 .
Ie Glossary

NYMPH-loo~s like adult, NAIAD-The early growth of some insects

u only smaller takes place in water. At that stage, the insect
is caIJed a naiad or aquatic nymph.

Dragonfl~' Naiad

Cockro.:1ch Nymph
u

PUPA-middle stage of growing COCOON-a case made of silken

insect or bug threads that holds the growing insect

Apple Maggot
Banded Wooll

· 39 .
o

n
 u . ~ uert: IS 5t11l much disa~e('ml"nt amung entoDlolo-
~Ists as to the exact numbc.-r of urders amon~ insects.
jaws. they do considerable damage. They include such
dt'Structi,·e ~sts as the boll wee"'il and the Colorado
potato 1>«11('.
Slrepsip""" The nallll' uf this oruer indicates that these
inst'Cts arc: characterized as IU·IS/rtf u·in.~s. The order i!
Some scientists list as many as thiny-scven separate small and consists of tiny parasitic insects which pre~
of' orders. Others go to the opposite extreme and list fewer largely upon wasps and ~'arious members of the Homop.
than twenty-five ·orders. The orders given below include Ina order.
Thysanaptera. These jringt wings are the thrips. They
all the major groups of insectS. Most of the disagreement are the enemies of e\'ery gardener. In spite of their
occurs about th~ less important orders. The orders below minute size. they cause plants to wilt because they attack
include insectS the 'average person never \...·m see. in large numbers. .
Yuu will notice that manv of the order names md in Hemiptera. The true bugs bdong to this order. Thev
-p!tra. Thi~ is the Gre~k for wings. The (orm of the have sharp braks and suck sap from plants, thus often
wlOgs proVides a key to the differences between many becoming major agricultural pests. rhe wings of the
insects in this order fold flat over the back and are haH
o( the orders. The main orders of the insects beginning clear and half doudy looking, thus justifyi~g the scien-
with the most primitive and progressing to the most tific name, which indicates they are the hal] wings.
complete are listed under separate headings below. Homoptera. The cicadas, aphids, froghoppers, lantern
flies, leaf hoppen, and tree hoppers belong to this order.
Thy.anura. The name means jringtlails. This order in- They, too, suck sap through sharp litde sucking spears.
cludes the bristle tails, the silverfish, and the fircbrats. But they hold their wings differently from the bugs of
They are soft, tiny, wingless insects rarely found except the Hnniptna order. They hold them at an :mgle, 10
among old papers and under rubbish. The silverfish, that they look like a peaked roof, instead of folding
often found in households. is said to be the oldest insect them 8at over their backs.
on earth. Neuroptera. These, the nmJt-w;nged insects, include the
Collembola. These are tiny and light in weight. Many Dobson flies, the alder flies, the ant lions, and the
of them, called springlails, hurl themselves into the air by familiar green lacewings of summer gardens. The lace-
means of tails which are pressed suddenly against the wings, particularly, are beneficial because they destror
~round or surface film of the water to shoot the wingless
aphids. The young lacewing flies are so active in devour- '
creatures on long jumps. Some of the springtails are ing the plant lice that they are known generally.,
known as snow jltas because thev appear while snow is "aphis lions."
on the ground, sometimes bv the thousand.
Corradentla. These tiny insects are very abundant. ~ ;
Plecoplera. The stoneflies' belong to this order. Like
~orrodCDtia are. the gnawing insects and include IUds !
the nymphs of the dragonflies and the mayflies, the msects as book bce. ,.
immature stonefties live bt:neath the water, breathing Trichaptera. This order comprises the caddis ftiea. fa
throu~h gills. They sometimes emerge as adults very
early m the spring, thus gaining one of their commOD their immature stages they live underwater. The tan.
mak~ cases of waste material in which they live. Same :

u names: snowjiiu.
Eph~merida. Th.e. order-name of these insects, the
~ay flIes, means IIInng jor a day. Some May flies actually
~Ie on the day they appear, and all are extremely short
species construct underwater nets among pebbles ... :
feed on the water-borne particles which are carried '
into them.
Lepidoptera. All the butterflies and the moths c:amr '
lived. They mat~, t~e females lay the eggs in the water, under this heading. The order n.ame means they are tbr :
a.nd then the bnef bfe of the adults is at an end. Some-
"sc~e ~ings." Tiny scales, like ~inute shingles, COYer
tunes great clouds of these insects are seen along streams. their wings. Some large butterflles are said to have •
Odonata. The word comes from the Greek, and means
~ooIJud. ~e m~uths of the damsel flies and dragonflies,
many as 1,000,000 scales on their wings. These a:.aJa
l!lduded in tillS order, have sharp projections that look are the "dust" that comes off on your hands whm yo.
like teeth. Dragonflies are swift fliers. The damsel flieS touch a moth or butterfly.
. are smaller and weaker. Thev flutter about close to the Mecoptera. The name of this order means ~
veg,etati~n of swamp and stream. Dragonflies rest with and the group includes the scorpion Sies. Their
thell' wmgs outspread; damsel flies with their wings wings, usually yellow and black, extend for a
folded above their backs like butterfiics. able distance back of the curled-up tip of the
Orthoplera.~ These are the stra;gM wings. They include It is this scorpionlike tail-tip that gives the
the grasshoppers, the katydids, the crickets. the cock- common name.
~aches. and the praying mantises. The straight-edged Diptera. The two wings are the flies.
Wings of many of these insects produce the music of the minute fruit flies to the largest of the
late summer fields. The males of these species rub one include those daddy longlegs of the
wing over another like a bow rubbed over a fiddle to as well as the midges, mosquitoes,
produce their musical sounds. All have only two wings in adult form.
, I.ap~. The equal wings of this order arc the destruc- of major importance, but some species
llve terUlltes. They live in colonies in wood. Although scavengers, removing waste materials
they ,are commonly called white ants, they arc not close animals.
mauves of the true ants. Siphonaptera. This is a small but im:poz_
Dermaptera. The earwigs, with curious pincerlike or- comprises the fleas. Some species
gans at the ends ~f their abdomens, are equipped with kind of flea is found only on bats.
leathery front Wings. Hence the order name, which dine on the blood of either man or beast.
means skin wings. intelligent.
Caleoptera. The insects of this order are the innumer- Hymenaptera. The membrane WU"1"--tlbe:
able beedes. the largest group of the insect world. They ants, ichneumon flies, and other-i",,,iI,:t .. ii_oiiI
all have. sneath u:ings. The front wings have been trans- the highest development
fonned mto hard shards which provide armor fOT the Thev come the nearest to exllibiitillig
beedes' bodies. In flight. these sheaths are swung forward instinctive abilities are the most
~d the ,membranous hind wings are unfolded and put While the ants that we see nonnally
Into 3Cllon. lkcause beetles ~re biters equipped with mating time the true males aDd (emal~

u nest on a. mating flight do have wings. TJ:leir wings are

formed. hke those of the wasps and bees. thus linking
them With the H)""tnOpltra order. When ants alight after
a matinR Ai~ht, the females break off their winv;s before
cnterin~ the ground to found a new colonv. ·f-hev fly
onlv the one time. ' ,
 How Insects Grow lTIOre stuff ...

Insects change a great dea] d'!.!rin~ their H't7~C: The~e chc:!!'1f!ec: can }lp so drastic that Egg @ .
~'i
;various growth stages look entirely diiierent. Metamorphosis (pronounced metta-
U mor-fo-sis and meaning change-of-shape-process) is the name given to the sequence Nymph
of changes from egg to adult. The two most common forms of insect metamorphosis
are called gradual and complete.

Gradual or incomplete metamorphosis

Here, the insect that emerges from the egg is called a nymph. It looks like a little
adult, not like a worm. As the nymph grows, it sheds its skin and after several
growth stages reaches adulthood. Wings develop from flaps on the thorax that Gradual
enlarge sideways at each stage. The young nymphs live in the same habitat and eat metamorphosis
of a mole cricket
the same food as the adults, thus competing with them directly.

Egg Day7-Nymph Day 23-Nymph

Life cycle of a grasshopper
Complete metamorphosis .
Here, the embryo hatches from the egg without features of the adult. It usually
resembles a worm and is called a larva (plural: larvae). Larvae shed their skins as Where do you fit?
Uey outgrow them and increase in size. After a certain number of sheddings, the
outer skin hardens into a tough casing and the insect is now called a pupa or
chrysalis. Some larvae which are caterpillars, like those of moths or sawflies,
construct a silk covering over the pupa and this is called a cocoon. During its pupal
stage, the insect transforms itself completely, with some cells moving into their
adult position and the remainder turning to mush and being discarded. When the
insect emerges from the pupal case, it is a winged adult and can reproduce. At first
the wings are soft and sluiveled. They are pumped up with blood to full size, then
Egg fA
enzymes tan and harden the skin. Complete metamorphosis allows the young insect

~
not to compete with the adult by living a different life from the adult in a different
habitat. For example, the leaf-eating caterpillar becomes a nectar-sipping butterfly. . ..... ' . .
-- ~:~

Complete
u Egg Larva Pupa
metamorphosis
of a Gulf fritillary

Life cycle of a two-wing fly

©TPWPress 1999 5:
 There are Lots of Insects and They are Fun to Watch
More than half of all the animals known on earth
are insects. There are more than 1 million (perhaps
as many as 3 million) species of insects, whlle there
Sdentific Name Percent of
World Spedes
Common Name
olOrder
are only 1/2 million other known animal species.
: of Order
There are 100,000 or so species of insects native to
1 toleoptera 38.54 Beetles -.:: \'¥} the United States. More than 1/3 of these have been
2 Lepidoptera 14.89 Moths D"Q found in Texas. Texas has more different kinds of
3 Hymenoptera 13.69 Wasps~ insects than any other state.
Relative Importance of Insect Species
4 Diptera 13.09 Flies ~ Among All Organisms
5 ffeDliptera 6.65 True bugs ~ Rank Name of Order Percentage of Spedes
1 Insects 42.00
6 Homoptera 4.25 ffoppers . , 2 Other Animals 29.00
7 Trichoptera 0.93 Caddis flies ~ 3 Bacteria 9.00
8 Orthoptera 0.93 Locusts~ 4
5
Fungi
Single--Celled
8.00 '
9 Collembola 0.80 Springtails ~ Organisms 6.00
10 Grylloptera 0.73 Crickets~ . . 6 Plants 5.00
7· Archaebacters 1.00
11 Mallophaga 0.66 Biting lice .,~ • .
12 Odonata 0.65 Dragonflies ~
Color the area on
13 Neuroptera 0.59 Lacewing flies ~ the pie chart that
t4 Blattoptera 0.53 Roaches ~ represents Moths.
~5 Thysanoptera 0.53 Thrip.s~
6 Psocida 0.33 Barklice ~
~ Siphonaptera 0.30 Fleas 9l.
, T'. ~emerida 0.27 Mayflies ~ ..Jt
~ .Llasmida
J. 0.27 Walking sticks ~
) Termitida 0.25 Termites ~ ,~
Plecoptera 0.21 Stoneflies ~
Manteida 0.20 Mantise5~
Strepsiptera 0.18 Twistwing~~e:_ ~
Dermaptera 0.15 Earwigs~ ~
Diplura 0.09 Campodeans ",II'?\.:'-----
Anoplura 0.07 Sucking lice . .
Panorpida 0.06 Sco~ionflies ~
Lepismida 0.04 Silverfis~l{l
Protura 0.03 Telson~~f'
Machilida 0.03 BristIetails ~< Many people say they don't like "bugs", meaning
insects and other"creepy crawlies", because they
Megaloptera 0.03 Dobson flies ~ have not stopped to observe them and to realize
Embiida 0.02 Webspinners ~ 'how very few insects are really harmful. Insects are
Scolopendrellida 0.01 Symph~la~~ truly £acinating and watching their activities can
provide hours of fun. Insects are easy to find, since
Raphidiida 0.-- Snakefhes~
they are common in just about any kind of habitat.
~oraptera 0.-- Angel flies ~ You can find them in your backyard and in any field
<ar' ."ptera 0.- Snowskips ,,:0' :? or patch of woods, in lakes and rivers, in deserts
100.00 and on the seashore, but almost none at sea.
2
 The Working Parts of an Insect: Outside
All insects have three body divisions:
• The head is concerned Wlth getting food and with sensing what goes on in the.
insect's surroundings. Thus, eyes (for seeing), antennae (mostly for smelling and
tasting) and mouthparts (for feeding) are all located on the head .
.• The thorax is the body division involved with movement. Thus, the three pairs
of jointed legs (typical for all insects) and the two pairs of wings (possessed by
most, but not all insects) are located on the thorax.
• The abdomen is the largest, fattest section and it contains the organs for digestion,
elimination and reproduction.

Evolution of
insect anatomy

Labrum
Front view of
an insect head

Typical Insect

Head Thorax Abdomen

Exoskeleton
The head consists of: a cap or The thorax includes: segment 55 The abdomen includes: segment 58 (often
acron (A) in front with antenna (1); orprothoraxwith pronotal reduced or fused with the thorax in wasps);
ocelli (2); eyes (3); mouth (4); shield (10); and foreleg (11); and segments 59 through 14 (simple segments
. segment 51 with upper lip or segment S6 or meso thorax with usually without appenaages); segments 515
labrum (5); se~ent 52 with jaws forewing (12) and midleg (13); to 517, carrying gonopods (16) or specialized
or mandibles (6); segment 53 with segment 57 or metathorax with appendages for mating and egg laying; the last
foodfingers or maxillary palps (7); hindwing (14) an~ hindleg (15). se~ent S18, ~gbind feelers or cerci (17)
segment 54 with lower lip or ana the paraprocts (18) or frass shapers for
laoium (8); often with acfditional eliminating waste. The anus (19) oE.en5 between
foodfingers or labial palps (9). the last segment and the telson (T).
Insects do not have a skeleton made of bones inside the body the way we and other
backboned animals do. Instead, the insect skeleton, called an exoskeleton, is a tough
skin made of a horn-like material called chitin (pronounced kai-tin). The exoskeleton
fits the insect's body like a suit-of-armor with flexible membrane joints that perm:;'
movement. As the insect grows, the body gets plumper, stretching ~e memDrant
until the skin must be shed to 2tC:8n1:Uloaate 'the larger body size.lhis sheddin,
IoI. Jf a stick insect called molting. There are several molts before an insect can mature.
TPWPress 1999 6
 The Working Parts of an Insect: Inside
Inside an insect's body are the organ
5vsten15 conc-=;ne·~ ";";,:1~ -.:::.:~,._::: :ife ;:I.

fUnctions.

The digestive system [1- for extracting nutrients

from swallowed food and pushing out the waste as
frass. The system is basically a tube that starts at the
mouth (1) with salivary glands (2). The tube of
exoskeleton extends as foregut (3) to a crop (4) which
often has teeth for grinding food. The soft midgut (5)
is attached behind the crop where there are appendix-
like sacks or diverticulae (6). These secrete digestive a 1 Side view of the interior of a grasshopper.
enzymes. The midgut absorbs nutrients, which are
transported to the cells by the blood.
The circulatory system I9 - for carrying nutrients to,
and waste from, all the parts of the body. Atube-shaped "Wing
segmentally chambered heart (7) pumps the greenish-
colored blood to the front of the body along the back. ....-,-~ 8
This fluid then circulates freely throughout the body,
seeping toward the back as it bathes the cells. There
are no blood vessels. 9

The respiratory system I!j - for obtaining oxygen

from air and getting rid of carbon dioxide. Tmy tubes
called tracheae (8) (pronounced tray-key-ay), carry air
throughout the body from small outside openings called B
spiracles (9). Aquatic insects have gills as well to keep
~e tracheae from floodptg. Oxygen passes across the
Cross-section (a-a) of the interior of a grasshopper.
gill membrane into the tracheae. Gases are passed
directly between cells and tracheae. Some larger insects
such as dragonflies and bees may be seen to breathe
by muscular movement Some insects use air to make
hissing sounds.
The excretory system ~ - for getting rid of the waste
left from metabolizing nutrients. The hindgut (10)
excretes crystals of soluble waste products removed
from the blood by Malpighian tubules (11) which
function like kidneys. This soluble waste is excreted
dry and combined with discarded food detritus to form
the £rass which is expelled through the anus (12). The
dry excretion of soluble waste allows retention of water. Bottom-up view of the interior of a grasshopper.
Some wastes get stored in the hard skin of the . .
exoskeleton where they are used to make pigments for r------- Color Guide - - - - - - - ,
bright colors. G - Color the blood vessel green.
The nervous system lID - for picking up information Y- Color the digestive system yellow.
X- Color the excretory system (Malpighian tubes) red
from the sense o~ and coordinating behavior. There B- Color the nervous system blue.
is a brain (13) at the head end. A double nerve cord P - Color the air tubes of the respiratory system pink.
runs the length of the underside of the body. There are
nerve centers or ganglia (14) in each segment to control
various parts of the body. Because of these extra brains,
an ant that has lost its head will still walk.
The reproductive' system - for the production of future
generations. Females have two ovaries with eggs, and
males have two testes and an organ for mating. Females
mate and save sperm to use later. In most insects, eggs
are fertilized as they are laid. Some insects lay .
unfertilized, yet viable, eggs. This process is called Silk gland
parthenogenesis. Many insects may be parthenogenic
in summer but produce males for sexual reproduction The alimentary canal (Y), silk gland, dorsal blood
in winter.
vessel (G) and ventral nerve cord (B) of a caterpillar.

7 ©TPW Press 1999

 How Insects Smell, Taste, See and Hear
Smelling and tasting are most important to insects.
Thev are chemical senses that use nerve sensors to
recognize molecules. Insects use smell and taste to
U recog:nj.ze others of the same species, distinguish
males from females, locate suitable foods and rollow
trails back to the nest.
Molecules carried by breezes land on nerve sensors
on the antennae where they are identified as smells.
Male silk moths smell pheromone (pronounced
!er-oh-moan) molecules released by a female miles
away and fly to her. Sexton beetles can smell a dead
mouse many yards away and fly to it to lay their
eggs on this food and bury it.
Other insects taste flavors by touching membranes
to foods. Beetles and cockroaches taste with their
mouth palps. Butterflies taste leaves with organs
on their feet to identify suitable caterpillar food on
which to lay eggs. Ants use their antennae to taste
the chemical trans marked for them by fellow
workers.
Seeing is also very important to insects. This
Honeycomb six-
physical sense is oased on the intensity, color sided lens facets
wavelength and polarization of light.
Simple eyes, or ocelli, are present in most larval
!"1.Sects and many adults where there may be up to
Vee. They are used to distinguish day from ni~t,
ld determine the polarization of light which 15
used to tell time or direction.
Compound eyes are found in the adults of insects
and other arthropods. The individual eyelets are
close-packed honeycomb-like to form a compound Under each facet each
eye with six-sided lens facets of clear thick cuticle. eyelet has its own receptor
Under each facet, an eyelet has its own receptor and optic nerve.
and optic nerve. We do not know how an insect
puts these individual pictures together in its brcnn.··
We do not know what a bee actually sees.
Compound eyes are good for detecting minute
movement. They also sense colors but in different
parts of the spectrum than we do. Thus bees and Grasshoppers "sing"
butterflies see the hidden ultraviolet patterns in by bowing the rigicf
flowers. furewing with a ratchet
on the inner side of
Hearing is another important sense for many their hindleg.
different insects. Most insects hear by sensing the .
vibration of small hairs or membranes on the skin.
Grasshoppers, crickets and cicadas signal their
presence by making noise with ratchets or vibrating
membranes. They make noise to communicate their
presence or attract mates. Crickets and mantises
'\ ~ membrane organs on the front legs that Crickets and mantises have
membrane organs on the front
~on as ears. Grasshoppers and cicadas have legs that function as ears.
c .on the abdomen. Many moths have ears on
either the thorax or abdomen, tuned to the
frequencies of bats, their most serious predators. 8
©TPWPress 19r
 How Insects Move
Most adult insects, nymphs and many larvae have three pairs of legs, one for each segment of the middle
section of the body called the thorax. n
The usual insect leg consists of five parts:
The coxa joins the leg to the body and is often
fused with the body.
The trochanter is a small joint permitting the
leg to rotate foreward and back.
The femur looks like a thigh and is usually large.
The tibia looks like a shin.
The tarsus looks like a foot with up to 5
segments. It ends in a claw or pair of claws.
Many insects have hairy or sticky pads on the
tarsal segments for traction and tasting. All
segments of the leg may have articulated spines
or rigid teeth for traction or protection.
Foot
The shapes and proportions of the various
parts that go to make up an insect's leg vary, Toe Nail--.
depending on its way of life: Names of the parts of your leg

Grasshoppers, crickets, fleas, leafhoppers, leaf beetles and other

jumpers have muscular femurs and long propelling tibias.
Tiger beetles, ants, cockroaches and other runners have long legs
in strong sockets.
Chafers and other tree-climbing beetles have strong turned-back
claws for grasping twigs and leaves.
Hanging flies have similar recurved claws for capturing and
holding prey.
The many le~ of primitive insects
Water beetles and water bugs have padd1F!s or hair-fringed flippers (view of abdomfnalleglets and
for swimming. tubercle organs)

Pond striders, caddis flies and other pontoon walkers have fringed
feet that hold air-bubble floats permitting walking on water.
Flies and other crawlers on smooth leaves or skin have dry adhesive
pads that cling to glass with a molecular bond the same way that
plastic wrap does.
Mantises, mantis flies, assassin bugs and other hunting insects
have a forelimb with a spined.and muscular femur and opposing
tibia for grabbing prey.
The usual insect walk is accomplished with reaching forelegs,
stabilizing midlegs and pushing hindlegs. The majority of insects
have other specialized functions for one or more pairs of legs. In
Swimmer
Water-strider
addition to those already mentioned these include digging,
clasping, signaling and disguise.

;;ii:~~ !~~ -~~

-0
_
_
c:o
_
c:o -
0 -
--
When an insect walks it never lifts more than one or two legs at a time. This gives the insect walk a
wavelike motion. Each pair of legs performs a speciiic function. The forelegs reach ahead, the hindlegs
push, while the midlegs act as stabilizers.
10 ©TPWPress 1999
 How Insects Feed
Insects feed on all sorts of organic materials. Some bite and che'\o\1 plant materials, others are hunters
or scavengers that ear nleat \U:)uaU) ut:n~r llbt::CtbJ, sn.i.l utners !:;uck plant juices or blood. There are even
midge larvae that feed on crude oil in tar seeps, digesting it with bacteria in the gut.
~iting and chewing mouthparts consisting of several pairs of jaws and jaw-like structures moving from
side to side are the basic kfud found in insects. These mouthparts evolved from the jointed legs of the
front segments of the early ancestor of insects. Biting and chewing mouthparts are common to beetles,
grasshoppers, cockroaches, termites and most wingless primitive insects.

Basic I(ind of Insect Head and Mouth Structure

A - The acron is the front-end head cap. It is divided on top by a V-shaped
epicranial suture, found only in insects.
o - The three ocelli or little eyes.
a - The antennae or feelers.
e - The compound eyes or big eyes.
M - The mouth opens between acron and segment 1 underneath.
1 - The labrum is the movable upper lip on segment 1 that is joined to the
acron behind and around the mouth.
2 - The mandible is the limb of segment 2 which also bears the tongue.
3 - The maxilla is the limb of segment 3. It has a coxa of two segments. 'The
mandible-like lacinia is attached to the inside of the coxa. The palp-like
galea is attached to the end of the coxa. The leg-like maxillary palp (3a)
is attached to the outer side of the coxa. This jointed palp has its trochanter
attached to the coxa, followed by femur, tibia, tarsus and pretarsus, just
like a leg.
4 - The labium is the limb of segment 4:1t has a coxa of two segments. 'The
lip-like glossa is attached to the outer segment on its inner edge. The palp-
like puaglossa is attached to the end of the same segment. The leg-like
Ulabial palp (4a) is attached to the outer edge of the same segment. This
jointed palp has a trochanter, followed by a femur and tibiotarsus.
I

This basic kind of chewing structure is modified in other ~oups of insects. Usually the modified
mouthparts take on a thiri, long, piercing and / or sucking shape.
"Modified Mouthparts
Chewing / Lapping: Piercing / Sucking: Siphoning: Sponging:
bees and some wasps most true bugs, leafhoppers, butterflies and houseflies and
treehoppers, mosquitoes, moths stableflies
fleas ana horseflies

Bee Mosquito· Butterfly Fly

lPWPress 1999 11
 more stuff ...
Insects do a Lot of Good, but a Few are Pests
Like insects everywhere, Texas insects are important agents that. overall, make AKind Word
About "Bug" _~
our lives better ana 1110re mteresnng. ror Detter or worse, we share the planet
with them. Let's try to get along. The word bug has
several origins that have
How insects are beneficial or "good": been punned together to
form its present English
meanings: a "true bug"
Without insects, we would not have or hemipteran, insect-
Honeybee
pretty flowers to look at or fruits and pollinating a like, microfossil,
vegetables to eat. That is because most flower microorganism, disease,
plants need insects in orderto reproduce. defect, enthusiast,
obsession, fear, hidden
Without insects, we would have fewer microphone, asterisk, to
songbirds, lizards, frogs and mammals sting or to molest. Bwg
like bats, shrews and anteaters. These is Welsh for ghost. Bugge
animals would have nothing to eat since is Middle English for
demon, beetle or
t!l~y -all :feed on insects. scarecrow. Boggle is
North English for a
Without insects acting as Clean-up squads terrifying apparition.
and wu-bage collecto«; dead trees and Frog catching Bougre is French for a
animals would be piIiftg up everywhere. a horsefly nasty fellow. Buz is
Spanish for a hit, kiss of
respect or sting. Bogie is
a surprising event.
Bogyman is a bugaboo
or fearsome figure. These
other meanings are
probably responsible for
the general dislike and
n
fear of bugs by people
who are ignorant about
insects. Let's call the
How insects are harmful 01' "bad": whole group INSEcrs
and save BUG just for
Some insects are pests - meaning that insects of the order
their way of life is in conflict with ours. HEMIPTERA which can
bug or sting you like a
Some spoil or eat our plant bedbug with their
pointed mouthparts. _
or animal food, or destroy This excursion into
our possessions. etymology, or the study
of words, should not be
Some suck our blood confused with the subject
and sF-read disease. of this book, entomology,
~---- or the study of insects.

Harmful insects

But, aside from being "good" or ''bad'', insects are fascinating creatures to watch
and many are very beautiful.
3 ©TPWPress 1999
 INSECTS IN" WINTER. : .' ;,

How and Where Some Insects OveIWinter

U
0nnriDteriDg Special Aattnor
Spedes Stage PnparatioD IDacttw

Ants Carpenter Adult Produce glycerol Inactive In trees or logs

Aphids Most
. Egg None Inactive In bark crevices or
base oftwtgs

Bumblebees. • Queen PrefertWzed eggs

inside queen
Inactive Underground.
under leaves or logs

Butterflies Monarch Adult Migrate Semi-active Mexico or California

MourntngCloak Adult Lose body moisture Inactive Under bark
Painted Lady .Adult Lose body moisture Inactive Under bark
Swallowtails Pupa Form crysa1is Inactive Attached to stems or
on the ground

Crickets Most Egg • Inactive In the ground

Dragonflies Some Egg • Inactive On the bottom

ofapond
Some Nymph • Semi-active On the bottom
ofapond
Some Adult Migrate ActIve Unlmown
U
Ftretlles Most Larva (""worms") Inactive Underground

Flies Cluster (wings

overlap)
Adult • Inactive except
whenwann
In crevices ofbulld-
~s or cracks in
hollow trees
House (Wings
diagonal to side)
Adult
• Inactive except
when warm
In crevices ofbulld-
lngs or cracks
in hollow trees

Grasshoppers Most Egg • Inactive In the ground

Japanese Beetles Larva (grubs) Inactive In the ground

Honeybees • Adult Store food Semi-active Hive In a tree or

manmadebax

Ladybug All Adult Cluster together Inactive Under leaves and

grasses
Mantlses Many Egg Brown. hardened- Inactive On bushes
foam egg case
Mosquitos Most Adult females ~ Inactive Sheltered place
Moths Gypsy Egg On tree trunks
Isabella Larva (\\bolly
Bear)
• Usually inactive Under leaves and
grasses
Cecropia
U Maple Sugar
Pupa
Adult
Spins a cocoon
Loses moisture
Inactive
Inactive
On branches
Under bark
. StoneflJes Many Nymph to
Adult • Active Stream to land

tyOM. 6. ~ls O~ )J~-ht~c.. 141

""- - .... " ..... -~-.-....----..--
 t'age.1 ot j

INSECT MOUTHPARTS
One fun thing to do when you encounter any insect is to
decide what kind of mouth parts it has. Usually this means
deciding whether it's a "sucker" or a "chewer."

The picture at the right shows the coiled tube of a Tiger

Swallowtail butterfly. When a flower with nectar in it is
located, the butterfly inserts its tube (its proboscis) into
the flower and sucks up the nectar, so obviously butterflies
have sucking mouth parts.

,
r-------, At the left you see the head of a
;~ mosquito. Of course mosquitoes are
antennna
palp famous for being "flying syringes" as
..115;.:::...._ they fly about finding animals from
urr--I~;"';;"';;;';;
____- ' whom they suck blood using their specialized mouth parts. In the
picture you can clearly see the proboscis, the tlneedle" part of the
"syringe." The antenna and palp help the mosquito feel. Actually, the proboscis is not
nearly as simple in construction as a hypodennic needle. As the
drawing at the right shows, the proboscis has a groove down its front
inside which reside several extremely slender, sharp, saw-toothed

u stylets. If you ever watch a mosquito "biting" you, try to notice that
the entire proboscis does not enter your skin. Instead, as in the
drawing, its thick outer part, known as the sheath, bends, or "buckles, II
as the mosquito inserts its stiff stylets into your body. These stylets
hold together in a way that allows blood to be sucked up.

The Leaf-footed Bug (family Coreidae)

shown at the left also has sucking mouth
parts. This picture is neat because it shows the held-
together stylets outside the proboscis's sheath. In the
picture the stylets are held together so closely that they
look like just one. As with the mosquito,.as the bug uses its
stylets to cut into its victim (a plant in this case), the sheath
bends as the stylets go straight into the tissue.

At the right you

see a horse fly
head, famous for
its complex mouth parts that can cut right
into a horse's (or human's) hide. I say "cutll
because horse flies, being members of the
order Diptera, have sucking mouth parts,
not chewing. We say that horse flies II bite, "
but really they don't. Horse fly mouth parts
are composed of nine different parts. In the
lower, right comer of the picture locate the
large, black, roundish 0 bj ect, and then

http://www.backyardnature.netlinsmouth.htm 4/30/2004
 Page 2 of3

notice right above it but below the eyes and

antennae the stiff-looking, brownish items. These brownish objects, composed of
several distinct parts all of which we can't see here, work together like scissors to cut
(not bite or chew) into an animal's skin and cause bleeding. Once blood is flowing the
horsefly extends the black "labium" below the scissors-like things to suck up the
blood.

........~---, At the left you see the head of a Large Carpenter Bee,
genus Xylocopa. The honey-colored, wonnlike thing at the
bottom of the mouth structure is its "glossa, II sort of like a
tongue. The dark, downward projecting items right above
the glossa are the "galea," and these are quite stiff and
sharp. If you feel of them with your finger you can
understand how a carpenter bee can "chew" its way
through solid wood, which it does when it excavates its
nest-tunnels. Carpenter bees, however, being members of
the Hymenoptera, are chewing insects, but you can
imagine that with that wormlike glossa it can also suck a
bit. Therefore this is one insect, like a number of
Hymenoptera, that doesn't fit clearly into either the
sucking or chewing category.

At the right the head of a , . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - ,

female stag beetle,
genus Platycerus, bears
large, pincerlike mandibles that make this beetle
look very dangerous. Most adult stag beetles feed
on plant sap, so that doesn't explain why they have
such formidable mandibles. Male stag beetles, who
have much larger mandibles than the ones shown,
sometimes use them while fighting with other
males to establish dominance.

Look at the mouth parts on the paper-wasp head at

the left. One glimpse is enough to assure us that
this insect is not a sucker -- there's nothing looking
like a tube. Those two overlapping, flap-like things
at the bottom of the face are the wasp's mandibles.
Paper wasps feed chewed-up insects of various
sorts to their young, and when you see how
powerful-looking those mandibles are, and note the
toothed edges on them, you can imagine that this
I insect wouldn't have much of a problem chewing a

nice, soft caterpillar. Though both wasps and bees

are members of the Hymenoptera, you can see that there is considerable difference
between the paper wasp's mouth parts, and those of the above carpenter bee.
However, they are much more similar to one another than they are with, say, the
curled up sucking-tube of the butterfly or skipper.

Return to the INSECT DESIGN PAGE

Return to the ANIMALS MENU

http://www.backyardnature.netlinsmotith.htm 4/30/2004
 T • H . E

OHIO
u SlI\TE
UN.VERStTY

Ohio State University Extension Factsheet

Entomology
1991 Kenny Road, Columbus, OB 43210-1000

Tarantulas
HYG-2061B-97

William F. Lyon

Over the past few years, tarantulas have become acceptable pets
now widely sold, traded and kept in houses, apartments, schools
U and dormitories. Occasionally, these very large, hairy spiders
escape within a dwelling causing alarm and panic among those
fearing spiders. Actually, most tarantulas are docile,
rion-aggressive and rarely bite. Bites are not considered
dangerous and cause little lasting pain. Bites are no more painful
than a bee sting, and its symptoms should be treated similarly.
Some have a dense covering of special hairs on the abdomen,
which, when dislodged, cause skin irritation. This is mec;hanical
rather than chemical in nature.
.'

The name tarantula has unfortunately become associated with several spider families, but rpost often is
applied to the ones called the hairy mygalmorphs. Tarantulas have been much publicized in horror shows
in movie houses and television shows due to their forbidding hairy appearance.

Identification

The largest tarantulas are tropical with a body length of3-1/2 inches and leg span of9-1/2 inches. The
largest United States' species has a body length of two inches and leg span of about six inches. These
spiders are stout-bodied and covered with hollow, needlelike, barbed hairs, especially on the abdomen.
When disturbed, the hind legs are used to scrape off and throw very fine (fiberglass-like) abdominal
hairs in the direction of danger, resulting in a remaining bald spot. A bald spot may also occur on the
abdomen prior to the shedding of the skin. Hairs may cause a skin rash, allergic reaction and possibly
unaphylactic shock to certain individuals.

Life Cycle and Habits

of2 9114/993:33 PM
 "u ---- _ ...... VI ,,"VU I J"I..UDnI

T . H • E
OHIO
SIt\1E
UNIVERSlTY

Ohio State University Extension Factsheet

Entomology
1991 Kenny Road, Columbus, OB 43210-1090

Millipedes
HYG-2067A-94

William F. Lyon

Millipedes normally live outdoors but may

become nuisance .pests indoors by their
presence. At certain times of the year (usually
late summer and autumn) due to excessive
rainfall or even drought, a few or hundreds or
more leave the soil and crawl into houses,
basements, first-floor rooms, up foundation
walls, into living rooms, up side walls and drop
from the ceilings. Some homeowners as early as
late June have reported annoying populations
accumulating in swimming pools. Fall migrations during rainy and cool weather 1;nay result as a natural
urge to seek hibernation quarters. Heavy continuous rainfall in newly developed wooded areas with
virgin soil (decaying organic matter habitats) are often troublesome sites. Millipedes do not bite humans
nor damage structures,_ household possessions or foods. They can glve off a disagreeable odor and if
crushed, leave an unsightly mess.

Identification

Millipedes, or "thousand-Iegged worms II , are brownish-black or mottled with shades of orange, red or
brown, and are cylindrical (wormlike) or slightly flattened, elongated animals, most of which have two
pairs of legs per body segment, except for the first three segments which have only one pair of legs.
Antennae are short, usually seven-segmented, and the head is rounded with no poison jaws. Their short
legs ripple in waves as they glide over a surface. They often curl up into a tight "C" shape, like a watch
spring, and remain motionless when touched. They range from 1/2 to 1-1/4 inches long depending on the n
c;pecies. They crawl slowly and protect themselves by means of glands that secrete an unpleasant od~r.

of3 9114/993:36 PM
 · ...• _.• - - -··· ... •••• ..... J6-I.Q~U~vvV/"'UO/A.htrnJ

the sides of the house up to the level of the first story windows, especially across doorways and other
openings. The carbamate insecticides such as propoxur (Baygon), bendiocarb (Ficam) or carbaryl
(Sevin) give the fastest lmockdown compared to the other groups of insecticides. Wettable powder

u formulations provide the best soil residual control. If foundation plantings are heavily mulched,
insecticides may have to be rodded down to the soil beneath the mulch. Repeat applications at weekly
intervals may be needed.

Treatment of peat moss, mulch, wood chips, leaves, etc. used in landscaping around the house is
important. Subsequent water sprinkling will carry the insecticide down into the soil where these
creatures hide. Do not expect immediate kill since control may be slow (three to six days or more).
Baygon bait works well when scattered along the house foundation providing fast mock-down.
Additional pesticides such as amorphous silica gel (Drione, Tri-Die), boric acid (Penna-Dust),
chlorpyrifos (Duration, Dursban, Empire, Engage, Tenure), diatomaceous earth (Answer), diazinon,
esfenvalerate (Conquer), pyrethrins (Exciter, Kicker, Microcare, Pyrethrum, Safer) and resmethrin
(Vectrin) can be used. Only the licensed pest control operator or applicator can use bendiocarb +
pyrethrins (picam Plus), cyfluthrin (Optem, Tempo), cypermethrin (Demon, Cynoff, Cyper-Active,
Vikor), deltametbrin (Suspend), lambdacyhalothrin (Commodore), permethrin (Dragnet, Flee, Prelude,
Torpedo) and tralomethrin (Saga). Fluvalinate (Mavrik, Yardex) is used outdoors. Indoors, if needed,
certain formulations ofFicam and Baygon household spray formulations will give some residual, spot or
crack and crevice control while space treatments of pyrethrins or resmethrin will paralyze or kill by
contact. Always read the label and follow directions and safety precautions.

This publication contains pesticide recommendations that are subject to change at any time. These
recommendations are provided only as a guide. It is always the pesticide applicator's responsibility, by
law, to read and follow all current label directions for the specific pesticide being used. Due to
u constantly changing labels and product registration, some of the recommendations given in this writing
may no longer be legal by the time you read them. If any information in these recommendations
disagrees with the label, the recommendation must be disregarded. No endorsement is intended for
products mentioned, nor is criticism meant for products not mentioned. The author, The Ohio State
University and Ohio State University Extension assume no liability resulting from the use of these
recoDlDaendations.

All educational programs conducted by Ohio State University Extension are available to clientele on a nondiscriminatory
basis without regard to race, color, creed, religion, sexual orientation, national origin, gender, age, disability or Vietnam-era
veteran status.

Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Keith L. Smith, Director, Ohio State University Extension.

TDD # 1 (800) 589-8292 (Ohio only) or (614) 292-1868

I Ohioline I Search I FactsheetslBulletins I Ordering Info I

~ of3 9/14/99 3:36 PM

 T . H. E
OHIO
SfA1E
UNIVEl&TY

Ohio State University Extension Fact Sheet

Entomology
1991 Kenny Road, Columbus, Ohio 43210-1090

Centipedes
HYG-2067-94

William F. Lyon

The house centipede, unlike most other centipedes that normally live
outdoors, can live indoors especially in damp, moist basements, cellars,
bathrooms, crawlspaces or unexcavated areas under the house. They are
sometimes seen running rapidly across the floor with great speed, stopping
suddenly to .remain motionless and then resuming fast movements,
occasionally directly toward the homeowner in an attempt to conceal
themselves in their clothing. They have a "fearful" appearance but cause no
damage to the structure, household possessions or foods. Some can bite
when handled carelessly, resulting in a slight swelling or pain no worse
than a mild bee sting.

Identification
Centipedes, or "hundred-legged WOIlD.S," are reddish-brown, flattened, elongated animals with many
segments, most of which have 1 pair of legs. The first pair of legs is modified into poisonous jaws
located below the mouth. Antennae have 14 or more segments. The house centipede is grayish-yellow
with 3 dark, long stripes down the back with the legs encircled with alternating dark and white bands.
The actual body length is an inch or slightly longer (wormlike), surrounded with 15 pairs of very long
legs making the creature appear much larger. The last pair of legs is more than twice the body length of
the fem~e. A pair of very long slender antennae extends fOlWard from the head. They move quickly and
are sometimes mistaken for long-legged spiders. Other centipedes, found outdoors, often are more
elongate with shorter legs and antennae.

Life Cycle and Habits

Centipedes are long-lived, sometimes up to 6 years. They overwinter as adults and lay eggs during the
warm months. Usually eggs are laid in the soil and protected by adults. Some species give birth to living

of3 912199 J0:37AM

 - -----.--- - ............. II)'!;-.LCl\,;LI.l.UUU'.lUb l.htmJ

Additional pesticides such as amorphous silica gel (drione, Tri-die), boric acid (pennadust). chlorpyrifos
(Duration, Durshan, Empire, Engage), diatomaceous earth (Answer, Organic Plus), diazinon,
esfenvalerate (Conquer), pyrethrins (Exciter, Kicker, Microcare, Pyrethrum, Safer, X-elude) and
Resmetbrin (vectrin) can be used. Only the licensed pest control operator or applicator can use
u bendicorb+pyrethrins (Ficamplus) cyfluthrin (Optem, Tempo), cypermetbrin (Cynoff, Cyper-active,
Demon, Vikor), deltmethrin (suspend), Lambdacyhalothrin (Commodore), pennetlrrin (Astro, Dragnet,
Flee, Prelude, Torpedo) and Tralometbrin (saga). Indoors, if needed, certain formulations ofDursban,
Ficam and Baygon household Spray formulations will give some residual, spot or crack can crevice
control while space treatments of pyrethrins or resmethrin will paralyze or kill by contact. Always read
the label and follow directions and safety precautions.

NOTE: Disclaimer - This publication may contain pesticide recommendations that are subject to change
at any time. These recommendations are provided only as a guide. It is always the pesticide applicator's
responsibility, by law, to read and follow all current label directions for the specific pesticide being used.
Due to constantly changing labels and product registrations, some of the recommendations given in this
writing may no longer be legal by the time you read them. If any information in these recommendations
disagrees with the label, the recommendation must be disregarded. No endorsement is intended for
products mentioned, nor is criticism meant for products not mentioned. The author and Ohio State
University Extension assume no liability resulting from the use of these recommendations.

All educational programs conducted by Ohio State University Extension are available to clientele on a nondiscriminatory basis without
regard to race, color, creed, religion, sexual orientation, national origin, gender, age, disability or Vietnam-era veteran status.

Keith L. Smith, Associate Vice President for Ag. Adm. and Director, OSU Extension.

U TOO No. 800-589-8292 (Ohio only) or 614-292-1868

I Ohioline I Search IFact Sheets I Bulletins I

of3 912199 )0:37 AM

 _._-- r·-J-- .._· .. -··· .... -···_l.

The Provincial Museum of Alberta

Natural 'History
Invertebrate Zoology
Fact Sheet - Mill~pede

,__ . ._ ..... _... _ __-0· .._

Millipede
Diplopoda

DISTRIBUTION: Millipedes are found allover the world but are most common in tropical "
areas.

HABITAT: They are found under logs and stones, in moist soil and under leaf litter, They
usually avoid light.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION: Millipedes

are distinguished from centipedes by the presence
of two pairs of legs per body segment. They shun
the light and tend to hide under logs and other

u debris, and will often burrow into the ground.

Their hard exoskeleton affords some protection
against predators. When threatened, they will coil
up in a ball to protect the more vulnerable
underside. Some also have a noxious secretion
used to deter predators. Eyesight is po~r to
non-existent in millipedes. They sense by way of
their antennae which continually tap the ground
as the millipede moves along.

OBTAINING A CULTURE: A few species of

millipedes are ~ound in C~ada, mos~ly i n . Giant African Millipedes are often
Southern Ontario and Quebec. The bIgger. speCIes avaz'zabI'
e zn pet s tores even th ough th ey are
can reach 5-6
.cm,
' .but most .of them are farrly b'ezng sold z'IIegaIiy
small. Certam trOPICal speCIes are sold at pet
store but a pennit issued from Agriculture Canada is necessary to keep those.

ESTABLISHING A TERRARIUM: Setting up an environment which will meet all of the

needs of your millipedes is not particularly complicated. If you take the time to do it well, the
millipedes will be thrive, and the home will be aesthetically pleasing. Here are some tips to
follow:

1. Use a glass aquarium or other clear-sided container, It should be large enough to allow for
future growth of the culture (12" x 18" to 18" x 24"; height is not critical).
2. Be sure that your tank is well ventilated so the millipedes can breathe.
3. Fill the tank with sterilized potting soil to a depth of approximately 3 - 4 inches.

J of2 411 110] 9:17 AM

 ---- _ .•• -. . --····r --- - IILL~." www.J.lIIIa.c:umumon.ao.calnaturalll nsectslprojectslmi lliped_hnn
//
"

Thoroughly moisten the soil.

I

" 4. Add a piece of flat wood. for the millipedes to hide under.
u 5. One or two small plants will make the environment pleasant; it is best to leave these in
their pots.
6. Provide a dish of water.

MAINTAINING THE TEliRARIUM: Ongoing care of the aquarium is minimal, but the
following will keep the millipedes healthy and the cage looking good:

1. Keep the soil fairly damp and water the plants.

2. Clean the glass, both inside and out, with water.
3. Be careful about discarding old food if you suspect there are young. Baby millipedes are
hard to see and often attach themselves to the food.

FEEDING: Most millipedes are herbivores and feed on rotting vegetation.

1. They will eat a fair amount of food, so be sure that they have a continuous supply.
2. Millipedes will eat a combination of leaf lettuce, apple' and mushroom. Cut the food into
manageable pieces.
3. A supply of fresh water is a must.

BREEDING: Many millipedes tend to breed very well in captivity. You can encourage
breeding by keeping your adult millipedes well fed and healthy. The young are very small.
You can increase their chance of survival by observing the following:

u 1. Put a wad of cotton batting in the water dish so the young do not drown.
2. Be careful about discarding old food if you suspect there are young.

REACHING MATURITY: The millipedes will periodically moult, shedding their

exoskeleton. This is a vulnerable time for the animals. With each moult, more body segments
and legs are added. Millipedes mature according to the following pattern:

1. Sexual maturity is reached within one or two years, depending on the species.
2. Growth continues even after sexual maturity is attained.
3. The maximum age of a millipede is probably abouf 5 to 10 years, depending on the
species.

[PMA Home Page J[Natural History] [Invertebrate Zoology] [Fact Sheets]

Copyright (g 1996-2000 The Provincial Museum ofAlberta

Last ReviewlUpdme - September 26 2000

20f2 4/11101 9:17 AM

 ~I.W:~ti'!~:~i.l~-lMJlor.!j
4'.:.1 (~~t:t~tl il~~~~f.~.£' .'Emperor Scorpion ~~~5~~;:;\:·("
~?~, ~~-':~),~:;i;:,:~;;' , . _____ .,.t......
Ir')
Home 4. ,_: Insects

Order on-line with your credit card by using our Secure Server
and the 'Add To Order' link below.

Scorpions an example of the arthropod group called the arachnids.

Unlike insects, arachnids have more pairs of legs and do not have
three body segments.

Scorpions are found through out the world in topical and

subtropical environments. Scorpions are characterized by their
large pincer clawed fore limbs and a venomous sting on their tails
which are held over their bodies. They vary widely in their size and
potency of their venom.

Scorpions are ambush hunters. They attack and kill their food prey
by grasping the victim with their pincers and stabbing it with their
stings. The venom in the sting quickly kills the food animal. In
addition, scorpions vicously fight each other. The combatants
grapple with each other and attempt to penetrate their opponents
body armor with their sting. This combat continues until a weak
point in one combantant's body armor is found and a fatal sting
delivered.

The Emperor Scorpion shown here is one of the largest in the

world. It lives in the rain forests of West Africa were it will grow up
to 8" (20cm) long during its eight year life. Scorpions kill and eat a
variety of food animals including insects, frogs, small mice and
other small animals.

The Emperor reaches sexual maturity after about four years. Unlike
many arthropods, young scropions are born alive rather than
hatching from eggs. The young scorpions stay with their mother,

lof2 4/11/01 9:13 AM

 riding on her back,,· until their first molt. They then leave their
mother to fend for themselves:

Although large and looking ferocious, the Emperor is not

considered dangerous to humans.

Emperor Scorpion
Vinyl, Length: 7.5" (19 cm), $7.80

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2of2 4/11101 9: 13 AM
 Millipedes
Millipedes are often ignored as small, hannless,
insignificant critters. It's a mistake to ignore them, however.
There are some fascinating millipedes out there. Besides
some of the more colorful"animals, there is an entire genus
in California that is bioluminescent. Not all millipedes are
harmless, either. A few species can produce noxious
secretions.

Subscribe to the Millipede and Centipede Mailing List

Orders of Millipedes

Luminous Millipedes

This is a genus of small millipedes found in California.

While a few species of centipedes are known to have
luminous secretions, these are the only millipedes known to
be bioluminescent. What is especially interesting is that
these millipedes are blind. Why the luminescence?

Causey, N.B., and D.L. Tiemann. 1969. A revision of the

bioluminescent millipedes of the genus Motyxia
(Xystodesmidae, Polydesmida). Proceedings of the
American Philosophical Society 113(1): 14-33.

Davenport, D., D.M. Wootton, and J.E. Cushing. 1952. The

biology of the Sierra luminous millipede, Luminodesmus
sequoiae, Loomis and Davenport. BioI. Bulletin 102:
100-110. "

"Dangerous" Millipedes

Millipedes are generally considered to be hannless, boring

invertebrates. Actually, a number of species are capable of
producing noxious secretions (usually containing
benzoquinones) which can create superficial "burns" on
human skin and can cause damage to the eyes. Most of
these species are found in the tropics. The burning effect
can range from superficial stains or tanning to blistering.
Scarring doesntt occur, but the burn site can be noticeable
for up to 14 months. When the secretions enter an eye, they
cause a severe pain for up to two days. There can be
swelling and discharge from the eye. Species which are
known to be injurious include Rhinocricus Iethifer (Haiti),
Rhinocricus latespagor (Haiti), Polyceroconas spp. (PNG),
Spirostreptus spp. (Indonesia), Iulus spp. (fudonesia),
Spirobolus spp. (Tanzania), Orthoporus spp. (Mexico), and

10f4 4/11/01 9: 17 AM
 ,r.
of
/
./ Tylobolus spp. (California). Severa] of these are "giant
millipedes." There are a number of It giant °black millipedes"
in the pet trade, but those appear to be harmless species. I
should also mention that most "harmless" millipedes do
discharge a secretion which can create a mild burning
sensation if it gets into a r~cent cut.

Mason, G.H., H.D.P. Thomson, P. Fergin, and R.

Anderson. Mysterious lesions: the burning millipede. The
Medical Journal of Australia 160(11): 718, 726.

Radford, A.J. 1975. Millipede bums in man. Tropical and

Geographical Medicine 27: 279-287.

Radford, A.J. 1976. Giant millipede bums in Papua New

Guinea. Papua New Guinea Medical Journal 18(3):
138-141.

Shpall, S., and I. Frieden. 1991. Mahogany discoloration of

the skin due to the defensive secretion of a millipede.
Pediatric Dermatology 8(1): 25-27.

Jumping Millipedes

Hopkin and Read mention a millipede, DiopsiuJus

u regressus, which is capable ofjumping 2 to 3 centimeters
when startled. It does this by humping its body and
throwing the "loop" forward. The millipede itself is 3 to 4
centimeters long. I don't know where this species is found,
but will note that when I fmd out.

Hopkin, S.P., and H.J. Read. 1992. The Biology of

Millipedes. New York: Oxford University Press.

Army Recruits

Hopkin and Read m~ntion that several species of

polydesmid ~illipedes travel and live with anny ants in
South America. They live in the ant nests and scavenge
food they come across, helping to clean out organic debris
and mold in the ant nest. When the ants move to a new
location, the millipedes travel in the center of the ant
column, or are even carried by worker ants.

Hopkin, S.P., and H.J. Read. 1992. The Biology of

Millipedes. New York: Oxford University Press.

V Dirt-eating Millipedes

Most millipedes feed on decayng vegetation, but Shelley

)f4 4111/01 9: 17 AM
 mentions one species of semi-aquatic millipede from caves
in Italy which has mouthpart "modified to remove organic,
clay, and limestone particles from the substrates of rivulets
and moist surfaces ofbanks."

Shelley, R.M. 1999. Centipedes and millipedes. Kansas

School Naturalist 45(3): 1~16

Keeping Millipedes:

• Keeping the Giant Black Millipede

• Steve Bullington's Pet Arthropod Page
• Keeping Millipedes

Millipede Links:

• Centre international de Mvriapodologie (elM)

• Millipedes as pests - this site has a picture of my
favorite millipede, Narceus
• Millipedes as pests II
• Millipede Defense: Use of detachable bristles to
entangle ants
• Polvxenus lagurus disribution studv
• Barbed millipedes
• Pacific Northwest Millipedes
• Millipede anatomy
• The Yellow-Spotted Millipede in the Pacific
Northwest
• Yellow-Spotted Millipede Photo
• Millipedes: Illinois Natural Ristorv Survey
(Narceus photo)
• Desert Millipede Photo
• A Pill Millipede from Madagascar
• Another Pill Millipede from Madagascar
• Le Petit Monde des Invertebres
• Introduction to the Myriapoda
• Scientific Report ,vith African millipede photos
• Developing an IPM strategv for millipedes
(Australian)
• A Rainforest Millipede
• Zebu-eating Millipede
• Millipede - online encyclopedia with pill millipede pic
• UK DipIopoda
• The Chemical Compound in Millipede's Toxic
Repellant
• BiospeJeology Abstracts - includes some myrlapod
papers
• Urban Entomologv: Pests in excessivelv damp
locations

J of4 411 1/01 9:17 AM

 W.~IW.15·IIJ7/UllJJ ... WWw.pUTlone.convtenoutr.lb.5.~tr...J

./
"i~~,~1~iil,#j;~~J!~ Hermit Crab Facts
u .:...............................
~:I~;:
o JClJlar'_l',m.
The land hennit crab is formally
known as coenobiata clypeatus.

The Stages of a Hermit Crab's Life:

The female holds the eggs (several

~
hundred depending on her size) inside
her shell while they mature. The eggs
attach themselves to appendal!es on
her abdomen until they are ready to
hatch. These eggs have to be released
in the ocean. When they are ready to
hatch, the female moves the
V le_L. 1m.
appendages and the eggs are released

~
from their grip.

The hatched egg doesn't look at all

like a hermit crab. It is long, slender
with two large eyes and a pointed
snout. At this stage, the hermit crab is
mown as a zoea (zo-ee-a). It is less
u than an 118 inch in length. A zoea
grows by molting. It sheds it's outer
covering (exoskeleton). A new, larger
covering grows in its' place. Each
time it molts (3 or 4 times) the zoea
enters a stage called glaucothoe
(glaw-cotha-wee). His eyes are now
on the ends of stalks and two ofhis
appendages have become claws.
There are two long feelers called

.-.
antennae and two shorter feelers,
called antennules. Hermit crabs are in
the glaucothoe stage for about a
month. After another molt he's a
hennit crab and is ready to find
himself a shell to house his soft
abdomen. Slowly the hermit crab will
not need to go into the ocean anymore
and will live on land. It will get water
from tidal pools and where rain water
has collected. The hermit crab will
drown now if submerged in water for
too long. Hermit crabs have been
mown to live as long as 18 years in
captivity. Stoney just passed away
Sept. 20th, 2000. I had him for a little
over a year. Please say "welcomell to
v Mr. Jingles, he joins Minnie.

If you notice that your hermit crab's

reactions are slower than they used to
_ - - - - - - - . . . . . . be, it's possible that it is sick and

4/11/01 9: 17 A~1
Ion
~~----
 Spider Webs
Pests Spiders are classified according to their way of life. .W ~b-;.~pinning SJltdprs ~mg. n:e.hs,
to tra insects because their vision ·s not ve ood.. They know when prey is trapped
Products on t elr we y detecting and reacting to the vibrations the line makes from their prey
movin~ and trying to get free. !i~nting.Spiders run after insects or lie in wait for
New It~ms
them. Some hunting spiders spin simple webs that stretch out along the ground to
catch insects. These spiders are grouped as hunters because they run after the insects
s..~c u re QIt-:·
Line Order that land in their webs.
Form This article will deal with silk .of spl~.er webs as well as different types of webs and how
various spiders use these webs in their daily lives. Did you know that each spider can
Pest Control produce several different types of silk?
Sale It~m$

Holiday.s

Pest Control If you need help with eliminating and preventing the formation of spider webs in and
Ord~r Status around the home, in boats or other vehicles, read about C()bweb Eliminat.or.
Other articles of interest, for both spiderJ!QlltrQI needs and general spid~r
inf9X.m3.n.QJl:

$~.cu~ch Qy! Spidet:s c.OQt~Q19fNlds.3n~(tSpid~rs. Black.Wi.d.Q.w. Spid~r B.it.es.~.nd Stings

Site Br.QJy._n__R.e..~ty.s_e.._s..pid.c.rs B(rw,n_.R.e._~.lu.$_e_Bit~

Contact Us
Size, Shape and Purpose of Webs
Niban Bait
\ Webs have different purposes, according to the individual species of spider, how it
A(b~.aot!J.g~ .fO.r
..J~~~ captures or stores its prey. Spider's silk can be used to help small, young spiders
transport to new areas (ludJoQni:qg) or be so strong that it is used to make fish nets, as
with the .N~p.hihl~pider w~.b. Other types of spider webs and their silk discussed here:

• IB;ngl~.~ts.pjder webs
• Orb web
Ant Index • Sh_~~t.w.~b_s
• (ium..:fQo.te{t}y.~hs.
• Horizontal Line Webs
A~i.~nYdy
• B..Qlas .s..p"d_~J:_We.b
Beetles/ • T1.i3.n~Ie..'v~bs
Lady_BygS
A Spiders Web is made from silk. Spiders are the only animals that use silk in their
daily lives. Spiders have seven sil s innin or ans or lands call£!1
"spinnerets ocated either in the middle or at the end of their abdomen. Each
spinneret on the spider is different from the other and used for making several
kinds of silk: attachment disk silk (leaves a zigzag pattern and gives strength to the
Bed Bugs and dragline), a strong dragline or safety line silk (gives the spider an anchor point), orb
Bed Bug web spiral line, {gives the web strength and stretchiness to catch flying prey),
Control glue-like sticky catching silk (traps and keeps captured prey on the web), swathing silk
(for wrapping and immobilizing prey), tangling cribellate silk (tangles the bristles, .
spines and claws of prey) and a protective egg sac silk (to keep baby spiders safe).

The silk is produced as a liquid, but emerges from the glands as solid silk fibers when
BoraCare the spider moves away from the attachment point. A spider's silk line is only .001-.004
mm thick. Amino acids and protein crystals help the silk maintain its stretchiness, .
Borate stiffness and strength.
Insecti cid es The silk that spiders produce are used for building webs, catching prey, storing food,
 escaping from danger, making egg sacs, sending and receiving vibrating signals and for
aox~ldcrs transportation on silken ropes called "ballooning" as the spider floats through the air
on the strand of silk. This ballooning technique ensures that young spiders are
Bumble Bees scattered about. If all young were to remain in one tight area, many could starve from
lack of food for number of spiders and insects in a given area.
Calrpentcr
Some silk strands are stronger than steel strands of the same thickness. The silk of th{,/)
Ants
Nephila spider is the strongest natural fiber known to man and is used to make tote
Carpentl'r
bags and fish nets. In a specific species, spiders can use their web to capture an air
Bees bubble; with this bubble the spider can survive and hunt under water where other
spiders and insects would drown.
Chipmunks
Web-Spinning Spiders SPIDER WEB PICTURES
Cockroach
Index
Web-Spinning spiders only use the tips of their legs when creating their webs so that
their body doesn't come in contact with the web and get stuck. They use a middle claw
Cypermcthrin
and the bristles on their leg tips to hang onto a single thread that keeps them balanced
Demon WP
until their web is fully made.

Demon An Orb web is the most common type of spider web and looks like a wheel with
Insecticides spokes. It consists of outer frame lines, radial or spoke-like lines and spiral lines. The
outer frame is made up of a bridge line and two anchor lines that come together to
Dem9n Max form an upside down triangle. Three frame threads connect the corners together and
from there spoke like lines are made connecting all of the threads together.
The spiral lines are created last, starting in the very center of the web and moving
outward, so that the spider can use its sticky catching silk heavily throughout the web.
Dr. T's Nature Orb webs are created by orange garden orb weaving spiders, banded orb
products
weaving spiders, golden orb weaving spiders, humped or silver orb weaving spiders,
Electronic Pest
Control
arrowhead-shaped micrathenals, bolas spiders, marbled spiders, silk spiders, spiny-
body spiders, shamrock orbs and labyrinth spiders, who spins both the orb n
web and the tangled web.
Fire Ants
Tangled Web Spiders
Fleas
Tangled spider webs consist of a shapeless jumble of threads attached to a support
Flc~ StolU~crs such as the corner of a ceiling. Cobwebs are tangled webs that have collected dust and
Carp-et Powd~x
dirt. Cellar spiders, the comb-footed spiders (included black and brown widow
spiders), the ogre-faced stick spiders and common house spiders are spiders that make
Fly Index
Fly Sprays
these types of webs.

Frontline Sheet Webs

Fruit, Fly Sheet webs are flat sheets of silk between blades of grass or branches of shrubs or
trees. Spiders that create sheet webs also spin a net of crisscrossed threads above the
sheet. When a flying insect hits the net, it bounces into the sheet web. The
spider, which hangs upside down beneath the web, quickly runs to the insect and pulls
HerbiciQes it through the webbing. Sheet webs last a long time because the spider repairs any
damaged parts. The bowl & doily spider, the filmy dome spider, and the platform
lnsect BHits
spider form sheet webs.
TpS~,ct :B.iJes
Gum-footed Webs
Ins.,~~t.ic;jde
f1
Dusts Gum-footed webs consist of tightly woven silk strands attached between two branches. '
The upper strands are dry and built in sheltered areas away from sunlight while the
lltsJ!.~J lower strands are built in exposed area and run down to a bottom branch where they
Rcp~llcnJs. are attached. Each of the lower sticky strands are covered in sticky droplets and are
 anacneo weaKly at the bottom. When an insect walks into the sticky silk strands its
struggle break the lines movi~g the web upwards and lifting the prey off the ground
Lnwn Pests reducing its chances of escaping.
Redback spiders create gum-footed webs.

Horizontal Line Webs

Maxforce
I~oach Bait Gel
Horizontal Line Webs are made up of one simple line of sticky droplets stretching
across low vegetation, bark and leaf litter. Spiders that create this type of web pull the
Mice
line taut by keeping the slack silk underneath them until an insect hits the line. When
that happens, the loose silk whips along the line and tangles the prey. Cribellate
Molecrickets
spiders and other pea-sized spiders create these webs.
Moles
Bolas Spider Web
Mo~qlJjtQ
C..QntrQI The Bolas Spider Web is a very simple web designed for their unique method of
hunting. In order to hunt and catch male moths, the bolas spider sits on a horizontal
Moth Trap line and spins a single line with a sticky silk tip that dangles from its leg. While
waiting, this spider will emit a scent similar to a female moth. When the male moth
Niba,lG, comes toward the spider, the spider swings the sticky strand in a circle and captures
Niban FG
the moth, pulling the strand in to feed.
UdQ'·
EUmina,tiQn Triangle Webs
Qyer~lLQ,!I1 Triangle Webs are created in the shape ofa triangle, hence its name. The spider
Eh:~~m.t weaves silky strands of spokes and spirals that connect to all three strands. The
GrftlJ.y.l~~
triangle spider waits at one end of the web for an insect to land. When it does, the
spider shakes the web so the insect is caught and cannot escape.

Hunting Spiders

Funnel Web spiders construct large, flat, horizontal webs of non-sticky silk with a
Pest Topics funnel at one end in grassy areas. The funnel is open at both ends so the spider can
escape if necessary.. When the spider feels the vibration of is prey, it dashes out, bites
Powderp,ost the insect and carries it back to the funnel.
JJeetles
Funnel web spiders are also known as grass spiders.

Nursery Web Spider

The Nursery Web spider is considered a hunting spider because it only builds a web
Roaches when laying her eggs. She carries her eggs in a silk sac close to her body until just
before they hatch. The egg sac is then attached to a leaf and a web is built around it.
Rat Traps The female spider then stands guard nearby until spiderlings hatch from their eggs.

Rilt "Z~pp~r Pictures of Spider Webs

20PO

Rodent"p,~Jt~

Rodent
Removal

Rodents
• SHEET WEB
Safeguurd
Humane Live
AJ)b!l~t TI.·~ns

Scythe
Herbicide
• FILMY DOME WEB
SedgeHam mer

Spiders

Sl.uggo

Snakes
• FUNNEL WEB
SnHke-A-Way
Snake
Repellent

-
Snal<.c Pictures ;.::;':~
• ::I-' • ~ •

d '~~!.~.::, ~: .,~ •.

5.11S pen (LSe

• ORB SPIDER WEB ~:,;~j
Pest Control Information Pest Control Sup-p-lies TQRics Site M~n S.nidel' InformJltjon
Talstar s.n.i~t~r..C_Qntl·ol Co.b.web. Elimin~Jj(m PI~cI<1¥i.do_w.Spider~it~s_and Stings
6.r~m'_n_R~clu~e Spider Bite of aro."!n R~cll!s.~ Spider Webs
Tempo
Insecticides

Term.it~s

Ultraviolet Fly
Traps

Fly Zuppers

WildljJe

White Footed
Ants

White Grubs

Woodpecliers

r~~t~9Rtn)1
Site Map

P.i.sclaimel'

Kempo Ka)'al~
DojQ,
PensacolaJ"I.,.

Ppst Control
 ,'.".:-': . : C;lf(jpn~t Biological Supply f.:ompany :'.

u
Madagascan Giant Hissing Roaches
Lisa Darmo. Ph.D .• and Fran Ludwig
GeneticslLiving Zoology Department, Carolina Biological Supply Company
and Lexington Public Schools, Lexington~ Massachusetts 02173

Figure 1: Adult male Madagascan giant hissing roach. Actual size.

Would you invite these exotic animals into your classroom?

They are guaranteed to attract a crowd! Madagascan giant
hissing roaches, Gromphadorhina portentosa, are spectacular
insects that instantly draw the attention and curiosity of
students and are very easy to care for and handle. Large and
easy to see, Madagascan roaches are ideal for classroom
observations and science projects. They are slow moving,
wingless, docile, have little or no odor, and do not bite.
Known as "living fossils . " these insects are very similar to the
prehistoric cockroaches that lived on Earth long before the
dinosaurs. With appropriate supervision, even young students
·u can handle them.

The cockroach family, to which Madagascan roaches belong, is among the most primitive of the winged
insects. The nearest relatives to cockroaches include mantids, grass-hoppers, stick insects, and termites
(Cornwell 1968). The fossil record shows that roaches were very abundant during the Carboniferous
period, 250 million years ago. There are at least 3,500 known species living today, in 450 genera, most of
which originate in the tropics.

As a group, cockroaches exhibit a wide diversity of sizes, colors, and habits. Although they have an
infamous reputation as household pests, in reality only about half a dozen species (less than one percent
of all known forms) have negative associations with humans. Many species are diurnal, some are
semi aquatic. others live in the ground or are wood-boring. Some, such as the Madagascan roach, do not
have wings. About a dozen or so species live commensally in the nests of ants, wasps, or termites. There
are also roach species that inhabit caves with bats or live in the desert. The majority of cockroaches in
tropical countries exist as scavengers outdoors, feeding on vegetation and organic matter in an apparently
harmless fashion.

Biology and Life Cycle

Figure 2: Side view, illustrating differences in the thorax and

antennae in female (top) and male (bottom) Madagascan
u roaches.

The Madagascan giant hissing roach is a large (adults, 2-3

inches long and 1 inch wide), wingless member of the
I'nl'J.,rn!:al'h f!:arnil" (1=io 1 \ Thi~ inc':'l't ic n!:at;",:. tn th,:. icl!:anl'l nf'
 M;d~;:;~a~~'~ffth~':~s~~~ ~;:~;·~f·Mri; ~h;r;i~ ;;;~;r~' ~~-
to play the ecological role of scavenger on or near rotten logs _ ..
in savannah areas. Little is known of its behavior in the wild.
(The Madagascan roaches supplied by Carolina Biological are captive bred in the United States and are
not collected from the wild.) Recently, these roaches have become very popular in museums, zoos, and
classrooms for hands-on explorations of insect morphology and behavior, and as an example of the
importance in the web of life (ecosystem) of an "unhuggable" organism.

Madagascan roaches exhibit sexual dimorphism, meaning that males and females look or act differently.
Sexual dimorphism is common in animals where males and females have distinct roles in mating and
courtship (e.g., the male deer with antlers, the colorful male peacock, and the male cricket that chirps
loudly to attract females).

Male Madagascan roaches have prominent protrusions, called pronatal humps, on the thorax, which look
like horns. Females have a smoother thorax with very small bumps or none at all. Also, the antennae of
males are much brushier than those of females (Fig. 2). Fraser and Nelson (1984) have studied
communication and behavior in laboratory colonies of these insects, and they observed that male
Madagascan roaches establish territories that are defended from other adult males. Aggressive hissing and
posturing behavior is used to warn intruders away~ males use their pronatal humps as rams in combat to
physically defend territories. These interactions do not seem to result in injury or death. Females are
gregarious and do not fight among themselves or with males. Numerous females and nymphs (immature
stages) are permitted into male territories, with courtship and mating often occurring within the territory.

The species is unusual among insects in that the females appear to bear living young. Actually, the young
emerge from an egg case (ootheca), which has been retained within the body of the mother. This is ~ n
known as false ovoviparity. The ootheca is whitish and about an inch long. It is divided into many
compartments. each of which contains an egg. Sometimes stressed females release the egg case before the
eggs can develop. Gestation is usually about 60-70 days. Normally, a female gives birth to 20-40 babies,
known as nymphs, over a two-day period. Each nymph is about 1I4-inch long (about the size of a small
watermelon seed) and very flat. The young may remain grouped around the female for some time after
emerging as she protects them by raising her body over them (Cornwell 1968).

The nymphs, which resemble miniature adults, grow fairly rapidly. They usually go through six molts,
reaching adult size in the seventh instar (or stage). The young Madagascan roach needs to molt (shed its
exoskeleton) as it gets larger, since its hard, outside covering does not expand very much to
accommodate the growing insect. Grasshoppers, praying mantises, and termites, which are close relatives
of the roaches, develop in the same way. When a nymph is about to molt, you see a crack in the
lengthwise line on the back of the insect. The exoskeleton has split and a white, black-eyed, larger-sized
roach emerges. Within a day, the color darkens as the new exoskeleton hardens. The newly emerged
cockroach usually recycles nutrients by eating the shed exoskeleton. Nymphs reach maturity in five to ten
months, with faster maturation at higher temperatures. Adults may live for two to three years.

Hissing
The Madagascan giant hissing roach is notable for its unique ability to produce an audible hiss. This
sound is produced by pushing air forcefully through a pair of modified spiracles (openings in the abdomen
of insects that are normally used for breathing). In the classroom the hissing response is most often
observed when roaches, unaccustomed to being handled, are picked up. This is one of the few defensive
n
behaviors that this harmless insect has to avoid predators. The roach also tucks its small head and
• '., ., .,..,., ., , , •t t t ,,..

2
 antennae unaer tne tnorax. 1 ne tnorax tnen resemOles tne large neaa or some aggressIve ana nOISY
animal!
u Madagascan hissing roaches also use hissing as a means of communication. Hissing in response to a
disturbance may signal the presence of danger to other roaches. Adult male roaches hiss during
aggressive encounters (defending territories against other males), and during courtship and mating.
Females and late-stage nymphs hiss only when they are disturbed or threatened.

Nelson and Fraser (1980) reported that the Madagascan giant hissing roach has evolved a sound-signaling
system that appears to serve for communication and maintenance of social structure. They measured the
acoustical characteristics of hisses associated with some social displays in the species and described how
hissing was incorporated in the social displays.

Nelson and Fraser identified five distinct hisses that were highly correlated with specific interactions,
depending on whether defensive signaling, territoriality, or courtship was occurring. Males that were
muted so that they were unable to hiss were almost never successful at mating with females. The
researchers concluded that, while behaviors other than sound production (such as olfactory clues) are
important in courtship and aggressive interactions, sound plays an important role in communication, and
it may be necessary at one point in courtship.

Care and Handling

Most of the time (75 percent), Madagascan roaches are not very active. A clear shoebox is fine for a pair
ofroaches~ a few holes are needed to provide air. If the lid is not very tight-fitting and secure, tape the lid
shut around the edge. If a pet box with a snap-on lid is used for pregnant females, place a square of
muslin or light cotton over the top of the cage. Use the lid to hold the covering in place so that newly
emerged nymphs will not escape through the openings in the top. Madagascan roaches are strong animals
that have been known to escape and wander, and nymphs can fit through small spaces! While they are not
adapted to living among humans, as are their more prolific and faster-moving cousins, the German and
American cockroaches, Madagascan roaches are potential household pests. Use caution in securing your
cage.

Figure 3: Electron micrograph of Madagascan roach limb, showing hooks and

sticky pad used in climbing. 50x actual size.

Wood chips or bark are good substrates for the bottom of the cage and
provide hiding areas. Gravel, pine shavings, or crushed corncobs are also
acceptable coverings for the bottom of the cage. You may also provide half an
egg carton or a cardboard roll from paper towels for hiding spots, and you may add a branch for
climbing. In a cage with just a few roaches, the substrate should be replaced about every four to six
months as needed. If your roaches have been breeding, the material should be sieved to avoid throwing
away small nymphs.

Place the cage in a warm location, as Madagascan roaches are tropical. They seem to do well at room
temperature (72-76 degrees F). At higher temperatures (80 degrees F) they are more active and may
breed~ and at lower temperatures (66 degrees F) they are sluggish and will probably not breed. Although

u they survive brief exposure to lower temperatures (above freezing), do not keep Madagascan roaches at
temperatures lower than 65 degrees F or higher than 85 degrees F. Unless you plan to breed the roaches
or have a poorly heated room, you should not need an additional source of heat.

3
 Madagascan roaches are nocturnal, meaning they are most active at night. One way to observe the
night-time activities of the insects during the day is to reverse the photocycle (Bell 1981). Outfit a fairly
dark room or closet with a 100-watt light and timer that will turn the light on from about 6:00 PM to .n
6:00 AM for 12 hours of light. The roaches will be active from about 8:00 AM to 4:00 PM. Best results
for behavioral observations will be obtained if the terrarium stays in a dark room, with a red light for
illumination during daylight hours. A 40-watt red incandescent bulb may be purchased in most stores with
a varied selection of lighting supplies. You can see the roaches, but they perceive that it is night and go
about their normal nocturnal activities.

Feed your Madagascan roach dry dog, cat, or rodent food supplemented with pieces offresh fruits and
vegetables. Good fruits and vegetables for these insects include orange slices, banana peels, carrots,
apple, grape, sweet potato peelings, potato slices, etc. Use small pieces (1 inch square or less) and feed
moist food sparingly, since high concentrations of fermentation gases are harmful. Remove moldy food
regularly. Provide water with a damp sponge in a small cup or dish.

When handling a Madagascan roach, pick up the insect very gently around the thorax (the hard section
behind the small head). Be careful not to jerk, since the feet have sticky pads and hooks that grip tightly
(Fig. 3). If you pull too hard, you may injure the insect. Let the roach crawl from your hand to another
person1s hand. It will not move very quickly, and it will not bite. These insects are not fragile, but you
should always be gentle with them.

It is fairly common to see tiny light-colored creatures, called mites, crawling on your roach. Just as dogs
get fleas, Madagascan roaches sometimes carry mites. These mites only live on the roaches, and will not
harm or live on humans. Mites can be removed by gently shaking the roach in a plastic bag with a small
amount of flour (the IIshake and bake ll method). The mites fall off the roach into the flour. Tie off and
discard the bag, and gently spray the excess flour off the roach with plain water from a plant mister or 0
wash bottle. Mites may also be removed with a small paintbrush. Repeat the treatment if mites reappear.
There is another kind of small mite that occasionally infests food; it can be controlled by discarding old
food and changing litter.

Classroom Exercises
Figure 4: With the proper introduction, most children find Madagascan
roaches to be fascinating and fun.

An article of this scope can only begin to touch upon the many
educational uses of Madagascan roaches. We recommend that for high
school to college students, you consult William Belrs excellent book,
The Laboratory Cockroach, which includes experiments of varying
complexity for the study of the anatomy, morphology, physiology, and
behavior of roaches. This book should be available through interlibrary
loan from most universities with an entomology department or a fairly
extensive library. Since Madagascan roaches are relatively expensive animals, experiments that involve
dissection or sacrifice of the specimen may be confined to other large, less expensive genera, such as
Blabberus or Periplanata.

Younger students can conduct simple observational experiments using Madagascan roaches (Fig. 4). The
our other article on roaches, IIEncounter with an Unhuggable was excerpted from a program presented
ll
:~
to teachers by Fran Ludwig (K-5 Science Specialist, Lexington Public Schools). The program is designed

4
 To use this page effectively, children will need a worksheet from books published by
Elton P~blicatjons.

Ancient Animals
Fossils of animals that look like scorpions show that these animals have been around
for more than 400 million years. In all that time, they have not changed very much.

Habitat
Scorpions can be found in many countries of the world. Australian scorpions are not as
poisonous as those found in Africa or North America. In Australia, these interesting little
animals can be found in rainforests, deserts woodlands and even in cities.

They are not seen during the day because they come out in the hours of darkness.
During the day, scorpions hide under rocks or logs. In some places like the south-west
of Australia, they dig burrows in the soft sand.

Food .
At night, scorpions hunt for other small animals. They like spiders and insects the best.
The scorpion grasps the animal in its pincers (called pedipalps). Then the poisonous
sting bends right over the front of the head and stings the hunted animal.

In turn, scorpions can become food for other nocturnal hunters. Lizards and birds are
ueir main hunters.

Vision
Scorpions can have between six and twelve eyes. Two of the eyes are in the middle of
its back. Even so, they can't see very well. Instead, they can feel the smallest vibrations
of other animals moving in the darkness.

Appearance
Adult scorpions can be between seven and twelve centimetres long. Some species
grow bigger than others and there are many different species in across Australia. Some
species are black. Some are dark brown and others are a brown-orange colour. They
have eight walking legs and a pair of powerful pincers. The body or carapace of a
scorpion is covered with a hard shell. They have no internal bones. The body is divided
into seven sections and the tail has five sections.

Pain?
Fortunately, Australian scorpions aren't as poisonous as those in other countries. A
sting might hurt for a few hours. The victim might need some treatment for pain but
there should be no long lasting effects.

Breeding and Babies

The male scorpion grasps the female. He lays a sperm packet on a ground or a piece of
wood. Then he drags the female over the sperm packet and she draws it into her. In
some species of scorpion, by the end of mating, all that is sometimes left of the male
-;;corpion is a few pieces of hard shell. The rest is gone. It has been eaten by the
Umale.
The young are not born for many months; often between six and twelve depending on
the species of scorpion. The baby scorpions are born alive. There are usually more
than a dozen babies. They crawl out of their mother's body through a small opening
just behind the mother's head. The babies are white. They cling to their mother's back
and are carried around by her until they are old enough to care for themselves, usually
a couple of weeks or until they molt for the first time. Sometimes the mother will eat a
few of her babies.

The young will molt about six times until they are fully grown. (Molting means they shed
their hard skin. Their skin does not grow with their body, so they shed their skin and
grow a new one.) It might take eighteen months or more before they are fully grown and
capable of breeding.

Did you I{now'!

1. Scorpions kill over a thousand people a year in Mexico.
") There are over] 500 species of scorpion but only 25 can kill people.
3. Some scorpions can live a year without food or water.

LINKS
1. A1Lftb.Q.lJt~~Qrp.i.QJ1S'..
2. Scorpion records.

n
 Texas Agricultural Extension Service
The Texas A&M University System
u

L-1678

Scorpions
John A. Jackman

Professor and Extension Entomologist

The Texas A&M University System.

Scorpions are arachnids, close relatives of ticks, mites and spiders. They are easily recognized by their
characteristic shape. Scorpions prefer dryland habitats but they do occur throughout Texas. They can be a
nuisance when they interact with humans because they will sting when disturbed.

VDescription

All scorpions have a long, slender body with a five-segmented tail that can be arched over the back. The tail
ends in a bulb-like poison gland or stinger. Scorpions have four pairs of legs and two large pincer-bearing arms
(pedipalps) in front. Scorpions are.well equipped to defend themselves or attack prey with their pincers and
stinger. Between the last pair of legs is a comblike structure (pectines) that is used to identify surface textures
and to detect prey.

Scorpions have two eyes on the top of the head, and usually two to five pairs of eyes along the front corners of
the head. They do not see well, however, and must rely on the sense of touch, using their pectines and other
organs for navigation and hunting. Their bodies are flat, which allows them to hide in small cracks, under rocks
and under bark.

Worldwide, scorpions range in size from Y2 inch·to 7 1/4 inches long (including the tail) depending on the
species. The most common species in Texas is the striped bark scorpion, Centruroides vittatus. The adult
scorpion is about 2 Y2 inches long, which is typical of the size of all species found in the state.

Biology

Scorpions hide during the day and become active at night. This behavior helps scorpions manage temperature
and water balance, important functions for survival in dry habitats. Many species dig burrows in the soil. They
detect and capture prey by the sense of touch. They also have a well-developed sense of hearing.
j .

UScorpions hide under stones, bark, wood or other objects on the ground where they wait or search for prey.
Chief foods are small insects, spiders, centipedes, earthworms, and other scorpions. Once they capture their
prey, they use the large pincers to crush and draw it toward the mouth. The body juices of the prey are eaten by
the scorpion.
 Some species may live for 20
to 25 years, but longevity of
the typical scorpion is
between 3 and 8 years.

Adult scorpions may have

several broods of young.
Following an elaborate
mating process, which lasts
from 24 to 36 hours, the
female undergoes a gestation
period ranging from 5 Dorsal view 01 a scorpion.
months to more than 1 year.
The young are born alive in semi-transparent sacs. As soon as the young scorpions free themselves from these
thin wrappers, they climb onto their mother's back. Already capable of stinging, the young scorpions leave the
mother after several days and begin to fend for themselves. Scorpions reach maturity in a year or more,
depending on availability of food.

The sting of scorpions may be painful, or even deadly, depending on the species. Of 1,500 species of scorpions
worldwide, only about 20 to 25 are regarded as dangerous. Stings from such species may cause paralysis, severe
convulsions, cardiac irregularities, or breathing difficulties that may lead to death. Antivenins are available in
areas where dangerous scorpions live.

A scorpion's venom is a mixture of compounds including neurotoxins that affect the victim's nervous system.
Fortunately, none of the species in Texas are considered deadly. Stings from most of these species are about as
painful as a bee or wasp sting, but the severity of the sting is dependent upon the individual scorpion and the
person's reaction to the venom. As with any arthropod venom, allergic reactions are possible. In these situations,
immediate medical attention would be required. n
Habitat

Scorpions may be found in many types of habitats in the United States, including desert flats, sand dunes, desert
and mesic mountains, grasslands, pine forests, deciduous forests, and chaparral. Species are most diverse in
desert areas.

Taxonomic Status

About 90 species of scorpions have been identified in the United States. Texas has 18 species and only one
species, Centruroides vittatus, occurs throughout the state. It is the only species of scorpion found in the eastern
part of Texas. The number of species found in the state increases moving west and south. One species has been
recorded in the Dallas area, two recorded near Austin, four near Amarillo, three near Abilene, five near Ft.
Stockton, eight in the Ft. Davis region, eight near Langtry, and 14 in Big Bend National Park.

Striped Bark Scorpion

The common, striped bark scorpion has two broad, black stripes running the length of its back. Populations in
the Big Bend may be only faintly marked or completely pale. The basic color of the scorpion varies from yellow
to tan in adults. Immature scorpions may be lighter in color. There is a dark triangular mark on the front of the
head above the eyes. In young scorpions, the base of the pedipalps and the last segment behind t4e abdomen is
dark brown or black. This species can be easily identified by slender pedipalps (pincer-bearing arms) and the n
long, slender tail. The tail is longer on males than females. '

The striped bark scorpion apparently mates in the fall, spring or early summer. Gestation requires about 8
months. Litter size varies from 13 to 47. The average is about 31 young per litter.

Inlmature scorpions molt within 3 to 7 days after birth and remain on the mother for another 3 to 7 days after
 that. There are five or six molts to maturity. A striped bark scorpion probably lives for approximately 4 years.

The sting of this species causes local pain and swelling. Deaths attributed to this species have not been
substantiated.

Urhe striped bark scorpion is often found under rocks, under boards and in debris. It can be found indoors or
outdoors in a wide variety of habitats (pine forests in East Texas; rocky slopes, grasslands, juniper breaks in
other parts of the state). Centruroides are active foragers that do not burrow. They are distinctly associated with
dead vegetation, fallen logs and human dwellings. It is common for them to climb trees and walls, and many
times have been found in the attics of homes. During periods of hot weather, scorpions may move into living
areas to escape the high temperatures in attics.

Scorpion Stings

When handled or disturbed, scorpions can inflict a painful sting using the poison gland at the end of the tail.
Avoiding their habitats helps prevent stings. The stings from Texas scorpions produce only moderate reactions
in most people because the poison has little affect on the nervous system. However, a person who is stung by a
scorpion should be watched closely for adverse reactions. An ice pack applied to the affected area will relieve
some pain. If swelling andlor pain persists or if breathing difficulties occur, immediate medical attention is
necessary.

Scorpions as Pets

Scorpions have been kept as pets, but this practice is strongly discouraged. Scorpions should never be kept
indoors or around small children. Scorpions with even relatively low poison levels can produce fatal reactions
in young children and also in adults allergic to the toxin.
\

Vontrol

Scorpions are difficult to control with insecticides alone. Therefore, the flrst control strategy is to modify the
area surrounding a house.

• Remove all trash, logs, boards, stones, bricks and other objects from around the home.
• Keep grass closely mowed near the home. Prune bushes and overhanging tree branches away from the
house. Tree branches can provide a path to the roof for scorpions.
• Store garbage containers in a frame that allows them to rest above ground level.
• Never bring firewood inside the house unless it is placed directly on the flre.
• Install weather-stripping around loose fitting doors and windows.
• Plug weep holes in brick veneer homes with steel wool, pieces of nylon scouring pad or small squares of
screen wire.
• Caulk around roof eaves, pipes and any other cracks into the home.
• Keep window screens in good repair. Make sure they fit tightly in the window frame.

To control scorpions with chemicals, use insecticide products that contain any of the following:

• permethrin (Prelude®, Dragnet®);

• cyfluthrin (Tempo®);
• cypermethrin (Demon®);
• lambda-cyhalothrin (Demand CS®);
• deltamethrin (Suspend®);
u •
•
propoxur (Baygon®);
diazinon;
• chlorpyrifos (Dursban®);
• malathion;
• synergized pyrethrins.
 Barnacle
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A barnacle is a type .of arthropod belonging to infraclass Cirripedia in the

Usubphylum Crustacea and is hence distantly related to crabs and lobsters.
Some authorities regard Cirripedia as a full class or subclass, and the orders
listed at right are sometimes treated as superorders. Around 1,220 barnacle
species are currently known. The name "Cirripedia" means "curl-footed".

Barnacles were first fully studied and classified by Charles Darwin, at the)
suggestion of his friend Joseph Dalton Hooker, in his quest to further his
ongoing development of the theory of evolution and natural selection.
--··-·-··---·--··--·---·---·--~----·-·-·l

Contents I
• I Life cycle I
I
•
•
2 Classification
3 Synonyms
I
• 4 References
• 5 External links

Life cycle "Cirripedia" from Ernst Haeckel's

Kunstformen der Natur (1904). The crab at
Barnacles have two larval stages. The first is called the naupIius, which the centre is nursing the extema of the
Sacculina
,spends its time as part of the plankton, floating wherever the wind, waves,
uurrents, and tides may take it, whilst eating and molting. This lasts for about
Kingdom: Animalia
two weeks (and five larval instars) until the second stage is reached. At this
point the nauplills metamorphoses into a non-feeding, more strongly Phylum: Arthropoda
swimming cyprid larva. The cyprids settle down in an area where Subphylum: Crustacea
environmental :.!!!?! indicate a SEe
and (!!oductive environment. If they don't, Class: Maxi 1I0poda
the larvae will die.
Subclass: Thecostraca
When an appropriate place is found, the Infraclass: Cirripedia
cyprid larva cements itself headfirst to Burmeister, 1834
the surface and then undergoes
metamorphosis into a juvenile barnacle.
Typical barnacles develop six hard Acrothoracica
armor plates to surround and protect Thoracica
their bodies. For the rest of their lives Rlf
they are cement"ed to the ground, using

~-
Balanus balanoides
-- .-..~,.-.". -.. ~ ---
""' .......... -
!
...... -.~-- .... ... ----\
their feathery legs to capture plankton and gametes when spawn ing. They are
usually found in the intertidal zone.

Once metamorphosis is over and they have reached their adult form, barnacles will continue to grow, but not molt.
Instead, they grow by adding new material to the ends of their heavily calcified Elates.
-
Like many invertebrates, barnacles are hermaphroditic and alternate male and female roles over time. Barnacles have the
longest penis in the animal kingdom, in proportion to their body length [1]. -

'-damacles often attach themselves to man-made structures, sometimes~o the structure's detriment. Particularly in the case
of ships, they are classified as fouling organisms.

However, some members of the class have quite a different mode of life. For example, members of.the genus SacculinCi
are parasitic on crabs.
The Barnacle Goose gets its name from the ancient European belief that it grew from the gooseneck barnacle, Pollicipes
polymerus; eggs and goslings of this bird were never seen because it bred in the remote Arctic. Since barnacles are
seafood, the Barnacle Goose was counted as a fish, and could be eaten by Catholics on Fridays, when meat llsed to be
forbidden.

Classification
This article follows Martin and Davis in placing Cirripedia as an infraorder of
Thecostraca and in the following classification of cirripedes down to the level of
orders: [2]

Infraclass Cirripedia Burmeister, 1834

• Superorder Acrothoracica Gruvel, 1905

• Order Pygophora Berndt, 1907
• Order Apygophora Berndt, 1907
• Superorder Rhizocephala MUller, 1862 Balanidae, Mission Beach
National Park, Queensland,
• Order Kentrogonida Delage, 1884 Australia, 2002
• Order Akentrogonida Hafele, 19 I 1
• Superorder Thoracica Darwin, 1854
• Order Pedunculata Lamarck, 1818
• Order Sessilia Lamarck, 18 I 8

Synonyms
Other names for this group of crustaceans include Thyrostraca, Cirrhopoda (meaning
"tawny-footed"), Cirrhipoda, and Cirrhipedia.

Corrosion caused partly by

References barnacles

I. A Barnacle general biology

(http://www.museum.vic.gov.au/crustibarnbiol.htmI). Museum Victoria (1996).

2. A Joel W. Martin and George E. Davis (2001). An Updated Classification o/the Recent Crustacea
(http://www.nhm. org/research/publications/CrustaceaClassification.pdj). Natural History Museum of Los Angeles
County.

External links
1. Rock barnacle (http://www.vattenkikaren.gu.se/faktalarter/crustace/cirripedlbalacren/balacre.html) at Aquascope
2. Barnacles (http://www.mesa.edu.au/friends/seashoreslbarnacIes.html) from the Marine Education Society of
Australasia
3. http://collections.ic.gc.ca/artifacts/kosapsom/images/barnacle.jpg
4. http://www .nhptv .orglnatureworkslgraphics/bamacle.jpg
5. Barnacles in Spain (http://www.iberianature.com/material/barnacles.htm) Article on barnacles in Spain, and their
collection and gastronomy.

Retrieved from ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wikilBarnacle''

Category: Crustaceans

• This page was last modified 09:45, 9 January 2007.

• All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation
License. (See Copyrights for details.)
 Crayfish
u Frank Ball

Basic Biology

Crayfish (Crawfish, Crawdad, Freshwater Lobster, etc.). There are some 150 species in North
America, over 540 species worldwide.

Color and size varies with species, diet, and age. Most are red, some are green, brown, tan, or blue
with black or orange markings in various combinations. Often juveniles will be a light tan color that
turns to a deep red as an adult. The coloration depends in part on their diet, and can change with a
change in diet. Adult size is 2" to 6" for most US species. Some Australian varieties can be much
larger.

They grow by molting, that is they shed their carapace (shell) when they outgrow it, and form a new
hard shell. When they first molt they are soft. and very vulnerable to attack by other crayfish or fish. It
can take a couple days for the new shell to fully harden. Juveniles can molt every week or so. Adults
may only molt a couple times a year, and only under the right conditions. The empty shell should be
left in the tank. where it will be consumed over the next few days to recover the lost minerals and help
form the new shell.

Lifespan: about 2-3 years. but varies with species. Some live longer.

Water conditions

Not critical. Freshwater, but can tolerate a wide range of conditions. Cool, hard, alkaline, well aerated
water is best for most species.

A temperature range of 65-77 F (18-25 C) is best for good growth of most species from the continental
United States, but they can survive over a much wider range. Some species are tropical, some require
cold water.

If the water is too soft or the pH is too low then there is a risk of calcium deficiency that could inhibit
molting. Medium hard or hard water with a slightly alkaline pH. 7.5 - 8.5, is best.

They are normally 100% aquatic. but they can survive out of the water as long as their gills remain
wet. They do not need to leave the water. The tank should be covered to prevent them from Climbing
out and going exploring around the house. They can climb up between the tank wall and a
under-gravel.lift tube, or climb up plants or a heater.

Diet

Omnivorous-fish. shrimp, meat. vegetables (frozen peas. boiled zucchini. carrots. etc.). sinking pellets,
table scraps. Don't feed too much fat. Adults do not need a lot of protein. and should be fed primarily
vegetables. I feed mostly frozen peas. some Tetra Tabimin pellets. carrots. and they catch the
occasional fish. They also like the crickets that drown in my toad tank (the toads won't eat dead
crickets).

Since they like vegetables they will eat many plants. They will devour plants that nothing else will eat,
like Java Moss. They will uproot the plants they don't eat. I have lots of floating Hornwort
(Ceratophyl/um demersum) in my tank. They don't eat that too fast (it grows fast). and they like the
cover above them.

) of4 4111/01 9: J 8 AM
 .r

Behavior

Nocturnal. They like to hide during the day and need hiding places. Pieces of PVC pipe, rocks,
driftwood, etc., can be used. They are cannibalistic if they are crowded or not provided with suitable
shelter and lots of food. They can pinch HARD, so be careful.

Compatibility with fish

Crayfish will try very hard to eat your fish. They will lay in wait until a fish swims through their open
claws, or if they have their tail curled up they can lunge forward a few inches to try to catch a fish. They
may climb up plants to go fishing near the surface. I've seen them watch food that is put into the tank
from a few inches away, and wait for fish to start eating it. Then they lunge forward to try to catch one.

I now have a single crayfish in a 10 gallon tank with White Cloud Minnows, feeder guppies, and a
Chinese Algae Eater. The crayfish ate some of the guppies but the survivors are keeping out of reach. '
She ate all of my Zebra Danios, and half of my White Clouds. The Chinese Algae Eater is much too
fast for her, and It even hides with the crayfish and sucks on her back. I'd recommend feeder guppies,
feeder goldfish, or minnows from a bait store (anything cheap).

In the past I kept a crayfish with common (feeder) goldfish, and the crayfish was not able to
successfully compete for food against the goldfish. I had to "hand" feed it with a pair of tongs. One day
I came home and the four goldfish (about 3" each without the tail) had eaten about half of the 4"
crayfish, and they had it well cleaned up by the next morning. I've also seen small goldfish get caught
and eaten within a few minutes. Do not keep a crayfish with a fancy goldfish or any fish that is slow
moving or has long fins. Do not keep them with Weather Loaches (Oojos), as they will lay on the
bottom of the tank and allow the crayfish to walk up and pinch them.

How to get a crayfish

Here in California Crayfish can be purchased from some pet shops or bait shops, or you can catch
them in the wild IF you purchase a fishing license or are under 18 years old. There is no season and
no limit.

Links with information on Crayfish

http://www.agualink.com/fresh/species.html

http://www.agualink.com/fresh/z-crayfish1.html

http://www.agualink.com/fresh/z-crayfish2.html

http://www.agualink.com/columns/k-crayfish.html

http://www.agualink.com/columns/k-craVfish1.html

http://www.agualink.com/columns/k-crayfish2.html

http://www.outdoortimes.com/1996/04/nale.html

htlp://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/NewCropsNews/91-1-1/crayfish.html

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/NewCropsNews/94-4-1/crayfish.html

4/11/01 9:18 AM
of4
 Facts The Grouchy Ladybug,

from whether she knows

it or not,
has a thing or tUJO

Fiction to say about

entomology,
natural selection,
comparative anatomy,
food chains, aphids, and
March 1988 Science and Children symbiotic relationships.
And that's a lot
Carol Bulzow, a former ttllCher, is a dodoral candidate at Indiana
University of Pennsylvania. John Butzow is assodate dean of college
for a storybook.
education at Indiana University. Both are also reading and science
consultants. Artwork reprinted from The Grouchy Ladybug, by
pennission of Harper and Row publishers.

v
II G O O d morning," said the friendly ladybug.
"Go away!" shouted the grouchy lady-
bug. "I want those aphids."
"We can share them," suggested the
friendly ladybug.
"No. They're mine, all mine," screamed the grouchy
ladybug.
In Eric Carle's picture book, the grouchy ladybug starts
her morning by picking a fight over the aphids _with the
friendly ladybug. She spends the rest of the day antagoniz-
ing progressively larger and larger animals such as a beetle,
a bird, a hyena, an elephant, and finally a whale. Lucky for
her, she doesn't have to fight any of them. She ends up vocabulary, and elicit dramatizations.
"wet, tired, and hungry," sharing the leaf and aphids with More than that, books like this deal with science and
the friendly ladybug at the end of the day. scientific concepts that can become the basis of a language
arts and reading and science program. The strong story line
in many of these books enables children to understand and
By Carol Butzow remember more scien tific concepts than they would by
using a science textbook. Some of these books can even be
and John Butzow used in social studies, math, and art units. Obviously, chil-
dren's literature offers more than simple pleasure.
The Grouchy Lndybug is exactly the sort of book that delights That Silly Ladybug
and amuses young children. Exactly the kind of book Young children do not think abstractly. If an adult
: "),ers assume is only entertaining. explains a scientific notion to a child in a realistic, adult
'\.....Attion for children isn't taken as seriously as nonfiction manner, the child often grows confused. He simply cannot
is in elementary school. But teachers are missing great edu- .understand the adult's reasoning. Stories and examples,
cational opportunities when they consider children's litera- however, that conform to a child's thought processes will
ture as supplemental at best. A book like The Grouchy Lndybug, have greater meaning to him. For instance, a child realizes
for example, can be the basis of classroom discussion. It can that it's silly for the ladybug to challenge the whale to fight.
also help a teacher assess her students' comprehension, The child recognizes instinctively the discrepancy in the
reinforce their reading and listening skills, increase their animals' sizes but wouldn't understand that what she was
grasping was comparative anatomy. 6. Keep a log of what the students observe about
Using children's literature to teach science is a part of the insects.
present movement to include specific reading and writing 7. Discuss the different animals in the book. How do thev
instruction in all areas. Reading and writing are as much a protect themselves? How do they move? -
part of a science program as they are a part of the language s. Invent animals. Ask the students how their animals~
program. Many educators, though, feel that children haven't move and protect themselves. .r )
been given specific lessons in writing and reading. "The 9. Research each of the anima1.s in the book and make up-
idea that reading instruction and subject matter instruction descriptive cards, showing each one's size, habitat, and eat-
should be integrated," reports the Commission on Reading, ing habits.
"is an old one in education. But there is little indication that
such integration occurs often in practice. The most logical Language Activities
place for instruction in most reading and thinking strate- 1. Before finishing the book-stop at the whale page-
gies is in social studies and science rather than in separate ask the class to predict the ending. Write down the new
lessons about reading." endings.
2 List the different words the author uses for meel.
000, That Grouchy Ladybug 3. Do a choral reading or dramatization of the book.
Tire Grouclry Lndybug easily integrates science and language 4. Write poems about the grouchy and the friendly
arts. Aside from the ladybug's belligerence, the book por- ladybugs. Use many contrasting adjectives.
trays animals protecting their environment. It even ends on _ 5. Have the students write about why the grouchy
the symbiotic relationship between ladybugs and leaves. ladybug changed her attitude at the end of the book.
"Soon all the aphids were gone. 'Thank you,' said the leaf. 6. Have the students draw personal timelines showing
'You are welcome,' answered both the ladybugs ...." where they are and what they are doing at each time
Each picture shows the passing of time with a clock face shown on the clocks in the book.
at the top and the Sun's position as it moves across the 7. Have the students tell the same story from one of the
horizon. Different animals are categorized and the food other creature's viewpoints, particularly the aphids'.
chain is outlined in a subtle way. The plot is simple, the
concepts realistic and verifiable. If nothing else, the book Social Studies Activities
will stimulate children to learn more about ladybugs. 1. Discuss why people and animals live in communities
To create an integrated science and language arts unit and why there are rules in these communities. Ask the
with The Grouchy lAdybug means that it will not be used class why there are rules against fighting in school. When
merely as a reading assignment. The children, after all, do you feel like fighting? What can you do when someone
'should read for information, ideas, insights, and entertain- wan ts to fight you?
ment Simultaneously, not just for the individual words. A 2. Locate the continents and oceans where the animals in~
well-written fictional book can serve as a source of creative the book live.
and effective science lessons for all students in the earlv 3. Find and discuss pictures of the different places the
elementary grades. - ladybug visits.
Using Tire Grouchy lAdybug as the pivot of an integrated
unit, consider the follo"Ving classroom activities. Art Activities
1. Have the students make ladybugs out of thumbprints
Science Activities or stones.
1. Study the pictures of the ladybug. Draw a large picture 2. Have the students make masks or costumes so they
of the ladybug and label the body parts and functions. can look like their favorite animal from the book.
2. Set up a sundial on the playground and mark the
shadow length to correspond with the clock faces in the Music Activities
book. 1. Listen to the classical music scores Carnival of the Animals
3. How many hours does the book cover? Is that a whole by Saint-Saens, Swan lAke by Tchaikovsky, and Peter and the
day? Why do we have day and night? Discuss A.M. and P.M. Wolf by Prokofiev.
What is the difference between a digital and an analog .2. Ask the children to do interpretive dances to the music
clock? . that reminds them of the way the animals in the book
4. If the students have not yet mastered telling time, move.
work on those skills.
5. Make bug houses and then sweep-net the school yard
or a wooded area to collect insects for studying in the
classroom.

Resources
Anderson, Robert, et al. (1984). Becoming a nation of readers: Tlrt
report of the commission on reading. Washington, DC: U.~
Department of Education. , ,
Bettleheim, Bruno. (1977). The useS of enchantment. New York:-
Alfred A. Knopf.
Bybee, Rodger W., and Sund, Robert B. (1982). Piagel for
educators. Columbus: Charles Merrill. .
Goodman, Kenneth. (1986). What's whole in whole language.
Portsmouth, NH: He~nemann Educational Books.
 Insect investigations
Subject Concepts
SCience.

Science skills
Observing. describing. classifying.

Focus
There are more insects in the city than any other type of critter. They are easy-
to-find examples of antmal adaptation to habitat. Because of their adaptations.
insects are often found in very spec1flc places within their habitat. What
Insects can you find buzzing, crawling, hopping, or ilylng In great green spaces
near you?

Did you know?

Insects are found Just about everywhere. but some ~
might be hard to see because they are camouflaged. \' \ '.:\ \
The oleander moth has a color pattern that blends (\ I .~ . ,
in with the bark of a tree where it rests during I ~~ -.... " ~ ~'~I~~l't'l~,::':"-,.
the day. Its coloration makes It hard for ~-- ~:-.. ,,~
u.'. \'1
daytime predators to see It. Camouflage can 1 . I~
also help predators hide. The shape and color - ~' ,I rU" . - ~
u of the praying mantis allows It to blend in with
greenery while waiting to snatch an insect
: ~
' ' ' . ,. :\ ~~
... ~

that flies by. Habitat adaptations like these ",",''''~

give insects a survival advantage. 7 10 I
! rj?' ~.

What you need Praying mantie with ite prey

For each person:
Q 2 clear plastic cups (8-oz. size)
Q Scissors
Q Mesh or netting
Q A rubber band
Q Pencn
Q Insect Investigations ActtVity Sheet
Q White sheets (can be shared)
Q White plastic tubs (can be shared)

Before you start

Q An entomologtst studies insects. All adult insects have: siX legs, three body
parts (head. thorax. abdomen), two antennae. and most have one or two
pairs of wings.
Q Be careful when handling insects. Some bite or sting to defend themselves.
V Q Many Insects are fragile; take care not to damage legs. wings, or antennae.

Chapter 3
 Two Segments' in Waist (Poneroid Complex)
P(lnIInom v rl11u( harvester
-:r"
tints)
~'. lar~ red·, _. _.... a n t s . . usua11y clear v~tation around nest
.. beard of long hoirs (psommophore) unmr hMi .........
ei-
."

emonomorphic (workers only come in one si2e) ~----------~___

J
, -,.
-<. :,' Alia (leaf-cutter ants) " \. (,:C; .;~:;:: or~;.".': ...• " "" .....:<..;
l~-'." Lorge to very smell, grow fungus from~cut leaves,' nests otten 10-:-20 ft
deep cannot stinQ -' ~ 9i':~' , "
~ ;',','; ~,:. :.:~:-,
across
~e~ jUst 8S -'. :;
!¥."V''1 ~ '. --:;: ~,' :~Q.J., .
'.1

-top of thorax with 3 pairs'of spines ~ '. :';,~ '.'~': '. :;~:' ".,- ". ~ . .'~ .. " ~':H>'
IICOntinuously polymorphicJ workers come in al1 sizes) ~ ~.
eentenna with' , segments ~'-- ". '. '. ,..
u t#,

~
t 1
.
Soicnop3i:l (F ire cnts) '.. .", • - . '. . . ... ".
'medium to small ~ized. large eart~en .m~unds, sti(lgS ~~\
HWor~~wlth 10-segmented_~!ennle, .. I '.~'>
eoo splnes on bn end of thorax ' .' :,) .
e2-segmented entennal club./ \ -:1
econtinuously polymorphic"( workers come in al1 sizes
I f " s-wlt. - , ... VI ,,-fa. ej
Pheidole t -biQ-~ ants-) ,
smell to very smell, many species, cermot sting .
Hdimorphic, big-hesBi soldiers and small oormall00king workers, similar to the
tropicel fire en! ·in eppeerence except usually smaHer end not continuously
polymorphic . 2J·
el2-segmented antenna).3 - ~J"'''/\.1e..l·du/' ~,

/fonomorilllll (-little bJ~ ants-)

very smtiH, U5ut»l1y bltlCk (except Phm'rOO's tint). usmlly 00 not sting
e12-segmented antenna .
ebeclc' of thor~ rounded, without spines
emon,omorphic (wa'kers only amle in one si2e)
CremalOfl8SIer ( -bark ants-)
often found in w[XXJ or UncEr bark
"petiole joins to top"of gaster ;;;:.~~~
..gaster som~hot heart-shaped with 0 pointed end & ~~ ~ e
emonomorphlc (workers only come in one size) ~
One Segment in Waist (Myrmeciod Comp1ex)
Conomyrml1 (crezy ants)
medium-smal1ants,oiten run in rapid loops, nest entrances often have a 2-3 inch pile ~~
di rt around them ,_commonly found aloog tb~ roads! ~nno~ 5t in~
Hsingle cone-I iKe point in mjaUe of b~k
-workers smel11ike blue cheese when crushed
emonomorphic (workers only come in one size)
_ ~ /"
( ()
~
...~ "
'y''.J\
.-- . /?
I~
--
'{
Fore/ius ("blue cheese ants·)
very small, oftan yellowish, workers usu1511y run quickly along trails in 18r~ numbers,
cannot sting
eworkers smelllike blue cheese when crushElt ~
.petio.lar segment very small and often hiaEn unOOr gaster .
emonomorphic ( worke~ on Iy OJme in one sjze) 0

Pllrolrcchil1l1 ("bristle ants")

very small t sim~l~ to Forelius except OOo't smell when crushed, cannot sting
ebcdf covered stout dark bristles
.monomorphic (workers only come in one size)

Campono/us (carpenter ants)

medium.Jo lerge.~tst many kinds live ~n wood, QIIlnot.sJfng .:
..top of l~8X is ev~ly roun~ when viewed from the si
emntinuously polYmorphic ( workers arne in aJ1si?eS) .

,....
4. :
...
:.' .:,.' ~ i ' . . •: ••:;: ' .
,,/~ .........
'.

' .
•• J

., .
.....
.,

•
 Directions: Find each of the numbered traits on several specimens of each
spec1es.
Red Imported Fire Ant (SolenoplS Invlcta)
Tall distinct mounds In spring and fall
u Major Workers .
1. Heed of ncrmal ~ end proportions .
2. urania, of petio1e with at most I small r.ctch . \'.
3. four teeth on mandibles tJ \ j
~. No tBeth aboYe base of front lea
I1lnor 'Nurkera
~ ~
(9
c~
1. No teeth above ba5e of front lea ·
2. Antennal ~ long, reaches or u~ top arner of heed
3. centrel pointed taJIh on ebave mllldlbles". Ii (,
Tropical Fire Ant (SOlentJl)SlsgemlnataJ' ~.
Similar to red imported fire ant~ except for the large-headed majors and
. mounds are usually lower
Major Workers
I.
2.
Heaj dlsproporU_tv 1~ and bt~H
Undersic2 of petiole with at mast I small notch
-
b)
~.

3. MandiblesstrmQlvcurvai.blunt ....'M·wtthout teeth-..,

~. R . irregular teeth ebave base II frant 1egII*
5. Majors with Jf~t red brown hea .,
t1 tnor Workers . .
I. One or two r_lrreoular tEth above base of front 1t!Q**
2. AntennaJ s:epe long, reeches or . , . , . tap ar. . of heed
. 3. no central tmJth on c1ypeus above IDMdIbles . t~~ f,.('o
t~ ._J...._~ ~
. ~~,,-~ ~

u Southern Fire Ant (Solenops/s XY/(JfII).

Nests usually lower than the imported species, workers less aggress1ve
~~ &. '-Illa~JI

"ajor Worters

.
I. Head of normal shepe end proportin
2. Underside of petiole with a distinct
3. Mendibles with 3 teeth end a small natdl-
tDath*H\:A~
u.4« ~
4. No teeth ebove base of front leg
5. Heed end thorax uniform Wk cnngD bOIl~~ ~
"'''''~-T
'---- J ./
tlinor Worters . . I.

1.. No teeth ebove be of front leg .JI*I'f..,

2. AntennaJ ~ ~ •DB oot'~ arner It,.
3. no tooth ... an clypill above mandibles ,
Desert Fire Ant (So/enOpsls atria)· ..
SmalJlsh untrormJy orange ants. nests small diffuse, orten under kS,
workers rather timid, fOUnd only west or Austin
·nljar Worters .
I. Heed 0( normal shepe end proportlans ..
2. Underside of petfole wn"
a keel Itb taJth. /V1
3. Four teeth on mendib1es '- ~
4. No teeth eboYe base 01 front leg ",,--,'
Black Imported Fire Ant (So/enopslsrIChterl)
Not found in Texas .
Very similar to t.be red fmport81 (fre ent except e darker ~ mlcr and 8 dark orange
spot on gBSter of major wcrters
 Ihe l::Sug -I-hat Changed History Page 1 of2

The Bug That Changed History

Surprise Valley. July. You're running sweep on the Tapeats/Thunder RiverlDeer Creek
hike. Conversation at the back of the pack is running something like this: "We're surprised
all right. We're surprised how hot and dry and stupid it is up here!" Yep, they're suffering
from heat frustration, and you're still miles away from the boats at Deer Creek. Resting at
the Big Shade Rock, the glum crunching of a granola bar is the only sound. You think: "I
need to divert attention away from blistered feet, achy joints, and sunburns. I need a long,
entertaining story." Tell them the tale of the cochineal insect, a bug that changed world
history.

The cochineal is found in many Colorado River side canyons, appearing on prickly pear
cactus pads inside matchhead-sized white fuzzballs. When you fmd some of these, car~fully
pull one off. Go ahead and mash it. The brilliant red insect bodies now staining your
fingertips have been processed by New World cultures for thousands of years, and used to
color everything from warriors' shields to their own bodies. By the 14th century, the Incas
and Aztecs both had whole agricultural systems based on cochineal, and apparently valued
the dye as much as gold.

At the same time in Europe, the best red colorings were made from another insect, a pest
of oak trees called kermes, which was dried, ground up and dissolved in water. Neolithic
cave paintings in France, the Dead Sea Scrolls, and the wrappings of Egyptian mummies
were all tinted with this dye. Compared to cochineal however, kermes tints look dull and
faded. So when Cortes invaded Mexico in 1519, he was amazed to fmd Montezuma and
other nobles dressed in robes dyed a brilliant, vivid red. He was also amazed to see the
native women's hands and breasts painted the same intense color. In Tenochtitlan (now
Mexico City) he found bags of dried cochineal sent as tribute to Montezuma, which were
promptly shipped back to Spain. The dye was so much brighter than kermes it was almost
instantly in high demand. By 1600, cochineal was second only to silver as the most valuable
import from Mexico.

Around 1630, it was discovered that treating cochineal with an acidic tin solution made it
bind much better to fabric and even brighter in color, the first scarlet as we now know it.
Because of its expense and scarcity, scarlet cloth quickly became associated with money and
power. Roman Catholic Card Cardinals robes were made from it as were the jackets of the
British military.

The Revolutionary War in which American colonists fought against these "Redcoats" was
brought on not only by British taxes on tea, but also by heavy taxes on cochineal, which
could easily have been imported directly from Mexico by the Colonies.

In addition to dye for fabric, cochineal became widely used as a food coloring. Cakes,
cookies, beverages, jam, jelly, ice cream, sausages, pies, dried fish, yogurt, cider,
maraschino cherries and tomato products were brightened with it as were chewing gum,
pills and cough drops. Cosmetic rouge was developed with cochineal as the main ingredient.
, But while ever more diverse uses were found for cochineal, it's origin remained a mystery.
V
Most Europeans thought it was extracted from berries or cereals because the dried insects

http://www.gcrg.org/bqr/8-2/bug.htm 7/29/2005
'l'h~ Hug 'I'hat Changed History Page 2 of2

looked like grains of wheat. This misconception was promoted by the Spanish, who had
launched a brutal cover-up of the dye making process as soon as they realized cochineal's
potential. Many New World natives unfortunate enough to have chosen a career in red dye "~
production were simply put to death. Access to cochineal farms was tightly controlled, but
eventually French and Dutch adventurers succeeded in smuggling out live cactus pads
covered with the insects. Cochineal "ranches" were started in dozens of countries in North
Africa, the Mediterranean and the Caribbean. Prickly pear and cochineal did particularly
well in the Canary Islands where whole farms and vineyards were cleared and converted to
cactus plantations. In 1868, the Canaries exported six million pounds of cochineal,
equivalent to 420 billion insects.

This time period proved to be the peak of the cochineal industry as new synthetic dyes in a
variety of fade-resistant colors rapidly superseded it. By the 1880s cochineal production was
in steep decline. A major crisis in Spanish financial markets ensued, as a key 250 ye~-old
industry failed within the span of a couple of decades.

Though not in high demand today, cochineal is used in medical tracers, artists' paints' and
microscopy stains. It is currently the only natural red food coloring authorized by the FDA.
Unfortunately, workers harvesting cochineal now are not much safer than those laboring
under the Spanish 200 years ago. The world's primary growing area, Peru, is threatened by
ongoing political instability and violence. Conditions are so sketchy that the insects are
usually gathered at night. Revealing where his concerns lay, one cochineal importer noted:
"There's high mortality in working staff right now, so supplies are a bit tight."

By now, if you've dragged the story out adequately, the boats should be in sight. If so,
wrap up your tale on this note: as food producers continue to switch back to natural
colorings, more and more of the stuffwe eat and drink will be dyed with dead bugs. But at.
least the red color won t have originated as some awful synthetic brew in a General Foods
chemistry lab.

Jeff Behan

http://www.gcrg.orglbqr/8-2Ibug.htm 7/29/2005
,=n'..... .
 &;;> - - - ••• - - - .1Q.!:)t- J. U.1 .1

EnchantedLearning.com S'hrimp Name:

--------------------------
u ·.Shri.mp Carapace
(shielding·the
Compound
eye
Abdomen /I head and thorax) I

Translucent
exoskeleton

5 pairs of
swimmerets
(pleopod)
Telson
@EnohantedLearning.oom

Shrimp are small animals that live on the floor of oceans and lakes. There are over 2,000
different species of shrimp worldwide. Shrimp are invertebrates (animals lacking a
backbone) that have a tough exoskeleton.

" Anatomy: Shrimp range from a small fraction of an inch to 9 inches (a few mm to 23 cm)
. long. These crustaceans have a thin, smooth, hard, and almost transparent exoskeleton.
U Shrimp vary Widely in color; tropical varieties are often brightly colored. Shrimp have 5
pairs of jointed walking legs on the thorax, and they have 5 pairs of swimming legs
(swimmerets) and 3 pairs of maxillae (feeding appendages) on the abdomen. The body, legs,
swimmerets, and other appendages are segmented. Shrimp have two pairs of segmented
sensory antennae, a tail fan, and compound eyes.

Diet: Shrimp are omnivores; they eat plants and small animals. The unusual pistol shrimp
kills or stuns its prey by making a very loud sound with a huge claw with a moveable,
snapping appendage.

Life Cycle: Female shrimp layover a thousand eggs, which are attached to her swimming
legs. The shrimp emerge as tiny, floating organisms, a component of zooplankton. After
growing, they sink to the bottom, where they will live. As a shrimp grows, it often molts
(losing its old shell and growing a new one).

Predators: Shrimp are eaten by many animals, including many fish, many birds (including
flamingos and loons), octopi, squid, cuttlefish, and people.

Classification: Kingdom Animalia, Phylum Arthropoda, Class Crustacea (crustaceans),

Subclass Malacostraca, Order Decapoda, Suborder Natantia.

U Copyright ©2000-2006 EllchantedLeaming.com

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 "".... "" ..........- _..- - - ' - - - - : , 0 .- - - .

EnchantedLearning.com -CRAB"
~ ;:'S
~ . '; . Name:
--------------------------
U
Cra,b

® ZoomSchool.com

Crabs are IO-legged animals that walk sideways. There are almost 5,000 different species of
\ crabs; about 4,500 are true crabs, plus about 500 are hermit crabs (hermit crabs don1t have a
·' very hard shell and use other animalsl old shells for protection). Most crabs live in the
U oceans, but many, like the robber crab, live on land.
The Biggest Crabs: The biggest crab is the Japanese Spider crab (Macrocheira kaempferi),
which lives on the floor of the north Pacific Ocean; it has a 12 ft (3.7 m) leg span. The
biggest land crab is the Coconut crab (Birgus latro), which lives on islands in the Pacific
Ocean; it has a leg span up to 2.5 ft (75 ~m).

Diet: Many crabs are omnivores (plant- and meat-eaters), others are carnivores (meat-
eaters), and some are herbivores (plant-eaters).

Anatomy: Crabs are invertebrates, animals without a backbone. They have an exoskeleton
(also called a carapace), an outer shell that both protects them from predators and provides
support. These crustaceans have ten jointed legs, two of which have large, grasping claws
(called pincers or chelipeds). They have a flattened body, two feelers (antennae), and two
eyes located at the ends of stalks.

Breathing: Marine crabs breathe underwater using gills, which are located in a two cavities
under the carapace. True land crabs have enlarged, modified cavities that act like lungs so
that the land crabs can breathe air.

U Copyright © 1999-2006 EnchantedLearning.com

http://members.enchantedleaming.com/subj ects/Crab.shtml?p 11/3/2006 '

 EnchantedLeaming.com

U
Hermit Crab Label :HERMIT Name:
Me! Printout
·" '.'S --------------------------
CRAB
.
'
.I . • i
~
'.

Hermit Crab The hennit crab is a type of crab that

doesn't have a very hard shell. Not a true
crab, it uses other animals' old shells for
protection; they especially like old whelk
shells. As the hermit crab grows in size,
it must find a larger shell.

The hennit crab is a crustacean; there are

about 500 different species of hermit
crabs around the world. Most hennit crab
species live on the ocean floor, but many
live on land. Female terrestrial (land
based) hermit crabs must return to the sea
Soft. twisted to breed.
abdomen
hidden Hard shell that is An~tomy:
Hermit crabs are
inside shell temporarly used by
the hermit crab invertebrates, animals without a
@EnchantedLearning.com
U backbone. They have an exoskeleton, an
outer shell that provides support for their body but does not provide much protection from
, predators. They vary widely in color, from red to brown to purple, with stripes, dots, and
other patterns. They have ten jointed legs; the front two legs have large, grasping claws
(called pincers' or chelipeds) and the rear pair of legs are very small. They have a flattened
body, sensory antennae, two eyes located at the ends of stalks, and a soft, twisted abdomen
(which the hermit crab keeps hidden inside its shell). '

Diet: Hermit crabs are omnivores (eating plants and animals) and scavengers (eating dead
animals that they fmd). They eat worms, plankton, and organic debris.

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 EnchantedLeaming.com ~Crayfish Name:
-----------------------------
Cephalothor.ax
Cra.yfish
u Lon~ antennae

®Enchantedl.eaming .com

Crayfish are crustaceans that are also known as crawdads, crawfish, and freshwater lobsters; they are
closely related to lobsters, crabs, and shrimp. There are about 150 crayfish species in North America,
and over 540 species worldwide.

Crayfish live in streams, rivers, swamps, ponds, and other freshwater habitats. Most crayfish are strictly
aquatic but some live in semi-aquatic environments. The semi-aquatic crayfish burrow into the soil to
get to water (so that they can breathe).

u Anatomy: This crustacean has a hard exoskeleton that protects and supports the body. The crayfish has
8 jointed walking legs, a segmented body, 2 pairs of sensory antennae, and compound eyes. It has 2
large pincers or claws called chelipeds. If a crayfish loses a leg, the leg will regenerate (regrow). The
head and thorax are fused, forming the cephalothorax. Using gills, a crayfish breathes oxygen that is
dissolved in water. Juvenile crawfish are light tan, but adults are deep red. Their color also depends on
diet. As a crayfish grows, it often molts (loses its old shell and grows a new one). It eats the old shell.
Crawfish in North America range from 2 to 6 inches (5-15 cm) long; Australian crawfish are larger.

Diet: Crayfish are omnivores; they eat plants, animals, and de~aying organisms. They are nocturnal
(most active at night) and eat fish, shrimp, water plants, worms, insects, snails, and plankton. Larval
crayfish are very tiny; they eat plankton.

Predators: Many animals eat crayfish, including fish (like eel, trout, pike, chub, perch), herons, mink,
otters, snakes, and people. .

Copyright ©2000-2006 EnchantedLearning.conl

http://members.enchantedleaming.com!subjects/invertebrates/crustaceanlCrayfishprintout....11/3/2006
 Enehmrte'f' 'fm"ing.com
Name:
CeDtipede ---------------------------
u
Centipede

Antennae ..
'
.......
CS>EnchantedLearnI ng.com ,.'

Question: What goes 99 clunk? Answer: A centipede with a wooden leg.

Despite their name (which means" 100 legs"), centipedes do not all have 100 legs.
Centipedes are fast-moving, carnivorous, venomous invertebrates. They have a hard
U. exos~eleton and ~ointed leg~. They ~ive on land in moi~t microh~bitats .(under rocks and
. ·logs, m leaf debI'l~~ or occaSIonally m burrows). A common centipede IS the house
centipede, Scutigerajorceps, which is about 2 inches (5 cm) long and has 15 pairs of legs.
Some centipedes (like Geophilus electricus) glow in the dark.

Anatomy: Centipedes have a flattened, segmented body, long antennae, and many legs
(each leg is slightly longer than the one in front of it). Centipedes have from 15 to about 177
segments (but most have about 15). Each body segment has a pair of legs that stick out from
the sides. A member of the genus Geophilus has 177 pairs of legs. When a leg is cut off it
will regenerate. The body is divided into two parts, the head and a segmented trunk. They
breathe through spiracles, holes positioned along the body.

Diet: Centipedes are carnivores (meat-eaters) that use venom to kill their prey. The venom
comes from glands that open near the first pair of modified legs (which act as poisonous
fangs). Their bite can be painful to a human but not lethal. Centipedes eat insects,
earthworms, spiders, slugs, and other small animals. The largest centipede, Scolopendra
gigas (from Trinidad in the West Indies), also eats mice and some small lizards.
Scolopendra gigas grows to be about 10 inches (25 cm) long and 1 inch wide.

Enemies: Birds, toads, and shrews eat centipedes, as do some people.

\.JReproduction': The average female centipede lays 60 sticky eggs (which are fertilized

http://members.enchantedlearning.comlsubjects/invertebrates/arthropod/Centipede.shtm1?p 11/3/2006
 Drterna]1y). She drops the eggs into a hole she digs in the soil. Some centipedes care for their
eggs and the hatchlings.

Classification: Kingdom Animalia (animals), Phylum Arthropoda Gointed legs and an

exoskeleton), Superclass Myriapoda ("many-footed" with a2-segmented body, including
millipedes, centipedes, etc.), Class Chilopoda (centipedes). About 20 families and 3,000
species of centipedes have been described.

Copyright ©2001-2006 EnchantedLearning.com

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 Enchmt-edI,eaming.com
Name:
1\JRH~,
..1. "iiuJJ.p~e --------------------------
u
:MilHpe'de Trunk

·1 Collum
Rounded
head
Eye
Most body segments
have 2 pairs of legs
(diplosomltes);
somltes .have one
pair of legs
Sternltes
Labrum Mandible III, .• ®EnchentedLeerni ng.com

Despite their name (which means "thousand legs"), millipedes do not have 1,000 legs - they
have from 47to 197 pairs of legs, depending on the species. Millipedes are invertebrates;
they have a hard exoskeleton and many jointed legs.

U Millipedes live on land in moist microhabitats (under rocks, in rotting logs, in leaf debris, or
occasionally in burrows). "

Anatomy: Millipedes have a segmented body, short antennae, and many legs. Most body
segment have two pairs of legs that stick out from the sides of the body (each segment is
really 2 segments fused together). The segments that have two pair of legs are called
diplosomites. The frrst few segments have only one pair of legs; they are called somites. The
second-to-Iast'segment has no legs. The last segment is called the anal segment; it is where
waste (in the form of pellets) leaves the body. Most millipedes have from 25 to 100
segments (47 to 197 pairs of legs). The legs move in a wave-like motion.

The body is divided into two parts, the head and a segmented trunk. Millipedes breathe
through spiracles, holes positioned in paris along the body. The top of each segment is called
the tergite (or tergum); the underside (between the pairs of legs) is called the stemite (or
sternum). Millipedes have poor to no vision. Millipedes range in size from a fraction of an
inch to about 9 inches (23 cm) long.

Diet: Most millipedes are herbivores (plant-eaters) that eat dead and decaying plant material,
but a few are also carnivores (meat-eaters). Millipedes also occasionally eat moist, living
plants. They are often nocturnal (more active at night).

U Enemies: Birds, badgers, and shrews eat millipedes. "When they are in danger, millipedes

http://members.enchantedlearning.comJsubjects/invertebrates/arthropodIMillipede.shtml?p 11/3/2006
 J. _. - - - ..• -- ... - - . . . - . . . . . . - -..................... , , 'C·..,V.&..L.l l"age20f2

cm1 up in a spir.al, protecting their soft undersides. They can also spray a bad-smeJUng liquid
(hydrocyanic acid) that repels ~ predators.

Reproduction-: Millipedes hatch from eggs - hatchlings have only the first three pairs of
legs. There is some maternal care of the eggs. Millipedes molt (shed their old exoskeleton)
as they grow - with each molt they gain more segments and legs.

Classification: K.in~dom Animalia (animals), Phylum Arthropoda Gointed legs and an

exoskeleton), Superclass Myriapoda (tlmany-footed" with a 2-segmented body - millipedes,
centipedes, etc.), Class Diplopoda (millipedes). About 7,500 species of millipedes have been
described.

Copyright ©200 1-2006 EnchantedLearning.com

.' ,.

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u

u
 · .

~:~SLA
~, "5 "
Tht:re are rnany jdnas of bee:s !f1 the vvodd . One k~nc1 ~::.
~l::. n:
"rh'
I. 1~, ",,(; ~ iJ~,-". Tnl. e"-e a·r.s::. thr:&,J..fl
f ('j.~e·yL..a~ If,,\- ~f..... ~.yr.'
- ........ ~ ~f n' O~H:"'t1""H:";:
'j.·HI'"\oeS 'WI,.JJ,... -.. ~_..•
....... l.

qu~~en!wort.;.er, and circtne. The queen is a very ~mportant

.. one Hves in f;·ac:h hive. The vv{)rker bf.;;€;s ~trlt~
bee and 051tV

..- ., • .... ~ • t... • S • b

t:.acn type or honeybee ~~a5 spec.:ta~ JO $:

\Norf<er
• Lays eggs, up to • Builds the hive • Mates with
1,500 in one day the Queen
8 Cleans and guards the hive
e Keeps the worker e Keeps the
• Takes care of the queen
bees calm worker bees
It Feeds all the bees happy
tt Cares for young bees.
• Collects pollen and nectar
from flowers
• Makes honey for food
u Honey Bee Hive Observation Log

1. How many bees can you count in 1 square inch?

How many bees do you think are in this hive?

2. How many bees do you see doing a "pollen dance"?

Why do you think they do that?

3. Do you see bees going in and out of cells?

Why do you think they do that?

4. Do you see bees flapping their wings?

Why do you think they do that?

u
5. Do you see bees coming into th~
Why do you think they do that?

.-+ v '\J-<-
6. Do you see bees going out of the-eeRe?
Why do you think they do that?

7. Do you see a worker bee?

8. Do you see a drone?

9. Do you see the queen?

10. What do the bees make inside their hive?

 • During a single meal, a female mosquito can drink her own weight in
u blood.
• Some mayflies live 24 hours or less as adults.
• The smallest insect ever discovered is a hairy-winged beetle from the
tropics. It measures 1/100 of an inch (.25 mm) in length.
• The longest insect ever found is a tropical stick insect from Asia. Some
of the females get to be over a foot (30 cm) long.
• Over one million different kinds of insects have been discovered. This
is twice the total of all other kinds of animals put together.
• A swarm of desert locusts (of the grasshopper family), containing over
1000 million insects, has covered an estimated area of 2000 square
mil~ (5200 km 2). Swarms of locusts have been seen at sea 1200 miles
from land (1920 km}.
• Bombardier beetles can shoot a hot, smelly liquid from their abdomen
that is 2120 F (1000 C).
• Fireflies aren't the only light-producing insects.' Some click beetles,
springtails, and gnats also light up.
. • There is a fly in California called the petroleum fly that lives and breeds
in petroleum.
• The largest animal in Antarctica that lives strictly on land is a wingless
fly less than 1/4 of an inch (6 mm) long.
u • The color a head louse will be as an adult can depend on the color of
the person's hair it is living in. For example, a louse living in blond hair
would most likely be a light color; one living in black hair would be dark.
• A cockroach can live nine days without its head. .
• Fleas can jump 200 times the length of their bodies.
• Some queen termites live as long as 50 years .
• The atlas moth of India is one of the world's largest insects.
It measures 12 inches (30 em) from wingtip to wingtip.
-. A tiny insect called a biting midge can beat its wings
1000 times a second.

54
 .'i,
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CD Gti\ vn~ 1?,o - /1)

@ ~d 1O-(OiO
@ W£M-c,r Iv ~ 11-"\ 1
@ N\~vv\flctth-O\'\ \\ ~ 11 30
kiddyhouse.com : All about snails fOT kids and teachers http://www.kiddyhouse.comlSnailS1snail.hrmi

u All About Snails

To print. right click on 'page and click print

Characteristics of snails.
Do vou know where the snail's eves are?
What and how does a snail eat?
How big can the snail grow?
How does the snail move?
l\tlale or female?
Life Historv of the snail
The snails have enemies too
Pond Snails
How do thev breathe in water?
Do vou know that Dond snails can be eaten?
What does the pond snail feed on ?
How does the pond snail reproduce?
Related Snail activities & worksheets
More snail facts & activities

Garden Snails
Characteristics of Snails
u
Snails can be found in gardens, in ponds and even in the sea. They belong
to a group of animals with a soft body called molluscs (mollusks) which
are related to oysters, clams, and other shellfish. Characteristically they
have soft, unsegmented bodies. Nonnally, their soft bodies are protected
by a hard shell. The scientific name for the snail is Helix aspersa. It is a
gastropod which in latin means, gastro for stomach and pod for foot. The
body of the snail is long, moist and slinlY. It has a shell to protect its soft
body. When the snail is disturbed, it sinlply withdraws or pulls itself back
into its shell. ft1lie1SfOO!lf!'ilSQ§i~Hiiiw"Hii':i"I'sne];]:{iiiiijf[Seals\lther,~n~iliiY
llii:~eatR¢jr,;',t~.Jit(e&~li.ii;i1lf0iii~~-B\¥) A snail is most active at
night and on cloudy days. It does not like the sunshine very much. During
very cold weather or winter, it hibernates in the ground.

Snai Is have different shaped shells. It can be a single shell that is rounded,
spiral high and pointed or it can be flat.

Some people keep snails in aquariums together with their fish. Ho\vever,
they must make sure that they control the number because snails reproduce
rapidly!!

Snails do not like hot and dry conditions. They like it moist or humid and
not too bright. You can collect some snails and put them into a transparent
container. Put some leaves in it, keep it Inoist and you can observe and see

lof7 4/23/01 9:38 AM

kiddyhouse.com : All about snails for kids and teachers http://www.kiddyhouse.comtSnails sn:lll.hnr.:

how a snail nloves and also its mouth part.

u
Do you kno\v \,'here the snail's eyes are '?

Yes. the eye is on the tip of the tentacles. The snails

has hvo pairs of tentac les on its head. One pair is
longer than the other pair. The eyes are on the longer
pair. The shorter pair is used for smelling and feeling
its \vay around. The tentacles are very important to a snail.

What and how does a snail eat?

A snail have something called a radula in its mouth for grinding up its
food. This radula is like a rough tongue, something like a file \vith rows of
tiny teeth which it uses to scrap off leaves and flo\vers to eat. Many people
get upset and fanners get angry when snails eat their plants and crops.
Snails can cause serious damage to crops. Snat!lsfiitrmo'BtJi'Wiiiiiug'ifd'iiitS
G,@§1W,e! l%.Q,wd¢C8. ,'nfjilptiiitS&1They also chew on fruits and young succulent
'
plant barks.

HOlV big can the snail gro\v ?

u The largest known land snail nwned Gee Geroninlo was a Giant African
Snail collected in Sierra Leone in 1976. It weighed about 2lb (900g) and
measured over 15 inches (39.3cm) from snout to tail.

..--If'1~~ Ho\v does the snail move?

The snail moves by creeping on a flat "foot"

underneath the body. lliUlISiiiifJkriiiij;mascle$)M!i!_
fifQ,Qt!JcalltraAAf.and:1o:.'expandA81iJ.al:~thlsi:':e~at~:I.~!(lQfl'i1\9)f
WiD'li:ngi'rn~;V~~~n~'j'~bAA(PUSheshtliiHmij!lYfQnwarjy
The "foot" has a special gland that produces a
slimy mucus to make a slippery track. You can often see these silvery
track~ in the garden. The slime comes out from the front and hardens when
it comes into contact with air. The snail is able to nlove on very sharp
pointed needles, knife, razors and vines without being injured because the
mucus-like secretion helps to protect its body.

Look at how the snail wraps its soft body around the branch so that it will
not fall off,

Male or female?

u The snail is both male and female. Therefore, it can produce sperms and
eggs at the same time ! Isn't that incredible? However, to fertilize the
eggs, the snails need to exchange sperms with each other. An animal

20f7
4/230 I 9:38 AM
kiddyhouse.com : All about snails for kids and teachers . http://www.kiddyhouse.comlSnailslsrml.bmI

which is both a male .and a female is called a herillaphrodite. The brown

garden snail lays about 80 ~pherical shaped white ot yellowish colored
eggs at a time into the topsoii of the ground. It can lay eggs up to six times
u a year.(Stla1:lSytdeiQoilt>2hY@IiSstwffi oodimliiIJItw.

Life History of ~he snail

.!)?';"~1~i';;o;;'}:f;~:i:, Snails spend many hours courting before they mate.
They twist themselves around each other and cover
"c.' ......

themselves in frothy slime. After mating, each snail

will go search for a soft ground to dig and lay its
eggs. The snail lay its eggs in a nest, 2.5 to 4 cm
deep in the soil. Each snail can lay an average of 85
eggs and theyQiatAA&itt&'Altf01/31kilii-», depending on
the temperature and moisture of the soil. The eggs
are concealed with a mixture of soil and mucus.
They are then covered with excrement. Low temperatures of less than 12C
and low humidity inhibits laying eggs. Snails lay eggs most often during
the warm and damp weather. It can be as often as once a month or every 6
weeks. Their most active nl0nths are from February to October.

The first thing that a newly hatched snail does is to find food. It \vill eat
\vhatever that is left of its eggshell too. It will also eat any eggs that have
not hatched yet. As the snail grows, its shell grows too in a spiral shape.
The new shell is added at the opening of the shell. The part of the shell the
u baby snail was born with, ends up in the middle of the spiral.

The snails have enemies too

Snails have many natural enemies. They are the ground beetles, snakes,
toads, turtles, and birds including chickens, ducks and geese.

POND SNAILS
It is fun to play in the country. If you come across a pond in the country,
you win find animals like fish, prawns, insects and the pond snail. The
pond snail is, in many ways like the garden snail. Pond snails are usually
tan or dark brown in color.

How do they breathe in "vater?

Some pondtsnaiIS$a'te}gUtsno breathe in water. Those with gills \vill live

at the bottom of the pond. Those that do not have gills, will come up to the
surface to breathe. These snails will live on the surface so that they can
come up to breathe easily.

Do you know that pond snails can be eaten ?

You can buy pond snails from a fish monger in the city. The flesh of the

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kiddyhouse.com : All about snails for kids and teachers http://www.kiddyhouse.comlSnailssnall.htm)

snail is very delicious. The French people especiaIIy, love to eat snails.
One important thing .to remember here is to make sure that you clean and
rinse the pond snails \vith plenty of clean water to wash away the dirt and
mud.

What does the eond snail feed on ?

The ~sni.jllt;\f&miil::majn·l~pUiji"fs'J.;11ikewargaeWjija:rjim.jCifQsc0pj·CKGre8tfijre#
that are found on the surface of water weeds. They eat by scraping bits off
with their rough tongue just like the garden snails.

Ho\-v does the pond snail reproduce?

The pond snail reproduces just like the garden snail. It

is a hermaphrodite. The only difference is that, unlike
the garden snail, meI1;oiiiti!'stlatIIrlGam:es\ilt$M'f!mlie;
~m. The baby snail will only leave its mother
when it is hatched.

Ho\-v to collect pond snails '?

First of all, you will need a spade, fishing net, a container (to put your
snails in). Make sure your container is not air tight so that the snails can
breathe. You can do this by nlaking tiny holes on the lid. You need a lid to
cover your container because snails can crawl on any texture or surface.
u Choose a damp spot near the pond and then use your spade to loosen the
ground and you will find many snails just beneath the surface.

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kiddyhouse.com : All about snails for kids and teachers http://www.kiddyhouse.comlSnailsfsnai l.hnnl

.Snail Related Actjvities·

.. "- --';':-;;",~.;':!--':'-;.:'.":: . .;: .. -~.- ': . .:.... -;--.,;:<- ..~ ..... -:": .-. ~

An original story ofSlimv the Snail

Storytime Books about snails

Reviews on each book to get for your children
Clip arts Original c1iparts of snails
Print out Phonic Chart -ai- (NEW, Oct. 17 . 99)

Bottle Habitat by Jess Lang

Students will construct an aguatic ecosystem in a two-liter pop
bottle. The stock organisms will be: water plants. snails. and
fish. Snldents will record data concerning the observations they
Teachers make over a four-week period. Intennediate level.

A Habitat Made by MEr by Kelly Baeth

The students will create a journal consisting of observation notes
concerning their aquatic creatures and plants. Appropriate for
3rd and 4th grades.
Make a snail with wool
Art & Craft How to draw a snail step-by step
Kid'sAIt Gallery - submit yours too
Snail Alphabet to color.
Coloring - Snails in a garden I
Coloring - Snails in a garden 2
Name the parts of the snail
u Phonics. Read the wordlist with -ai- words. Color
Phonics. TItink of words with the -ai- sound. Write it down
VVorksheets Dot-dot snail ~
~ Added on Sept. 13, 2000

INTERNET BASED WORKSHEETS

Snails - Grades 3 - 6
All About Snails - Grades 2 - 5

Sof7 4/23/01 9:38 AM

kiddyhouse.com : All about snails for kids and teachers http://www.kiddyhouse.comiSnailssnail.htmi

MORE SNAIL FACTS & ACTIVITIES

Snai1 Farming (Heliciculture)

Snails with CUrry and Alexander Rodenbach

Some snail facts
Pest Management - SNAILS AND SLUGS
I Adopt an Escargot
'j This site is in French and is for students and teachers
I~C="'';;;;'''''=''.~=. ,..=.....=.......~.,...::.,....~..-~.. ~··--~~E~y~e~to~E~ye~W~it~h~-~~ar~-d~-e~-~~··-~~··~~·~~i1S~··~··-~--·-~··'~·-··;:··-···~······=.=..;....;..;;..=~I

11....._.._. __..__........_ ..._..__..__ Molluscan pictur~.s__._. _

l[ Malaysian Snail (Picture)
IL .....
Take a look at the insides of a snail
L- Anatomy of a snail
Marine Snail
Brief lact<; and nn illustration of snail anatomy

If ___.._ Pictures of Hawaiian Tree snails

Facts & Tips about using aquatic snails in an aquarium
Cone Shells - Conotoxins
Snails
,1- How to keep snails in un aquarium

Don't forget to check out our other topics. Click on the house above

2nd Counter added in on 1st May 1999 but starting from the number from myoid
homepage put inon 04/22/99

Graphics on this page are original designs by me using Paintshop Pro. Please do not copy
any of my graphics for any purpose unless otherwise stated you are allowed to do so.
They are copyright.

Webmasters Click Here!

60f7 4/23/01 9:38 A\f

 ".

BAT BUDDIESIBATS, BATS, BATS SLIDES

1. (wrinkle-faced bats emerging from cave) This is how most of us have seen bats, but
u not all bats are like these. Today we are going to see some of the many different kinds
of bats that live all over the world. Bats eat lots of different kinds of foods, they come
in many colors and sizes, and they live in all kinds of homes.

2. (Lyle's Samoanflyingfox inflight) Bats are in a group called Chriopterans, which

means "hand wing." You can see that fmgerbones make up most of the bat's wings.

3. (hand & wing slide) Here we see the comparison of different wing to hand
structures: the Pteranodon, bird, bat, human.

4. (flyingfoxface) Bats are the only flying mammals. Who lmows what it means to be
a mammal? There are almost 1,000 species or kinds of bats in the world. Rodents, like
rats and mice and squirrels, are the only mammals with more species than bats. The
fruit bats are also lmown as mega bats, generally having large eyes and long snouts.

5. (lesser mouse-tailed bat in flight) Another group of bats is lmown as micro bats.
These bats generally have larger ears and small eyes. They use echolocation to find
their food.

6. (echolocatIon slide) Echolocation is a special ability that bats have to locate their
u prey. Here we see a drawing of how it works. Who can describe how bats
echolocate?

7. (Pallid bat with katydid) This is a very small bat, but it is a meat-eater. It uses
echolocation to eat small insects.

8. (fisherman bat) This bat has extra long legs and long claws to catch fish. It listens
for sounds made as the fish swims in the water, then it follows those sounds to find
the fish.

9. (gothic bat hanging) Bats roost or hang upside down. This helps them build up
speed to start flying. Their legs are too weak to get a running start. So a bat hangs
upside down then lets go when it is ready to fly. It flaps its wings as it it's falling and
that's how its flight starts.

10. (flying fox and bald guy) Bats come in lots of sizes from very big (bigger than the
one in this picture even) to ...

11. (Kitty's hognose batlbumblebee bat), to very tiny. This is the world's smallest bat.
It is an endangered species that lives in Thailand.
u 12. (Hammerhead bat grasping rose apple) Most of the big bats, called megabats, use
their eyes and noses to find their food.
 13. (Mexican funnel-eared bat) but most of the small bats, called micro-bats, use their
sense of hearing to find food. These bats can see and they use their eyes for far away
u things, like finding .their way home in the dark. But their hearing is best for close-up
stuff, like looking for food and looking out for predators.

14. (Yellow-winged bat) Not all bats are plain brown or black. This is a yellow-winged
bat. ..

15. (Greater white bat) and this one is all white ...

16. (Spotted bat) and this one is spotted! Sometimes their colors aren't the only thing
that is unusuaL ..

17. (Chapin's free-tailed bat) this bat has a punk hair-do ...

18. (Gambia epauletted fruit bat with figs) ... and some look like they make silly
faces. This bat has a mouth full of fruit to eat.

19. (False vampire bat) Who lmows what bats like to eat? This is a large bat
(wingspan - 3 ft.) that eats meat. It eats rats, mice and other small animals.

20. (Lesser long-nosed bat, saguaro cactusjZower) This bat drinks nectar and
U pollinates flowers, just like bees, butterflies and hummingbirds do.

21. (Fruit bat with mango) This is a fruit bat. Who lmows what kind of fruit it is
eating? Do you like mangoes?

22. (Common vampire) this bats only eats blood ... what kind of bat is it? There are
NO vampire bats in the United States, and vampires usually bite animals - not people.
Do you think animals turn into vampires if they get bitten? Vampire bats are special.
Vampire bat moms will take care of orphan vampire bat babies. Most mammals
won't do that!

23. (caver) Lots of bats live in caves and people have to be extra careful not to disturb
them, especially when the bats are hibernating.

24. (hoary bat in pine) but not all bats live in caves. This hoary bat likes to live by
itself in pine trees.

25. (evening bats) These bats live in small family groups - 5 to 10 bats live together.
They live in attics, bams, and old buildings.

U
 26. (Gambian epauletted fruit bat- mother and young) Bat moms usually take very
good care of their babies, maybe because they only have a few. Sometimes mom and
baby hang out together; either the baby holds onto mom's fur or mom wraps her wing
u around the baby.

27 . (Mexican free-tailed bat pups) Other babies stay in a nursery while their moms go
out to look for food. These babies have pink skin and they haven't got any fur yet.
Each pup will drink milk from its mother when she returns. These bat pups are
Mexican free-tail bats. What can you tell me about these bats?

28. (Bracken Cave) Central Texas is famous for its colonies of Mexican free-tail
bats. About 100 million Mexican free-tail bats come to Central Texas in the
spring. This is Bracken Cave. 20 million Mexican free-tail moms and their pups
live in this cave between March and November. The guano at the bottom of the
cave is used for fertilizer.

29. (Portrait ofMexican free-tail) This is a Mexican free-tail bat up close. What do
you think they eat? How do you think they find their food? The Mexican free-
tail bat is different from other Texas free-tail bats because of its wrinkly lips and
because its ears are not connected in the middle.

30. (Mexicanfree-tail bat infiight) Why do you think they call these bats free-tail?
We said that Mexican free-tail bats eat insects. How much do you think they eat?
u
31. (Bats under Congress Ave. Bridge) These are bats under the Congress Ave.
Bridge in Austin. Between 1 mill and 1 Y2 mill Mexican free-tail bats live in
Austin from March to Nov. This colony, like the colony at Bracken Cave, is a
maternity colony. There is a colony at the McNeil Bridge in Round Rock, which
is comprised of about 600,000 male Mexican free-tails.

32. (Bats over Statesman) Have you ever seen the Mexican free-tail emergence at the
Congress Ave. Bridge? Our colony is the largest urban bat colony in the U.S.
That makes Austin the battiest city in the country! Thousands of tourists
come every year to Austin and see our bats. Businesses in our city make about 8
million more dollars each year because of people who come to see our bats.

33. Do you think bats are helpful? How? (pollinating, fertilizing, eating harmful
insects, tourism)

U Kelly HarperlKatie LiennannlSherry Winnette (updated Fall '00)

u u

. 'Bat j-(and6ook
for
'Educators ~~ ~~

6g CflicKJf Smgtlie
5iustin 9{gture and Science Center
--

u 1998

•
 Bat Handbook for Educators

Introduction
A decade ago, I worked at a wildlife hospital in the cold north of
Massachusetts. That's where I encountered bats for the first time. Poeple
brought in bats that had been injured by their cats. Nobody else would
deal with them because of the threat of rabies. We were already very
familiar with rabies because of an epidemic in the northeast of raccoon-
born rabies. So my colleague and I investigated bats ...in depth. We
started reading up on them, calling the world's experts and then caring for
orphans that folks brought us ~om a.pesticide laden building. We quickly
discovered bats to be fascinating creatures. Before long, we became th~
"experts" on ba~ in the state. Not long afterwards, we started doing
school prQgrams with some of our non-releasable bats and once the media
got wind of that...well bats become the bulk of our business and our lives.
In September of 1992, I had the opportunity to work with Dr. Merlin
Tuttle, Founder /Director of Bat Conservation International based in
Austin. He invited me to help.him photograph bats in the caves of
Tennessee and Kentucky. That's the first time I saw bat emergences and
the firsttim~J'd been_!!'t~~ c~y_~ (which is ~ whole other story!). This is n
where I became totally hooked on. ba~s. -IfIl.)Ust have been when we
witnessed mal~s courting females by singing to them, something that
excited Dr. Tuttle immensely beca1l:se it had never been observed before. In
the intense 9 days I spent in the company of Dr. Tuttle and bats, I
experienced a new appreciation for the gentleness and intelligence of these
miunderstood· mammals. Dr. Tuttle conviced me that Texas was the place
to go if you love bats, since Texas has most of the USA's 42 species. So
that's how I ended up in Austin and then decided the Austin Nature
Center re~y needed to have a bat program!
I hope you find this manual helpful, but better yet, take the
opportunities Texas has to offer to observe bats up close and first hand.
They are woderful and amazing creatures. And maybe someday ...if you
work at it...you will have more bat T-shlrts than I do ...my collection now
numbers 21 ... good luck!

Vicky Smythe
~.:""~'''''!''i.~~~~
. • ;~ f LEO ( It tit A I! l (C Ii I ~ 0 ,. TEll 4) ~

<~

. '~ .•::::.... ~... ,,:~~.. ~ ... ~"'·"··"'--:W~~:'~"""1"..:...~\ ~ Sanborn's long-nosed bl1, up:onycterls CUrGStNU (sanbomi)
 WHY STUDY BATS?

> Bats are the only true flying mammals

u
u > Bats make up one quarter of all mammals species
> Bats playa very essential ecological role
> Bats have a very important economic role .
> Bats are the number one tourist attraction in Austin
> Texas may very well be the "bat State" with Austin, TX.being the $elf-
proclaimed 'Urban Bat ~apital of the world"

One good reason to teach people about bats is that people have so many
misconceptions about bats. There are many derogatory statements made
about bats for example, I'm sure you've hecu;d of the following:

''Like a Bat out of Hell"

"That crazy old Bat"
"Blind as a bat"
"Gone Batty"
"Bats in your belfry"

You may also have heard have the following bat myths:
U Bats get tangled in your hair.
Bats want to suck your blood.
Bats will give you rabies. rH; FAR SIDE By GARY LARSON
Bats are vicious. ......--------------,
Bats are blind.
Bats are dirty.
Bats are flying mice. .
Bats will ~ttack you.

u
"Crlmonyl .... I must've been tangled in some
bimbo's hair for more than two hoursr"
convergent evolution. Bats are outnumbered only by the rodents (1700
species out of 4,000 different mammal species total).

The ¥e.~b4ts are the OLD WORLD fruit bats, that is'in the
continents that all start with an"A", Africa, Asia and Australia (not
Antarctica). There are about 175 species of them and they all eat frHtt
flowers, nectar and pollen.· As a group, they are Jarger than the Microbats,
but sho~ considerable variation, with wingspans approaching six feet.
With one exception, Megabats do not echolocate, but rely on vision and
smell for night orientation. They generally have large eyes, simple ears
and simple, long muzzles. Tail and tail membranes are usually small or
non-existent. They usually have short heavy jaws and a large braincase.
Many species crush fruit to get at the juice and then spit out the pulp.
Nectar and pollen feeders have longer, narrower snouts which with the
aide of long tongues, help them to probe deep into flowers.

MICROBATS

LWonycteris DII,8olen.sis .

Tent-making bat. UrvtMmtI1 bllDbamm

Masked fruit bat, Pteropus persontllUS

Microbats are a large and diverse group (790 species) found on every
'continent except Antarctica and eat all sorts of thlngs from insects and
arthropo<;is to fish, small m~als, frogs, other bats and blood. All orient
by echolocation. Ears are often large and complex, many species have nose
leaves.
Among manuri.al.s, only humans are more widely distributed than
bats.
 BAT BIOLOGY
u
u WHAT BATS EAT

The feeding habits of bats are as varied as D;lammals as 'a whole and
their varied feeding habits ,are responsible for much of their morphological,
physiological and ecological diversity. Bats feed on insects and other
arthropods such as scorpions, spiders and crustaceans, both fresh water
and marine, mammals, birds, reptiles, carrion and blood, fruit, flowers,
nectar, pollen and foliage.

Around 70% of all bats are insectivorous: all but a few microbats.
The diversity of arthropods was the driving force behind the diversity of
microbats.

There are only 10 species that are confirmed carnivores. Four species
are False Vampires. None of these are small bats. Carnivory probably
evolved from insectivory. And most carnivorous bats still take a large
number of a.rtJ:ropods. '

There are two confirmed species of piscivores or fish eaters. These u

u' too still ~at arthropods.

The most specialized dietary habit may be the sanguivores, or

vampires. '

u
The Indian false vampire bat, M~gDlkTTNlIyt'll. a camiVOlVlU pound gleaner.
, '
 BAT ANATOMY

f'., The anatomy of bats clearly shows their classification as mammals, as

most of them are well furred (there are a few naked bats). Differences in
bats and other mammals are most evident in the skeleton and .
cardiovascular system. The skeleton of a bat is do~ated by the wings and
the work associated with flight means that their hearts are proportionately
larger than the hearts of other mammals. Bat skulls show consider~ble
variation in size and shape reflecting differences in life-stYle. The skeleton
of a bat shows the distinctive extensions of the arms and fingers that
support the wing membrane. The posture of the legs differs greatly from
other mammals. When bats are flying their thigh bones stick out to the
sides and the lower leg points to the rear. When bats are walking (those
that can), their posture is reminiscent of lizards walking.

Tap .... .w. ....... ·bIa ........ eIDIIl.

~ QmI. wWIto CUcal.

Vampire Bat walking

 BAT FLIGHT

Bat wings are made of tough leathery membrane that stretches U

betweel1 four fingers and attachs to the back legs. In some bats, the tail is
included in the membrane and acts as a type of rudder. Birds are stonger
flyers than bats, but bats have more flexibility than birds because of their
unique wing structure which allows them to move the in~vidua1 bones in
the wing. The:inner fingers of the bats's wing act as an airfoil to counteract
gravity, while the outer fingers provide thrust to propel the bat forward.
Bats have powerful chest muscles to drive the wings forward and achieve a
variety of maneuvers.

Since bats fly at mght they cannot take advantage of thermals and
glide as some birds do.

·u

\
\
\

,
I
.
I

Egyptian fruit bat, Rousettus aegypriacus

u
Skeleton of a greater horseshoe bat, Rhinoloph~ ferrumequinum. to show wing structure.
BAT BABIES

Most bats have only one young per year, some may have twins and
some may even have quadruplets. Most Microbat moms leave their baby
at the roost sight, Megabat moms fly with their babies.

When a baby bat is born its feet and thumbs are already adult size so
that it can cling to its mom and hang upside down right away. Depending
on the type of bat, it is fed milk for a few weeks to several months. The
wings of a baby bat are not developed right way, but it soon walks and
climbs with its thumbs and explores its roost. When a baby first flies it
does not find its own food right away but returns to its mother for a drffil<
of milk. Young bats.start to clean themselves when they are still very .
small. They sp~nd hours grooming and licking themselves.

BAT MYTHS Red Bat with babies

As creatures of the night, bats are often seen as symbolic of the
darker side of life. In European paintings, angels are often depicted with
bird-like fe~thered wings while devils and dragons bore leather bat-like
wings. Bats were also used in magic potions to improve. watchfulness,
wakefuln~ss, seeing in the d~k, cures for blindness and as a hair remover.

Bats have been included in many coats of arms of families, towns and
even regjments.

The Mayas of Cental America showed a bat-like god on their

-sculptures with bat-like wings and a nose leaf. He was believed to rule
caverns and the realm of darkness. Navajo Indians in the South west
desert of the USA believed bats to be a link between gods and people,
offering·humans helpful ~dance. Creatio!1myths abound in Native
American ~d African storytelling explaining how the bat got its wings
and became nocturnal.
 BATS IN DANGER
Bats have few natural predators. Hawks, owls, snakes get a few, but u
these have little impact on bat numbers. Humans are really the biggest
threat to bats.

People have misunderstood and mistreated bats for centuries. They

have hunted them for food and for sport, but the worst harm to bats has
. been in the last 50 years,. with h'lIffi to their environment... loss of
woodland and forest habitat as well as caves. Tourism in caves, mining
and vandalism of caves has destryed many millions of bats. Bats have a
reduced food supply due to the spraying of pesticides on crops. In some
places, bats have become a delicacy for tourists to eat.

Organizations That Help Bats

Bat Conservation International

P.O.Box 162603
Austin, TX 78716-2603
512-327-9721
u
U BATS (The Beneficial Animal Teaching Society)
c/o Amanda Lollar
217N. Oak,
Mineral Wells, TX 76067

American Bat Conservation Society

THIS ORGANIZATION NO LONGER EXISTS

Wild Again, Inc. (bat rehab and education)

25 Tami Court
Bridgewater, MA 02324.
508-279-1444

u
u
 ECHOLOCATION

To better understand echolocation, it may be helpful to understand (~

some measurable qualities of sound, such as pitch or frequency, which ./
affects wavelength as well as intensity and loudness. .

The pitch or frequency is normally measured in kiloHertz,

abbreviated as kHz. one kHz is 1,000 cycles per second or 1000 Her~.
Sounds above 20 kHz are called "ultrasonic" because they are beyond the
range of "normal" human hearing. The echolocation calls of most bats are
ultrasonic and not audible to most people. Higher frequency sOlll1ds have
shorter wavelengths than lower frequency sounds. This means that to an
echolocating bat, higher frequency sounds can provide more detailed
information about a target. However, higher frequency sounds are more
rapidly absorbed by the atmosphere. The strength of a sound can be
expressed as loudness or intensity. Loudness is a perceptual measure
reflecting how a signal sounds to a listener. Intensity is a physical measure
of the energy or power of a sound. It is usually measured in decibels,
abbreviated as dB.

An echolocating bat learns to measure the time it takes for the echo to
return from the target and thereby can gauge the distance. The returning
echo is not as strong as the initial pulse so the bat can differentiate between
the two. .

In 1790, an Italian scienatist names Lazarro Spallanzani proposed that

bats could see with their ears. He based this on experiments he conducted
flying bats mtotally dark rooms.

The next major breakthrough was in late 1930;s when Donald Griffith
at Harvard University proveq. that bats actually produced high frequency
sound and then naVigated by listening to their echos.

Fruit bats with the exception of Egytian Fruit bats do not echolocate.
The latter uses tongue clicks and echolocate to find their way in cave
roosts, not to find. food. Most bats echolocate by vocalizing with the open
·mouth and so fly ·with their mouth open. Some bats however(most of the
ones w / ornately decorated noseleafs) emit sounds through their nostrils.
These bats fly with their mouths closed.

The outgoing echolocation signal is so intense it would be like having

someone scream in your ear. Bats avoid being deaf~ed by their own
 sounds by "turning off" the pathway to the brain that processes the sound
for the few milliseconds that the signal is sent. The sounds produced by a
bat are so intense, that to produce them, their vocal cords are made of bone,
U l not cartilage.

As a bat closes in on its prey, it typically increases the rate of

echolocation pulses. This is often called a "feeding buzz".

There are a few ~advantages to echolocation, that'is anyone with

the "right equipment" can listen in. Some moths can do this
and can avoid being eaten by bats by droppmg to the ground.
Carnivorous bats that eat bats locate bats that are echolocating to dine on.

TadDrUm~. 1L.:_~___ capture_\_\_

,-...
10 ~ # TaphMmB~u
e
'-"
"'CJ .~ TaphMmB~gon
§ 8
U'
~
0
;>

~ 6
~

-
-sh
. .
0

~4
.6en
e
~
2

o
o 10 17 24 26 35 50 55 137 151
best frequency of audition (kHz)
. Foraging strategy in relation to echolocation calls and auditory characteristics.
Foraging height is plotted against the best frequency of audition. Bats are loosely divided into
gleaners (ground and foliage), above canopy hawkers, low level open-air hawkers, and hawkers in
cluttered habitats, and the characteristic sonograms of each group shown (adapted from Neuweiler,
1990).
 BAT HANGOUTS

Places where bats go to rest or hibernate are called roosts. Where

u bats choose to roost depends on the species, the sex, the time of day,the
season and what part of the world they live in. Nearly all Megabats roost in
the open in trees, but most other bats tuck themselves away in nooks and
crannies or hang up under cover in the daytime, or at night in between
feedings to digest. Bats pick special roosts for hibernation. Differen~
species have different requirements for air temperC).ture and humidity and
so will pick certain caves and particular locations in the cave.

There are special maternity roosts for certain species, such as Bracken
Cave in Texas which is a maternity roost for 20 million Mexican free-tailed
bats, or Congress Avenue Bridge in Austin which is a maternity roost for
about one and a half million Mexican free-tailed bats.

10
~

U 1

1be.....,.tooI.""-_~_"'I!Io ..... UId .... &llict..iUIIaII.

fw..om_dIo .... _ U l d p . n .. IIII .......

v
 Game Station:

Bats, bats, bats: see hand out

Bat Buddies: Bat, Moth, Moth

Have everyone gather in a circle and spread out arms length apart. Select one bat,
blindfold them. Then select 3-5 moths. The rest are trees. Explain that with echolocation
they see with sound. The bat will say "bat bat bat" and the moth will say "moth moth
moth". The trees only say ''tree'' when the bat or moth get to close and are about to hit
them. The bat tries to catch the moths.

u
 Bats, Bats, Bats
u Game station

1. Split the kids into 5 groups.

2. Give each group a picture of an Austin bat and tell them to look on
the back for information that will be important in playing the game.
3. Give each group a dry-erase board. Tell them one member from
their group will write the answers to questions down on the board.
4. Tell them that there are cards on the other side of the room/sand
pit that they will need to pick up. They range from food to water to
habitat.
S. If they get a question correct, one person from the group has 5·
seconds to pick up one of the cards. Remind them.to make sure
they pick up the correct habitat, food, and water for their colony to
survive. .
6. Ask each group the same question' and tell them to discuss it
within their group and write it down on the board. .
7. Go over the answers to see who has it correct.
8. If they are correct they send over a person to pick a "good" card.
9. If they get it wrong, they pick a card from the "Dangers to bats"
u can.
10. Ask questions (7-10 min).
11. When done, give them sheets that tell them what the pictures
mean.
12. Discuss whether or not their bat colony was good, threatened,
endangered, or extinct and why.

You may have··to help the kids with their pictures. They may need to
have status adjusted depending on cards picked. For example: if they
have no water picture, they should be lowered to a threatened listing.

u
 Mother Bat and Pups

In this activity, children wil1leam some facts about bat behavior and have some fun
imitating bats.

What You Need

• A large space for children to move around in

• Materials: plastic·spiders in ziplock, plastic flowers in ziplock

What to Do

1. Ask children to di~cuss what they !mow about bats. You might prompt the discussion
by asking questions, such as: Where do bats live? (caves, under bridges, trees, in
buildings) What are baby bats called? (pups) What do bats like to eat? (mosquitoes,
other insects, nectar andfruit) How do bats move? (they fly) List children's
responses on wipe board.

2. Tell children that they are going to pretend to be bats. Then explain that like many
animals, bats learn from their mothers. Have the instructor be the "mother bat." The
children will be the "pups." As the mother bat, choose a behavior to teach to your
pups. Some suggestions are:
u' • catching insects using their feet
• flying
• climbing up obj ects using their thumbs
• sleeping
• bat drinking nectar
• grooming with thumbs

3. Explain that the mother bat must not use words to teach her pups. When the pups
have demonstrated that they have learned one behavior, choose another behavior to
teach the pups.
 TEXAS BAT SPECIES
u
C0IvIl\10N N.M1E LOCATION

Leaf-chinned bat southern Texas

Me.c-ncan 19n9-tongued bat big Bend

. Little brown bat rare - one specimen

Southeastern bat northeast Texas

Yuma bat southwest desert

Cave bat central and western Texas

Fringed bat T.rans-Pecos

Long-legged bat 'Irans-Pecos .

California bat 1i"ans-Pecos

U· Masked bat T.rans-Pecos

Sliver-haired bat . rare - Lubbock

Georgia bat central, south, and east

Western canyon bat w.est/northwest Texas

Big brown pat northern east/west Texas

(not 'Travis)
Hoazybat rare Texas migrant

Red bat all of Texas

Seminole bat deep east Texas

Greater yellow bat rare, southern coastal and

southeast central (Travis)
Lesser yellow bat southeastern Texas'
(Cameron county)
U
 BATS and RABIES
Rabies is a deadly disease. It is a virus carried through the saliva of mammals. H
u contracted, it is 100% fatal.

BUT....

The key word is contract it". The virus has to make its way from the bite site to the
II

nervous system. This is a slower process than one might think. Usually a victim has
24-48 hours to get an injectio~ of the anti-rabies serum so as to prevent rabies.

(Pre-rabies exposure vaccines that are given to those who work with high risk animal
populations still require that one get post-exposure shots if they know they were bitten
by a rabid animal. The prophylactic shot just buys you more time.)

There have only been 10 people in the U.S. and Canada who have died from rabies·in
the past 50 years (more people die of bee stings and from unidentified falling objects
falling on.their heads). That is because most people get a shot if they suspect the
animal had rabies AND ... the animal must have broken the skin.... AND the rabies virus
is not always present in the infected animals saliva, and the concentration may vary.
(much like the venom of a viper). Data shows that only about 150/0 of people bitten by a
rabid animal would develop symptoms if left untreated.

Most mammals shed the virus days before showing symptom, bats however are known
to be carriers" that is they may harbor the virus while showing symptoms, or may not
II

u l
ever show symptoms. Skunks may harbor the virus for 6 months, cats 1-2 months.
Foxes rarely sprread the disease as they die very quickly from it.

The virus only lives 12-16 hours on d~ad animals or outside the body.

Bats don't get aggressive when they have rabies. They show what is referred to as
"passive" rabies.

Not all sick bats have rabies, but why take a chance? The likelihood of a bat on the
gro~d haVing rabies is greater than a bat who is just han~g or flying around.

Under normal condition, aboue1 % of all wild mammal populations have rabies.
Occasionally epidemics occurr in certain populations (such as coyotes and raccoons).
Bats DO NOT HAVE these outbreaks.

In Mexican free-tailed bats, the rabies frequency is .5% of the population. That means
there could be 7500 rabid bats at the Congress Avenue Bridge. That seems like a lot,
but that's because bats do hang out in large groups. When was the last time you saw 20
million coyotes or skunks hanging out together?!

Data on bats tested at Health Cen.ter labs show that a high percentage of them do test
poitive for rabies. But remember this is not a rando~ sample of healthy bats. These are
u bats that people found on the ground and so are more likely to be sick!
 Teaching Resources about Bats
-
u Bat Conservation International
P.O.Box 162603
Austin,' TX 78716-2603
512-327-9721
has many educator's activity books, videos, slide sets, posters

Speleobooks
Schohaire, NY 518-295-7981 call for catalogue
has all kinds of bat and cave related stuff

Bats Incredible .
AIMS Education Foundation
Fresno, California
activities for grades 2-4

Project Underground
Richmond, Virgina call for info 804-288-4226
u has a project book with Project WILD type activities

Ke~pers of the Night

by Michael j. Caduto and Joseph Bruchac, Fulcrum PublishIDg, 1994.
has Native American stories and nocturnal activities

Discover Nature at Sundown

by Eliza1:;>eth Lawlor, Stackpole Books, 1995.
Facts and activities

local places that usually have "bat stuff"

Toadhall Childr~'s Book Store, Austin

Bookpeople, Austin
. ,
~
 BAT CLASSIFICATION and Evolution
Bats are not well represented in the fossil record. The oldest bat fossil
fOW1d is about SO million years old. It looks like a microbat does today.
Scientists have not found any transitional forms. The delicate bodies do
not preserve well.

Palaeochiropteryx tupaiodon,
an Eocene fossil found in Germany

At the same time bats were evolving, so were flowers. This means
insects were evolving too. Bats had a lot of niches open to them as nectar
feeders, fruit and insect eaters. Bats became a very diverse group. Due to
competition from other groups, bats became tree-dwelling and nocturnal. .

Bats are classified :in the ORDER - ........ -" . ... . .. .... - which is Greek for
CHIROPTERA
_ _ ,.._... - """_._a -'.~..

"hand-wing" .

There are two sub-orders; the Micrqchiroptera and the

Megachiroptera, commonly referred to as Microbats and Megabats. Most
bat biologists do not believe that these two groups are even related
however, and so the classification of bats is somewhat artificial. The closest
. relative to the Megabats may be the Flying Lemurs or Colugos which ar "not
really Lemurs bUfanother group called Dermopterans and they do not fly
but glide. The Microbats probably evolved from a small shrew-like
mammal. There is a lot of evidence that suggests that flight evolvd twice in
u) mammals and Micro and Mega bats represent a good example of
 Facts on rhe
Bat Conservation International
P.o. Box 162603, Austin, TX 78716
Fly!
-v (512) 327-9721 www.batcon.org

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS

ABOUT BATS

ARE BATS RELATED TO BIRDS?

Bats and birds both can fly, yet they developed this ability independendy. They belong to different animal classes;
birds are in a class called Aves while bats are in the class Mammalia. Bats are mammals, just like humans, which means
that all bats are warm-blooded, have hair, bear live young, and feed their babies milk.

How DO BATS MOVE AROUND IN THE DARK?

All bats can see, but some use a special sonar system called echolocation. These bats make high frequency calls either
out of their mouths or noses and then listen for echos to bounce from the objects in front of them. They are able to
form pictures in their brains by listening to reflected sounds just like we form pictures in our brains by interpreting
reflected light with our eyes. In this way, bats are able to comfortably move around at night, avoiding predators,
maneuvering around obstacles, locating their food, and capturing insects in total darkness.

WHY DO BATS HANG UPSIDE DOWN?

Unlike the bodies of other animals, a bat's body is best adapted for hanging upside down. Its hind limbs have rotated
180 degrees so that its knees face backwards. This rotation aids in the bat's ability to navigate in flight and to hang by
its feet. Bats actually have specialized tendons that hold their toes in place so that they are able to cling to their roosts
umthout expending any energy. In fact, bats must flex their muscles in order to let go of the roosting surface. These
adaptations are quite helpful for a flying mammal since bats only need to let go of the roost in order to drop into
flight. Hanging upside down also provides bats with roosting space away from predators in safe places on the ceilings
of caves. in trees, and buildings that few other animals can use. because they have not evolved to hang upside down by
their feet.

WHAT DO BATS EAT?

There ate nearly 1,000 different species of bats in the world, living on every continent except Antarctica. Each one
has developed special adaptations for how it lives and what it eats. For example, 700/0 of all the bats in the world eat
insects and many of them use echolocation in order to fmd food and move around in the dark. Many small
insectivorous bats .can eat up to 2,000 mosquito-sized insect in one night. These bats are able to eat so much because
they have high metabolisms and expend lots of energy in flight. Frugivorous bats living in tropical climates have very
good eyesight and sense of smell for finding ripe fruit to eat. In the desert, there are nectar-feeding bats which have
long noses and tongues for harvesting nectar from flowers, as well as special enzymes for digesting the high-protein
pollen that accumulates on their faces. Carnivorous bats have sharp claws and teeth for catching small vertebrates
such as fish, frogs, birds, or rodents. A few Latin American bats, the vampires, eat only blood.

How DO VAMPIRE BATS SUCK BLOOD?

Vampite bats do not actually suck blood. They lap it up like a dog drinking water from a bowl. To begin feeding, the
bat first must prick the animal with its two large front teeth, often in the foot or leg of a sleeping mammal or bird.
An anticoagulant in the vampire's saliva cause~ the blood to flow without clotting, allowing the bat to lick up its
nutritious, protein-fil1ed diet. Vampires take only 2 tablespoons of blood while the host animal continues to sleep.
There are just three species of vampire bats in the world and they all live in Latin America. They are very gende
,- ...,features and will adopt orphans and regurgitate and share food for a member of the colony who could not find a meal
Vthe night before. The anticoagulant from these bats' saliva has been synthesized and is now used in medication for
human heart patients, showing that even vampire bats can be helpful to humans. However, when these bats feed on
livestock, they can spread diseases and must be controlled.
How DO SCIENTISTS STUDY BATS?
Just like scientists who put radio collars on wolves and dolphins, bat biologists also radio-tag bats using exceptionally
small transmitters specially designed to be carried by bats. Once the bat has been tagged, researchers are able to follow
it while it forages and returns to its roost. Scientists also use sophisticated night-vision equipment, similar to that usn,
by the military, in order to spy on night-flying bats without disturbing them. Researchers can eavesdrop on bat . ,-
echolocation calls by using "bat detectors" which pick-up their high-frequency sounds and let the scientist know if bats
are just flying through an area or if they are actually catching insects.

How LONG DO BATS UVE?

The oldest bat caught in the wild was a banded little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus) which was 34 years old at the time of
recapture. To put this in perspective, a bat living longer than 30 years is equivalent to a human living longer than 100
years. Bats, for their size, are the world's longest-lived mammals. Yet unlike other mammals of their size, bats have
very low reproductive rates, females of most species producing just one pup per year.

WHERE DO BATS LIVE?

Not all bats spend their days roosting in caves. Some roost in trees, abandoned mines, buildings, bridges....the list goes
on and on. Actually, the variety of bat roosts reflects the amazing diversity of bat species. Bats are highly
opportunistic and have adapted to their environments in creative ways in order to take advantage of the many shelters
available to them. Southern yellow bats (Lasiurus ega) roost in the hanging dead fronds of palm trees. Other bats, ,',
such as Honduran white bats (Ectopbylla alba), chew the midribs of heliconia leaves in order to collapse them into
waterproof tents far above the grasp of their predators. Evening bats (Nycticeius humeralis) raise their young under the
bark of trees. Some bats even take shelter in the abandoned homes of other animals. For example, the big brown bat
(Eptesicus fuscus) occasionally lives inside woodpecker holes in giant cacti. In southeast Asia, tiny club-footed bats
(Tylonycteris sp.) roost inside the hollow joints of bamboo stems once occupied by beetles. In Africa, small wooly bats
(Kerivoula sp.) use spider webs as roosts. Each species has its own special requirements. Many bat populations are
threatened due to loss of their specific roosting habitats. Scientists have studied the roosting requirements of a number
of bat species in order to provide appropriate artificial homes for bats. These homes are called bat houses and have 0..
proven to be very successful for some species, if placed in appropriate locations.

How LARGE ARE BATS?

The largest bat living in the United States is the western mastiff bat (Eumops perotis), weighing approximately 2
ounces. It has a wing span of nearly 2 feet. However, other bats in the world can be much larger; one fruit-eating
flying fox (Pteropus vampyrus) has a wingspan of six feed The smallest bat lives in Thailand and is called the .
bumblebee bat (Craseonycteris thonglongyaz). This insectivorous bat has a wingspan of only 6 inches and weighs less
than a penny.

WHAT ARE FLYING FOXES?

The common name IIflying fox" refers to a group of bats living in the Old World tropics of Australia, Africa, Asia, and
the South Pacific Islands. These bats received their common name because their faces resemble those of little foxes.
They have large eyes because they do not use echolocation. Instead, they depend on vision and their keen sense of
smell to find ripe fruit. Flying foxes help the ecosystems in which they live by pollinating many flowers and
spreading see~ to new locations, especially aiding in rain forest regeneration.

Do BATS MAKE GOOD PETS?

It is important for people to remember that bats are wild animals and should be allowed to live in th~ natural
environments. In fact, it is illegal in many countries to have a bat as a pet. Bats that can be caught are most likely sick
and they should not be handled.

WHAT IS GUANO?
Guano is the collective term used for bat or bird droppings or feces. For many years, people all over the world have
been using guano to fertilize their crops. Today, scientists also are able to extract enzymes from bacteria which live n
only in guano in order to make laundry detergents and other valuable products. ,-i;" . /
 The Bats of Texas

Family Molossidae
u Eumops perotis - western mastiff bat
Nyctinomops [emorasaccus - pocketed free-tailed bat
Nyctinomops macrotis - big free-tailed bat
V:: Tadarida brasiliensis - Mexican free-tailed bat

Family Mormoopidae
Mormoops megalophylla - Peter's ghost-faced bat

Family Phyllostomidae
Choeronycteris mexicana - Mexican long-tongued bat
Leptonycteris nivalis -long-nosed bat

Family Vespertilionidae
Antrozous pallidus - pallid bat
Corynorhinus rafinesquii - Rafinesque's big-eared bat
Corynorhinus townsendii - Townsend's big-eared bat
Eptesicus fuscus - big brown bat
Euderma maculatum - spotted bat
~ Lasionycteris noctivagans - silver-haired bat
LasiuTUS blossevillii - desert red bat
-ULasiUTUS borealis - red bat
u *Lasiurus cinereus - hoary bat
Lasiurus ega - southern yellow bat
LasiuTUS intermedius - nonhern yellow bat
LasiUTttS xanthinzts - western yellow bat
Lasiurus seminolus - seminole bat
Myotis austroriparius - southeastern myotis
Myotis cali/omicus - California myotis
Myotis ciliolabrum - western small-footed myotis
Myotis lucifigus -little brown bat

'*Myotis tbysanodes - fringed myotis

Myotis velifer - cave myotis
Myotis volans - long-legged myotis
Myotis yumanensis - Yuma myotis
¥ Nycticeius humeralis - evening bat
Pipistrellus hesperus - western pipistrelle
~ Pipistrellus subflavus - eastern pipistrelle

For more information on the bats o/Texas, consult these resouTces:

Cockrum, E.L. and Y. Petryszyn. 1992. Mammals of the SOllthwestern United States and
Northwestern Mexico. Treasure Chest Publications, Tucson, 192 pp.
Davis, W.B. and D.J. Schmidly. 1995. The Mammals of Texas. Texas Parks and Wildlife Press,
Austin, 338 pp.
Schmidly, D.J. 1991. The Bats otTexas. Texas A&M University Press, College Station, 188 pp.
Tuttle, MD. 1997. AmericaJs Neighborhood Bats. University of Texas Press, Austin, 98 pp.
Whitaker, J.O., Jr. 1996. National Audtlbon Society Field Guide to North American
Mammals. (Rev. Ed.) Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., New York, 942 pp.
 Diurnal Station Script
u 11110/01

Spend a few minutes explaining what is a diurnal BOP.

Explain to the students that they will be divided into 8 groups. Each group
will research one of the eight families of diurnal BOP. (The group size will
depend on the size of the class.) Show the students the worksheet and go
over one station with them, explaining they all need to work together in their
group, but they need to pick a writer, a speaker, and an exhibitor within their
group. Using any of the stations, explain that there is more information at
each station than they need to answer the questions. All of the answers are
found in the notebook specific for their family of diurnal bird. They'should
only need to write a few words at most for each question. As they are doing
their research they should find one item they want to share with the class
that they believe to be interesting.

Either you or the teacher can divide the class up into eight groups. Pass out
worksheets and pencils and tell them how much time they have. Remind
them a few minutes before the research part of the activity is over how much
U time they have left and to skip down to the last question if they are not
already there. To end the research part of the activity has the student's put
their pencils down and face the center of the room.

The exhibitor of each group should hold the si1~ouette up so that the entire
class can see it. At this point ask the students if they can observe some
interesting things about the silhouettes and how they are arranged. Make a
point about size and maneuverability of the bird.

Have the spokesperson answer a few questions from the worksheet about
their family then tell an interesting fact or show an interesting specimen
abollt their bird. Each group wills takes a tum sharing.
Ask the student to put all specimens back the way they found them and then
the groups may rotate around to the other stations to have a closer look at all
the families and specimens.

u
 Birds of Prey Slide Show

1. (Bald eagle) This is a raptor or bird of prey. The word raptor means,
U "to seize". Raptors are birds that capture and eat other animals. This is
generally the bird that most people think of when they hear the term "bird
of prey".

2. (Red-shouldered hawk) Here you can see the sharp talons these birds use
to grab, hold and kill their prey.

3. (Head close up) Once the prey is captured, the bird uses it very sharp,
hooked beak to tear off pieces to eat. Also notice the large eyes used to
locate prey. Compare amount of facial space taken by eyes of bird vs. eyes
of humans.

4. (Red tailed hawk in flight) This is a red tailed hawk. It is in the group-of
hawks called "buteos". Buteos have broad wings and a short rounded tail.
Buteos are often seen soaring.

5. (Accipiter in flight) This hawk is an accipiter. It has a long tail and short,
wide wings. Accipiters are often seen flying. The wing beat pattern is flap,
flap, glide. -
u 6. (Kestrel on ground) This is an American Kestrel, which is a small falcon.
Falcons have pointed wings and a long, tapered tail when seen in ffight.
The wing beat pattern of a kestrel is a rowing motion.

7. (Osprey in flight) Ospreys have long wings with a crook at the wrist.
Usually ospreys are seen near water, hovering and then diving for fish.
Like hawks and falcons, ospreys are diurnal-active during the daytime.

8. (Osprey with fish) Here you see an osprey with fish in its talons. Ospreys
have specially adapted feet to hold onto their slippery meals. Their feet
have rough pads to grasp wet fish. In order to prevent being showed down
by a bulky fish on the way to a safe feeding ground, the osprey turns the
head of the fish into the wind.

9. (Rabbit) Many raptors like to feed on small mammals, like the rabbit.
They also like squirrels .•••

U 10. (Mouse with babies) or mice and rats

11. (Corn snake) Some birds of prey eat reptiles, such as lizards and snakes.
 12.(Female cardinal) Raptors also prey on other birds.

u 13. (Red-tailed hawk) Hawks have some interesting behaviors. This hawk is
mantling, a defensive behavior using the wings to hide food from other
hawks that might steal from it. Baby hawks learn this behavior in the nest
when competing for food with siblings.

14.(Savannah hawk) This hawk is sunbathing to absorb vitamin D and to get

its ectoparasites (bugs living on the skin) moving so they'll be easier to pick
off.

15.(Red fox, hit by car) This fox will be food for some hungry birds of prey.
Large falcons called Caracaras are carrion eaters.

16. (Turkey vulture, wing extended) Vultures were long classified as

birds of prey. Ornithologists have recently (within the last few years)
removed them from the bird of prey group. Scientists have discovered
that the DNA of vultures is more similar to that of storks rather than
birds of prey.

17.(Turkey vulture head) Notice the vulture's large nostrils. How do you
U think they find their food? Is this way of hunting similar to birds of prey?

18.(Great horned owl head) this is a nocturnal bird of prey. Without a strong
sense of smell, owls rely on their eyesight and hearing to locate their prey.
Owls with colored eyes tend to primarily use eyesight, while brown-eyed
owls tend to use their sense of hearing more. Can you see the black line
along the side of the bird's face?
That is called the facial disc.

19. (Owl eyes) Owls have a third eyelid called a nictitating membrane. This
protects their eyes not only from bits of debris, but also from their prey's
defenses ( ex. scratching). The nictitating membrane closes just before the
owl eats its prey. The nictitating membrane also lubricates and cleans the
eye. Also notice the "whiskers" on the face. These are feather shafts that
work as feelers because the owl's close vision may be poorly focused.

20.(Owl ear) Owls' ears are located beneath the feathers along the lines of the
facial disk. The ears are offset. The right is higher than the left ear so that
the owl can triangulate. They do this by moving their heads until sounds
are equal in each ear. When the sound is even they can pinpoint the
u location of their prey (the source of the noise).
 21.(Burrowing owl) An owl's eyes are so big that there is no room left in their
heads for muscles to control eye movement. Their eyes are stationary. To
compensate for not being able to move their eyes, they have developed the
ability to swivel their heads quite far. An owl can look directly out over its
u back by turning so that its chin rests on its spine.

22.(Barn owl) They can also clock their heads sideways to look at something
or to listen for the exact location of prey.

23.(pellet with skull) Owls fly silently. This makes it easier to sneak up on
unsuspecting prey. The ability to fly silently comes from the shape of the
individual feathers.

24.(Two feathers) The fringed edge of the owl's feathers allow it tot flap
through the wind without making a sound, whereas the straight edge of the
hawk's feathers ripple in the wind a make noise as it flies.

25.(pellet with skull) Owls cough up undigested fur and bones in the form of
a pellet.

26.(Dissected pellet) Sometimes it is possible to tell exactly what the owl ate
by examining the pellet.
u 27.(Baby owl by tree) Owls have some interesting behaviors. This baby owl is
camouflaged to blend in with its surroundings. It is crouched and still to
make itself small and inconspicuous to predators.

28.(Barn owl) Toe dusting is another aggressive behavior. Barn owls sweep
their beaks across their toes as they sway. This usually follows a display of
rocking rapidly back and forth, and is sometimes accompanied by loud
vocalizations and hissing.

29.(Screech owl) By pulling in its wings and standing very straight and still,
this.threatened screech owl hopes not to be noticed by an enemy. The
screech owl's disappearing act works better in a tree where its camouflage
can aid in the illusion.

30.(Barred owl) Barred owls do exactly the opposite when threatened: instead
of trying to be small and disappear, the owl tries to be very big and
intimidating. It spreads its wing to make its body appear larger than it
actually is.
u
u
IMPORTANT POINTS

BIRDS

'Grad ea K - 1

Feathers - wamth, protection, flight, preening, zipper effect.

Warm-blooded -like mammals.

Bones - light weight, follow, like a straw.

Lay eggs - show egg or egg picture.

Beaks - compare to mamma] teeth, different types depend on diet (bugs, seeds,

plants, or animals).
u
Feet - different feet depending on habitat (sand, forest, rocks, etc.)

SHOW BIRD!

Discuss Wildlife Rescue and baby birds.

28 minutes for talk.

2 minutes travel time to next station -- Liyini Systems Buildini.

30 minutes total time.

 IMPORTANT POINTS

BIRDS

Grades2-S
Feathers - warmth, protection, flight, preening, zipper effect, molting.
Warm-blooded - like mammals
Bones -light weight, hollow, like a straw.
Migration
Lay eggs - show egg or egg picture, care of young.
Beaks - compare to mammal teeth, different types depend on diet (bugs, seeds,
plants, or animals).
Feet - different feet depending on habitat (sand, forest, rocks, etc.)
Color - camouflage (prey) or advertisement (predator)
Song - territory, attract mate.
Habitat

SHOW BIRD!

Discuss Wildlife Rescue and baby birds.

28 minutes for talk.

2 minutes travel tim'e to next station -- Livini Systems Buildini.
30 minutes total time.
 PROGRAM DESCRIPTION:
BIRDS
u
Part I Basis for Program
Title: Owls
Course Description: Owls have special feathers that allow them to fly
silently through the night. Examine s·ome of these feathers, touch
some study skins, 'see an owl pellet and meet one of these
. incredible creatures up close.
Age Level: Grades 1-2
Time: 1 hour
Goal: Participants willieam about owls· unique life styles, habits and
adaptations.

Part II Instructional Plan

Course Outline: Two 30 minute sessions:
1st: Program box--specimens, characteristics, adaptations.
2nd: Bird(s) and tour-owl(s) in classroom (15 minutes) and tour (15
minutes).
Alternate: Two 30 minute sessions:
1st: Intro (from box specimens) and slides
2nd: bird(s) in classroom and tour

Part III Resource Support

u Site Needs: large group-2 classrooms, small group--1 classroom.
Participant Thresholds: No more than 15 kids per instructor up to 30 kids.
Transportation Needs: Outreach programs possible, but must be able to
include slides.
Resource Needs: Birds of prey program box
Bird(s) and carrieres)
Slides and projector
 PROGRAM SCRIPT:
OWLS

First station:
. What do owls like to eat? When does an owl do it's hunting? What do we call an
animal that sleeps in the day and is active at night? (nocturnal) Owls have many
tools to help them find and catch their prey in the dark. One thing is specially
designed feathers. Their f~athers have a fringe around the edges and they are
very soft---this helps the owl to fly silently. Feathers from other birds have straight
edges and they are usually much stiffer. Another special feature of owls to help
them fly ql:lietly is that they have feathers on their legs all the way down to their
talons. Most birds have no feathers on their legs. It may be harder to catch prey in
the dark, but owls make up for this by sneaking up on their prey without making a
sound. The rodents and other prey of owls are nocturnal, just as their predators
are. They need extra good hearing to help them in their after-dark lifestyle and this
is why the owls must be silent hunters. ,
You can see some of the owl's other important tools when we look at the skull.
They have very large eye sockets. Their extra large eyes have excellent vision,
especially at night. But their eyes are so large that there is no room in their heads
for muscles to move the eyes. To make up for not being able to move their eyes
they can tum their necks all the way around to look directly behind themselves.
They are able to do this because they have ten bones in their ~ecks allowing for
greater flexibility and more rotation. .
Owls also have a sharply hooked beak, which they use to tear their food into bite
sized bits. The talons on their feet are for catching and killing the prey; the beak is
for tearing and eating the meat. f"'\
After the owl eats, it coughs up a pellet. The pellet is a ball of fur, bones, feathers,
and insect exoskeletons. These things are indigestible and they don't have any
nutritional value for the owl. So the owl·s stomach digests all of the good stuff, then
mashes the leftovers into a pellet. The pellet gets coughed up usually one to two
days after eating the meal.
Show slides---see attached script.

Second station:
There will be at least one, possibly two owls at this station. There will be a screech
owl and maybe a barred owl.
Eastern Screech Owl
Gray phase or red phase, gray is more northern, red is eastern TX-piney
, woods; very well camouflaged
Common in yards and parks in Austin
Nests in hollows of trees
Hunts by sense of sight (yellow eyes)
Eats smaller rodents and insects mostly
'Barred Owl . .
Named sa because of color pattern
Common throughout central and eastern TX in low lying, woodlands
Hunts with sense of hearing (brown, eyes)
Eats rodents, large and small'
Relative of Northern Spotted Owl--conservation issues: all birds of prey are n
protected species because high on food chain, may be. seen as
dangerous, susceptible to poisons in the environment.
Tour of owls ' enclosures (also include other BoP if time remaining).
 PROGRAM SCRIPT:
.u BIRDS OF PREY

First station: Slide show---see attached script.

~:. 1
it' :
Second station:
Look at feathers. There are 2 main types of feathers with different functions.
Flight feathers are for lift and for stream-lining the body. Downy feathers are for
insulation.
Compare the sounds made by the flight feathers of vulture, hawk and owl. Can
anyone explain? Physically---vulture feather is stiffer with straight edges, hawk
feather is softer with fringe at the top only, and owl feather is softest with a fringe
all of the way around. Why? Vultures can make nose because they won't scare
their prey away. Hawks hunt during the day, are faster than their prey, but can't
give prey too much advance warning or prey will flee into burrows. Owls hunt at
night. They are well adapted for this but their prey is also well adapted to survive
night time hunters. Owls must sneak up on their prey silently.
Look at the tools of birds of prey. Talons are used to catch and kill the prey.
Usually talons crush prey with great strength, but Peregrine falcons hit their prey
and the impact kills the animal. Look at the featherless leg of a hawk vs. the
owl's with feathers all of the way down to the talons. The feathers on the owl's
leg also help to make their flight silent. Talons are used in defense as well.
The beak is used to tear the meat. The hook on the beak is more pronounced in
those that eat fresh meat than it is on vultures.
These birds have large eyes for excellent vision. They can see a tiny mouse in
u the grass from high in the sky. Vultures are one of the few birds that uses a
sense of smell in hunting. Other birds of prey rely mainly on their large, powerful
eyes or on their ears to hear sounds made by prey.
Many birds of prey cough up a pellet after eating. Pellets are made up of
indigestible animal parts: fur, bones, feathers, teeth. The bird's stomach digests
all of the meat from the prey, then mashes the leftovers into a hard pellet, which
the bird co.ughs up about a day and a half later. Owl pellets are the best to
dissect because owls tend not to crush the bones of their prey as they eat like
hawks do.
Show profiles and ask your group to Ld. them. Point out distinguishing features.
Give examples of each type profiled.
All birds of p·rey are protected by state and federal laws. Can anyone tell me
why? Because they are high on the food chain, there are naturally fewer of them.
They are susceptible to poisoning (esp. pesticides) because they eat so many
animals that may be contaminated. Many birds of prey are considered pests or
threats to livestock/children and are therefore killed illegally by farmers and
ranchers as a "service" to the community. In the past this practice was not only
accepted but encouraged by the government. As part of the federal govt.·s
predator control program, people were paid to eliminate these birds.
Discus~ conservation---why should we do it? Whose job is it? What is the best
way to do it? How can we do the most good? How will we pay for it? How can
we make other people care about conservation?
California Condors lost tlabitat due to development; most won't be returned to

u nature due to lack of space.

BoP Program Script continued

Northern Spotted Owls are also losing habitat at the hands of humans. These
birds require 200 year old trees and each nesting pair needs 4000 acres of home
range territory in order to nest. As more of our old-growth forests are logged,
fewer pairs are reproducing to perpetuate the species.

Bald Eagles are making a come back because the use of DDT was banned in the
US, also it is no longer legal to shoot a bald eagle.
Peregrine Falcons are also on the rise because of the ban on DDT and because
of intensive recovery programs where eggs are removed from the nest, incubated
until hatching, raised by hand ( peregrine feeding-puppet picture), then returned
to the nest.

Third station:
Birds in the classroom-birds available will vary---tell their personal histories,
distinguishing characteristics, life styles, foods, etc.

Fourth station:
Tour of birds of prey exhibit with bird calls tape. Play calls of birds they see on
tour. Tell info about each species and stories of the individual birds (from signs)
as you go.

Fifth station:
Go to pit for flight demo. Ask everyone to sit (not stand) on steps and explain
that if the bird flies past you it is not you the bird is concemed with, itls the food.
u

u
 Aus~n' Nature Center - Discovery Cart
mi1J!@l~
Basic Information:
Birds: • are vertebrate animals (having a backbone and internal skeleton).
•
•
have feathers
are endothermic (generating a constant body heat regardless of surroundings). '-
• have a high metabolism
• have air sacs
• lay eggs
Characteristics:
Feathers:
Only birds have feathers. Feathers act as an insulator, fluffing up thicker in the winter
and flattening out against the body in the sUIIUller. Feather color helps the animal to hide
(camouflage) or to advertise its presence and to recognize species and often gender. An oil
gland, called the preening gland and located near the base of the tail is used to lubricate the
feathers which helps them repel water. Feathers also help streamline the body and are used
for lift and steering in flight. Feathers are made from the protein keratin which is also what
makes a reptil~'s scales and our fingernails. Feathers are made of rows of branched barbs that
hook together firmly like velcro in smooth flight feathers, more loosely in the contour body
feathers, or not at all in the downy feathers. When the barbs come loose the bird uses its beak
to "zip" them back together and to coat them With oil from the preening gland. The quill of a
feather is attached to muscles iri the skin. In the late summer or early fall most birds will molt,
losing a few feathers at a time and growing new ones to put them in good condition for
migration or for the winter cold.
Endothermic:
Birds, like mammals, generate body heat from their food, in addition to the energy .... --.
needed for growth and movement. For this reason they can maintain high levels of mental
alertness and phy~ical activity even in cold weather. Endothermic animals need more food
than ectothermic animals of the same size and tend to live faster, shorter lives by comparison.
Birds have an especially high metabolism. Body temperature may run over 100 degrees and
heartrate several hundred beats per minute. For this reason, birds need an energy rich diet and
more food compared to their weight than other animals.
Eggs and Young:
All birds lay eggs. Most build nests to protect the eggs and young birds. Some nests
are very simple collections of rocks or sticks, some are carefully woven or constructed from
twigs, hair, string, etc., some are made of mud and some are hollows in trees or cliffs.
Many young birds are helpless, naked and blind (altricial) when first hatched and require
more parental care. Some, especially those of ground nesting birds, are born alert, feath-
ered with down, and capable of looking for food (precocial). Precocial young need less
intense parental care but do still rely on a period of protection and care.

Beaks:
The beaks of birds are specialized for the ways they eat. Various types are:
• Spear-like - for fish (herons, loons, kingfishers).
• Sieve-like - for small water plants and animals (ducks).
n
 -;

-Cone shaped - for cracking seeds and nuts (cardinal, sparrow).

- Hooked - for tearing meat (owl, hawk).
- Pointed and short - for catching insects (robin, warbler, meadowlark).
- Tubular- for sucking nectar (hummingbird).
u -Chisel-like- for boring holes into wood to find insects (woodpecker).
Air Sacs:
Birds have many small air sacs attached to their lungs that can fill up to 200/0 of their
body with air, even into some hollow bones. Air passes through the lungs into the air sacs,
then the muscles of the chest and wings compress the ribs in exhalation to help the air flow
back through, providing a continuous flow of air over the respiratory surfaces of the lungs
and helping to cool the bird also.
Feet:
Bird feet are adapted to their feeding habits and habitats. Perching birds have one
back toe and three front toes to grip branches. Woodpeckers have two toes in each direc-
tion that give them stability when they walk up a tree and hammer into the wood. Wading
birds have long evenly spread toes to walk over soft mud or sand. Swimming birds have
webbing between toes to push against the water. Birds of prey have large, strong feet with
talons for catching prey.
Senses:
Birds have very good eyesight, seeing both motion and color. Most birds, especially
those that are hunted, have monocular vision, using each eye separately, without depth
perception but with a wide field of view that allows them to watch for predators on both
sides. Birds of prey and birds that feed on the wing have binocular vision, using both eyes
together with depth perception. Generally birds have fixed eyes and must move their
heads to change their view. Hawks have the best vision of all living things.
u Most birds have very little sense of smell. The common belief that a mother bird can
smell it if someone has handled her young is not true. Birds such as vultures that eat
carrion have a better sense smell than most birds to help them locate food.
Most birds can only taste the standard four tastes: sour, bitter, salty, and sweet.
Because they have little smell, they do not taste much more. . .
A bird's ear is covered with special feathers and is inconspicuous. Birds have good
hearing in general. Owls have ears that are placed one high and one low to give them the
ability to locate prey in the dark by hearing, similar to the way binocular vision works.
Birds posses a sense of touch in their skin and some also have sensitive beaks and
tongues.
Songs and Calls:
Songs and calls are mainly used by birds· to establish their territories or as a mating
invitation. Characteristics come partially from how the voice box of that species is made,
but in most birds the song is partly or mostly'learned from parents and neighbors. In some
species lo~al dialects develop.
Skeleton:
Birds are vertebrate animals, having a spine. In most birds the vertebrae through
the main part of the body are fused into a rigid spine that helps them balance on two legs
and fly. Neck vertebrae are not fused and birds have from 13 to 25 vertebrae (mammals
have seven). This extremely mobile neck gives them the flexibility to preen, build nests, see
all around, etc. Tail vertebrae are partially movable. The tail bones support the tail feath-
u
ers and to move the tail feathers to help steer like a rudder in flight.
Birds can fly partly because they are ultra light weight with a beak instead of a
heavy jaw and teeth and with hollow bones that are fewer in number and smaller than
those of non-flying animals. Mammals have denser, thicker wallS for their bones, with the
inner spaces filled with marrow. The hollow bones of birds have lighter thinner walls and
internal struts for strength, in a design that has been copied by humans for building air-
planes. The inner spaces are filled with air.
One distinct characteristic of birds that fly is the keeled sternum, where the ribs
come together in front. The keel projects straight out from the sternum to provide a place
for the strong flight muscles to attach. The size of the keel is proportional to the flight
ability of the bird. Birds that do not fly have no keel.
Digestive System:
Birds collect food with the bill or beak, break it into pieces and swallow it. Many
birds will eat alot of food very quickly, storing it in an enlarged part of the esophagus
called the crop, for later use. This is useful for evading predators. Many birds have two
stomachs. The first has enzymes and acids that break food down chemically, the second,
called the gizzard, has strong muscles and sometimes small pieces of grit that grind food
mechanically. Birds that eat birge amounts of insects, seeds and plants are likely to have a
strong gizzard. Birds that eat mostly soft foods will have a small one or none. Many carni-
vores use the gizzard to compact the non-digestible parts of their diet into a pellet that can
be coughed up. Owls, hawks, gulls and even some perChing birds do this.
Migration:
Most birds migrate to some degree. For some birds it is only movement from a
higher elevation to a lower one or to a more sheltered area a few miles away. Other birds
travel thousands of miles. In many cases migration has to do with diet. Insect eaters go
south for the winter because there are few insects available in northern climates in cold
weather. Fish eaters will move to areas where the water is not frozen. Fruit or seed eaters
will follow the available supply of food. Some tropical birds will migrate north during
breeding season to raise their young in areas where predators are less numerous. Migrat-
ing birds know instinctively when to travel, based on the length of daylight and other
seasonal changes. Exactly how and why birds migrate is not kno~, but they are believed
to use several clues to find their way. The sun is an important guide. Some also use the
stars, landmarks, hearing and even the earth's magnetism. Many species will have some
mem~ers that mi~ate and some that stay to winter over.
I,
Common Birds of Central Texas
Order Ciconiifonnes
Family Ardeidae
Great Blue Heron- Ardea herodias Permanent resident, found here October through June.
U 01
L38 W70" Found on fresh or salt water. Long legs, neck and bill, short tail, broad wings. Wades in
shallow water feeding on fish and water animals. Head is white, back and wings blue grey, underparts dark.
Alarm call is about 4 hoarse squawks.

Green-backed Heron- Butorides smatus Summer resident, found here April through October.
L14"W25" Found on fresh or salt water. Found in small ponds and along wooded streams more
often than other herons. Wades in shallow water feeding on fish and water animals. Smaller and shorter
necked than most herons, with long legs and bill, broad wings, short tail. Blue green back, orange legs, dark
underparts. Call is a sharply desc~ding w.

Order Falconifonnes
Family Cathartidae
B1a c k V ul ture- Coragyps atratus Permanent resident, found here year round.
L22"WS4" On farms, ranches and suburban areas, this daytime hunter feeds oncarrion, garbage, and
small animals. The silhouette is short tailed, long winged, with a longer neck and a horizontal wing position.
Flies with deep wing flaps and short glides. An overall black with white patches on wings and a black
featherless head, heavy sharp hooked bill and talons.

Tu r key V u I ture- Cathartes aura Permanent resident, commonly found here year round.
L25"W72" Found over fields and along roadsides. Carrion eater. Silhouette is longer-tailed, long
winged, and wings form a wide V. Soars in circles, tilting from side to side. Overall black, head is red and
featherless, heavy sharp hooked bill and talons.

Family Accipitridae
u Subfamily Harrier
N orthem Harrier- Circus cyaneus Visitor, found here mid-October through March
L16 1/2 W42" Feeds largely on rodents in grasslands and marshes. Slim with long rounded wings,
01

long tail. Glides a few feet off the ground tilting from side to side with wings held above horizontal. Males
are grey, females brown with streaks. Bill is heavy, sharp and hooked, feet have sharp talons. Migrates north
to Canada in summer. Call is about 10 short, sharp whistles.

Subfamily Buteo
Red-shouldered Hawk- Buteo lineatus Permanent resi4ent, found here year round.
L 16" W 33" Breeds in moist woodlands. Hunts for rodents, insects, and small birds from a perch.
Broad rounded wings, relatively longer than other hawks, broad fanned tail. Bill is heavy, sharp and
hooked, feet have sharp talons. Reddish shoulder patches, plain underparts, light narrow bands on dark
wings and tail. Call is a scream similar to a jay's.

Broad-winged Hawk- Buteo platypterus Migrant, found here in March and April, again in September
and October.
L 13" W 33" Lives in woodlands. Hunts for large insects, mice or small reptiles from a perch. Mi-
grates in a large flock. Smaller than a red-tailed hawk but similar in silhouette. Broad rounded wings, broad
fanned tail. Bill is heavy, sharp and hooked, feet have sharp talons. Tail has wide dark and light bands.
Under wings are light, back is brown. Call is a thin whistle.

Red-tailed Hawk- Buteo jamaicensis Permanent resident, commonly found here October through May,
sometimes here April through Sept.
L 18" W 48" Nests in woodlands, feeds in open country on rabbits and rodents. Perches on tree-tops
or poles. Broad rounded wings, broad fanned tail. Bill is heavy, sharp and hooked, feet have sharp talons.
u
 Reddish color on -top of tail, light· under tail, streaked brownish back and head, a band of dark patches across
belly. Call is a high scream.

Order Charadriiformes
Family Charadriidae
Killdeer- Charadrius vociferus
o
Permanent resident, found here yearround.
LS" Medium sized °to small shore birds with short bill, short neck, pointed wings, tail that is held
n
horizontally, tail is longer than other plovers. Forages for insects in fields and pastures often far from water,
taking several rapid steps, then pausing. Nests on the ground. May fake injury to lure intruders away from
its nest. Adults have two neckbands, head is dark with a white band across face and eyes, orange upper tail,
brown back, white belly. Repeats its name as a call.

Order Columbilonnes
Family Columbidae
Rock Dove (Pigeon)- Colwnba livia Permanent resident, commonly found here yearround.
L: 11" This is the common introduced pigeon of farmyards and city parks. It feeds in flocks on the
ground, eating seeds and fruit Coloration varys, but it has a white rump and a dark terminal tailband. It has
a small head, plump body, short legs, fanned tail, and pointed wings. Wing tips collide on takeoff, head bobs
o when walking. It glides with wings raised at an angle. Nests on buildings. Call is a coo.

Mourning Dove- Zenaida macroura Permanent resident, commonly found here yearround.
L: 10 1/2" A native dove commonly found in suburbs and farmlands, it nests singly in trees, feeds in
flocks on grains, seeds and fruits. Slim bodied with a long tapering tail, small head, pOinted wings. Flies
with a whistling of the wings, swiftly and directly without coasting. Brownish body, dark wings. Call is
ooah-ooo-oo-oo.

Inca Dove- Columbina inca Permanent resident, commonly found here yearround.
L: 6 1/2" Resident in suburban areas, irrigated fields, and pastures. Feeds in flocks on the ground on
grains, seeds and fruits. A tiny-bodied, long-tailed dove with typical small headand pointed wings. The
body is grey, the reddish wing primary feathers may show only in flight. Their back is scaly looking. In
flight the white margin to the long grey tail can be seen. Call is a monotonous repetiton of coos in pairs. n
Order Strigilormes
Family Strigidae
Eastern Screech Owl- Otus asio Permanent resident, commonly found here yearround.
L S" W 22" A small owl commonly found in town and in wooded areas. Nocturnal, it hunts rodents
and other small animals, flying silently. It has a large head, short neck, feather tufts that look like ears, broad
rounded wings, and ~ flat, heart shaped face. It nests in holes in trees or sometimes in bird houses. It may be
grey or rusty brown and camoflaged well with the tree branches. Song is a quavering whistle.

.Order Apodilormes
Family Apodiae
Chimney Swift- Chaetura peIagica Summer resident, commonly found here April through October.
L:5" W: 12 1/2" Swifts continuously fly for most of the day with their mouths open wide, eating
flying insects, usually in flocks. Their wings are long, pointed, slender and slightly curved, the tail is stiff,
short andslightly rounded without any fork or fan. Nests inchimneys, on cliffs or in tree cavities. During
migration flocks roost at dusk in tall chimneys. Call is rapid short chips and a chattering, chipping noise
canbe heard when a flock is overhead.

Family Trochilidae
Black-chinned Hummingbird- Archilochus alexandri Summer resident, commonly found here April
through September.
L:3" Smallest of birds, hummingbirds have long slender bills adapted for drinking nectar from
tubular flowers. They flap their wings so fast that it creates a humming sound, hovering in mid air to feed
fromthe flowers and even flying backwards. The only hummer with a truly black throat, it has a purple
n
 stripe below the black, thena white belly. Sides and back are green. It also eats insects flycather-fashion.
Migration is from Rocky Mountains to Mexico, with some resident here in summer. Call is a slurred thew .

.Order Coraciifonnes
_ Family Alcedinidae
U Belted Kingfisher- Ceryle toruquata Permanent resident, found here yearround.
L:12" The most common kingfisher in North America and the only one in north of Texas and Ari-
zona. Seen singly or in pairs along streams and ponds. Except for terns, kingfishers are the only small bird
that dive headlong from air into the water. Recognized in flight by it's deep, irregular wingbeats, it's big-
headed appearance, and it's loud rattling call. Often hovers befor diving.

Order Picifonnes
Family Picidae
Red-bellied Woodpecker- Melanerpes auifrons Permanent resident, commonly found here yearround.
L: 8 1/2" Common in southeastern woodlands. Red-headed Woodpecker is the same size and has a
similar call, but note the ladder back and red cap and hind neck of the Red-bellied.Immature has brown head.
May occur with Red-cockaded in longleaf pine woods. Call: are low, short and hoarse; also a rattle.

Northern Flicker- CoIaptes auratus Winter resident, found ~ere October through March.
L:12 1/2" Common in open woodlands and suburban areas, they feed on the ground on insects. Back
is brown barred with a black crescent bib and a white rump, under wings is yellow in Yellow-shafted form
common east of the Rockies. Flickers are large, active and noisy. Call is a rapid wik-wik-wik and a loud
Klee-yer.

Order Passerifonnes
Family Tyrannidae
Eastern Phoebe- Sayomis phoebe Permanent resident, found here yearround.
L:5 3/4" Common near farm buildings and bridges. The dark head, solid black bill, and tail-wagging
habit provide the best identification in all plumages. Head of Eastern Phoebe is darker than back; head of
pewee is same shade as back. Phoebe do not whistle, but say fee-be and fee-blee.

U Great Crested Flycatcher- Myiarchus crinitus Summer resident, found here April through September.
L: 7" Common in deciduous and mixed woods. This is the only Myiarchus to be expected east of the·
rockies and centralTexas. Identified as a flycatcher by it's broad bill, large head, and flycatching habits. No
other eastern flycatcher has a long rust tail. Western Kingbird pearches in the open and has a black tail with
outer white feathers. Call: a harsh ascending wheep.

Western Kingbird- Tyrannus tyrannus Summer resident, found here April through September.
L: 7" Common about farms and along streams where scattered trees provide nesting sites. White
outer tail feather wh~ visable will identify this species. If white is lacking or not visble, Western Kinkbird
can be confused with Cassin's, which has small, more definite white throat patch and dark head. Black tail
separates Weastern from Myiarchus flycatchers. Calls, very different from Eastern's, are less rasping.

Scissor-tailed Flycatcher- Tyrannus forficatus Summer resident, commonly found here March through
October.
L: 13" Common in open country. Note long streaming tail of adult. Young similar to the Western
Kingbird, but have pink sides and whiter tail. Calls suggest Western Kingbird's. Fork-tailed Flycatcher is
similar, with long streaming tail, but underparts are white and crown is black. Immature is brownish. A
casual visitor in eastern U.S.

Family Hinmdinidae
Purple Martin- Progne.subis Summer resident, commonly found here March through August.
L:7" Will return regularly where special multicelled martin houses are prOVided. Martins are dark
all over with purple iridescence onhead and top of wings. Females, young, and first-year males are light
I bellied. They feed on the wing in large flocks, catching insects with wide open mouths. They have long
U
 ,.
pointed wings, forked tails, sh9rt legs and bills. Note the broad wings and more soaring flight of the martin.
Song and calls are more distinctive, low-pitch~d, liquid, rolling twitter.

Cliff Swallow- Hirundo pyrrhonota Summer resident, commonly here April through September.
L:5" Swallow's are often seen perching on wires. They feed on the wing in large flocks, catching
insects with wide open mouths. They have long pointed wings, forked tails, short legs and bills. The Cliff
Swallow has an orange rump, square tail, broad wings, and buff colored forehead. Soars more than other
swallows. Colonies of bulb-shaped nests are built under bridges or eaves, or in the shelter of cliffs or dams.
Call: is a single melodious note.

Family Coroidae
Blue Jay- Cyanocitta cristana Permanent resident, commonly found here yearround.
L:10" Found in oak and pine woodsand in wooded neighborhoods. Jays are medium sized om-
nivorous birds with heavy bills, short rounded wings, long rounded tail. Crested blue crown, white cheeks
outlined in black, white flashes in black-banded blue wings and tail. Migrates, but many stay here year
round. Call is a loud jay jay. Can also imitate a hawk's call.

Scrub Jay- Apheloeoma eoeruleseens Permanent resident, found here yearround.

L: 10" Found most often in scrub oaks, but often remains out of sight. This is a crestless jay with a
blue crown, a white throat outlined in blue, blue wings and tail, and an olive-grey back. Jays are medium
sized omnivorous birds with heavy bills, short rounded wings, long rounded tail. Flights are short, ending
with a sweeping glide. Calls are raucous and varied, often in ones and twos.

Family Paridae
Carolina Chickadee- Parus carolinensis Permanent resident, commonly found here yearround.
L: 41/4" Chickadees are small, friendly, acrobatic birds with characteristic black caps and bibs, white
cheeks and greyish bodies. Non-migratory, they live in wooded areas, are seed eaters, and nest in tree .
cavities. The Carolina is smaller than the Black-capped Chickadee with paler sides. It has narrow grey edging
on wing feathers, small clearly defined bib, shorter tail. Song is whistled 4 or 5 notes.

Tufted Titmouse- Parus bieolor Permanent resident, commonly found here yearround.
L: 5 1/2" Found in deciduous woodlands, especially along streams, and in shade trees. Does not
migrate. Nests in natural cavities. A titmouse is larger than a chickadee, has a crest, a plain grey back and
wings with light underparts. Eats seeds. Usually found in small flocks, often with chickadees and warblers.
Song is 2 whistled and sometimes slurred notes repeated 2 to 4 times.

Family Troglodytidae
Carolina Wren- Thryothorus ludovicianus Permanent resident, commonly found here yearround.
L:43/4" Lives in thick, preferably moist, underbush. This is the largest wren found in this area.
They feed mainlY'on insects and nest ina cavity or in a globular nest. Wrens are small brown birds with
barred tails they hold straight upwards. Bills are long and slender. The Carolina has a long thick white eye
stripe, a brown tail, a reddish back and a buH colored belly. The song is a loud triplet repeated 4-6 times.

Bewick's Wren- Thryomanes bewiekii Permanent resident, commonly found here yearround.
L:4 1/2" Found in farmyards, shrubbery, brush, and fencerows. They feed mainly on insects and
nest ina cavity or in a globular nest. Wrens are small brown birds with barred tails they hold straight up-
wards. Bills are long and slender. A white eye stripe, white belly, long white-fringed tail, and an unstreaked
brown back characterize the Bewick's. It also has a characteristic sideways jerking of it's tail. The loud song
is high and thin, 2-5 notes followed by a trill. The call is a scolding rattle.

Family Muscicapidae
Subfamily Turdinae
Eastern Bluebird- Sialia sialis Permanent resident, found here yearround.
L:5 1/2" Found along roadsides, in farmyards, orchards and woodlands, often in small flocks. When
perching they sit with a hunched back. They eat insects, both on the ground and on the wing, and in cold n
, ~.

weather they eat berries. Nests are bUilt in cavities or birdhouses. The male has a bright blue back, a rusty
throat and breast, and a white belly. The female has a grey head and back. Young have a spotted breast.
This is the only bluebird common in this area. The Blue Jay is much larger, always creasted and lacks the
rusty breast. Song and call are a melodious whistling.

V American Robin- Turdus migratorius Winter resident, commonly found here November through
March, occasionally found in summer. ·
L:8 1/2" Common in winter and seen in flocks in the spring and fall. Most migrate to northern areas
for the summer. Often seen on lawns searching for insects and earthworms. In cold weather prefers moist
woods or fruit-bearing trees. Adult is orange breasted, young has spotted breast. Builds a nest of grass and
mud infruit trees or in shrubs. Song is a series of whistled phrases of 3 to 4 notes each.

Family Mimidae
Northern Mockingbird- Mimus polyglottos Permanent resident, commonly found here yearround.
L:9" Common throughout the south, it prefers suburban areas, brushy habitats or the edges of
woodlands. In flight it's white wing patches show clearly, and wingbeats are slow enough to count. Long-
tailed, shortwinged, slender bodied, with a slender bill, grey with white on wings and tail. Flicks tail from
side to side. It mimics most song phrases many times, both while perched and in flight.

Family Bombycillidae
Cedar Waxwing- Bombycilla cedrorum Winter resident, commonly found here November through
March.
L: 5 3/4 Wanders erratically in compact flocks eating berries in trees and shrubs and catching
insects. They make bulky shallow nests in the late summer in nortllem forests. Crested, with black mask, red
spots on their wings, and yellow tips ona short tail, greyish, with a yellowish belly. Sexes are similar. Young
are grayer, with streaking below. Call is a high thin monotone with a slight quaver.

Family Vireonidae
White-eyed Vireo- Vireo griseus Summer resident, found here April through September.
L: 4 1/2 Found in dense deciduous woods and thickets, vireos are insect eaters and build hanging
U nests in the fork between small branches. The only vireo with a white iris (adult only, they have bright
yellowish sides, wing bars and a plain head and back. Easier to hear than to see, song is typically 5-7 loud
notes slurred together, including an emphatic chip at the beginning and end.

Family Emberizidae
Subfamily Parulinae
Yellow-rumped Warbler- Dendroica coronata Winter resident, commonly found here November
through April.
L: 4 3/4 Nests in northern coniferous forests, wintersinsouthem woodlands. Bright yellow rump
and yellow side patches, white wing bars and tail spots. Eats bayberries and poison ivy in the cold winter
when flying insects are not available. Song is a soft warble, call, a low pitched chuck.

Subfamily Cardinalinae
Northern Cardinal- Cardinalis cardinalis Permanent resident, commonly found here yearround.
L 7 3/4" Common in hedg~grows, edges of wooded areas and suburbs. The short heavy conical
beak is ideal for seed eating. The male is bright red with a black throat. The female is paler and brownish.
Both male and female have pointed crests. Song is repeated loud slurred whistles.

Subfamily Emberizinae
Field Sparrow- Spizella pusilla Winter resident, commonly found here November through March,
occasionally found here in summer months.
L 5" Commoly found infields or meadows with tall grass or scatteredsmall trees. They live in flocks
and hop on the ground eating seeds. A pink bill and legs, a plain brown crown, and nodark eye line help
identify it. Song is a series of slurred whistles in increasing tempo.
Subfamily Icterinae
-.
Red-winged Blackbird- Agelaius phoeniceus Permanent resident, commonly found here
yearround.
L 71/4" Live in marshes and fields, males are black with red shoulder patches, females are brown
with streaks and look like a sparrow only larger and longer billed. They live in large flocks. Song is a
squeaky kong-Tea-ree. n
Great-tailed Grackle- Quiscalus mericanus Permanent resident, commonly found here yearround.
L 12-16" Long slender V shaped tail, bright yellow iris in eye, males are larger than females. Males
are iridescent purple and black, females are brown. Seen commonly in flocks. Song is loud, long variety of
stick-breaking noises, whistles and rattles.

Family Fringillidae
Subfamily Carduelinae
House Finch- Carpodacus mericanus Permanent resident, commonly found here yearround.
L 5-6" Male has brown cap and red head, bib and rump; underparts are streaked. Females
are brown streaked overall. Commonly found in semi-arid lowlands, farms and suburban areas.
Call: disjointed notes ending with a wheer.

American Goldfinch- Carduelis tristis Winter resident, commonly found here December through April.
L 5"Plumage varies. Breeding males are bright yellow with a black cap and wings, black
and white tail. Females are olive brown above and dull yellow underneath, with blaCk wings and
tail. Winter adults and immatures are gray or brown above. Commonly found in fields or open
woodlands, goldfinches are gregarious seed eaters. Song is a series of trills, twitters andswees.

Family Passeridae
House Sparrow- Passer domesticus Permanent resident, commonly found here yearround.
L 6 1/2" House Sparrows, introduced from Europe are a different family from native spar-
rows. They resemble native sparrows, but with shorter legs and thicker bills. Breeding males have ,,-......
streaked brown wings, gray crown, chestnut nape, white cheeks, and black throat. Females have a ( I
streaked back, unstreaked breast and an eye stripe. Common in urban and suburban areas, aggres-
sive. Feeds on seeds and insects.
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TO BE A BIRD
u
PRE-VISIT INFORMATION

Birds outnumber any class of vertebrates with the exception of the fishes. They are the most
observable of the vertebrates and the study of birds offers a wide assortment of classroom
To
activities and projects~; prepare your students for the program "To Be A Bird". the following
activities are suggested.
I.': .

Discuss and re,y.)~w the major characteristics of ~irds.

1. Birds are vertebrates. Encourage students to think about the function of a

backbone. Have them imagine what they would look like if they did not have a
backbone. How would they move without a backbone?

2. Birds are warm-blooded. A warm-blooded animal's body temperature is

constant: "Body temperature is regulated internally. Discuss the difference
between warm-blooded and cold-blooded (body temperature regulated externally).
, Cold-blooded animals bask in the sun to heat their bodies and must hibernate
• Ithrougnou"f'fhe cold winter season. '.

3. Birds have feathers. All birds have feathers. This is the one distinguishing factor
which identifies birds. No other animal has feathers.
\

u 4. Birds lay eggs. All birds lay eggs and care for their young. The parents must
incubate the eggs.

ADDITIONAL CONCEPTS:

Classification - separating objects (in this case. animals) into groups based on similar
characteristics.

Adaptation - a characteristic or behavior which enables an organism to survive in its

environment.

CLASS ACTIVITY

One goal of the previsit activity is simply to encourage students to think about birds. A
suggested activity is to play the game "Owls and Crows" which will also reinforce new
concepts.

Owls and Crows (from Sharing Nature with Children, Joseph Bharat Cornell)

Divide the class into two equal teams, the Owls and the Crows. Line up the two teams facing
each other. about two feet apart. About 15 feet behind each team. draw another line for
u (continued on back)

MEMPHIS PINK PALACE MUSEUM

EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
Home Base. Make a statement aloud. and if the statement is true the Owls chase the Crows
trying to catch them before they' reach their Home Base. If the statement is false. the Crows
chase the Owls. Anyone caught must join the other team. '
If the answer isn't obvious to the players. you should remain silent and neutral. When the
action has calmed down. reveal the correct answer.

Sample statements (add to these and repeat them through,out the game):

Birds do have a backbone

Birds do not have a backbone.
All birds have feathers.
Birds must hibernate in the winter.
All birds can fly.
Birds are warm-blooded.
Birds are cold-blooded.
Some birds do not have feathers.
An ostrich can fly. .
Birds lay eggs.
Parent birds must take care of their young.
A baby birds can fly when it hatches.
Baby birds do not need their parents.
Birds bury their eggs.
The hummingbird is the smallest bird in our country.
Owls hunt at night.
Hawks. owls. and eagles eat seeds.
Hawks. owls, and eagles eat meat.
Birds preen their feathers to take care of them.
All birds are brightly colored.
Many birds migrate from one place to another.

POST-VISIT ACTIVITIES

Instruct each student to choose his/her favorite bird and write a report on that bird.

For younger children. have each student draw a picture of his/her favorite bird.

Create a bulletin board display of various birds.

Construct a bird mobile.

Challenge students to build a bird's nest utilizing sticks. grass. leaves. and other
objects which they collect on the school grounds.

~onstru<?t a bird feeder and hang it outside the cla~sroom. Identify the various
birds which are attracted to the feeder. Allow a couple of weeks for birds to
locate your feeder.

Research and report on Archaeopteryx.

Research and report on the Tennessee state bird.

 Last Chance Forever
KAt'TOR RECOGNITION P.o. BOx 460Q93
• San Antonio,Tx.
·.•
•,.
78246

••
u Harrier
Turkey Vulture
Turfcey vul[ure J':lrg(!; bl:tcldsh; bro:.ad·willged;
Nonhem h:uTier fiolds long wings in V-sh:tpe; n:LI(ed held; frequendy sc...oell sO:Jrin:
(M!lrsh h:lwk) long r.,iI; white nlmp. .with wings held in V-,Sh:lpt!.
,.................................................................................. .
•
•••
•••
•
Owls
Falcons

G~homedowl L!1I"ge helu; sholt neck:

Barred owl mOthJike noio;eless flight:
Saw-whet owl mOStly noaun1:1l.
Peregrine falcon Pointed wings; long. t:lpered t:1il; Screech owl
Merlin (Pigeon hawk) rowing wingbe:ns. B:unowl
Kestrel (Spa.-row hawk) (:md others)
...................................................................................
u

Osprey Acclpiters

Osprey Long-winged; aook: wrist;

pJum:lge d:uk above. white below; Goshawk Long mil; shon, wi~ wings;
often seen hovering. then Cooper~ h:1w!< fbp. fl:ap. :;:ail wingbe:1rs.
diving for nsh. :' Sharp-shinned hawk
••
...................................................................................
o

Buteos
Eagles

u Brood wings and short. rounded L,j

~-t:lifed hawk
~e: 5O:1rs on long. round~ Brood-winged h:1wk commonly ~ sooring.
Balde:1gle
Golden e:1gle wings; bald e:lgle frequently Red·shouldered hawk
:1SSOCi!Jl~ with bodie> of w:1tet Rough.lc:ssed h:lwk
 .~

COMMON OWLS
OF NORTH AMERICA
Last Chana 3or£"URr. ~he -nlrd of C])f2H ConS2ruOncu
.
P.o. Box 460993 San Antonio,Tx·78246-0993 (210)499-4080 .

GREAT HORNED OWL SCREECH OWL

Large owl with ear tufts Only 8 inches tall: feeds
and yellow eyes: found on small rodents and insects:
in woodlands, open country, nests in tree hollows in
and suburban areas. woodlands and .suburban areas.

BARN OWL
A light colored owl witn
a freckled breast, dark
A l~~'1~EJ?tP~t eyes
and no ear tufts; found in
eyes, and a heart-shaped mature woodlands
face: often nests in de-
serted buildings in open
country. ®REC'lCLED
 HOW TO HANDLE AN INJURED RAPTOR
.(BIRD O~ PREy)

,~
Be aware of the following facts:
*Under federal and state law it is illegal for any nonpermitted person to injure, harrass,
or possess a bird of prey.
* The raptor team of Wildlife Rescue Inc. of Austin is fully licensed by both the U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service and Texas Parks and Wildlife Department to salvage and
rehabilitate orphaned or injured raptors.
* While all raptors can bite, their feet and talons are their main means of defense.
~ An injured raptor requires immediate specialized care. Any delay reduces the bird's
chance of recovery.
* Most veterinarians have nejther the practical experience nor the special facilities
needed to properly handle an orphaned or injured raptor.

METHOD OF RESCUE:

A towel, blanket, jacket, or any other handy lightweight item (large enough to cover the
entire bird) can be used. Wear heavy gloves if available; even a small raptor has a
U powerful grip. Watch for those feetf

1) Note the geographic region where the bird was found. This information will be
necessary for records and possibly for the eventual release of the bird.
2) An injured raptor will attempt to face you at all times ... mouth agape, wings spread,
and talons ready to strike. For all it knows, you are about to take advantage of an easy
meal! ANTICIPATE A STRUGGLE FROM A REASONABLY ALERT BIRD.
3) When close enough, carefully cover the bird with the jacket or blanket. Make sure to
cover the bird competely.
4) Quickly restrain the bird under the covering. Usually you end up with a covering full
of talons, but at least you know where they are. .
5) As the bird calms down, gather the covering together, being careful to get the bird's
wings folded against its body.
6) If required, the covering can be made into a sack using a shoelace.
CAUTION: IF TRANSPORTING BIRD IN THIS MANNER BE SURE THAT IT DOES NOT
OVERHEAT ON A WARM DAY. THE BIRD SHOULD BE TRANSFERRED TO A MORE
SUITABLE CONTAINER AT THE FIRST OPPORTUNllY.

A cardboard box is an ideal way to safely transport a raptor. Stop at a nearby house or
business and obtain a cardboard box. The box must be well ventilated and just large
enough to allow the bird some movement, but not so large as to allow the bird to thrash
around inside.

DO NOT PUT THE BIRD IN A WIRE CAGE; SEVERE FEATHER DAMAGE MAY
U RESULT.

For additional help, call the raptor team of Wildlif~ Rescue, Inc. at (512) 472-WILD, or
call Texas Paks and Wildlife dispatch at (512) 389-4800.
 n

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 ,-.... , .

u BIRDS OF PREY- FAMILIES

l: ,~ .
~

VUL TURES- Soar and glide -Eat cam on

HAWK S- Many f1 ying styles -EDt birds, mammals, reptiles, insects 17/::ick!
KITES- Long pOinted wings
Graceful "fliers, swoop like a kite
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'," ~Some have specialized food habits-ie Snail kite
-Mississippi, Swallowtai1ed, Black Shouldered
/- D
/ /j'\
,/ " " \
" \~. \

ACCIPITER- Short rounded wlngs- long tall

Dart through trees and th1 ckets ..
-E8t mostly birds on the wing~~,~
-Shorp-shinned (smollish), Cooper's

HARRIERS- Long narrow wings- long ta11- long slim body

Glide low oyer grassy fields and marshes (Marsh Hawk)
-Hunt small mammal s, bi rds, and rept i I as
-Sensl t1 ve ears (hunt prey in tall grass)

BUTEOS Broad wings" funned tail

Soor high in wide circles
-Eat rodents, reptiles; hunt by ·perch and wait· method
-Hams', Red tailed, Swainson's, Red shouldered, etc.

EAGLES- Broad wings" fanned t8il- very large· bill

~~.(~1e Soars with slightly upl1fted wings .'
\ (';)' -Eats mammals, reptnes, birds and fish (bald)
-Bald (rivers) 8nd Golden (canyons, mtns, deserts)

OSPREY Hoolc wing (at wrist)

~~~p~. Flies oyer water to locate fish, can hoyer
~ -Eat fish- haye pads on feet to hold fish

FAL CONS- Long' pOinted wing5- long tail-large feet

Fost fliers, streamlined body
lOD ~rv.. ~
u
l

t1 \ve.-
(J:.. -Eat birds, mammals, insects
-Am Kestral, Peregrine '~-:
':ti
,:
I,
f Y\o \O~fY"Y -CARACARA- acts more like vulture-eats carrion
0 "

~llt~A ~r~ '\L)

 t_ •

oI nos OF PREY - raptors

[aroiUOrOU5- Itmeat eaters" - eat mainly L'ertebrates
Characteristics that make them good predators:
1- strong feet- toes with sharp talons
2- powerful, hooted beats
3- eHcelient eyesight

Two main groups:

diu rn aI - Betiue during the day - Dultures, hawks,eagles, ospreys,
falcons, and kites (Falconiformes)
nocturnal - actiue at night - owls (Strigiformes) ..

DIURNAL BInos OF PREY

- 25--32- tall; wings ,I
UULTURES: ( family CRTHBRTIDIE)
span; 5 Ibs ; 50 yrs
- family dates back 65 my in NR
- 3 species in NO
- soar on thermals
- eat carrion - locate with good eyesight and sense of smell
- feet and talons not as strong 85 other BOP ~
- prone to olJereat- lJoluntarily regurgitates (uses 8S defense) f )
- no head feathers - helps keep free of bacteria
- no uoice bOH- grunt and hiss
- DO oest- lay eggs on ledge- young fly at 11 weeks - stay with
parents for seueral months
- Tllrkell- red head - two tone wings (dark head immatures)
- 1111&1'- dark head - black wings with white wing tips
- Clllil'lITllill CIIIIIiIlr- most endangered bird in US- lay 1 egg/yr - ..
captiue breeding program- 5-7 yrs to seHual maturity - young stay 2 ..
yrs. with par~nts

~ HIlIUKS; (ralOily RCCIPITHIDRE)

- largest family of diurnal BOP - incl -kites, aC(;ipiters, harriers, buteos,
eagles
- keenest eyesight of aJlliuing animals-hoLJe monocular and
binocular uision
- more cells in the center of the retina = sharper images
- two foueae or sensitiue depressions in the eye for magnifying images
- muscles to control eye mouement

n
 -~ .
- protet tiLle prominent bony shield oLter eye - makes them look fierce
- eHcelient hearing
- no sense of smell
- female generally larger than mate - most mate for life
u - when eHited wag tail from side to side

KIIES:
- small, gentle, graceful fliers with long pointed wings
- require nHlrm climate
- hal'e specialized food requirements; snailS, insects, small rodents and
reptiles.
- sensitiue to habitat destruction
- Mississippi kite -L 24" W 35 11 - migrate through Cen TeH
- Slllsilolll-toiled kileL 23" W 48"
- Block shouldered kite L16 n W 42 n

nee I P IJIRS :
- long tails and short rounded lBings to dart between trees to
chose prey (other birds)
- fost and agile - cotch prey Uon the wingu
- feiree, fearless aod strong
- Coopers - L 14-20n W 29-37" and Sharpshinned - Ll0-14 W 20-28" -
D

both ean be found in TeNas

- GOSholllk(not in TeNas) L 21-26" W 40-46 u
u - setterly reduced by poisons

HRRRIERS : L 11-23" W 38-40" - liue close to ground

- long slim body- long oDd narrow wings with somewhat rounded tips
- long tail
- glide low ouer grassy fields and marshes - hunts small rodents, birds,
and reptiles
- haue large ear openings and owl-lite facial discs for
specialized hearing (used in hunting prey)
- female brown- male grey - both hal'e white rump patch
- nest on ground
- elobofate coutship display- climb high and diue and somersault

BUIEDS:
- large, robust,· I1lings broad, tail fanned
- soar in wide circles
- lone hunters- perch and l!JOit
- nest a platform of sticks and twigs in tall tree
- Brood lllioged h811lk -L 16" III 34"

u
 - Red Toiled h8JlIK L 22" u.' 50 eat 7 mice/day- common around Rustin
U

- SIlIDlnson"S h81l1k~ migrate In large flOCkS (kettles) to and from

Argentina l21 W52
u
11
-

- Fe""lJginolJs.~ L 23" III 53 II ,~

- Rough legged h8JlIk, L 22" W 56"
- Red shouldel-ed h81llk L 19 W 40 II II

.
1 - Harris hOlllKl21 W 46"
II

ERGlES: large hawk similar to Buteo but with larger bill

- Golden esole - L 30-40 W 80-88 11 D

-IiL'es in remote canyons, mountains, grasslands- hunts ouer open

country for small mommals, snakes, birds, weak or ill lorger mammals,
8' carrion. (carry 8lbs)
- Soars with wings slightly uplifted.
- Bald e0!lle - L31-37 W 10-90"
11

- Balde = white in Old English- gets white head and tail when 4-5 yrs
II II

- sea eagle- liues near water; coasts, riDers, lalces - eats fish, small
mammals, and sometimes carrion
- pesticide leuels high in fish con couse frogile egg shells
- habitat destruction, illegal shooting
- in our area winter at lalee Buchanan- it few pairs permanent residents
- mate for life - build huge stick nests ( up to 81by 121)

~ OSPREY: L22-25" W 58-72" (Family PRNDIONIDRE)

- fish diet - fresh and saltwater
- houers then plunges feet first into water to catch fish- turns fish
'head first into the wind-
- has rough pads on underside of feet and toes to grasp fish
- around Austin riuers and lalces dUring spring and fall migration
- mote for life- build large nests

FHlCONS : (Family FALCONIDRE)

-characterized by long pOinted wings It mediom to long toils
- eye ring is bare
- adult plumage at one year
- notched beat used to kill prey by seuering spinal cord at neck
- pump tail up and down, and bob head when eHcited
- pomerful and fast fliers- some diue when hunting
- don't build their Ol1.'n nest- use CBuity, ledge or use nests built by
other raptors
/
n.
- "'71, ~'B5 tral -~ 1 5" l!J 2'3" - hOllers OLler
prey before plunging- found
j~ c!l~n coun!~~ eo!.!nd and in Ru~ t:n 'sparroll' hau.IIe' -eats large insects
a~ llJetJ as small mammals end reptiles

u - 4f~/:lilJ l12!1 tH 25" - Lllinter~ in TM - unc.ommon (pigeon hOlllk I

- l i 5-19'· 11; 35-43: Il'est TH
I-~rajlie Fa/l'on
1

- PBr8grine Fa/ron l 16-20 UJ 36-44" - fly high- fold wing and diue to
it

(.atcJ, prey- usually dUtKS, shorebirds. and seabirds-

- inhabit open wetlands near cliff-
- Carac:ara-l 23 n UI 50" different from other falcons- more like Llultures
- has partjal!y bald head- feeds chiefly on carrion -also prey on small
mammals, reptiles, amphibians and title birds
- spends much time on the ground
- face color changes depending on mood - orange= normal
yell 0u.' =eHcitme nt
- builds nest
- fairly common in praries of central and south TH

NO(:TURNRL BIRDS OF PREY

OWLS ... Barn and Typical

- Hearing Dery good
u - use more than sight in hunting
- specialized feathers around ear openings direct sounds
- targer ear openings than other BOP, openings assymetric:al
- can detect frequencies u'e can!t hear
- Sight - caD see equally well in light I dart
- large eyes immobile in socket- must rotate head to see around- neck
has many uertebrae (14J and is very fleHible.
- Large wings - feathers fringed to produce sounless flight
- attack prey feet first
- zygodactal toes- outer toe can be to front or back
- food - mice, rodents, insects, reptiles, occasional birds,- eat small
prey Il,hote
- regurgitute pellet- fur, feathers, bones that con't be digested

R HI N OIULS t: Famity TYTO"" DRr,- l 16 II

- heart shaped luhHe f6(:e- ghos tty looking

- nest in deserted biuldings~ trees~ fliffs
- prefer to hunt on grasslands and open (:ountry
- prey on urban rats and mic:e in city

u
- "toe dusting to protect young
- uolce a hiss

*
- may lay up to 11 eggs in good years

"PICRL OIOU (Family STRIGIDHE)

- round faces, well camouflaged
- many houe enrlike tufts
- don't build own nest- use woodpecker cauity or stick nest of croll' or
hawk

- Screech Dill/ L 8 112 II

- eat large insects, spiders, small rodents, lizards, and birds

- lays up to 7 eggs ( will nest in man-made bOHes)
- found in cities and country -- most common owl in N8

- fireal Horned Ulll/ L22 u

- strong and ferocious- will attack and eat prey as large as skunks and
grouse.-
- uocal and affectionate towards own kind-
- attotts mate by bowing, nuzzling, and offering food - also a show-off
flight
- humans are greatest threat

- Borred OIlIJ L 20" W 4411 n

- owl of woodlands and swamps and riuer bottoms - common east of
Rustin (Eastern US and Canada)
- feed on rodents, frogs and crawfish
- not as strong for size as Great Horned owls
- l'ocal = who cooks for you- who cooks for you all
- Burrolliiog ollil L 9 1/2"
-long legged
- ground dwelling - most actiue during the day
- liues and nests underground in abandoned burrows if alJaiiable- will
dig own
- bobs up and down
- migrates from southwest for winters, to further north for nesting
- eats insects, mice, rats~ ground squirrels

Birds of prey at top of food chain

lall' - it is illegal to posses a BOP or any port of one
 . .DIDIU an nagte Vymg
Bald Eagle has "a wing span, tip to tip,
A of up to 7 l'2. feet (2.2 meters). Yet an
average· male Bald Eagle weighs about 9
They help with breathing. They keep the
body light. Air sacs also serve as a
cooling sYstc;m. Flying can be hot work!
pounds and an average female weighs about
1. Cut out the bones from your eagle
12 pounds. (Try lifting a lO-pound sack of
wing pattCm along the dashed lines.
flour or sugar for comparison. >. It is the
Place area A ofth~.humerus bone over
combinatio~ of large wings and light weight
area A of the radiUs and ulna bones
that makes the eagles masters of the air.
and poke ·through the Xs with a brad.
Build an Eagle Wmg Includes: "Place area B of the radius and ulna
• Eagle wing pattern on page 31. bones over area B of the carpo-
• Eagle body on pages 26 and 27. metacarpus and poke through the Xs
with a bra,!.
YouNeed:
• Crayons, color pencils, or fine" tip "markers
• Scissors
• Paste or glue
• Two 3/4 n brads, also called paper
. msteners

Before Assembling:
Cut page 31 out of the book. Color all the The brads allow movement like the
"", '0 pieces. With the eagle wing ~attem in front joints of a real wing. Compare the wing
skeleton with the diagram of the human
of you, read the following information about
eagle flight anatomy. You will be told when arm below.
to cut out the different pieces and how to
asse~ble the wing step-by-step.

The Bones
The eagle's" body, like that of most birds, is
designed to be light.

• The whole skeleton weighs less than the

feathers! The Muscles
• Many bones are hollow and porous. Breast muscles power the wings. If you
They may have struts inside for strength. could look at them, they would be dark in
• Shoulder, rib, and wing bones are slender. color. That shows they have a good blood
• The skull is thin, and there are no heavy supply, pumped by a strong heart, to bring
teeth. oxygen to working muscles. Chicken breast
• Birds breathe oxygen from the air. In (white meat) has poor blood supply. That's
addition to lungs, birds have extra air why chickens do not set long-distance
sacs that,extend into their hollow bones.
flying records!

29
 You fly off yoW' branch, .out over the cold land as the sun slowly rises. You call
with your voice: kerrrr, kerrn....... .
You soar and search with your excellent eyes to find something to eat. Where
has all the food gone? How will you survive the winter?

Now discuss with your students how raptors survive during the winter. Talk
about migration. You can add onto the fantasy or change it t~ suit the season.
Older students may want to make their own fantasies up and try them on the
class.

4. Litter activity: Many students do not realize how litter, no matter how small,
affects wildlife. Here is a simple activity to try in your classroom with a: few
students or with everyone. The. objective is to teach empathy for raptors (or any
wildlife) that is caught in litter and cannot free themselves. You need only about
15 minutes and some rubber bands.

Put a rubber band around the back of the students hand. The rubber band should
go around the thumb and little finger and the strands should be around the back
of the hand, not the palm. Have the childtry to remove the rubber bands without
using the other hand or teeth, or rubbing against anything. Remember, as a ~1
raptor you have wings, not fingers. Many students will not get free. Have
students relate their feelings in trying and the frustration they feel. Some
students may want to write their feelings down or make a story.

OTHER ACTIVITIES

1. Make binoculars using cardboard tubes. Have your students write a story
"Eagle Eyes", or what they would see if they were a soaring raptor. You
~ay want to do this in conjunction with a fantasy flight story.
2. Four Come~s Owl game. The old 4-Comers classroom game where the caller
is an owl (blindfolded) and must rely on hearing to pick comers with the
most students in it.
o 3. Life-size Raptors. Make life-size raptors using a numbered grid system so
students can see just how big and small raptors are. You can make two
sides, stuff them and hang them from the ceiling.

-16-
 The Eones
ut out this pagc~ then follow the

-
C
to
assembly directions on pa~es 29 and 30
build an Eagle wing.
~ 0.

The Muscles

.31
 2. Cut .~ut the muscles along the dashed 4. Next, place. the secondary wing feathers
lines. Place the muscles over the bones over the loWer ann muscles and bones.
and fold the tabs to the back, . The right side·will fit around the bras,t,
matching the symbols. Paste the tabs and the left side should be allowed to···
so that you can lift the muscles up and overlap the primary feathers and hide the
still see the bones. Part pf the humerus brad. Fold the tabs behind and paste.
bone will still show.

s. The last group of feathers closest to the

body arc called th~ terdals. Place them
The Feathers over the humerus bone and muscles;
Allow the feathers to the left· to cover the
Feathers are made of k~tin like your finger
brad. The b~ muscles and humerus
nails. They do. not grow evenly ~ over a
bone will still show on the left side. Fold
bird's body, but. grow ~om spedal cells in
the tab over to the back and paste.
feather tracts. (Look at a plucked chicken.
~an you see rows of bumps? These mark
the feather tracts.) Each cell grows the right
kind of feather for that part of the body.

3. Cut out the feathers. Place the wing tip

feathers, called the primaries, over the
bones and muscles first. Note how the
feathers fit around the brad. Fold the Now the ~gle wing is complete. You can
tabs behind and paste. lift up the feathers to view· the muscles and
. bones, and the brads allow you to observe
how the wing is jointed.

Paste the wing 9nto the cagle on page 27

by matching area C on the back of the
humerus bone to the gray area .(C) on the
eagle. Notice how the Bight muscles attach
the breast to the humerus bone. By
folding the wing over, it can be enclosed
in the book.

30
 TURKEY PEREGRINE
VULT,URI:; FALCON

.,'

RED-TAILED
HAWK BALD EAGLE

~ . . .. . Extension: Using the pictures above and the data

: ".. ".:...: Wlng~~ o·n· the~ WincE'; ..' '.. . below, ask students to estimate the width of the wing
then calculate the approximate ratio of the area of the
u t. Working jn pairs, have students measure and record
n
wing to the weight of the raptor.
each other's "wingspan from the tip of the longest
finger on one outstretched ann to the tip of the longest Extension
finger of the other outstretched arm. Then measure . Have students make full sized silhouettes of
and record each partner's height from the top of ~he these raptors.
head-to the bottom of the foot (not counting
shoe bottoms). All dimensions are median average:
2. On the chalkboard, make a list of all the data· Turkey Vulture
collected to see jf students can see any patterns. (They Ltngth: 67 em (26 in)
should observe that humans height and "Wingspan" are Wingspan: f 7 f em (67 in)
roughly equal.) Weight: f.B kg (4 lb.)
3.Using hand-held calculators, have students add all
the heights together and then all the wingspans Red-tailed Hawk
together. Divide the total of wingspans by the total Ltngth: 49 em (19 in)
of heights (wingspan + height). The answer should be Wingspan: f 25 em (49 in)
very close to one. Weight: fOB2 09' (2.4 Ib)
4. Explain that what they have found is that the
relationship between wingspan and height is a ratio Bald Eagle
of one to one. Ltngth: 79 em (3 f inJ
S. Give each student a copy of the raptor silhouettes at Wingspan; 203 em (BO in)
the top of this page. Weight: 4.3 kg (9.5 Ib)
6. Have them divide the wingspan of each bird by its
body length. If the body length is one; what is the Peregrine Falcon (female)
u ratio of each bird's wingspan to body length,
7. Why do you think raptors have such big wingspans
Ltngtb: 46 em (f 8 in)
Wingspan: f f 6 an (46 in)
in relation to their bodies, Weight: 95209 (2. f lb)
 ."'

Dino Detectives
(3-20 minute .stations)
u 'Theories"
* Ho\v do \ve know dinos ever existed?
* \Vhat can we learn from fossils? What vvill \ve never be able to
knO\V from fossils?
* How do fossils fann? What makes a fossil? eggs, bones, teeth,
skin, shells, footprints
* \Vhy are all the dinosaurs gone? Are they really extinct?
o RNITHISCHIAN = bird -hipped herbivores
/
Ornithopods = Ceratopsians =
bird-footed horned/beaked dinos
e.x: Parasaurolophus ex: Protoceratops
and Triceratops
annored dinos
Pachycephalosaurus
-(thick-headed)
Stegosaurus
-(annar-plated)
·..·..·.. ····· ... ·· .. ·/tJ:RiSc~~~pped·ai'iiOsaurs .......................

CARNIVORES HERBIVORES
Therapods = Sauropods =
wild-beast footed reptile-footed
e.x:: Dilophosaurus ex: ApatosaU11.LS
and Velocirc;zptor
and T. Rex

"Fossil Dig"
Dig for fossils in sand pit --- talk about paleontologists, tools
used in fossil digs, museums --- fossils found in Austin:
icthyosaur and plesiosaur, cephalopods, gastropods, exogyra,
graphea, echinoids, mastodons, prehistoric turtles, but NO
DINOSAURS!!! Why? Austin was under the ocean at the time
dinosaurs lived --- research still happening today --- bury again
at end for next class
u
 PROGRAM DESCRIPTION:
DINOSAURS
u
Part I Basis for program
Title: Dinosaur Detectives
Course Description: Search· for dinosaur tracks while gathering clues
about the creatures that made them .. Dig for bones like a
paleontologist and create a story about your favorite beast.
Age Level: preK- grade 2
Time: 1 hour
Goal: Participants will learn about the characteristics of dinosaurs and the
uncertainty of existing theories.

Part II Instructional Plan

Course Outline: Two 30 minute sessions:
1st: Program box---dino relics to learn physical characteristics. life
strategies and defenses.
2nd: Fossil hunt---follow tracks to fossil pit and dig for fossils.
(Rain plan: bubble in classroom)

Part III Resource Support

Site Needs: 1 clas·sroom and sand pit (good weatn.er), 2 classlooms (bad).
Participant Thresholds: up to 30 students with 2 instructors. .
Transportation Needs: Outreach would require use of rain plan, also ta~es
extra time to set up.
'Resource Needs: Dina program box
Dina egg nest
Bones to bury and digging equip.
. Laminated tracks -
Dina poster
Dinosaur graph with die cut npeople"

u . tnt ~ fp'rst ~ "n1rUU~. 1'c« .I..Idt ~tI ~/YJ ~f)1.f '1 tAL
f'Y1i)c/lA'-<. Into a d"n~,. lihAf-'. Atld eyes, ~~ ~ to ~
~ p!\L -ktA~ iJtIA Izu 'I· eM· '
 PROGRAM SCRIPT:
DINOSAURS

u First Station:
Dinosaurs were a special group of animals that lived during the Mesozoic
Era, which lasted for almost 180 million years.
How d,o we know they existed? Scientists have found their remains: bones,
eggs, tracks, coprolite (fossifized feces), nest, 'skin impressions, and gastroliths
(stomach stones). '
Show a bone from a known animal. Don't tell them what the bone is from.
Imagine,that you are a paleontologist and you come across the bone. From only
this information can you tell me what this animal was, where it lived, what it ate and
I

what color it was? How about how it raised its young or protected itself? These are
the questions scientists must answer from only fossil records. Because the :.
information is limited, theories on dinosaurs are constantly being revised.. Because
we can not go back in time to see and study dinosaurs, our information wiJI always
be theories. This can be very exciting because it means that maybe one of you in
the future may find evidence that unlocks the answers to some of the baffling
questions about dinosaurs like how they died.
Let',s look a1 what evidence has been discovered.
Bones:, The first dinosaur bone was discovered in 1822 by Mary
Ann Mantell in England. She found an Iguanodon tooth which she gave to her
husband, a scientist. It was not until 1841 that another ,English paleontologist,
Richard Owen invented the word-dinosaurto describe the extinct animals whose
D
fossilized bones they were finding. The word dinosaur means "terrible Iizard •

Size: How big were dinosaurs? From excavated bones,

u dinosaur skeletons haye been assembled. They give us a more accurate record of
the size and kinds of dinosaurs.
For example: - Height Length Weight
Com psognathus 1 foot 2 feet
Tyrannosaurus 43 ft. 50 ft. , 7 tons
Triceratops 30 ft. 25 ft. 6 tons
Diplodocus 90 ft. 100 ft. 13 tons
Velociraptor 4 feet 6 feet
(For comparison: a small car weighs about 1 ton. )

, Let1s get an idea of how big a Tyrannosaurus was? Measure 40 feet on the
g~ound with a tape measure. Have the children lay head to toe until they reach 40
feet. How many children, did it take? Show children a poster-size graph of the
relative sizes of a few of the dinosaurs.
What color were dinosaurs? What texture was their skin? Show samples of
simulation dina skin. Discuss various colors in nature and show a short slide show
or pictures of variety"of colors that exist.. Examples: Painted bunting, c;ollared lizard,
alligator monitor, poison arrow frogs, zebra. Could dinosaurs have been tho~e
strange colors?
WhC\t did dinosaurs eat? We can tell by looking at their teeth." Show a
Tyrannosaurus tooth as an example of a carnivore. Tyrannosaurus had 60 I~rge
curved back teeth. The teeth were very sharp and had razor-like edges like a stake
knife. They were perfect for stabbing and slicing through flesh. Contrast Tyrano vs.
u ~tegosaurus, an herbivore. Stegosaurus had a turtle-like beaked mouth to chop
soft vegetation, then it ground the food with small weak teeth in the back of its
mouth. Show a turtle skull for comparison.
 o~_oo_,- 0-

--

DINO-Prog Script continued

U Dinos and their young: Paleontologists think most dinosaurs hatched

from eggs. Many dino eggs have been found. Surprisingly, even the giant dino's
eggs are relatively small. Dinosaur eggs were only bout 12 inches around
because an egg larger than that would have had to be too thick to support the
weight of the brooding parent. Thick egg shells would not allow oxygen to reach
the baby inside and consequently it would die.
Dinosaur nests have been dug up in Montana and other parts of the world. These
nests resemble modem crocodile and marine turtle nests. The fossilized eggs are
clustered.in piles of sand and mUd. It is thought that the females dug the nest with
the claws on their hind feet. Some nests found in France are over 15 feet wide.
There ;s also evidence that some dinosaurs cared for their young much the way
birds do today. Food may have been brought back to the nest for the young.
How did they die? Sixty-five million years ago dinosaurs became extinct.
How and why did they die? No one really knows for sure, but there are many
theories. See note cards.

Activity:
You are all paleontologists on a great dinosaur fossil hunt. You have
discovered the bones in front of you. Try to put them together the way you think
they were inside a living dinosaur. Glue the bones on a piece of paper. (Bones
are packing peanuts or shapes of ~hite paper.)

u Second Station:
Before your group arrives, hide obones in the sand pit and place laminated
-footprints from the meeting place to the pit. Tell children today you will be
"Dinosaur Detectivesn • There have been stories that dinosaur bones may have
been found on the site. You will follow the tracks to the pit. Read the clues on the
tracks to find out which dinosaur you are tracking. This keeps the group more
°focused on learning.
Indoor Option for rainy days: Tell the kids you are traveling back though time
to the days of the dinosaurs. Enter the environmental bubble. Take a moment to
settle. listen to the tape. Read the clues and have kids guess which din you are
talking about.

REFERENCES:
A Field Guide to the Dinosaurs, David Lambert, Avon Books 1983.
The Big Beast Book. °Dinosaurs and How They Got That Way. Jerry Booth, Little
Brown & Co. 1988.
Nature Scope - Digging Into Dinosaurs, National Wildlife Federation 1988.
Dinosaurs, Rick Gore, National Geographic Vol. 183, No.1, Januaryo1993.

u
 Dino Detectives
U
Classification Station

Tape recorder

Dino sound tape

Plastic Parasaurolophus (3)

Picture ofParasaurolophus

Duckbill tooth row (in green bag)

Plastic Pachycephalosaurus

Picture of Stegoceras

Plastic Ankylosaurus (small)

Picture of Ankylosaurus

Plastic Triceratops

Picture of Triceratops

Triceratops hom core (in green bag)

Plastic Stegosaurus

Picture of Stegosaurus

Stegosaurus Plate (in green bag)

Stegosaurus spike (in green bag)

Camptesaurus hand bones (in green bag)

Laminated picture of Camptesaurus

Plastic Apatosaurus (Brontosaurus) (large)

Picture of Apatosaurus

(OVER)
U I
Plastic Brachiosaurus

Picture of Brachiosaurus

Allosaurus claw (in green bag)

Picture of Allosaurus

Nanasaurus skull profile (in green bag)

Plastic Tyrannosaurus Rex

Picture of Tyrannosaurus Rex

Tyrannosaurus Rex tooth (in green bag)

Tyrannosaurus Rex brain case (in green bag)

Tyrannosaurus Rex front claw and phalange (in green bag)

 Dino Detectives

Theories Station

Large imprint of foot

Cow bone

Real dino fossil

Duckbill skin replica (in green bag)

Protoceratops egg (in green bag)

Ziploc bag of small dino skull replicas

Plastic egg with baby parasaurolophus hatching out

Plastic Maiasaura

Picture ofMaiasaura

Plastic Maiasaura with babies

u Plastic Apatosaurus (small, green)

Plastic Pterariodon

Plastic Plesiosaur

Plastic DemitridonJEdaphosaurus (red and yellow)

Laminated pictures ofDino becoming a fossil (4)

Laminated picture of dino eggs spread out on floor

Laminated picture of Model of Fossil Embryo with Hand

Laminated picture of Model reproduction of Fossil Embryo

Laminated picture of Bone Comparison

Dino herd problem solving box

u "-
 Austin Nature and Science Center
Paleo Explorers Program

Time Line and Dino-Dino Not Game Station:

Time Line Activity

Where: Arbor near Entrance to'Dino Pit /Rainy Day-do inside

Time Needed: 15 minutes
Materials: Time line activity, dinosaur models, present day creature models, Texas
geologic highway map

Paleo Explorers Concepts:

*Participants study about the past to learn about the present

Station Concepts:
*Students begin to understand the concept of geologic time.
Students actively place events in order of occurrence on time line
"* Students learn characteristics of dinosaurs and other prehistoric creatures
Procedure: See attached "The Sands of Time" lesson

DinolDino Not Game

Where: Arbor near Entrance to Dino Pit

Time Needed: 15 minutes
Materials: DinolDino Not cards, pictures and models of dinosaurs and other
prehistoric creatures, Life on Earth poster

. Paleo Explorers Concepts:

*Participants learn characteristics of dinosaurs and how to distinguish
dinosaurs from other prehistoric creatures.

Procedure: See attached DinolDino Not lesson

Lesson #3 The Austin Nature and Science Center
Pre-Historic Paleontology Kit
The Sands of TIme
• l-esso'ns #3, 4 and 5 ore -designed to build up knowledge helping
students better understand ihenext activity. Do these activIties in order

This activity helps students understand the immense amount of time that
passed before we walked on the Earth. This lesson will also help students
understand the connection between human appearance on Earth
relative to the development of other animals and plants.

Materials: (Materials provided unless noted otherwise)

• Multi-colore'd beaded time line
• Time Line activity cards (in the bag with the beaded time line)
• A laminated sheet titled "Geologic Time Scale" (bagged with the
time line)
Procedure:
1) Have two students hold each end of the time line or tie it
someplace in your classroom so that the time line is outstretched
2) Explain that the earth was formed right before the first blue bead.
Present day is at the other end, represented by a very small white
bead. Each bead represents approximately 10 million years with
the exception of the very small white bead, which represents 1.8
million years. Each gold t:>ead represents a break or end of each
, time period. Each group of colored beads represents an epoch.
3) The "Time Line Activity Cards" represent some important events in
Earth history. Have your students place each time Jine card on the
time line where they think that event would have taken place. They
can use educated guessing/hypothesizing for this activity. The time
line helps students understand the immense amount of time that
has passed before humans walked on the Earth.
After they have finished placing their activity cards on the time line, move
the time line cards to their proper place in Earth history. Consult the sheet
included in the time line activity bag titled "The Geologic Time Scale" to
help find the correct place in time to place them. liThe Geologic Time
Scale" sheet shows the Earth history represented by dots. Each dot
represents one million years (instead of each bead representing 10 million
years as is shown in the time line provided). The events on the time line
activity cards correspond to some of the events represented by red letters
or numbers interspersed within the dots on this sheet. Each time line
activity card also has letters or numbers in parenthesis that correspond
directly to liThe Geologic Time Scale" sheet to make it easier to look up
where that organism belongs in time.

• This less·:)n was adapted from a lesson created by the Indiana and
Kentucky Geologic Survey
 Lesson #2 The Austin Nature and Science Center
Pre-historic Paleontology Kit

Dlno or Dino Not?

u Students will observe, classify, question and use logic to learn that all
prehistoric animals were not dinosaurs. Students will be able to distinguish
between. dinosaurs and other prehistoric animals.

Materials: (Materials are laminated & found in one clear plastic envelope)

.• IIWhat's a Dinosaur?" (laminated white 8 1/2" x 11" paper)

• Set of pre-historic animal description sheets about each "Dina or
Dina Not?" {laminated white 8 1/2"xl1" paper)
• Set of brightly colored "Dina or Dina-Not?" cards (laminated)
Procedure:

IIWhat makes a dinosaur a dinosaur?" is often asked. Paleontologists

have determined that there are four "rules" we can use to "test" a
dinosaur. By using these rules and the "Dina or Dina Not?" cards, you can
work with the students (or have them work together) to separate
dinosaurs from the other, well-known prehistoric animals. The "Dina or
Dina Not?" cards can be used to test the knowledge of your students and
to teach them the rules of what determines a dinosaur.
1) Engage the students in a simple discussion of the four rules of what
determines a dinosaur. While explaining the rules, show your students the
U· "Dina or Dino Not?" card or animal that would best demonstrate the rule.
Below are the rules and an appropriate animal to help explain each rule.
Rules: vY"l
Rule l-Dinosaurs did sst live during the Mesozoic Era ,ttike the Mastodon)
Rule 2-Dinosaurs walked fully erect and had their legs under their body
(unlike the Dimentrodon who has his legs to the side of his body)
Rule 3-Dinosaurs lived on land. They did not have wings (like the
Pteranodon) or flippers (like the Mosasaurus )
*It is rule 4 and only rule 4 that makes an animal a dinosaur. Rules 1
through 3 ar~ only interpretations based on animals that qualify as
dinosaurs under rule 4. Rules 1-3 are easier to use with your students.
Rule 4 - the unique features that define dinosaurs are:
a) Three or more fused sacral vertebrae (there are at least three
vertebrae to which the hips are attached).
b) The scapula is long and strap-like (the shoulder blade is ot least
three times as long as it is wide).
c) The glenoid faces backward (the shoulder socket faces the rear of
the onirrlol)

u
Lesson =#2 The Austin Nature and Science Center
Pre-historic Pale'Ont'Ol'Ogy Kit
d) The acetabulum is fully 'Open (the hip socket has a hole through it).
e) The head 'Of the femur is bent inward, yvith a distinct head .and neck
(the top 'Of ihe femur is ball-shaped with a narrow neck attaching it
at an angle te the rest 'Of the femur).
f) The f~mur is usually sherter than the tibia.
g) The fibula is greatly reduced (the fibula is very small cempared te
the tibia).
h} The ascending.precess 'Of the astragaJs is well develeped (e!1e 'Of
the ankle bones develeps a projection which extends onto the
tibia). (See the labeled Dinesaur Skeleten on page 33)
2) Using the "Dine 'Or Dine-Not?" cards and rule sheet, have your students
determine which 'Of the animals en the "Dirie or Dine Net?" cards are
dinesaurs and which 'Ones are pre-histeric animals that are net dinosaurs.
This can be done as a class assignment 'Or as a smallgreup preject. The
cards can alse be' used as an individual preject or fer self-testing.
*/nfermatien for the "Dine 'Or Dine-Net?" game has been campiled fram
the fallewing seurces:
-Fragments 'Of Time - Field Museum 'Of Natural Histery, The Chicage
Science Explarers Program, Chicage, lIIinais
-Enchanted Learning - Website
~I_"';_ .... _I r-.: .... _ ... _ .... kA • .... _ •• ~ \1\1_h,.;+_
 Austin Nature and Science Center

Paleo Explorers Program

Where: Mosasaur Pit
Time Needed: 30 minutes
Group size: 20 students
Materials: tape measure, paper, pencil, calipers, compass, north arrow, grid,
magnifiers, small rulers

Paleo Explorers Concepts:

*Participants learn about the "process of paleontology"
*Participants practice doing science by using small tools
*Participants .study about the past to learn about the present
*Participants learn to be good stewards of fossils that can tell us about
creatures that lived before

Station Concepts:
*Students use small tools to observe and measure fossils that they fmd
*Students use prior lmowledge to infer information about adaptations

Begin: At the signs near the 301 Congress Pit on the "Process of Paleontology"

What is the name of the science that is concerned with the study of fossils?
Paleontology-this is based on the study of plant and animal fossils
What is a paleontologist?
A scientist who studies fossils
U What is a fossil?
The remains or evidence of ancient life.
Why would scientists want to find and study fossils?
Fossils tell us the history of the earth. They let us mow what happened before.
Read tbru the signs to learn about the process of paleontology from field to lab.

Mosasaur Pit

*How would you conduct a search of this pit for fossils?

*Go over stewardship of fossils-no walking on fossils, once they are uncovered with the shovels,
use brushes. What to do if you find fossils on your own.
*Let all children dig on the Mosasaur or the Starfish slab.
*If children need more jobs, these are suggestions:
Use a copy of the grid paper to sketch where the fossil is found.
Use the big tape measures to find the length of the complete creature.
Use calipers to measure smaller parts of the fossil.
Study the diorama signs to learn more about the habitat of the creatures.

VYhat are some of the adaptations found on this creature?

VYhere do you think it lived?
Do you think it was a predator?
Is it a dinosaur?

~eplace sand on fossils before going to next station.

 What .can we learn irom dinosaur 1racks?
1. How long is 1he dinosaur footprint? Measure the longest part, from toe to· heel in
centimeters.
u Footprint length:-_ _ _ _cm

2. Paleontologists have figured out that dinosaurs had legs that were four times longer
than their feet. How long was the dinosaur's leg? Multiply the footprint length from above
by the number four (4).
Leg length_ _ _ _ _ _ cm

3. We can a'lso tell how long the dinosaur was from top of head to tip of tail. Multiply the
foot print length by the number fourteen (14). .
Body length:-_ _ _ _ _cm

4. Now measure the dinosaurs stride length. Stride length is the measurement from the
heel of the rightfootprintto the heel on the next right footprint.
Stride length_ _ _ _ _ _cm

5. We can determine how fast the dinosaur was moving by knowing the leg length and
stride length. Take the stride length from question 4 and find where that number would
be on the bottom of the graph on the next page. Draw a straight line up until you
intersect the curved line that represents the dinosaurs leg length. Now draw a straight
line to the left"side of the graph to find out how many miles per hour (mph) the dinosaur
was traveling. "

u Dinosaur's speed_ _ _ _mph

6. Humans walk at an average speed of 4.5 mph and can sprint up to 14 mph. How does
the speed of your dinosaur compare to human walking speed?

Is it slower of faster?

Do you think the dinosaur was walking or running?

Extra
7. Measure the following parts of your body.
a. Foot length (without shoes) em
b. Leg length (from the floor to the top of your hip) _ _ _ _em
. c. Body length (height) cm

8.00 we have the same proportions as dinosaurs? Divide the answer to question b from
above by the answer to question a. Is it close to the number four (4)? Yes/No If yes, we
hctve the same proportioned legs as dinosaurs. Now divide the answer to question c by
question a: Is it close to the number fourteen (14)? Yes/No:lf yes we have the same
proportioned body as dinosaurs.

u
 c c
c

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 Austin Nature and Science Center

v Paleo Explorers Program

11-18-03
301 Congress Station:

Where: 301 Congress Pit

Time Needed: 30 minutes
Materials: grid, pencils, note pads, magnifiers, measuring tape, calipers, small rulers, north
arrow, compass

Program overall concepts:

*Participants learn about the "process of Paleontology"
*Participants practice doing science by using small tools.
*Participants study about the past to learn about the present and predict what may
happen in the future.
*Participants learn to be good stewards of fossils that can tell us about creatures
that lived before.

Concepts at 301 Congress Station:

Science is made meaningful with a local story.
Anyone can find a fossil.

This pit represents how fossils can be found even when scientists are not looking for them.
Scientists were not looking for fossils in downtown Austin in December of 1984, in fact these fossils of
u some really large animals were found by consguction workers who were bulldozing a site for a 22 story
building.
*How would you search an area for fossils in an organized way?
*What would you do if you found a fossil while you were searching through a creekbed?
*Who would you contact if you thought you had found a fossil? In Austin -Paleontqlogists at
the University of Texas or the Texas Memorial Museum
*If you were looking for fossils in the Austin area, what kinds of fossils would you likely find?
Depends on the age ofthe rock 65,000,000 years ago you would find remains of marine life.
200,000- J 0,000 years ago you might find mastodons and mammoths and many other small
mammals that are still alive today. 65,000,000 years ago the Austin area was under a shallow
sea. Creatures that lived in the sea were not dinosaurs.

Procedure:
1. Have partiCIpants decide on an organized way to dig thru this pit and find what is buried
here.
Everyone can dig the mammoth skull and tusk and do some measurements.(use calipers)
Concentrate on the 2 slabs of small animal bones.
2 .. Dig and discover what fossils are in the slabs.
3. Record your findings (map and sketch)
4. Discuss what you think you have found. What inferences can you make from what you see?
-~~Y-

- tort-Oi6e
-- eot+-uY) teAt '\ ~bb, 't
- (NI)t
 Be a Paleontologist
(9/24/03)

Materials needed:
Plastic Dinos
Baking Soda
Vinegar
Red food coloring
Plastic vials
Tool kits wlshovel, brush, goggles, tape measure, notebook, pencil, and magnifying lens.
Green canvas bag with extra equipment
Digital camera w/disk

The Time of Dinos (10-15 minutes)

In the classroom have a variety of plastic dinos out for the children to play with as they arrive.
Free play while waiting for all the guests to arrive.
Gather children on the rug with their dino.
Discuss anything they want to talk about:
Plant eater or meat eater?
Dino or dino not?
Have we ever seen a real dino?
Were any of these alive in TX?
What ever they want to talk about.
Lead the discussion towards the topic of "What happened to the dinosaurs?" Entertain all theories, when
they get to volcanoes, ask if they would like to go make volcanoes.

One Theory of the Dinos Demise (10-15 minutes)

Lead the party to the sand pit outside the Cottonwood room
Get them started building their own volcanoes, then you get all the prepared volcanoes stuff off the top of
the candy machine.
Insert a vial of baking soda in the top of each volcanoe.
Let each child pour the red vinegar (lava) into their volcanoe. (If they want to do it again, let them)
Lead the discussion, after everyone is through with their volcanoe, towards "If the dinos are all gone
(extinct) how do we know they were ever here?" Fossils .... would you like to go on a dig to see if we can
find some fossils?"

Looking for evidence of dinosaurs. (30 minutes)

Paleontologist need tools. Pass out tool bags.
Walk to the pit, either across the lily pads or around the pond.
Choose a pit to dig in.
Use all the tools you can.
Take a picture of the party either around the specimen they dug up or where the mom decides the picture
should be taken.
Round the children up to lead them back to the party room
Remind them to wash their hand before starting to eat.

While the party guests are eating, print out the picture for the birthday child.
 Dino Detectives
v (3-20 minute-stations)
''Theories tt

* How do we know dinos ever existed?

* \Vhat can we learn from fossils? What will we never be able to
know from fossils?
* How do fossils fonn? What makes a fossil? eggs, bones, teeth,
skin, shells, footprints
* Why are all the dinosaurs gone? Are they really extinct?
~~'7~ ;RNITffiSCHIAN =bird-hipped herbivores

Ornithopods = Ceratopsians =
bird-footed homed/beaked dinos
ex: Parasaurolophus ex: Protoceratops
\;ld~ ,_ C.f'\Q~ , • and niceratops II A-~_~~CJ,: -z- ~
lD~~~\J'~ ored dmos . -,11 u;WJ~ ~~
L~\ ~'~~U2) paChYCePhalosaurus~~"'tr ~ ~ ~ "
~ ctJci ~d (thi k h d" d) "'\Y./ ... ~~~ -::-l P'T-' .
~d. - ~ - .£ - ~ e. ~~~e'~~ /"" t\~~ 'V ()~~-
J

lU'nV\.M ~~~ Stego~a~ry.~Q~~ ~ ~ ~~~ D ..

o V -(aixfi~p1ateaf . ~~ ~ w.-* ~-<.<~~ ~. ~(11
.
S\-~*' i?~ ~tiiUSC~~~ea:.ainOS:~. ".""~ .p"P'~
1

~~CARNIVORES . HERBNORES ~~-"v+-'~~

~ Therapods = Sauropods = t--", ~ ~ ,.\ )J..~
wild-beast footed ~~ reptile-footed <?~~~ w'"t..-=>
ex: Dilophosaurus .~ ~ j.JJr<.I v--4 ex: ApatosauruS . _In.v ~ ,J..t.-
and Velocirapt0J.j. ~o ~ V"" lP'-~'V~~
s~~ a:t . Rex IJ./"- ~J<. 4eev:l ~~
dT ,h _.. . - - - , ..- - - -

/q}-f ./ ~ A\cJ.ur C~~ ~~ ;;tJ-;ru~ :k>o ~o cLz-~L-~u::klEn'-

: ./' '\P{,~ "Fossil Dig" &-\~--'~'/'('~
Dig forfossils in sand pit --- talk about pa1eon.:4:t=olr:::o~gt::-;:s"'s;::;-,~oA'ot;::;s~-~-r.-~--
used in fossil digs, museums --- fossils found in Austin:
icthyosaur and plesiosaur, cephalopods, gastropods, exogyra, .~
graphea, echinoids, mastodons, prehistoric turtles, but NO lU~t¥~
DINOSAURSI!! Why? Austin was under the ocean at the time Q
dinosaurs lived --- research still happening today --- bmy again
at end for next class .
 PROGRAM DESCRIPTION:
DINOSAURS

Part I Basis for program

Title: Dinosaur Detectives
Course Description: Search for dinosaur tracks while gathering clues
about the creatures that made them .. Dig for bones like a
paleontologist and create a story about your favorite beast.
Age Level: preK- grade 2
Time: 1 hour
Goal: Participants will learn about the characteristics of dinosaurs and the
uncertainty of existing theories.

Part II Instructional Plan

Course Outline: Two 30 minute sessions: .
1st: Program box---dino relics to learn physical characteristics, life
strategies and defenses.
2nd: Fossil hunt---follow tracks to fossil pit and dig for fossils.
(Rain plan: bubble in classroom)

Part III Resource Support

Site Needs: 1 classroom and sand pit (good weath~r), 2 classlooms (bad).
Participant Thresholds: up to 3'0 students with 2 instructors. . 0
Transportation Needs: Outreach would require use of rain plan, also ta~es
extra time to set up.
'Resource Needs: Dino program box
Dino egg nest
Bones to bury and digging equip.
. Laminated tracks - .
Dino poster
u
Dinosaur graph with die cut npeople

. Dino d0U4h
I Wf' .~ bc4;te'-
I/~ C. ~ ~\~.p~et­
~ .fa..blespOOt\5 koney
V£lVlilla wa-ferr' ·
RClISI"S
Pre h:e I $h'CJlS

!nne fp'rst~. in~ruLl~. ~ .I.uJt chJtI ~m.:so~ '1 tu

rn"~J.( Into a riln~,. ~.Md eyes, ~~~ to ~
~ p;tt. -hiA.s iJ'A Itu 'I. eJ). . ,

\ - '.~
 'I .
:> ~ ~ .-,
•

Welcome to
the Dino Pit!·
Here you can be a scientist and dig for Texas fossils. Fossils are
the remains of plants and animals that lived a long time ago.
People have found incredible fossils all across Texas. Casts of
u some of the best and biggest ones are buried in the pits here.

Paleontology [say "pale-ee-on-TALL-oh-gee"] is the study of

ancient plants and animals. Your job as Paleontologist is to
carefully uncover the fossils here. What do the fossils tell you
about the animals they came from? What do they reveal about
what Texas was like when they were alive?

Ready? Pick a pit and get to work!

All casts in the Dino Pit are replicas of specimens from the Texas
Memorial Museum of The University of Texas Collection. They
I
V
I
were produced by the staff of the Museum's Vertebrate
Paleontology Laboratory.

1 July 12, 2003

 .

2 July 12, 2003

u

The Austin Nature and Science Center • 301 Nature Center Drive· Austin, Texas· 512-327·8180

The Dino Pit is an outdoor paleontology exhibit, built for permanent display at The
Austin Nature and Science Center located in ZUker Park. The project was developed
and built through a collaborative effort of The Austin Nature and Science Center,
UT's Texas Memorial Museum, the Austin Community Foundation, and the architec-
tural firm of Graeber, Simmons & Cowen, which also served as project manager. The
exhibit is designed to instruct visitors about paleontology through hands-on educa-
tional experience.
Artist John Maisano was instrumental in the development and completion of the Dino
Pit project, working to transform a large area at the Austin Nature and Science Center
u into an educational dig site for finding fossil casts. Maisano modeled the casts using
many of the important and unique specimens from the collections of the Texas Memo-
rial Museum. He created an 8' x 6' mammoth rib cage cast in bronze, for the
children's entrance to the site, as well as 19 oil paintings depicting the creatures the
children will find as they explore the pit.
Other features of the exhibit include dinosaur trackways, a field collection display
(highlighting fossils found at the 301 Congress Avenue construction site several years
ago), and an observation deck. The exhibit is incorporated into the visitor programs
currently offered at the Austin Nature and Science Center including youth programs,
school field trips, camps, birthday parties, adult workshops and teacher training.

"The Dino Pit will help children experience the joy of discovery," says Sarah Butler,
who serves as honorary chair of the project. "It will teach respect for natural science
as well as scientific principles for determining factual infonnation."
"Children get to learn about science hands on, and that is very exciting," says TMM
Director, Ed Theriot. "It's wonderful to see the City of Austin and the University of
Texas in partnership on this. We are particularly fortunate to have backers such as
v Ernest and Sarah Butler - their vision has been instrumental."

3 July 12, 2003

 Dino Pit Rules

1) Have Fun!

2) No metal digging tools.

3) Play nice.

4) No climbing on hillsides.

5) No digging in cliff.

6) Leave no trash behind.

7) No food in pits or around pond.

4 July 12, 2003

'.
u

1. I will respect both private and public property and will do no

collecting on privately owned land without pennission from
the owner.
2. I will remember that I am a guest at each site and will obey
all regulations and policies and collect in designated areas
only. I will park in designated areas only.
3. I will leave each site as I found it. Gates should be left open
or closed according to how they were found. Litter and gar-
bage should be removed.
U 4. I will fill all excavation holes, which may be dangerous to
wildlife or livestock.
5. I will be sure that all land, property, plants and animals are
left without damage to property or ecology as a result of the
collecting activities.
6. I will report any significant discoveries of scientific or public
interest.
7. I will follow safety guidelines, never collect near vertical
walls, overhangs, edges of cliffs, unstable shelves, or any
other dangerous areas. Be aware of those above and below
you to avoid accidents from falling rocks.
8. I will practice conservation and take only what I can reason-
ably use and will not cause damage to collecting material.

5 July 12, 2003

 Theme 1
A PALEONTOLOGIST'S TOOLKIT
The techniques of science help us learn about the past.

Messages:

Know where to look.

Know where the fossil is, and what is with it.

Compare the present with the past.

It takes a team.

Anyone can find a fossil.

Theme 2
CLUES FROM THE PAST
Fossils reveal the secrets of life on Earth.

Messages:

Rebuilding the Tree of Life

Solving a mystery of sudden death

Ruling the sky

Surviving extinction

6 July 12, 2003

 A PALEONTOLOGIST'S TOOLKIT
u The techniques of science help us learn about the past.

Know where to look.

Sailbacked Vertebrate
(Edaphosaurus pogonias)

If you wanted to find a fossil, where would you start? To find fossils, Paleontologists
need to lmow about geology (the study of rocks).

To find fossils from a certain time, they look for rocks that formed during that period.
u This sailbacked animal, for example, was found in rocks called the "redbeds" of
Baylor County. Scientists mow that the redbeds formed 200 million years ago. The
age of the rocks gives scientists clues about the age of the animal.

Researchers also look for rocks from the type of environment where fossil animals
might have lived. Long ago, what are now the redbeds were fonned by a river delta
lush with plant life. The delta attracted many kinds of animals, including the Sailback.
Silt from the river quickly buried dead animals. This helped fossils to form.

This Sailback is a distant relative of living mammals. It has crossbars on its fin that
make it look bumpy. Scientists still don't lmow what the crossbars and the fin did.
Some think the fin controlled body temperature. Others believe it helped the animals
tell each other apart or attracted mates.

Questions like these are common in science. Maybe one day you can answer them.
u
H. J. Sawin and E. Jones found this fossil in 1944.
7 July 12, 2003
 A PALEONTOLOGIST'S TOOLKIT
The techniques of science help us learn about the past.

Know where the fossil is, and what is with it.

Giant Sauropod Dinosaur
(Alamosaurus sanjuan ens is)

By studying the place this skeleton was found, and the things that lay near it, we can
figure out what this animal probably ate and how it lived.

Scientists found these sauropod fossils in Big Bend National Park, Texas. The fossils
lay in a rock layer called the "Javelina Formation." This rock layer reveals that 65 to
70 million years ago the Big Bend area had a warm climate. Streams and flood plains
crisscrossed the land.

Sometimes Paleontologists fmd an object with a skeleton that tells a lot about an
animal. Scientist found polished stones inside the ribcages of sauropods like the one
here. The stones probably helped the dinosaur grind up tough plant fibers that it ate.

The shapes of the bones reveal clues to a dinosaur's family tree. Texas alamosaurs, for
example, descended from South American sauropods.

Sauropods were the largest land animals that ever lived. The biggest ones may have
weighed around 50 tons. This is about 10 times more than African Elephants, the
largest land animals alive today.

Dr. Wann Langston, Jr. and a crew from the Vertebrate Paleontology Laboratory of the
Texas Memorial Museum found these bones in 1971 and 1973.

8 July 12, 2003

 A·PALEONTOLOGIST'S TOOLKIT
u The techniques of science help us learn about the past.

Compare the present with the past.

Onion Creek Mosasaur
(Mosasaurus maximus)

Scientists can learn about an extinct animal by comparing it with living ones.

For example, living meat-eating animals have long, pointed teeth. Mosasaurs have
long, pointed teeth too, which means that they ate meat.

u A modem snake's jaws are loosely hinged together. So were the mosasaur's jaws.
Like a snake, a mosasaur could probably swallow animals larger than its own head!

Some mosasaur bones are similar to the shoulder and pelvis bones of living whales.
These bones are loosely connected to the skeleton, and could not support an animal
on land. Like whales, mosasaurs breathed air but they stayed in the water.

Mosasaurs were not dinosaurs, but giant marine reptiles. They lived during the Late
Cretaceous period, about 65 to 95 million years ago. During that time, a shallow sea
covered most of central North America. Mosasaurs' closest living relatives are lizards
such as the Komodo Dragon and Gila Monster.

This fossil is special because at 30 feet long it is one of the largest mosasaur skeletons
ever found. It is also one of the most complete.
u
Two UT geology students, W. Clyde Ikins and John Peter Smith, found The Onion Creek Mosasaur
in 1935 in a creek bed near south Austin.
9 July 12, 2003
 A PALEONTOLOGIST'S TOOLKIT
The techniques of science help us learn about the past.
It takes a team.
Zilker Park Turtle
(Osteopygus)

Getting a fossil from the ground to the lab takes teamwork. Many people cooperated
to prepare this fossil for all to see. This turtle fossil was found right here in Zilker
Park, at the Austin Area Garden Center.
Who helped?

• The visitors who found the fossils and reported them to scientists

• Scientists at the Texas Memorial Museum who studied the site

• The City of Austin, that granted a digging permit

• A large crew of volunteers who cleared and excavated the dig site

• Researchers who found bone sticking out of a newly cleared ledge

• The UT Vertebrate Paleontology Laboratory staff who collected, prepared, and

preserve the fossils for study

• The scientists from other museums who visit Texas to study this fossil.

This turtle lived in the shallow seas that once covered this area. It was about 5 feet
long and weighed several hundred pounds.

This fossil is unusual because it was found in the same layer of rock with dinosaur
tracks. Scientists are not sure how the turtle ended up here. A hungry dinosaur might
have killed and brought the turtle to the site. Perhaps the turtle traveled here on his
own and the dinosaur attacked it. Maybe the dead turtle simply washed into the burial
site.

Dr. Mike and Karen Duffin found the fossils in 1992.

10 July 12, 2003
 A PALEONTOLOGIST'S TOOLKIT
u The techniques of science help us learn about the past.

Anyone can find a fossil.

Shoal Creek Plesiosaur
[PLEE-see-o-SAWR]
(Polyptychodon)

Anyone can find a fossil if they pay attention and mow what to look for.

Dr. Bob McDonald is an Austin dentist and amateur paleontologist. He found this
u fossil while walking along Shoal Creek in Austin, looking for shark's teeth fossils. A
recent heavy rain had exposed the bones of a flipper in the creek bed.

He took the loose pieces to the Vertebrate Paleontology Laboratory at the Texas Me-
morial Museum. The City of Austin granted a permit and digging began.

Dr. McDonald found this plesiosaur because he mew what fossil bone looks like. He
had seen fossils on display at the Texas Memorial Museum and had been interested in
fossils all his life. Fossil bone in this area has a distinctive look to it. When it is wet,
it is a different color from surrounding rock.

This plesiosaur lived about 80 to 90 million years ago. It swam in a coastal waterway
with shallow lagoons at the edge of the sea. Its bones were crushed during burial and
are crumbly, so they were left as they were found. This is why you can only see the
upper surfaces of the skeleton.

u
Dr. Bob McDonald, amateur paleontologist, found this fossil in 1990.

11 July 12,2003
 .-
CLUES FROM THE PAST
Fossils reveal the secrets of life on Earth.

Rebuilding the Tree of Life

Early four-footed animal
(Seymouria baylorensis)

This early four-footed animal is an important fossil because it may help link together
two branches of the tree of life. It is probably related to the ancestors of both modem
mammals and living reptiles. Scientists do not lmow as much as they would like about
the family tree of land animals, so they are very interested in this fossil.

This small animal lived about 280 million years ago near rivers that once crossed
parts of north Texas. With short legs and a thick body, it was not very fast or agile. To
move around, it may have swung its backbone from side to side, using its legs as
props against the ground. It was probably cold-blooded and had a small brain. Judg-
ing by its teeth, it may have eaten both plants and animals. Scientists think it ate
mainly insects, small animals and dead animals (carrion).

Paleontologists found this fossil near the north Texas town of Seymour. This is how
the animal got its scientific name.

Paleontologists from the u.S. National Museum of Natural History found this fossil in
1917.

12 July 12, 2003

 CLUES FROM THE PAST
u
Fossils reveal the secrets of life on Earth.

Solving a mystery of sudden death

Starfish
(Crateraster mccarteri)

What happened here? The starfish fossils in this rock tell a story of disaster that hap-
pened millions of years ago.

Here, whole starfish are preserved in chalk. Fossils like these are very rare because
U starfish are fragile. They tend to fall apart or get eaten when they die. For a starfish to
be preserve~ whole, it must be buried quickly. Yet chalk forms very slowly by the
gradual buildup of calcium-containing ooze on the ocean floor.

A powerful event must have disrupted the ocean floor. A great flood or, less likely, an
earthquake might have quickly buried the living starfish. Geologists often use detec-
tive work like this to figure out the history of the Earth.

This is a small true starfish, with 5 legs. But nature sometimes produces 4-legged
varieties. Can you spot the 4-legged starfish in this slab?

The fossil world owes this rare find to a rainstorm. One day in 1928, two UT Geology
graduate students, W. B. McCarter and M. B. Arick, were searching for fossils. They
found a large boulder in Bouldin Creek in South Austin. The fossils in this boulder
are invisible when dry, but the rain revealed them.
u
M. B. Arick and W. B. McCarter found this fossil in 1928.
13 July 12, 2003
 CLUES FROM THE PAST
Fossils reveal the secrets of life on Earth.

Ruling the sky

Giant Pterosaur [TERR-ah-SAWR]
(Quetzalcoatlus northropi)

Birds haven't always ruled the sky. The giant pterosaur, a huge winged reptile, was
the largest flying creature ever. Its wings spanned 40 feet. This is as wide as some jet
fighters.

Imagine this predator and scavenger as it soared over the shores of ancient oceans.
Today, those shores are the desert lands of far west Texas. This section of wing was
found in Big Bend National Park, in Brewster County.

Though huge, the pterosaur was as light as a kite because of its hollow, thin bones.
Fossils like these are rare because the weight of the overlying sediments usually
crushes them.

These flying reptiles are only "cousins" to the dinosaurs. The pterosaurs are also
separate from the other flying animals, birds and bats.

Douglas A. Lawson, a University of Texas geology student, found this fossil in 1971.

14 July 12, 2003

 CLUES FROM THE PAST
u
Fossils reveal the secrets of life on Earth.

Surviving extinction
Early Primate
(Rooneyia viejaensis)
[RU-nee-yuh]

This early primate is a is a member of the same branch of the tree of life that contains
humans. It dates back about 35 million years. Think of a lemur, and you will have a
good idea of what this small mammal probably looked like.
u
It is an important fossil for two reasons. First, people have only found a few fossil
primates of this age anywhere in the world. Second, it is incredibly well preserved.
This fossil even shows the size and shape of the animal's brain.

Fossils show us that early primates came from some true survivors. Scientists still
don't lmow the exact reason the dinosaurs died out. They do mow, however, that
small mammals sUrvived the impact of a giant asteroid and volcanic ash that blocked
the SUD. Small mammals adapted to these environmental changes very quickly. Some
of them were the ancestors of early primates like Rooneyia.

Dr. John A. Wilson discovered Rooneyia viejaensis. He is the founder of the Verte-
brate Paleontology Laboratory of the Texas Memorial Museum. Dr. Wilson has spent
more than 60 years looking for fossils all across Texas. Although Rooneyia is a tiny
fossil, it was the find of a lifetime for Dr. Wilson.

v
Dr. lohnA. Wilson found this fossil in {DATE??} July 1, 1963

15 July 12, 2003

 Pit 1 - Pertnian Terrestrial Fossils -280 MYA '"

Seymouria baylorensis
Early Land-dwelling Anitllal
TMM43291-1
Clear Fork Formation, Permian
Baylor County, Texas

Seymouria was a small animal that lived roughly 280 million years ago in Texas and adjacent re-
gions. It was a land-dwelling animal that lived in what were then arid regions of north Texas. It is an
important fossil for paleontologists because it is probably a close relative of both the lineage that
include today's mammals and the lineage that includes living reptiles. This early, distant part of the
family tree of land animals is not well understood, so Seymouria has received a lot of attention by
scientists who are trying to reconstruct the tree of life.

With short limbs and a thick body, Seymouria was not very agile or very fast. To move around on
land, it probably relied on undulating its backbone from side to side, using its limbs as props against
the ground . .It was probably cold-blooded and had a rather small brain. Judging from its teeth, it may
have had a varied diet, subsisting primarily off of ~sects, small vertebrates, and carrion.

The specimen buried in the Dino Pit was collected in 1917 from near the famous Craddock Bone Bed
by-paleontologists from the US National Museum of Natural History, a part of the Smithsonian
Institution. The original specimen (USNM 9140) has been periodically placed on display in Washing-
ton DC.

16 July 12, 2003

'0

Pit 1 - Pertnian Terrestrial Fossils -280 MYA

u
Edaphosaurus pogonias
Distant Relative of Living Mammal:
Incomplete vertebral column
TMM40005-1
Arroyo Formation, Pennian
Baylor County, Texas

Edaphosaurus is a distant extinct relative of living mammals. Like Seymouria, another Pennian
fossil that can be found in the Dino Pit, it dates back roughly 280 million years. Edaphosaurus
belongs to the great lineage known as Synapsida, which includes all living species of mammals and
their extinct relatives.

Like its more famous relative Dimetrodon, Edaphosaurus had a fin that was supported by bones of
the vertebral column. Edaphosaurus differs from Dimetrodon in having cross-bars on the spines that
supported its fin. The function of the fin has always perplexed scientists. Some have argued that it
u was for thermoregulation and that the great surface area provided by the fin was used to more rapidly
warm the animal to the level where it could be active. Others have argued that the fin was analogous
to antlers and horns in some modem mammals, and that it was used in species recognition and
courtship. Both explanations may be correct.

The redbeds of Baylor County and surrounding counties are the richest in the world for fossils of
early Pennian age. These rocks hold a unique record of early synapsid history and have been visited
by paleontologists from all over the world. Edaphosaurus is among the rarest synapsids, and most of
the specimens that have been discovered consist of little more than fragments of its skeleton. Based
on its teeth, it is commonly thought that Edaphosaurus was herbivorous, but we know little of its
habits.

The Edaphosaurus specimen buried in the Dino Pit was cast from an original collected in 1944 by H.
J. Sawin and E. Jones. The only part of the specimen that was preserved is a part of the backbone that
includes some of the spines that supported the fin, but it is one of the most complete examples of
Edaphosaurus on record.

17 July 12, 2003

Pit 2 - Cretaceous Marine Fossils -85 to 70 MYA ("")
Mosasaurus nlaximus
The Onion Creek Mosasaur
TMM 313-1
Navarro Group, Cretaceous
Travis County, Texas

Mosasaurus maximus was a giant extinct marine reptile. It lived in shallow seas that covered much
of Texas about 70 million years ago, during the Cretaceous Period. It is a member of the mosasaur
lineage, which included many other species and achieved a worldwide distribution before becoming
extinct about 65 million years ago. Their fossilized bones are fairly common across the state, and
they are especially abundant in central Texas. But skeletons as complete as this one are very rare.
Some mosasaur species were small (under 6 feet long) but others evolved to huge size. This speci-
men is one of the larger mosasaurs, being nearly 30 feet long. Its head alone is nearly 5 feet long and
its open jaws had a gape of3 feet.

Mosasaurs lived only during the Mesozoic and are sometimes confused with dinosaurs. But lizards,
snakes, and mosasaurs form their own distinctive branch of the reptilian family tree, and they are
only distantly related to dinosaurs. Today the closest living relatives of the extinct mosasaurs are the
members of a lizard lineage that includes the Komodo dragon and the Gila monster.

Mosasaurs were marine animals that spent virtually their entire lives in the oceans and seaways of the
Cretaceous world. They may have come out onto land to lay eggs, like modem sea turtles, although
some paleontologists suspect that they gave birth in the water to live young. For reasons that are not
fully understood, the ancestors of the mosasaur lineage left the dry land and adapted to life in the
seas.

Mosasaurs quickly evolved to tremendous size in the environment of the Cretaceous seas. With long
snake-like tails and paddles for limbs, they were probably excellent swimmers, and they reached all
of the oceans and seas of the Cretaceous world. Their large pointed teeth leave little doubt that they
were predatory, hunting other marine animals. Several known specimens preserve possible stomach
contents, which indicate that mosasaurs ate other vertebrates
(sharks, bony fish, turtles, other marine reptiles, etc.). The shells
of extinct mollusks known as ammonites have also been found
with holes some interpreted as bite marks made by mosasaurs.

The specimen buried at the Dino Pit was cast from a beautiful
skeleton found in 1935 in Travis County, along the banks of
Onion Creek. W. Clyde !kins and J obn Peter Smith, geology
students at The University of Texas at Austin, discovered the
skeleton. They alerted paleontologists at the Texas Memorial
Museum, who excavated the skeleton. It was first put on public
display at the Texas Centennial in 1936. The reconstructed skel-
eton is currently on display at the TMM.

18 July 12, 2003

 Pit 2 - Cretaceous Marine Fossils -85 to 70 MYA
u

Crateraster mccarteri
Starfish
TMM BEG 34041
Late Cretaceous (about 85 million years ago)
Travis County, Texas

These starfish were found in large block of "float" in Bouldin Creek, here in Travis County. This is
one of two pieces that were cut out of the 1200-pound slab. The statfish were first exhibited in 1936,
and they have been gems of the Texas Memorial Museum's collections ever since.
These particular specimens are embedded in a type of rock mown as limestone, the "Austin chalk".
This layer of rock was formed from the settling of fine layers of sediment onto the sea floor during
the late Cretaceous, about 85 million years ago.
Starfish (also know as Sea stars) are invertebrates that can be found in oceans allover the world.
u They live in a wide range of marine environments, from rocky shores to kelp beds, tidal pools to
depths of more than 9000 meters. They vary greatly in size and shape. Their size can range from that
of a penny (1 centimeter) to as big as a bathtub (1 meter). In fact, there are about 1800 different
species of starfish alive today, and hundreds more are known from the fossil record.
The body form of a starfish is stellate (star-shaped) with central disc and typically five radiating,
symmetrical, arms (rays). The dimension is measured for the center of the central disc to the tip of
one of the rays. Did you know that, occasionally, a "five-rayed" starfish is born with only four rays?
Variation like this occurs in all natural populations. However, it's very rare that enough individuals
are preserved together for us to see this variation in fossils. Can you find the four-rayed specimen on
this slab? At the other end of the spectrum there is a modem species of starfish that has 50 rays. And
just to add more confusion, starfish can regenerate severed rays, or intentionally remove rays.
The robust starfish have retained much of their detailed
structure on this slab but have lost all their vibrant color.
Modem starfish pigments include yellow, red, purple,
orange, brown, gray, and blue. Original color is only very
rarely preserved in the fossil record.

Modem starfish have diverse eating habits, some are

carnivorous eating sponges, corals or shellfish, others are
scavengers anq some are cannibals. Others are deposit
u feeders extracting their food from the mud, or suspension
feeders sifting food from the water column.

19 July 12, 2003

Pit 2 - Cretaceous Marine Fossils -85 to 70 MYA n

Osteopygis Sp.
The ZUker Park Turtle
Incomplete carapace and plastron
TMM43190-1
Edwards Formation (limestones), Cretaceous
Travis County, Texas

Turtles are an ancient lineage of reptiles that arose long before the dinosaurs appeared and they have
survived until the present day. Most turtles live on land or in freshwater streams and lakes, but some
have become adapted to life in the oceans. Osteopygis is one such marine species. It lived in the
shallow seas that covered much of Texas during the Cretaceous, living together with animals like
Mosasaurus and plesiosaurs like Polyptychodon. Osteopygis may have grown to about 5 feet in
length, but it was by no means the largest of the Cretaceous turtles. There were others that reached
more tJian twice the size ofOsteopygis, and skeletons of these giants have also been found in Texas.

The specimen that is buried at the Dino Pit was discovered by a hiker in Zilker Park. The specimen
was collected by paleontologists from the Vertebrate Paleontology Laboratory of the Texas Memorial
Museum. Much of the bottom half of the shell (plastron) and a few pieces of the shell's upper half
(carapace) were preserved in this specimen. It is unusual because it was found on the same layer of
rock that preserved several nearby dinosaur tracks. If the entire shell and skeleton had been found, it
would have represented a large animal, weighing several hundred pounds. Like other marine turtles,
it probably ate fish, squid, and other marine animals.

20 July 12, 2003

'.

Pit 3 - Cretaceous Marine Fossils -85 to 70 MYA

u

Polyptychodon Sp.
The Shoal Creek Plesiosaur
TMM42644-2
Eagle Ford Group, Cretaceous
Travis County, Texas

Polyptychodon is a member of the plesiosaur family, which constituted a group of reptiles that were
adapted to life in the shallow seaways that covered much of Texas 90 million years ago. The plesio-
saurs form their own distinctive branch of the reptile family tree. Although commonly mistaken for
dinosaurs, the plesiosaurs are only distant relatives. They were also very different from the mosa-
saurs, which formed another lineage of giant aquatic reptiles. The plesiosaurs became extinct near the
end of the Cretaceous time period.
u The anns and legs of plesiosaurs were modified into flippers that they used to 'fly' through the water,
much like modern sea turtles do. Some plesiosaurs had long necks and small heads, while others had
short necks and very large heads, and many grew to gigantic size. They had long, shmp teeth charac-
teristic of animals that catch and eat fish. Together with the mosasaurs, they were among the domi-
nant predators of the Mesozoic oceans. Although they were reptiles, they probably spent nearly all of
their lives in the water, occasionally coming onto land to lay their eggs.

Dr. J. R. (Bob) McDonald, an Austin dentist who was looking for shark teeth along Shoal Creek,
discovered the specimen buried in the Dino Pit. He reported the find to paleontologists at the Verte-
brate Paleontology Laboratory, who collected it and put it on display in the Texas Memorial Museum
in the early 1990's.

21 July 12,2003
Pit 3 - Cretaceous Marine Fossils -85 to 70 MYA n

Stantonoceras solisense
Ammonite
TMMUT53002
Late Cretaceous (about 85 million years ago)
Williamson County, Texas
Olohn A. MaiSlllno

This ammonite was found by Mr. Bill Jolley in Williamson County, Texas. It was generously donated
for research because it is a better example of the species than the actual ''type'' specimen. A type
specimen is the unique, official reference specimen for a species or genus.

Ammonites are invertebrates that can no longer be found in oceans today, they are extinct. They
looked very similar to the living (extant), chambered, Nautilus, but are more closely related to squid.
They lived on continental shelves and deep ocean environments and were prolific until the end of the n
Cretaceous. At that point they became extinct. Nautilus survived the stress that led to the extinction
of the ammonites. Why did they survive? We really are not sure; some people have suggested subtle
differences in lifestyles or hatchery location of their larvae. po

Coiling styles of ammonites varied, this example is coiled in one plane others coil in two planes.
This specimen is quite tightly coiled others are loosely coiled. In some each new coil covers the
previous one so that you can only see the last whorl, called involute coiling and this ammonite is of
that involute coiling style.
Within the coil is a series of chambers, the animal actually lived in the very last, the outermost,
chamber. The chamber walls (septa) were connected with a tube (siphuncle) that allowed the animal
to regulate its buoyancy by controlling gases in each chamber. A little bit like regulating a hot air
balloon, except in the case of the ammonite control is within a water column and not the atmosphere.
These chambers have been very useful to paleontologists because the way the chamber wall attaches
(sutures) to the outer shell has changed in complexity over time. This suture pattern is often pre-
served in the ammonite fossil. Paleontologists can identify particular species with the help of these
suture patterns. The patterns evolve quite rapidly and become a proxy for time. Certain patterns
evolved after others and that allows us to place the species in order, to date them relative to each
other.

22 July 12, 2003

·.
Pit 4 - Cretaceous Terrestrial Fossils - 65 MYA
u
AlamosaurllS sanjuanensis
Giant Sauropod Dinosaur
Humerus TMM 41398-2
FemurTMM 41541-1
Javelina Formation, Cretaceous
Big Bend National Park
Brewster County, Texas

Alamosaurus was named for Alamo Creek, San Juan Basin, New Mexico, where the first specimen
was discovered. Alamosaurus roamed over much of southwestern North America during the latest
part of the Cretaceous. It became extinct at the very end of the Mesozoic Era, during the mass extinc-
tion episode that wiped out many other species at the same time. Alamosaurus was one of the very
last of the nonavian dinosaurs in Texas.

Alamosaurus was a member of the sauropod dinosaur lineage. The sauropods were not only the
u largest dinosaurs but also the largest land animals ever to evolve. Only some of today's baleen
whales are larger. The largest sauropods may have weighed around 50 tons. This is about 10 times
more than African elephants, who are the largest land-living animals alive today.

The earliest members of the lineage were small and walked on their hind legs, leaving their hands
free for other purposes. But during the course of the Mesozoic, the sauropods evolved to giant size,
and had to drop to all fours in order to support their gigantic weight. At the same time, they evolved
almost unbelievably long necks but retained relatively small heads. Of all the dinosaurs, they had the
smallest brains compared to their body size.

Alamosaurus and the other huge sauropods were herbivores. They had small blunt teeth, which they
used for cropping and stripping vegetation. The discovery of polished stones inside the ribcage in
several skeletons suggests that they had a large muscular gizzard containing stones to mechanically
break down fibrous plants. The stones accomplished the grinding of food instead of the teeth!

The two huge bones of Alamosaurus buried in the

Dino Pit were cast from specimens collected from
Big Bend National Park in 1971 and 1973 by Dr.
Wann Langston, Jr. and a crew from the Vertebrate
Paleontology Laboratory of the Texas Memorial
Museum. One bone is the humerus (upper ann
bone), which1ies between the shoulder and elbow

u joints. The other is the femur (thigh bone), which

extends from the hip to the knee j oint. These two
. bones came from different individuals of about the
same. size.

23 July 12, 2003

 Pit 4 - Cretaceous Terrestrial Fossils - 65 MYA n
Quetzalcoatlus If,orthropi
The Texas Pterosaur

Wing bones
(humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals,]
TMM414S0-3
Javelina Fonnation, Cretaceous
Big Bend National Park
Brewster County, Texas

Quetzalcoatlus is the largest flying creature ever to evolve. Its wingspan was somewhere around 40
feet, which is as wide as some small jet fighters. But it was light as a kite, with hollow bones that
were almost paper-thin. Quetzalcoatlus is a member of the extinct pterosaur lineage. Pterosaurs
(pronounced tair-o-saurs) lived during most of the Mesozoic Era and diversified into a tremendous
array of different forms. Often mistakenly called "flying dinosaurs", the pterosaurs are not members
of the dinosaur lineage. Instead they are a side branch from the main stem leading towards the dino-
saurian family tree and are only "cousins" to the dinosaurs. n
Quetzalcoatlus and most other pterosaurs were probably predators and scavengers. Several pterosaur
specimens contain the skeletons of fish in their bellies, and most of these were found in marine
rocks. But many other pterosaurs, including Quetzalcoatlus, were discovered in rocks formed by
lakes and streams, which indicates that they flew over dry land and probably hunted terrestrial (land-
living) animals as well.
The wings of pterosaurs were different from the wings in modem birds and bats. In birds, the feathers
of the wing are supported by the first three fingers of the hand (the thumb, index, and middle fin-
gers). In bats, the thumb is free and a wing membrane of skin is webbed between the remaining
fingers and along the body to the legs. But in pterosaurs, the wing was made from a skin membrane
that was supported by one very long finger, probably the one corresponding to our "ring-finger".
Astonishingly, flight evolved independently in pterosaurs, birds, and bats.
Quetzalcoatlus was the largest and also one of the last of the pterosaurs. It soared over Texas right up
until the end of the Cretaceous Period, looking down on dinosaurs like Alamosaurus and Tyranno-
saurus. It was wiped out in the great extinction event that marked the end of the Mesozoic Era.

The specimen buried in the Dino Pit was cast

from a specimen discovered in Big Bend
National Park by a graduate student named
Douglas Lawson, who was working on his
masters degree in the Department of Geologi-
cal Sciences at The University of Texas at
Austin, under the direction of Dr. Wann
Langston, Jr.

24 July 12, 2003

'. -,
Pit 4 - Cretaceous Terrestrial Fossils - 65 MYA
u

Tyrannosallrus rex
Giant Theropod Dinosaur
TMM 41436-1
Upper jaw and teeth
Javelina Formation, Cretaceous
Big Bend National Park
Brewster County, Texas

TYrannosaurus was one of the largest of the giant predatory dinosaurs, although a few newly discov-
ered species may have been a bit larger. Tyrannosaurus and its carnivorous relatives are members of
the theropod branch of the dinosaur family tree. Their large, curved, serrated teeth are built like steak
knives and are designed for tearing flesh. There is no doubt Tyrannosaurus ate meat, but there is still
some debate over whether it was a predator, a scavenger, or both. Like all predatory dinosaurs,
TYrannosaurus walked only on its hindlimbs. Its forelimbs were unusually tiny and their function has
always been a mystery.

Tyrannosaurus was one of the last non-avian dinosaurs in Texas, and lived in the same environment
as Alamosaurus and Quetzalcoatlus. Like these creatures, TYrannosaurus went extinct at the very end
of the Cretaceous (65 million years ago) in the great extinction event that killed off many other
species. The closest living relatives of Tyrannosaurus are modem birds.

Tyrannosaurus roamed across western North America, but only a few rare bits and pieces of its
skeleton have been found in Texas. The partial upper jaw buried in the Dino Pit is just a small piece
of the skeleton, but it is nevertheless one of the most complete pieces of a TYrannosaurus ever found
in Texas. It was discovered in Big Bend National Park in 1970 and excavated by paleontologists at
the Vertebrate Paleontology Laboratory of The Texas Memorial Museum.

25 July 12, 2003

 :

Pit 5 - EarlyTertiaryFossil- 35 MYA n

Roolleyia viejaensis
Early Primate
Skull
TMM40688-7
Vieja Fonnation, Oligocene
Presidio County, Texas

Rooneyia viejaensis is an omomyid, a member of a prosimian primate lineage that dates back ap-
proximately 55 million years. Like other early primates, Rooneyia was small. It was about the size of
the modem tarsier, which inhabits the forests of Indonesia and the southern Philippines; and the
galago, which inhabits the forests of Africa. Only a single specimen of Rooneyia has been discov-
ered, and only the skull was preserved. Without the rest of the skeleton, it is difficult to be certain
how it made its living, but like most other small primates it was probably arboreal, spending its life
in the trees.

Primates are very rare in the fossil record. The tiny specimen that is buried at the Dino Pit is 35
million years old and among the most complete and best preserved primate skulls ever discovered in
North America. Based on the size of its orbits (eye-sockets), Rooneyia was probably active during the
daylight hours. Rooneyia has broad, flattened cusps on its teeth, which may indicate a diet that was
rich in fruit. One of the unique features of this specimen is that some of the bones surrounding the
brain had weathered away to reveal what is referred to as a natural "endocast". An endocast is a
replica of the brain that it is fonned by sediments that fill the space that was occupied by the brain in
the living animal. In animals with large brains, the skull records much of the detail of the brain's
surface, much like the shell of a walnut or a
pecan nut. The infilling of sediment, now
turned to rock, takes on the shape of the brain.

Dr. John A. Wilson, who is the founder of the

Vertebrate Paleontology Laboratory of the
Texas Memorial Museum, discovered this
specimen in 1964. ·Dr. Wilson has now spent
more than 60 years looking for fossils all across
Texas. Although Rooneyia is a tiny fossil, it
was the fmd of a lifetime for Dr. Wilson.

26 July 12, 2003

'.

'Pit 5 - Late Pleistocene Fossils - 500 to 10 TYA

u
Mammut americanum
A111eri.can Mastodon
Incomplete skull
TMM 1858-1
Pleistocene river terrace sand and gravels
Live Oak County, Texas

The American mastodon has an interesting name. The name Mammut might suggest that it is a
mammoth, but it is not. Instead it is a member of the mastodon lineage, which is related to but
different from the elephant lineage, which includes the mammoths. The scientific name Mammut
means "earth burrower". This name traces back to the Middle Ages when European fanners found
the gigantic bones of mastodons in their fields and mistakenly believed that they belonged to some
kind of gigantic burrowing animals. The common name "mastodon" comes from "mastodont", which
means ''breast-toothed''. This term. refers to the cone-like cusps on the cheek teeth.

Mastodons are members of the group of mammals called proboscideans, which was once much more
diverse and widespread. Only two species survive today, the African and Asian elephants, both
threatened with extinction. Mammut americanum roamed widely over North America for roughly 3.5
million years before it finally became extinct, between about 9,000 and 12,000 years ago. Both
climatic change and human hunting have been implicated in its extinction.

The Mammut specimen buried in the Dino Pit was one of the last of its kind in Texas. Declining
popUlations of Mammut were concentrated in two major areas. These were the Great Lakes and the
Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains. In Texas they probably occupied lowland valleys and swampy
areas. Stomach contents have been recovered from a few specimens and these indicate that they ate
the twigs and cones of conifers, leaves, mosses, grasses, and aquatic plants. Mammut probably used
its tusks to strip branches from trees upon which it fed.

The specimen buried at the Dino Pit exhibits the process of tooth replacement common to mast-
odons, mammoths and elephants. Over its lifetime, a proboscidean uses six sets of grinding teeth in
each side of both the upper and lower jaws. As the initial set is worn, it is pushed forward by the
eruption of the next larger, unworn tooth.

The original specimen was excavated by paleontolo-

gists from the Bureau of Economic Geology at The
University of Texas at Austin in 1939, working with
support from the Works Progress Administration. Its
age is estimated between 10,000 and 200,000 years
U old. It was long displayed at the Texas Memorial
Museum and is now at the Vertebrate Paleontology
Laboratory.

27 July 12, 2003

 Pit 5 - Late Pleistocene Fossils - 500 to 10 TYA n

Geocl,elone sp.
Gian t Tortoise
Shell and partial skeleton
TIvIM 30967-2155
Freshwater pond deposit, Pleistocene
San Patricio County, Texas

Giant land tortoises like this specimen of Geochelone roamed the coastal plain of Texas during the
Pleistocene. Although this particular North American species is now extinct, having died out by
about 10,000 years ago; it has living relatives on several islands of the world and on the mainland of
Africa and South America. Probably the most famous members of the tortoise family are the giant
tortoises of the Galapagos Islands, which were studied by Charles Darwin as he developed his theory
of evolution. More distant and much smaller relatives of the giant tortoises still live North America,
in the southwestern deserts, parts of Florida, and northern Mexico.

Tortoises are part ofa larger group of animals, the Testudines (turtles). Most turtles are adapted for
life in wetter environments like rivers, ponds, and the oceans of the world. But tortoises are adapted
to arid environments. They are almost exclusively vegetarians, and they get all the moisture they
need from the plants they eat. They rarely if ever drink water. In some settings they hibernate during
the winters, while in other settings they are active most of the year. In contrast to tortoises, most other
turtles are carnivorous, eating fish, insects, grubs, wonns, and carrion. All tortoise species are threat-
ened or endangered in the wild today.

We are not sure what led to the extinction of giant tortoises in North America. The change in climate
at the end of the Pleistocene has been suggested, but human activity has also been implicated. In
more recent years, many of the island popUlations of giant tortoises have been extirpated by human
overkill, mostly by sailors who collected the tortoises for food. The introduction of rats, pigs, and
dogs by humans to these islands has also had tragic effects on the slow growing turtles. Adults are
generally safe, but the eggs and young are easy prey to the faster, smarter mammals.

A. H. Witte collected the specimen buried at the

Dino Pit. Witte supervised the excavation, which
was funded by the Works Progress Administration
from 1939 to 1940. The original specimen was
long displayed at the Texas Memorial Museum and
is now at the Vertebrate Paleontology Laboratory.
n

28 July 12, 2003

.
~

Pit 5 - Late Pleistocene Fossils - 500 to 10 TVA

u

Homotllerium serum
Scimitar-toothed Cat
Skull
TMM 933-3582
Friesenhahn Cave, Pleistocene
Bexar County, Texas

Homotherium serum, the scimitar-toothed cat, ranged throughout Texas during the Pleistocene.
Homotherium was a member of the felid lineage, which includes all extant and extinct cats (every-
thing from lions to housecats) as well as the extinct saber-toothed cats. Homotherium was about the
size of a modem lion, but it had a lighter build with long forelimbs and relatively shorter hindlimbs.
These proportions indicate that Homotherium was capable of running after prey as well as leaping
upon them.

u The skull of Homotherium is characterized by its flattened and serrated upper canines and wide nasal
opening. The wide nasal opening has been compared to that of a cheetah, and is thought to have
allowed for maximum air intake, which is important for running after prey. The canines of
Homotherium are not as elongate as those of the saber-toothed cat Smilodon, but were nevertheless
effective weapons for killing prey.

The prey of choice were juvenile mammoths, as evidenced by more than 300 mammoth deciduous
("milk") teeth found in Friesenhahn Cave. There is no doubt that the juvenile mammoths were killed
and dragged into the cave by Homotherium, for in addition to the skull cast for the Dino Pit, skeletal
remains representing 19 adult and 13 juvenile Homotherium have been collected from Friesenhahn
Cave, indicating that the cave was used as a den.

A field crew, including Glen L. Evans and Grayson E. Meade, from the Texas Memorial Museum
found the original specimen during excavation of Friesenhahn Cave in the summer of 1949. Its age is
estimated to be about 20,000 years old. This skull is at the Vertebrate Paleontology Laboratory while
complete Homotherium skeletons (an adult and two
kittens) are on display at the Texas Memorial
Museum.

29 July 12, 2003

 Pit 6 - Late Pleistocene Fossils -15 to 10 TYA n
301 Cotngress Ave.

Mamlnuthus sp.
(301 Congress Mammoth)
Partial skeleton
TMM 43067-37
Pleistocene river silts and clay
Travis County, Texas

Mammoths are members of the group Proboscidea, so named for the elongate muscular proboscis or
"trunk" which is a unique tactile (touch) and sense organ. Like other members of this group,
Mammuthus exhibits skeletal modifications for bearing great weight, including column-like limbs.
Mammuthus is more closely related to the extant elephants ofAsia and Africa than it is to the extinct
mastodons like Mammut. Evidence for this includes features of the cheek teeth, which are specialized
for grinding.- The cheek teeth consist of transverse loops or plates of enamel that provide a wash-
board-like surface for chewing grasses. The tusks of Mammuthus are often long and curved and are
found only in the upper jaw.

Mammuthus species that roamed Texas in the Pleistocene included the Columbian and Jefferson's
mammoths, but not the woolly mammoth. There is some controversy as to whether the Columbian
and Jefferson's mammoths are distinct species or just different populations exhibiting geographical
variation. Mammoth remains have been found at several Paleo-Indian kill sites in North America.
These include localities in Texas such as Lubbock Lake (Lubbock County), and the Miami Site
(Roberts County). Climatic change and human hunting have
been implicated in the extinction of the mammoth 11,000
years ago.

Dr. Ernest L. Lundelius, Jr. of the Vertebrate Paleontology

Laboratory excavated the original specimen in 1985, with
assistance from the Trammell Crow Company and Lone
Star Archaeological Services. Its age is estimated to be
about 15,000 years before present, based on radiocarbon
dates obtained from organics in the clay immediately
surrounding the bones. The skeleton is currently housed at
the Vertebrate Paleontology Laboratory.

30 July 12, 2003

 I
~

Pit 6 - Late Pleistocene Fossils -15 to 10 TYA

u
301 Comgress Ave.

Amazing Fossil Discovery in Downtown Austin

On December 30, 1984, while excavating for the foundation of a new 22 - story office building at
301 Congress Ave., workers uncovered what appeared to be the remains of at least three prehistoric
mastodons.

A railway station once occupied this site in the late 19th century, so archeologists working for the
Trammel Crow development company where on-site to recover and document artifacts from Austin's
human history. The fossil remains where found below the level of human occupation. Once it was
detennined that the find was animal in nature and predated human activity paleontologists from the
University of Texas were brought in to help coordinate the removal of specimens.

This discovery intrigued the popUlation of Austin. The construction company arraigned to open the
site on January 19 to the public. Over 4,000 visitors were escorted down into_ the pit and allowed to
witness the specimens for themselves.
u On Jan 20, 1985, a mammoth skull and tusk were uncovered in a different part of the site but in the
same greenish grey clay deposits that had contained the original mastodon find. By February 8, 1985
the specimens had been removed from the site along with 20 tons of dirt and clay. Over the next
years, this matrix was carefully sifted uncovering even more evidence of the biological community
that had called this area of Texas home.

The fossil remains combined with microscopic study of the sediments in which they were found help
researchers develop a model on what this area of Central Texas was like 15,000 years ago. From the
evidence, researchers conclude that this site was a marsh area along what is now the Colorado River.
It probably served as a watering hole. The climate was probably cooler and more humid then the
present and seasonal changes would have been milder.

A partial list of the animals found at 301 Congress Ave.:

American mastodon, mammoth, prehistoric horses, giant ground sloth, moles, short tailed shrew,
meadow vole, bog lemming, muskrat, pine or prairie vole, gopher, gar, bullfrog, salamanders similar
to tiger salamanders, land tortoises, various snakes including ones similar to modem day vipers, wild
turkey, coyote, skunk, cottontail rabbit, deer, spiders, ants, bees.

31 July 12, 2003

\
-•
u Introduction to the Vertebrate Fossils in the Dino Pit
.Prepared by Tim Rowe
Vertebrate Paleontology Laboratory
Texas Memorial Museum
March 20, 2001

I. Texas Ice Age Fossils (between 10,000 and 200,000 years old)
• Mammut americanum - the American mastodon
• Geochelone sp. - a giant tortoise

II. Early Tertiary Fossils (35 million years old)

• Rooneyia viejaensis - a tiny primate

III. Cretaceous Terrestrial Fossils (65 million years old)

• Alamosaurus sanjuan ens is - giant sauropod dinosaur
• Quetzalcoatlus northropi - the giant pterosaur of Big Bend
• Tyrannosaurus rex - a rare Texas specimen

u IV. Cretaceous Marine Fossils (70 to 75 million years old)

• Mosasaurus maximus - the Onion Creek Mosasaur
• Polyptychodon sp. - the Shoal Creek Plesiosaur
• Osteopygis sp. - the Zilker Park Turtle

V. Permian Terrestrial Fossils (280 million years old)

• Seymouria baylorensis - an early tetrapod
• Edaphosaurus pogonias one of the most distant relatives of mammals

u
1
Ie Texas Ice Age Fossils (between 10,000 and 200,000 years old)

American mastodon
partial skull
TMM 1858-1
Pleistocene river terrace sand and gravels
Live Oak County, Texas

The American mastodon has an interesting name. The name Mammut might
suggest that it is a mammoth, but it is not. Instead it is a member of the mastodont
family, which is related to but different from the elephant family, which includes the
mammoths. The scientific name Mammut means "earth burrower". This name traces
back to the Middle Ages when European fanners found the gigantic bones of mastodonts
in their fields and mistakenly believed that they belonged to some kind of gigantic
burrowing animals. "'Mastodont" means 'breast-tooth", which refers to the cone-like
cusps on the grinding teeth.
Mastodonts are members of the Proboscidean lineage, which today includes only
the African and Asian elephants. Proboscideans were once much more diverse, for only
two species survive today, both threatened with extinction. Mammut americanum
roamed widely over North America for roughly 3 million years, before it finally became
extinct, between about 9,000 and 12,000 years ago. Both climatic change and human
hunting have been implicated in its extinction.
The Mammut specimen buried here in the Dino Pit was one of the last of its kind in
Texas. Declining populations of Mammut were concentrated in two major areas. These
were the Great Lakes and the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains. In Texas they probably
occupied lowland valleys and swampy areas. Stomach contents have been recovered
from a few specimens and these indicate that they ate the twigs and cones of conifers,
leaves, coarse grasses, swamp plants, and mosses. In several cases long reddish hair has
been found with some of the youngest specimens.
The specimen buried here at the Dino Pit exhibits the process of tooth replacement
common to mastodonts, mammoths and elephants. Over their lifetime, a proboscidean
uses six sets of grinding teeth in each side of both the upper and lower jaws. As the
initial set is worn, it is pushed forward by the eruption of the next larger, unworn tooth.

2
 The original specimen was excavated by DT Bureau of Economic Geology

u paleontologists in 1939, working with support from the Works Progress Administration.
Its age is estimated between 10,000 and 200,000 years old. It was long displayed at the
Texas Memorial Museum and is now at the Vertebrate Paleontology Laboratory.

Giant Tortoise
Geochelolle sp.
shell and partial skeleton
TMM 30967-2155
Freshwater pond deposit, Pleistocene
San Patricio County, Texas

Giant land tortoises like this specimen of Geochelone roamed the coastal plain of
Texas during the Ice Ages. Although this particular North American species is now
extinct, having died out by about 10,000 years ago, it has living relatives on several
islands of the world, and on the mainland of Africa and South America. Probably the
most famous members of the tortoise family are the giant tortoises of the Galapagos
Islands, which were studied by Charles Darwin as he developed his theory of evolution.
U More distant and much smaller relatives of the giant tortoises still live North America, in
the southwestern deserts, in parts of Florida, and there is a smaIl population in northern
Mexico.
Tortoises are members of the turtle family. Most other turtles are adapted to
wetter environments like rivers, ponds, and the oceans of the world. But tortoises are
adapted to arid environments. They are almost exclusively vegetarians, and they get all
the moisture they need from the plants that they eat. They rarely if ever drink water. In
some settings they hibernate during the winters, while in other settings they are active
most of the year. In contrast to tortoises, most other turtles are carnivorous, eating fish,
insects, grubs, wonns, and carrion. All tortoise species are threatened or endangered in
the wild today.
Weare not sure what led to the extinction of giant tortoises in North America.
The change in climate at the end of the Ice Ages has been suggested, but human activity
has also been implicated. In more recent years, many of the island populations of giant
tortoises have been extirpated by human overkill, mostly by sailors who collected the

3
 ",

tortoises for food. The introduction to these islands by humans of rats, pigs, and dogs has
also had tragic effects on the slow growing turtles. Adults are safe, but the eggs and
young are easy prey to the faster, smarter mammals.
A. H. Witte collected the specimen buried here at the Dino Pit. Witte supervised
the excavation, which was funded by the Works Progress Administration from 1939 to
1940. The original specimen was long displayed at the Texas Memorial Museum and is
now at the Vertebrate Paleontology Laboratory.

4
 II. Earlv Tertiarv Fossils (35 million years old)
u Early Primate
Rooneyia viejaensis
skull
TMM40688-7
Vieja Formation, Oligocene
Presidio County

Rooneyia viejaensis is an early member of our own primate lineage that dates
back approximately 35 million years. Like other early primates, Rooneyia was small. It
was about the size of the modern tarsier, which inhabits the forests of Indonesia and the
southern Philippines; and the galago, which inhabits the forests of Africa. Only a single
specimen of Rooneyia has been discovered, and only the skull was preserved. Without
the rest of the skeleton, it is difficult to be certain how it made its living, but like most
other small primates it was probably arboreal, spending its life in the trees.
Primates are very rare in the fossil record. The tiny specimen that is buried here
at the Dino Pit is among the most complete and best preserved primate skull ever
discovered in North America. It is probably one of the most valuable fossils in the world.
u Based on the size of its orbits (eye-sockets), Rooneyia was probably active during
the daylight hours. Rooneyia has broad, flattened cusps on its teeth, which may indicate a
diet that was rich in fruit. One of the unique features of this specimen is that some of the
bones surrounding the brain had weathered away to reveal what is referred to as a natural
"endocast". An endocast is a replica of the brain that it is formed by sediments that fill
the space that was occupied by the brain in the living animal. In animals with large
brains, the skull records much of the detail of the brain's surface, much like the shell ofa
walnut or a pecan nut. The infilling of sediment, now turned to rock, takes on the shape
of the brain ..
Dr. John A. Wilson, who is the founder of the Vertebrate Paleontology
Laboratory of the Texas Memorial Museum, discovered this specimen. Dr. Wilson has
now spent more than 60 years looking for fossils all across Texas. Although Rooneyia is
a tiny fossil, it was the find of a lifetime for Dr. Wilson.

u
5
III. Cretaceous Terrestrial Fossils (65 million years old)

Giant Sauropod Dinosaur

Alamosaurus sanjuanensis
Humerus - TMM 41398-2
Femur- TMM 41541-1
Big Bend National Park
Javelina Formation, Cretaceous
Brewster County, Texas

Alamosaurus was named for Alamo Creek, San Juan Basin, New Mexico, where
the first specimen was discovered. Alamosaurus roamed over much of westem North
America during the latest part of the Cretaceous. It became extinct at the very end of the
Mesozoic, during the mass extinction episode that wiped out many other species at the
same time. Alamosaurus was one of the very last of the dinosaurs in Texas.
Alamosaurus was a member of the sauropod dinosaur lineage. The sauropods
were not only the largest dinosaurs but also the largest land animals ever to evolve. Only
some oftoday's baleen whales are larger. The largest sauropods may have weighed
around 50 tons. This is about 10 times more than African elephants, who are the largest
land-living animals alive today.
The earliest members of the lineage were small and walked on their hind legs,
leaving their hands free for other purposes. But during the course of the Mesozoic, the
sauropods evolved to giant size, in part by returning to all fours in order to support their
gigantic weight. At the same time, they evolved almost unbelievably long necks, and
ridiculously small heads. Of all the dinosaurs, they had the smallest brains compared to
their body size.
Alamosaurus and the other huge sauropods were herbivores. They had small
blunt teeth, which they used for cropping and stripping vegetation. The discovery of
po Ii shed stones insi de the ribcage in several skeletons suggests that they had a large
muscular gizzard containing stones to mechanically break down the fibrous plants. The
stones accomplish the grinding instead of the teeth!
The two huge bones of Alamosaurus buried here at the Dino Pit were cast from
specimens collected from Big Bend National Park in 1971 and 1973 by Dr. Wann
Langston, Jr. and a crew from the Vertebrate Paleontology Laboratory of the Texas

6
 Memorial Museum. One bone is the humerus (upper ann bone), which lies between the
u shoulder and elbow joints. The other is the femur (thigh bone), which extends from the
hip to the knee joint. The"two bones came from different individuals of the same size.

. The Giant Pterosaur of Big Bend

Quetzalcoatlus northrop;
wing bones
(humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges)
TMM 41450-3
Big Bend National Park
Javelina Formation, Cretaceous
Brewster County, Texas

Quetzalcoatlus is the largest flying creature ever to evolve. Its wingspan was
somewhere around 40 feet, which is as wide as some of the smaller jet fighters. But it
was light as a kite, with hollow bones that were almost paper-thin. Quetzalcoatlus is a
member of the extinct pterosaur family. These flying creatures lived during most of the
Mesozoic and diversified into a tremendous array of different fonus. Often mistakenly
called "flying dinosaurs", the pterosaurs are not members of the dinosaur family. Instead
U they are a side branch from the main stem of the dinosaurian family tree and are only
"cousins~' to the dinosaurs.
Quetzalcoatlus and most other pterosaurs were probably predators and scavengers.
Several pterosaur specimens contain the skeletons of fish in their bellies, and most of
these were found in marine rocks. But many other pterosaurs, including Quetzalcoatlus,
were discovered in rocks formed by lakes and streams, which indicates that they flew
over dry land and probably hunted terrestrial (land-living) animals as well.
The wings of pterosaurs were different from the wings in modem birds and bats. In
birds, the feathers of the wing are supported by the first three fingers of the hand (the
thumb, index, and middle fingers). In bats, the thumb is free and a wing membrane of
skin is webbed between all the fingers, and along the body to the legs. But in pterosaurs,
the wing was made from a skin membrane that was supported by one long finger,
probably the one corresponding to our "ring-finger". Astonishingly, flight evolved
independently in each of these lineages.

u
7
 Quetzalcoatlus was the largest and also the last of the pterosaurs. It soared over
Texas right up until the end of the Cretaceous, looking down on dinosaurs like
Alamosaurus and Tyrannosaurus. It was wiped out in the great extinction event that
"

marked the end of the Mesozoic and its bones were buried in the same beds as
Alamosaurus and Tyrannosaurus.
The specimen buried here at the Dino Pit was cast from a specimen discovered in
Big Bend National Park by a graduate student named Douglas Lawson, who was working
on his nlasters degree in the Department of Geological Sciences at The University of
Texas at Austin, under the direction of Dr. Wann Langston, Jr.

TyrannosaunLS rex
TMM41436-1
upper jaw and teeth
Big Bend National Park
Javelina Formation, Cretaceous
Brewster County, Texas

Tyrannosaurus was one of the greatest of the giant predatory dinosaurs. Although
several new discoveries may be a bit larger, Tyrannosaurus remains one of the two or
three largest ever. Tyrannosaurus and its carnivorous relatives are members of the
theropod branch of the dinosaur family tree. Their large, curved, serrated teeth are built
like steak knives and are designed for tearing flesh. They leave little doubt that these
huge dinosaurs ate meat, but there is still a debate over whether they were predators or
simply scavengers.
Tyrannosaurus was one of the last of the dinosaurs, living in the same community
with Alamosaurus and Quetzalcoatlus. Like these creatures, Tyrannosaurus became
extinct at the very end of the Cretaceous, in the great extinction event that killed off many
other species. The closest living relatives of Tyrannosaurus are modem birds.
Tyrannosaunls roamed across western North America and a few rare bits and
pieces of its skeleton have been found in Texas. It walked on its hindlimbs, and had tiny
forelimbs whose function has always been a mystery. They had larger brains than other
contemporary dinosaurs, with a good sense of vision and smell.
The partial upper jaw buried in the Dino Pit is just a small piece of a complete
skeleton, but it is nevertheless one of the most complete pieces of a Tyrannosaurus ever

8
....
t

found in Texas. It was discovered in Big Bend National Park in 1970 and excavated by
u paleontologists at the Vertebrate Paleontology Laboratory of The Texas Memorial
Museunl.

u
9
IV. Cretaceous Marine Fossils (70 to 75 million years old)

The Onion Creek MQsasaur

Mosasaurus maximus
TMM 313-1
Navarro Fonnation, Cretaceous
Travis County, Texas

Mosasaurus maximus was a giant extinct marine reptile. It lived in shallow seas
that covered much of Texas about 75 million years ago, during the Cretaceous time
period. It is a member of the mosasaur lineage, which included many other marine
reptiles that achieved a worldwide distribution before becoming extinct about 70 million
years ago. Their fossilized bones are fairly common across the state, and they are
especially abundant in central Texas. But skeletons as complete as this one are very rare.
Some mosasaur species were small (under 6 feet long) but others evolved to huge size.
This specimen is one of the larger know mosasaurs, being nearly 30 feet long. Its head
alone is nearly 5 feet long and with its jaws open it had a gape of 3 feet.
Mosasaurs lived during the Mesozoic and are sometimes confused with dinosaurs.
But the lizards, snakes, and mosasaurs fonn their own distinctive branch of the reptilian
family tree, and they are only distantly related to dinosaurs. Today the closest living
relatives of the extinct mosasaurs are the members of a lizard lineage that includes the
Komodo Dragon and the Gila Monster.
Mosasaurs were marine animals that spent virtually their entire lives in the oceans
and seaways of the Cretaceous world. They may have come out onto land to lay eggs,
like modem sea turtles, although some paleontologists suspect that they gave birth in the
water to live young. Their immediate ancestors were terrestrial reptiles. For reasons that
are not fully.understood, the ancestors of the mosasaur lineage left the dry land and
adapted to life in the seas.
Mosasaurs quickly evolved to tremendous size in the environment of the
Cretaceous seas. With long snake-like tails and paddles for limbs, they were probably
excellent swimmers, and they reached all of the oceans and seas of the Cretaceous world.
Their long, pointed teeth leave little doubt that they were predatory and that they were
hunting other marine animals. Several known specimens preserve possible stomach

10
 contents, which indicate that mosasaurs ate other vertebrates (sharks, bony fish, turtles,
u other marine reptiles, etc.). The shells of extinct mollusks known as ammonites have also
been found with bite marks that were probably made by mosasaurs .
.
'

The specimen buried here at the Dino Pit was cast from a beautiful skeleton found
in 1935 in Travis County, along the banks of Onion Creek. It was discovered by W.
Clyde Ikins and John Peter Smith, who were UT geology students at the time. They
alerted paleontologists at the Texas Memorial Museum, who excavated the skeleton. It
was first put on public display at the Texas Centennial in 1936. The complete skeleton is
currently mounted and on display at the TMM.

The Shoal Creek Plesiosaur

Polyptychodon sp.
TMM42644-2
Eagle Ford Fonnation, Cretaceous
Travis County, Texas

Polyptychodon is a member of the plesiosaur family, which constituted another

group of reptiles that were adapted to life in the shallow seaways that covered much of
U Texas about 75 million years ago. The plesiosaurs form their own distinctive branch of
the reptile family tree. Although commonly mistaken for dinosaurs, the plesiosaurs are
only distant relatives. They were also distinct from the mosasaurs, which fonned another
lineage of giant aquatic reptiles. The plesiosaurs became extinct near the end of the
Cretaceous time period.
The arms and legs of plesiosaurs were modified into flippers that they used to
'fly' through the water~ much like modem sea turtles do. Some plesiosaurs had long
necks and small heads, while others had short necks and very large heads, and many grew
to gigantic size. They had long, sharp teeth as are characteristic of animals that catch and
eat fish. Together with the mosasaurs, they were among the dominant predators of the
Mesozoic oceans. Although they were reptiles, they probably spent nearly all of their
lives in the water, at most coming onto land to lay their eggs.
Dr. Bob McDonald, an Austin dentist who was looking for shark teeth along
Shoal Creek, discovered the specimen buried here in the Dino Pit. He reported the fmd to

11
paleontologists at the Vertebrate Paleontology Laboratory, who collected it and put it on
display in the Texas Memorial Museum in the early 1990's.

The Zilker Park Turtle

Osteopygis sp.
TMM 43190-1
Edwards Group (limestones), Cretaceous
Travis County, Texas

Turtles are an ancient lineage of reptiles that arose long before the dinosaurs
appeared and they have survived until the present day. Most turtles live on land or in
freshwater streams and lakes, but some have become adapted to life in the oceans.
Osteopygis is one such marine species. It lived in the shallow seas that covered much of
Texas during the Cretaceous, living together with animals like Mosasaurus and
Polyptychodon. OSleopygis may have grown to about 5 feet in length, but it was by no
means the largest of the Cretaceous turtles. There were others that reached more than
twice the size of Osteopygis, and skeletons of these giants have also been found in Texas.
The specimen that is buried here at the Dino Pit was discovered by a hiker in
Zilker Park. The specimen was collected by paleontologists from the Vertebrate
Paleontology Laboratory of the Texas Memorial Museum. Only part of the bottom half
of the shell was preserved in this specimen. It is unusual because it was found on the
same layer of rock that preserved several nearby dinosaur tracks. If the entire shell and
skeleton had been found, it would have represented a large animal, weighing several
hundred pounds. Like other marine turtles, it probably ate fish, squid, and other marine
animals.

12
 v. Permian Terrestrial Fossils (280 million years old)
u Se.l·mouria baylorensis
TMM 43291-1
Clear Fork Formation, Pennian
Baylor County, Texas

Seymouria was a small animal that lived roughly 280 million years ago in Texas
and adjacent regions. It was a land-d\velling animal that lived in what were then arid
regions of north Texas. It is an important fossil for paleontologists because it is probably
a close relative of both the lineage that include today's mammals and the lineage that
includes living reptiles. This early, distant part of the family tree of land animals is not
well understood, so Seymouria has received a lot of attention by scientists who are trying
to reconstruct the tree of life.
With short limbs and a thick body, Seymouria was not very agile or very fast. To
move around on land, it probably relied on undulating its backbone from side to side,
using the limbs as props against the ground. It was probably cold-blooded and had a
rather small brain. Judging from its teeth, it may have been an omnivore, subsisting
U primarily off of insects, small vertebrates, and carrion.
The specimen buried here in the Dino Pit was collected in 1917 from near the
famous Craddock Bone Bed by paleontologists from the US National Museum of Natural
History, a part of the Smithsonian Institution. The original specimen (USNM 9140) has
been periodically placed on display in Washington DC.

Edaphosaurus pogonias
40005-1
Arroyo Formation, Permian
Baylor County, Texas

Edaphosaunls is a distant extinct relative of living mammals. Like Seymouria,

another Pennian fossil that can be found in the Dino Pit, it dates back roughly 280
million years. Edaphosaurus belongs to the great lineage known as Synapsida, which
includes all living species of mammals and their extinct relatives. Also included among

13
these early synapsids is the more famous fin-back Dimetrodon and many other fonns that ~
are best know from the redrock country of Texas.
Like its more famous relative Dimetrodon, Edaphosaurus had a fin that was
"

supported by bones of the vertebral column. Edaphosaurus differs from Dimetrodon in

having cross-bars on the spines that supported its fin. The function of the fin has always
perplexed scientists. Some have argued that it was for thermoregulation and that the
great surface area provided by the fin was used to more rapidly wann the animals to the
level where they could be active. Others have argued that the fin was analogous to
antlers and horns in some modem nlammals, and that it was used in species recognition
and courtship. Both explanations may be correct.
The redbeds of Baylor County and surrounding counties are the richest in the
world for fossils of early Pennian age. These rocks hold a unique record of early
synapsid history and have been visited by paleontologists from all over the world.
Edaphosaurus is among the rarest synapsids, and most of the specimens that have been
discovered consist of little more than fragments of its skeleton. Based on its teeth, it is
commonly thought that Edaphosaurlls was herbivorous, but we know little of its habits.
The EdaphosClurus specimen buried here in the Dino Pit was cast from an original
collected in 1944, by H. J. Sawin and E. Jones. The only part of the specimen that was
preserved is a part of the backbone that includes some of the spines that supported the fin,
but it is one of the most complete examples of Edaphosaurus on record.

14
12 DINOSAURS AND DINOSAUR NATIONAL MONUMENT: A RESOURCE PACKET FOR TEACHERS AND STUDENTS

u
Dryo-saurus= _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
(Its teeth were shaped somewhat like oak leaves)

Stego-saurus= _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
(Its back was "roofed" with a double row of bony plates)

The dinosaurs are classified into several groups which have also been named in this same way.
Some dinosaurs, for example, had hip bones shaped 'like those of lizards, while other dinosaurs had
bird-like hips. These groups, then, are called the Saurlschlans (lizard-hips) and the Ornithischians
(bird-hips). The chart below shows how the Quarry's dinosaurs are classified. Can you translate the
group names too?

-.. ~- ···~:~:~-~:.::--~~~·<:-~~~.~:~;c~~~.-:~,~~~~:-~~-- ~-.,- .- --

"':'"'; "SAURISCHIANS ORNITHISCHIANS

Saur~pods ~ ,':. :.. . Thero-pods = Ornitho-pods = Stego-saurs =

' .. " .
, .

(they had feet . (their feet had (they had feet (they had'
like lizards)?,,:· ',". ,,,~ ~
"beastly" claws) like birds) plated backs)
'" • - .- ;~ ~ ... -, •• '!'., ..
Apatosaurus .~ ,: Allosaurus Camptosaurus Stegosaurus
U Barosauruf1
~

Ceratosaurus Dryosaurus' >'. ,,"

Camarasaurus
Diplodocus

Combining words . Pronunciation From Greek word Meaning

aile? AL-oh alios other
apater ah-PAT-ah apate deceptive
baro- BARE-ah baros .. heavy
bronter BRON-tah bronte thunder
camara- KAM-ah-rah kamara chamber
campter KAMP-toe kamptos bent
cerater sair-AT-oh keratos homed
-demus DEE-mus demas body
dine? DIE-nuh deinos terrible
diple? DIP-Iuh diploos double
-docus DOE-kuss dokos beam
dryer DRY-uh dryos oak
-ischian ISS-kee-an ischion hip joint
omitho ORE-nith-oh ornithos bird
-pod pod pod foot
-saur, -saurus sawr, SAWR-us sauros lizard, reptile
steger STEH-gah stege roofed, plated
thero- THAIR-oh thero beast

NATIONAL PARK SERVICE \f' DINOSAUR NATIONAL MONUMENT

 Preface: Dinosaurs and Arcbeology

Paleontologists and archeologists solve puzzles based on clues found in

the Earth. Conclusions drawn by-both groups of scientists can never be proven,
and are open for debate and future discovery. For example, despite all of the
dinosaur literature and movies we have been exposed to, no one can be sure of
what dinosaurs exactly looked like because there were no humans there to see
them!
Diflosaurs are of great interest'to children today, perhaps because they
were a group' of animals that became extinct-a potential all modem children are
aware of living in the shadow of "the bomb." Perhaps the interest is based on the
resemblance of dinosaurs to popular images of monsters, or perhaps it stems
from the fact that dinosaurs were obviously more powerful than man is
now .. :Whatever the reason, this interest give children the incentive to explore
and enjoy the puzzle left by giant fossils. Ask your campers what makes .
dinosaurs interesting to them.
In presenting information about dinosa~s, it is important to remind .
campers that this informationJs mostly speculation and hypothesis. NO
(U HUMAN BEING HAS EVER SEEN A DINOSAUR! Their skin could have been
gray, or ,pink, or even yellow with purple stripes! Discussions about dinosaurs
present good opportunities" to talk about scientific hypotheses in general.
Dinosaurs wePe animals. They faced, the same needs that animals face
today-for space, food, water, and shelter. In your discussions you may want to
hypothesize on how these needs may have been for the dinosaurs. Discuss how
the scientist have made the conclusions that they have concerning what some
dinosaurs ate, whether they traveled in groups, etc.
Texas is a great place to study dinosaurs! Sixteen different' species of
dinosaurs lived in Texas~ And in Central Texas, the abundant limestone holds a
wealth of dinosaur . tracks and fossils. Read the information from Dinosaur Days
in Texas for more background information about the dinosaurs that lived here
Exploring the puzzle of the dinosaur is similar to exploring the puzzle of
pet?ple that lived on this Earth before us. In many cases the only information
that archeologists have to go on·comes from the things they left behind, buried
in the. ground. Recorded history ,gives us information concerning events that
~·v were considered "importanf' at the time that they occurred, but ra,rely provides
(
~onnation about the day-ta-day experiences of people. ' Often, ,th~se details are
deduced from the artif@cts found around settlements. For information

__ ~ _____ .-.-b,;;.'~ __
 .
..--..-------.........-~~.-£.. ~~.~. =-_....- - - - - - - - - - - - -

concerning prehistoric societies, or societies without a written history, artifacts

provide the only clues.
_In .exploring archeology with the campers, try to emphasize the contrasts_
in lifestyle for present day society and societies of the past. Discuss what
archeologists 500 years from now might conclude from the artifacts of our
society. Just·as midden piles provide a wealth of information about past peoples,
our trash dumps will certainly provide similar information in the future. What
would the campers want people in the future to know about us?

•
 .-DINOSA.1J I~S
I
Dinosaurs are members of a group known as archosaurs, ('ruling reptiles'), which
include the crocodiles, the,extinct pterosaurs and those well-knownarchosaur
v descendants, the birds, as well as other less well-known extinct creatures, such as
thecodontians. The dinosaurs are distinct (rom other archosaurs-Cor one main
reason which is that they were able to walk and run extremely efficiently; their legs
ar.e tucked in beneath the body rather than being held out from the sides. Dinosaurs
lived during t,he Mesozoic Era, Cmiddle life') which comprises the Triassic,
Jurassic,and Cretaceous Periods which lasted from ,about 22S -64 million years ago.
Animals that lived before or alter the Mesozoic are not dinosaurs. For example,
giant woolly mammoths which lived within the last minion years or so are not
dinosaurs; nor are the large sail-hacked reptiles of the Permian Period such as
Dimetrodon. All Dinosaurs were land living creatures. The gigantic sea monsters
, of the Mesozoic (plesiosaurs) and the flying reptiles, (Pterosaurs) were not
dinosaurs. '

Dinosaurs are divided into two dasses: Sawischia <-reptile hipped') and
Omi thischia (tbird hipped') dinosaW'S. The two different hip structures are below.

~ __________
~----------~,--------~~~
~~~-------r~

~----------~'--------~~~

(V DINOSAUR CLASSES
The Saurlschian dinosaurs are further divided into three groups: 1) the theropods,
2) the sauropods, and 3) theprosauropods. .
.
The Theropods were caqrlvores. Like birds, and humans they walked on two legs.
The forelimbs of the theropods were entirely useless for locomotion. The theropods
come in all sizes from Comsognathus about the size of a chicken to Dein~eirus
whose hand and ann measwing 2.5 meters (about 8 feet) were discovered in the
Gobi Desert. These dinosaurs first appeared in the mid-Triassic and lasted until the
end of the Cretaceous. This group included Tyrannosawus rex, Allosaurus,
Omi tholestes, and Struthiomimus.
. .
The Sauropods were the largest of all the dinosarus. They first appeared in the early
Jurassic and persisted through the Cretaceous. Most of the sauropods were built
along the same lines: large banel-shaped bodies with stout columnar legs and long
necks, disproportionately small heads and very long tails. These are the dinDSaurs
that most people picture living in swamps. In tad they were not confined to
swamps and other aquatic environments. Sauro~s were the dominant herbivore
in the Jurassic and remained as a minor element of the fauna through the
Cretaceous. Examples include Apatosaurus, Diplodocus, and Brachiosaurus.

(,V The Prosauropods 'are the probable ancestors of the sauropods. Most of these
dinosaurs were plant eaters. They were bi-pedal and quadripedal. The pros~uropds
appeared in the-Late Triassic and disappeared-by the Jurassic. Plateosaurus 15 an
example of a prosauropod.

_~I,'I "'!!E.("?""!!-etf.'r'""~~~ .-
The Omithischian Dinosaurs were the mos"t ~ommon and diverse dinosaurs. They
\
~'ere a major food source for the theropods. Members of the Omithischia occurred
(rom the Jurassic to the Cretaceous. The Ornithischian are divided into the
ornithopods, the stegosaurs, the ankylos.aurs,. and the ceraptosa~rs..

The Ornithopods first appeared in the mid-Triassic and were the last Omithisdans
to disappear. All were capable of standing erect and they could also stand and walk
on (our legs. The dentition of ornithopods was somewhat varied. Varied dentition
(adlitated chewing of food, something reptiles normally do not do. The
orm thopods included Heterodontosaurus, Campto.saurus, Laosaurus,
Hypsilophodon, and Iguanodon.

The Stegosaurs were a small group including only a few species. They existed only
during the Jurassic and were probably never very abundant. The most striking
features of these dinosaurs was the double row of assymebically arranged back
plates. Assymetry is very unusual in a vertebrate and its possible significance will be
discussed later. Examples of stegosaurs include Stegosaurus and Kentrosaurus.
•
The Ankylosaurs were an abundant and diverse group during the Cretaceous. All
species were encased in bony armor to varying degrees. Examples include
Ankylosa urus, Palaeoscincus, Polancanthus, Syrmosaurus, and Pinacosaurus. .

The most sbiking feature of the Ceratopsians was an arrangement of horns on brow
and/ or snout and bony shield"projecting from the back of the skull. -Most of the
ceratopsians were seven to nine meters long and weighed three .to four tons. This
group seems to have originated in Asia in the last part of the Cretaceous with .
Psi ttacosa urus and Protocertaps. The first known dinosaur eggs were found in
association with Protoceratops. All other ceratopsian species were found in North
America where Triceratops was the most common. Tricer!tops along with
Tyrannosaurus rex and the duck bill, Anatosaurus, were among the last of the
dinosaurs.

" COLD BLOODED VS. WARM BLOODED

There is some debate whether dinosaW'S should be grouped with th~"reptiles.
Reptiles are ectothermic or "cold-blooded" which means that they rely on external
stimuli to regulate body temperature. In other words a reptile uses the heat of the
~1.l:f' or wann air or ~aJm ~ock surfaces to raise its body temperature and it moves
Into the shade or into a burrow to lower its body temperature. The opposite of
ectothennic. animals are. endothermic animals like mammals and birds. An
endotherrilic:iv. ~arm-bl00ded" animal relies on internal metabolic processes to
generate heal 'Ectotherms cannot warm themselves in freezing temperatures or
cool themselves in hot temperatures except by moving toward or away from heat
sour~. Endothenns can be active whenever they want without the warm-up
period required by ectotherms. Endotherms also have greater endurance.
Endotherms require higher energy levels to maintain body temperature and there-
for must eat more than ectotherms. A bird with a high metabolism must eat
constantly during the day to maintain its metabolism and thereby its body
temperature. A snake with a .slow metabolism may eat once a week or even less
often.
 · [I Uact] TEXAS DINOSAURS [sheetZ I[

ull Name: CHINDESAURUS (CHIN-dee-SAWR-us)

FACTS: Therapod/walked on 2 legs Meaning of name: uspirit lizard" (for place found)
Range: Texas Panhandle, Arizona Period: Upper Triassic (225-220 mya)
Hips: "Iizard" (Saurischian) Length: 10 feet Weight: 200 Ibs Diet: Meat

u
5 feet

DESCRIPTION! INFORMATION: Chindesaurus is of great interest bacause it is the

most primative dinosaur known from the Texas Docum Group which is a red rock
strata made up of a series of sand, silt, and mud formations deposited by lakes and
rivers in a big, low, collecting (depositional) basin that had no outlet to the sea. Only
a thigh bone and part of a hip bone were found, but by comparing them with more
complete fossils of Chindesaurus found in Arizona, we can say that they lived in Texas.
It is very similar to the Eoraptor and Herrerasaurus from South America, which are the
earliest dated theropods (meat eaters/lizard hipped) from the beginning of dinosaur
history.
ChindesauTUs was small by the standards of later dinosaurs, but it was actually a
large predator for early Triassic times.
Though liHle is known about its overall anatomy and life-style, we can say that
it ran on its back legs, had smaller front legs, and a long tail for balance. Its teeth are
clearly those of a meat-eater.

10
'II [fact] TEXAS DINOSAURS [sheet1 II

u Name: COELOPHYSIS (SEEL-o-FIE-sis)

FACTS: Therapod/waIked on 2 legs Meaning of name: Mhollow-form"
Range: Texas Panhandle, New Mexico Period: Late niassic (225 to 220 mya )
Hips: ulizard" (Saurischian) Length: 6-7 feet Weight: 65 lbs. Diet: Meat

u
, ,
5 feet

DESCRIPTIONI INFORMATIONi'" ,This was a slender small theropod dinosaur that

walked on its back feet, had forelimbs 1/2 the length of its hindlimbs, with curved
claws on both, and had sharp, serrated bladelike teeth. Its head was small and narrow
and its neck long and Us" curved. Its eyes were large and it could probably see very
well. Long legs allowed for fast movement, and a long tail was used for counterbal-
ance. The meaning of Coelophysis is ntlollow-form" which refers to its slight build.
Coelophysis probably ate whatever it could catch. Young may have eaten mostly
insects. They probably lived in groups at least some of the time, but it is unknown
what size groups they formed. At Ghost Ranch in New Mexico, there were large num-
bers which may have been brought together by drought. They appear to have been
swept away by a flood and later buried. They range in size and age from young to full
grown.
Only a few scattered remains such as teeth and a few bones of Coelophysis have
been found in Texas. However scientists believe it, or a very close relative, lived in
;> _. Texas during Triassic times.
~'6=~~==--~~----------------------------~--~
11
 [I Yaet1 TEXAS DINOSAURS [sheet] II

·U Name: TECHNOSAURUS ( TEK-no-SAWR-us)

I

Statistics: walked on 2 legs Meaning o/name: IITechno" for Tx. Tech Un- sponsor of dig
Range: Texas Panhandle Period: Late Triassic (225-220 mya)
Hips: IIBird" (Ornithsichian) Length: 5 feet Weight: 60-70 Ibs Diet: plants

u
5 feet

OESCRIPTIONrINFORMATION: Very little evidence of plant eating dinosaurs has

been found at this time in the Oocum formation from the Triassic. The paleontologist
Sankar Chatterjee from Texas Tech University in Lubbock, Texas, found a group of fos-
sils together in the same location. There were leaf-like teeth from a plant eater that
Chatterjee recognized as being from an omithischian or bird hipped dinosaur. He
named the new dinosaur TechnosauTUs for Texas Tech University, the institution that
sponsored the dig..'}· 'J. ..: , . •. ..

However, identification of an upper jaw fragment which was found in the same
site is suggested to be from a prosauropod. Thus, fossils from 2 different kinds of ani-
mals may have ended up together. It is likely that both kinds of animals lived there at
the same time.
Comparison of the teeth to other dinosaurs that lived at the same time indicate
that they may have been like African Triassic dinosaurs such as LesothosauTUs. The
continents were joined together during the Triassic period in a single supercontinent
called PANGEA and northern Africa and North American were close to each other.
Therefore TechnosauTUs and Lesothosaurus may have been closely related.
u
12
 II
yaet] TEXAS DINOSAURS [sheetl
II

Name: ACROCANTHOSAURUS (ACK-roh-KAN-tho-SAWR-us) I

I
FACTS: Therapod/walked on 2 legs Meaning o/name: IIhigh spined lizard"
Rallge: N. Cen.Texas, Oklahoma Period: Lower Cretaceous- (119-105 mya)
Hips: IIlizard" (Saurischian) Length: 25- 30 feet Weight: 2 to 4 tons Diet: Meat

u 5 feet

DESCRIPTIONl INFORMATION: The scientific name of the Acrocanthosaurus

refers to the tall spines on its vertebrae. They were covered and may have looked like
a sail or a hump running along its back. The reason for the raised sail or hump is not
known, but may have helped with temperature regulation.
The 113 long-toe" footprints at Glen Rose that may have been made by
Acrocanthosaurus are given a separate name, "Ireneasuripus", because scientists can't
be sure who made the footprints. They can tell they were made by one of the large
meat eaters. The trackways from this time period also has tub sized footprints of a
sauropod, probably Pleurocoelus. They are found together at the Dinosaur Valley
State Park, but we don't know if they were both there at the same moment or nol
The theropod footprints here at the Bamberger Ranch are younger than those
near Glen Rose and may have been made by an AcrocanthosauTUs, a descendent, or a
close relative.
The serrated knife-like teeth of the Acrocanthosaurus leave no doubt of its meat
diet. It probably ate whatever it could catch or scavenge, and because it was quite
large it could probably take large prey.
u
13
 II Uact1 TEXAS DINOSAURS [sheet1 I
:

u Name: DEINONYCHUS (die-NON-i-kus)

FACTS: Therapod/walked on 2 legs Meaning of name: Iiterrible claw"
Range: N. Cen. Texas, Oklahoma, Montana Period: Lower Cretaceous- (119-105 mya)
Hips: lllizard" (Saurischian) Length: 10-11 feet Weight: 175 Ibs. Diet: meat

u
5 feet

DESCRIPTION! INFORMATION: Deinonychus probably lived in Texas but the evi-

dence is scant. They lived north of Texas and where there is evidence that they fed on
Tonontosaurus. Since Tonontosaurus was abundant in Texas, it can be assumed that
they traveled and lived further south in what is now Texas.
The name means Iiterrible claw" which refers to the sickle-like claw which was
carried in an upright position on the hind feet of this Therapod. This claw was used
to slash prey when attacking. Deinonychus had four toes on its feet. The first toe/claw
bent backward and didn't touch the ground. The second was the slashing claw which
could be moved separately. The third and fourth were on the ground and carried the
weight of the animal. The uhands" had sharp claws also and could have been used to
hold onto a prey animal while it used the slashing claws to made deep wounds.
Deinonychus belongs to a group of dinosaurs called Dromaeosaurids or Ilrun_
ning reptile". All the members of this group were built for speed. They are believed .
to have hunted in packs, and with their speed, their terrible claws, and cooperative
hunting tactics, they were able to bring down large prey.
u
14
[I yaet] TEXAS DINOSAURS [sheet11
II p.. .
'Name: rlmltlve ORNITHOPOD from Proctor Lake

FACTS: Ornithonod/walked on 2 or 4 feet Meaning of name: Il},ird foot"

Range: N. Cen.Texas, Arkansas, Oklahoma Period: Early Cretaceous (Twin Mtn.)
Hips: "bird" <Ornithischianl Length: up to 6 ft. Weight: up to 85 lbs Diet: Plants

__________ ~ ________ ~ ________ ~ __________________JJ Sfeet

DESCRIPTIONI INFORMATION: At Proctor Lake in Comanche County, Rusty

Branch, a graduate student discovered many skeletons of different sizes of this small
Primitipe Ornithopod (referred to as Hypsilophodont in ULone Star Dinosaurs")
a
dinosaur in what must have been nesting ground where the flock hung oul Their
hands had five fingers, their hind legs four toes. When foraging for plants they proba-
bly moved around on 4 feet, but to move fast, they ran on 2 feel They may have
bounded from plant to plant (like a kangaroo). Their high-ridged teeth could slice up
vegetation. A horny beak covered the tip of the mouth.
The site where the bones are found is a quarter mile long outcrop of red sedi-
mentary rocks, which is unusual in the Twin Mountain Formation. The strata, doHed
with 60 concentrations of Primitive Ornithopod bones, tell us about the environment
in which these dinosaurs lived, which was an ancient river floodplain over 50 miles
from the sea shore. The climate was warm, semiarid, and there were seasons. More
young animals were found than old. Bones of some of the adults are still articulated
(still joined together). Most of the young animals are found as a jumble of bones from
many individuals that colleded in small depressions on the old land surface. The
animals of each concentration of young appear to be about the same size, but the size
U of the animals vary from one concentration to another. Few other types of dinosaur
bones were found there. There was something special about this area that brought
them together- perhaps it was a safe, protected nesting area.
15~~~==~==~~~~~~
 II ljactl TEXAS DINOSAURS [sheetl I
1

u Name: PAWPAWSAURUS (paw-paw-SAWR-us)

FACTS: Armored /walked on 4 legs Meaning of name: lizard from "Paw Paw Formation"
Range: North Texas - Ft. Worth Period: Cretaceous- (97.5 to 100 mya)
Hips: IIbird" (Omithischian) Length: 15 feet Weight: 1.5 tons Diet: plants

u 5 feet '

DESCRIPTION! INFORMATION: There is a wonderful story about the discovery of

a baby Pawpawsaurus within the city limits of Ft. Worth. A 12 year old and his father,
Johnny and John Maurice, were looking for shark's teeth in the Paw Paw Formation
when they discovered bones that looked like fossilized remains of a fried chicken din-
ner. The bones were taken to Dr. Louis Jacobs of SMU who identified the bones as
being from a baby "nodosar" an armored bird hipped dinosaur. It was probably
newly hatched when it fell into the water where its remains were scavenged by crabs
and sharks for approximately a month before it was covered with sediment
(Calculations of Il one month" was based on the age of the oyster spat (larvae) that had
attached to the cleaned bones. )
A beautiful and mostly complete skull of an adult PawpawsauTUs was found by
19 year old Cameron Campbell, who worked at the Ft. Worth Zoo. There are even
bony eyelids preserved with it. The bones of both the IIscutling" and adult are on dis-
play at the Ft Worth Museum of Science and History. The armor is bony plates
embedded in the skin. It has side spines but lacks the tail club seen on ankylosaur
group of armored dinosaurs.
The Paw Paw Formation was deposited when the sea along the south eastern
u shore of the Great Western Seaway was shallow.

16
 II [fact] TEXAS DINOSAURS [sheet] i
U Name: PLEUROCOELUS (PLOOR-o-SEEL-us)
FACTS: ro walked on 4 legs Meaning of name: uSide-cavity"
Range: N. Cen.Texas, Arkansas, Oklahoma Period: Early Cretaceous (119-105 mya)
ips: 1I1izard" (Saurischian) Length: 50 ft. Weight: 30. tons Diet: Plants

u
, . ,
5 feet
.~

DESCRIPTIONI INFORMATION: Pleurocoelus means IIside-cavity" which refers to

the cavities in the sides of the vertebrae of its long neck. It had a very long neck,
walked on 4 legs, and left large footprints around central Texas. The front and back
footprints are different. The front limbs left tracks that were smaller and rounder than
the back ones, with a cleft at the rear. Footprints made by the back feet are longer
than wide with claw marks on the front edge that can be seen on the clear ones.
Classic examples can be found in the Paluxy River near Glen Rose and on the Blanco
River near Blanco. Pleurocoelus appear to have traveled in herds. The name given by
ICHNOLOGISTS (Scientists that study fossil footprints and trackways) to footprints
most likely made by this sauropod is IIBrontopodus". Tracks of Pleurocoelus at both
Glen Rose and Blanco are in the Glen Rose Formation. Skeletons have also been
found in the Glen Rose area.
The teeth of Pleurocoelus are peg-like, are relatively uncomplicated and were
probably used to gather plant material. Their digestion was most likely aided by IlgiZ_
zard stones" or gastroliths sometimes found in the gut regions of sauropod skeletons,
U and by micro-organisms that most likely lived in their digestive tracts.

17
/
II yaet1 TEXAS DINOSAURS [sheet1 II

U Name: TENONTOSAURUS (te-NON-to-SAWR-us)

FACTS: mi h d walked on 2 or 4 legs Meaning of name: "sinew lizard"
Range: N. Cen.Texas, Arkansas, Oklahoma Period: Early Cretaceous (Twin Mtn.)
Hips: ubird" (Omithischian) Length: 15-20 ft. Weight: 1 ton Diet: Plants

u 5 feet
r,

DESCRIPTIONl INFORMATION; Tenontosaurus which means 'ISinew lizard" was

chosen because this dinosaur has bony, ossified tendons running along the vertebrae
of the tail that hold it stiff. The stiff tail acted as a balance to the body, especially
when it ran on 2 legs. Though it could run on its hind legs, it probably walked and
browsed on all four. It has four toes on the hind foot and five on the &ont The front
limbs are strong but shorter than the hind limbs. Some of the footprints at the
Dinosaur Valley Park may have been made by them, but scientists are not sure.
The teeth are heavy, used for crushing and grinding tough vegetation.
Tenontosaurus belongs to the group of dinosaurs known as Uhypsilophontids" which
means Uhigh-ridged tooth".
Though several skeletons of Tenontosaurus have been found in Texas, one of the
most noteworthy discoveries was made by a 7 year old boy, Thad Williams, and his
father Ted, when they were walking along a creek and found a skull. They knew it
wasn't from a modem animal and so they contacted the Fort Worth Museum of
Science and History. The landowners gave permission to the museum and SMU to
excavate. The complete skeleton of that Tenontosaurus is now on display at the Ft
U Worth Museum.

18
 II Uactl TEXAS DINOSAURS [sheet1 II
R
U Name: ALAMOSAURUS (AL-a-mo-SAWR-us)
FACTS: ro 0 walked on 4 legs Meaning of name: named for place found in NM
Range: W. Texas, New Mex., Utah, Wyoming Period: Upper Cretaceous- (73-65 mya)
Hips: lllizard" (Saurischian) Length: 70 ft. Weight: 30 tons Diet: Plants

u
5 feet

DESCRIPTIONlINFORMATION= Alamosaurus bones were discovered near a Navajo

trading post in New Mexico early in the 1900's. In Spanish Ual amo " means Ucotton-
wood tree" and the trading post was named IIOjo Alamo" for the spring and coHon-
wood tree nearby. So this dinosaur is named for the trading post and not The Alamo
in San Antonio.
Alamosaurus probably looked somewhat like Pleuroceolus, in that it
walked on four sturdy legs, and had a long neck. However, it was 20 feet longer and
weighed less than Pleurocoelus. It may have had some armored plates in its skin.
Recently some skeletal remians of a sauropod were found in Big Bend that indi-
cate that they got even larger than previously thought In January of 2000 there was an
article in the San Antonio Express News about the Big Bend Discovery by the UT at
Dallas researchers. They found vertebrae from a dinosaur which was huge, about 100
feet long. The vertebrae may be from an exceptionally large Alamosaurus, which is the
last known Sauropod of the Cretaceous Period, or an entirely new species.
Alamosaurus is a member of the titanosaur family which are primarily found
south of the equator. It did not arrive at Big Bend until the Javelina formation was
u being deposited, which was after the Aguja formation was deposited.

19
 ! ffactJ TEXAS DINOSAURS [sheet1 II

u Name: CHASMOSAURUS (KAS-mo-SAWR-us)

FACTS: Ceratopsian I walked on 4 legs Meaning o/name: II w ide-open lizard"
Range: W. Texas, Big Bend Period: Upper Cretaceous- (73-65 mya)
Hips: Jlbird" (Omithischian) Length: 15 feet Weight: 2 tons Diet: plants

u
5 feet

DESCRIPTIONI INFORMATION: All Ceratopsids have long heads, much of which is a

broad frill of bone that extends over the neck and shoulder region. It can be plain or decorat-
ed with bony projections, and if the frill is very long it may have openings in the bone. All
dinosaurs in this group have a toothless beak. The jaw has chewing teeth in the back.
Chasmosaurus is the most common dinosaur in the Aguja formation, which was
deposited in a time when rivers and streams built deltas through low marshy or swampy
lands. Water loving plants lived there in abundance which provided food for the dinosaurs.
Chasmosaurus held its head low and probably fed on low-growing vegetation. They are in
the same grQup as Triceratops. Chasmosaurus has openings in the frill bones, which is what
its name uwide-open" refers to. Living there at the same time were duck-billed hadrosaurs,
ankylosa urs, and theropods.
At one site the remains of ten to fifteen individuals were recovered representing juve-
niles, subadults and adults. This site suggests that they were together as a herd and that they
experienced some sort of catastrophic event, such as a flood, a drought, or a freeze. Because
the land was low-lying the bodies were covered and prese~ed.
Chasmosaurus of various ages have horns of different lengths, and frills with more or
less scollops and/or horns. They may have changed as the animals matured, and also they
may have been different in males and females.
u
20
 II UactJ TEXAS DINOSAURS [sheet] II

U Name: EUOPLOCEPHALUS (YOO-o-plo-SEF-a-Ius)

FACTS: Armored walked on 4 legs Meaning of name: Ilgood weapon head"
Range: W. Texas, Big Bend Period: Upper Cretaceous- (73-65 mya) [Aguja)
Hips: IIbird" (Omithischian) Length: 20 feet Weight: 2 tons Diet: plants

u
5 feet

IDESCRIPTIONI INFORMATION: The Euoplocephalus is an armored dinosaur of the

ankylosaurid family that lived in the river deltas, marshes and swamps that became
the Aguja formation of the Upper Cretaceous near the end of the period.
Evidence from a Cretaceous trackway of an armored dinosaur indicates that they
walked with their legs under their body. Their backs were at least partly stiffened by
bony tendons running down either side of the spine, and especially near the end of
the tail. A tail club was formed by enlarged bones embedded in the skin that are
fused to each other and to the tail vertebrae forming 2 lobes. When swung from side
to side by the powerful tail muscles, the tail club was an effective weapon, and could
undoubtedly have been used to break the leg of an attacking theropod.
Bony plates embedded in the skin, and even bony eyelids protected the head.
Bony plates studded with spikes run down the back for the length of the body.
Euoplocephalus and other armored dinosaurs were originally imagined to be
slow moving tortoise-like animals, because of their shape and weight. Scientists now
think of them as more active rhinoceros-like animals, that were capable of very fast
U movement. With large therapods on the prowl they needed speed and protection!
21
 II Uact] TEXAS DINOSAURS [sheet111
u Name: KRITOSAURUS ( KRIT-o-SAWR-us)
Statistics: Hadrosaur /walked on 2 or 4 legs Meaning o/name: "separated lizard"
Range: W. Texas, Big Bend Period: Upper Cretaceous- (73-65 mya) -Aguja Fm.
Hips: Lellgth: 20-25 feet Weight: 1-2 tons Diet: plant

u
5 feet

DESCRIPTIONI INFORMATION:' Kritosaurus' name comes from Greek word

"krino" which means Jlseparated" or "parted" which probably refers to the arrange-
ment of the cheek bones in the skull, which were lose to allow chewing.
Kritosaurus was a medium sized crestless dinosaur in the hadrosaur family.
Many other dinosaurs in this family had crests of various shapes which may have
given them the ability to make trombone like sounds. Kritosaurus has a large bump
on its snout in the area of the nostril opening. It also has a large duck-like beak which
was used to gather plant food. The rasp-like grinding surface of the teeth combined
with an up and down chewing motion crushed their food, which may have included
some woody twigs along with leafy material. The Aguja environment was one with
rivers running through marshes and swamps near the coast. Geological evidence indi-
cates that all hadrosaurs in North America lived in coastal plains. The paleontological
evidence shows that at least some hadrosaurs took care of their young in nesting
colonies. Maybe they all did.
The anatomy of Kritosaurus indicates that it was able to stand comfortably on its
hind legs. Like many other herbivorous "bird-hipped" dinosaurs, it may have grazed
u with its front feet on the ground.
22 -
 II ljactJ TEXAS DINOSAURS [sheet1 i
u IName: TOROSAURUS (TOR-o-SAWR-us)
I
FACTS: Ceratopsian/walked on 4 legs Meaning of name: Ilpierced lizard"
Range: W. Texas, Montana, SD, Ulah, Wyoming Period: Upper Crelaceous-(73-65 mya) (Javelina fm.)
Hips: ubird" (Omithischian) Length: 25 feet Weight: 6-8 tons Diet: plants

u ,
5 feet

DESCRIPTIONI INFORMATION: Torosaurus bones were found in the Javelina for-

mation, which was the last formation deposited during the Cretaceous period. The
meaning of the name Ilpierced lizard" indicates that this Ceratopsian dinosaur had
holes in its bony crest. The crest and head of Torosaurus together was the size of a
small car. The edge of the crest was without horns or scallops. Three horns, two
above the eyes and one above the nose adorn the face along with a beaked mouth with
strong teeth for grinding course vegetation.
Like the rhinoceros or elephant today, few predators would have risked attack-
ing such a formidable dinosaur. Weighing 8 tons and moving at a good pace on its
stout legs, head armed with sharp horns with neck and upper back protected by the
enormous frill this dinosaur must have held its own, even against Tyrannosaurus rex.
Like other homed dinosaurs (Ceratopsians) Torosaurus probably moved around
in herds, which made them safer from predators, especially the young which could be
kept in the center of the herd.
Torosaurus were among the last dinosaurs of the Cretaceous, and some of them
, must have been around to wibtess whatever catastrophe ended the era of dinosaurs.
~b=~~~~~~==~~==~~~~-=~----~~~==~==~~~
23
 .. . ~

·0
 -..

NAME:
DATE:

Human andHerrerasaurus Comparisons

Human Herrerasatlrus Characteristics of the Skeleton
Has reptilian skull with sharp teeth for slicing meat.
Has mammalian skull with different types of teeth for
slicing and grinding different types of food.
Has vertebrae.
Has scapula (where front limbs attach to body).
Has pelvis (where rear limbs attach to body).
Has clavicle.
( ,-
Body held hOrizontally over pelvis by tail.
U
Has ribs.
Has sternum.
Has four limbs.
Has three major leg bones (femur, tibia, fibula).
Legs held directly under body when standing or
walking.
Legs sprawled out from the body like a lizard or
salamander.
Walks on two legs.
Walks on four legs.
Has a patella.

Walks on toes.
79
 NAME:
DATE:

Hwnan Skeleton

13.

14.

15.

16.
( ,,-

U
17.

18.

i
9.
) 10.
\
11.

12.

u
77
 ~

C C'I c'
B

A
B
C
D
"
QO

E
F
G
H
I

Illustration by Carol Abraczinskas and Paul Sereno

N
t J
K
L
M __________________

NAME: N

HerrerasaunIS Skeleton DATE: o

 .'---'"

c- (I ('

A Skull
B Vertebrae
QO
C Ribs
N
D Pelvis·
E Scapula
F Humerus
G Manus (Phalanges)

-- H' Metacarpals

Illustration by Carol Abraczinskas and Paul Sereno t

N
I

J
Radius
Ulna
K· Femur
L Fibula
M TIbia
N Pes (Phalanges)
Herrerasaurus Skeleton - Answer Key
o Metctarsals
r-- -,
I ' '.

( H1Jman Skeleton - Answer Key

u
1. skull

13. scapula (shoulder blade) 2. clavicle (collar bone)

3. sternum (breast bone)

14. ribs 4. humerus

15. vertebrae

16. radius S. pelvis (bJp bones)

16. radius
17. c~aIs (wrist)/
( metacarpals

u 18. phalanges (fingers)

8. patella (knee cap)

9. fibula

i 10. tibia
\
\
11. tarsals (ankle)/metatarsals

12. phalnges (toes)

u
81
 Layers of Time
.. -.,:~. Background Information: SCientists carefully note the layer
L'IIII
~
of earth in which fossils are found. Geologist then
correlate the rock strata and determine relative age of
the fossil.

Problem: How do scientists determine the age of fossils?

Hypothesis: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Materials: Large clear plastic cups, m1xing bowl, water, 4 or 5 d~erent

colors of Jello, clean plastic fossils, drawing paper, pencil,.
transparency showing a rock strata with fossils.
Procedures:
1. Follow the instructions for making the Jello but reduce the
water to 1/2 of that in the recipe.
2. Place a 'fossil' in bottom of the cup.
3. Carefully, Without splashing, cover the fossil With one color of
Jello.
4. Refrigerate until the Jello sets up.
5. Repeat steps 1-4 with each color of Jello.
6. Complete observations.
Observations:
1. Draw and label an illustration of your rock strata model.
2. Label the oldest and youngest rock layers.
3. Draw and label an illustration of the rock strata displ,ayed
on the overhead.
4. Label the oldest and youngest rock layers.
5. Compare the fossils pictured and identify characteristics to
those in your model. Try and identify the actual age of one of
your fossil models.
Conclusion: Refer to the problem.

Extra,: Get a spoon and eat your model! Be sure to clean the plastic fossils
and return them to the teacher.
 Very short version of Dinos8ur Clossificlttj·on
REPTllES- are divided into 4 groups according to skull formation, based on
openings other than the eye socket. rSid- from Gr.: opening)
u t - ANAPSID extinct: primative reptiles

/todoy- tllrtles 811d tortoises

2- SVNAPSID extinct: mammal like reptiles / todoy=

.~
(rnommols)
·DIMETRODON

3- EURVAPSID d'w'elliflCJ reptilesl today none

extinct - sea

~
Ichthyosaurs &. Pleios8urs ._--......1.

4- DIAPSIDS extinct //odoy= snoJ.'es., /iZ6rd~ and

crocodiIss (olt?:!5 )

~ PTEROSAURS
*PTERRNODON
~#
~ . DIN 05 A!!.R5
\,
iand llvi llQ,erect gait~lived beMen 225 and 64 million IjI"S ago
, V
I THECOOO!'lTS .
'-....1.,.,•• 01...... A."S""~ .

t OR" IT" ISCH IANsl (SAURISCHIANS \

bird-hipped herbivores . reptile-hipped
carnivores &. herbivores

tCerate psi ans )

. (hOrned/beaked)

*PRRASAUROlOPHUS *PROTOCERATOPS
~+.. ,'Ii'
1'. \'t" :. -~J.. ~T.::l- J' {) OJ....
-!
J ... : "
"

.yJIICERRTOPS
I'J
(.:, . L./:' . ~,.,.'"
p' .' , •••• -" \.

tPacbgcc phal esa urS]

(thlCk-~)
'" ..~,.\!1eg~~~)?/ .
:.' .. ~..;:.!~rmor-p18ted)
·0 I LOPHOSRURUS

*STEGiSAURUS
V [AntlJlosaQ~
 GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
RA PERIOD EPOCH CHARACTERISTIC LIFE

U
O~.
N
Oc
~-
QUATERNARY
I "I~~ION T[AIt.
___________~________~
Recent
~Ielstocene

Pliocene
1 ~
#w~ W
Z ~ Miocent
W~ TERTIARY
U· , .. "".LION '[t."S 01l90C8ne
Eocene
Paleocene

~~~
CRETACEOUS
70 MILL!ON YURS

~.~
en ~
JURASSIC
45 "I~LIO" TUItS
~
., ,
tIA ~ ~

W2 I---TR-'A-S-Sr-c--+-------. ~
:E. ~
, ", .:.: ~ltQ

so MI~LION YURS - ~ T :;;.;

PERMIAN
55. MILLION TEARS

~ PENNSYLVANIAN
~ 30 M'LLION YEARS
&&J
~
z~---------+--------~
o
~ MISSISSIPPIAN
ct 5' M'LLION yiARS

-.
(.)
(.)
Oo!
oN.:ic DEVONIAN
W -! 5& MILLION YEARS
...JC
~~~------------.--------~
a.
SILURIAN
20 M'LL,ON YEARS

ORDOVICIAN
75 MILL'ON 'fEARS

CAMBRIAN
100 M'LL.ON TEA'"

PRECAMBRIAN ERAS
PROTEROZOIC ERA
ARCHEOZOIC ERA
APPROXIMATE AGE OF THE EARTH MORE THAN 3 81LLION 300 MILLION YEARS
 -~- .. - -- --- - - -- - -. - _. -- ___ -.a

OINOSAUR
TYPES THEROPOD SAUROPOD ORNITHO~vO STEGOSAUR CERATOPSIAN ANXYLOSAUR

v POSTURE 1"10&" OUaO·~'OAl.

"'fOAl.
'''0
OU&a.v"to","
OUaOfl''',o,,,
-
ou.o.,,'t~ O\.IoI~'fOA"

~D 11:_01. "..,
ARMOR IICl" ,.,. UJl&bI()IQlO ao-.T PUTt. toOIIt .... "...et oYI.
~ '""'~
\AUWClttD c~ro
oct OC'lltte.
as &1.ON2 "'CIr.
SI'Ur 10-'14
ICIlY 1'\.& rt oc-u.. &JIlt.
fll'M 0It'(& IICCir (\.1,;1-",&,
ra~

DIE T CA.~ ..... NOItCIuI IC ....O«IUS IC~ 14(~

tC·~.

"A", ~IO
OTHER WI nt fIO~WI.\. WUO( IOOY.
OESCRrPTlVE JAW. oarArl.Y \.0lI0 "'CIr
IIiIO raIl. •
SUIIO(.-IUI"O
SIO()It' IICC_,
LOtIO 1'&1\, SHOll' ..tCll
·"· ... Ol\.LO·
Llal-
·aucJt-M.l.ro· • roe",
"'....
• 'DUCIO '0111- IUIIoD
REMARKS '.1"" IC&O ,.""" 14(AO "",,·,"er

C'lI&fO~." "'&C..c)~." JIIIJII.~S-C 11 TIlIQ)SAUII\ISoC

EXAMPLES
"'-"OUAJllU'." o-I'\.oooeus•• COlt, f'Ioo01AI.IIUt -II .-.oTc.ct II. ro, ...
I"LtO'ClIIoCU'·C
""'MWItO~_1I
t •• 0 to" ,
#IIO#mJ$M.IIII4- ./ "'M:I#fHHIII- , S'FH$IUIIV6." '.ICC.Art1'.- , AMlrl(J$.lUtlU$.,

.~
"·""·'"C

if L
.,UUICIO\I, i
,.,/"'~"
at ~ •-.-
~ .
:>-;'\l .~'

IC~ • • 'fI. .. .-.. j

~
-.- I
-
-.- --.-
FLYING REPTILES - PTEROSAURS-
u GROUP AGE TEETH TAIL HEAD SIZE EXAMPLE
S.M.".
RHAt.f'HORHYNCH .,...... ."'L
DCVILO"I
,,0lIl U,
run 111'•••
..
lI\IIDDCe
..,....,
""er .......
.u~ .-a.~ 4..:::·...
II C" O' I 'Clf
. . . . . . ,1ICMIf

..~~~
"Ia_
... .,.,
U.8 ...,.,.,

..
....... III'"
."''" ......
• . , . 111&

.-.. ~
PTERODACTYLOIDS Me -~ "-'L fill . . . . .
to ...n •
'"
roo""'.... .. \MMI
dI'&caIUS
...., '"If

MESOZOIC SWIMMING REPTILES

GROUP AGE

..... .. -.
DESCRIPTION SIZE
.......
...... .....
HABITAT EXAMPLE

'. ~-,
'" "_", u.,...,.
ICHTHYOSAUR ..,...... IC. . \.0. . . __" '
_ ........ca·
u ..,....~

....... ......
M._ ~
\.I'~'''',
'1.6".... '-I "De,....·...
MOSASAUR CllCf&CIlWI
00UIIL.I-...-rD . . .
..~ '"ft "De,.... \~-~

....
I'1'UAUW

,..
..- A' . .n -.. ~

~~
"Gel . . . . . --.&.
. . . . . L.- u ...
PLESIOSAUR
........
...... . . , ..ca "e........

..
_fICIl...
~.

CHELONIA
crU.",,, ....... .,
nt. . . . " ..
_.......n.n.a. ..... .nc-.......
Itn .......
-~--
.... fUll. fI. . .,....,

...- .......
~-,

u PHYTOSAUA ........ .. ..,..-

~-4."
~...-.

II'MIa:II ... I'Ift

u .. ~
....... ~ - .
-~
Compiriion of Macnoic ftyinl and ••imminl reptilel. Reproduced with perm_OIl of Dr. J.JI. Dison.Jr.. and w-
010 11 Department. SI,lor UzU",nil,. Waco. Tes...
 BASIC
DINOSAUR
CLASSIFICATION

CERATOPSIANS
Horned

ANKYLOSAURS
Armored
I
1

~!

STEGOSAURS
Plated
SAUROPODS
Gigantic Plant-Eaters

THEROPODS
Meat-Eaters

"'S-A-U-R-IS-"C-H-I-A-N-S-~~ •
Lizard-Hipped-----I-------Bird-Htpped
ORNITHISCHIANS

Dinosa urs Dinosaurs

THECODONTS
Common Dinosaur Ancestor

15
 DINOSAURS AND DINOSAUR NA'TlONAL MONUMENT: A RESOURCE PACKET FOR 'l'kACHERS AND STUDENTS 41
Yes, there were many kinds of prehistoric animals, and not all of them were dinosaurs, nor did they all live at the
same time. This chart shows some of the better-known animals, and explains what they were and when they lived.

5
.0 The "Ice Age" did not kill
fb the dinosaurs, because
~c& they had become extinct

~B
long before then, However,
many other large ani-
E;-:- mals-mostJy mammals
~ such as these-lived
UJ
it at that time.

The time since the extinction of the dinosaurs is often called the "Age of Mammals."
Actually the first animals to take over the land after the dinosaurs were large flight-
less birds like Diatryma, but soon the mammals outgrew and outnumbered them.
Eohippus and Uintatherium (named for the Uinta Mountains near Dinosaur
National Monument) were typical early Cenozoic mammals.

A wave of extinctions marked the end of the Mesozoic Era. Not only the dinosaurs but also all the pterosaurs, sea reptiles, and many invertebrate
groups-perhaps half of all life on earth-died out forever at the same time.

r - - ONLYTHE ANIMALS INSIDETHIS LINE WERE DINOSAURS

I Thesewere
Ammonoids were
I some of the
among the many
I last dinosaurs.
invertebrates that
died out at the end
I of the Mesozoic Era.
I -~-=--~~~\07 Pterosaurs,
I
u I
the flying reptiles,
were not dinosaurs
but close relatives.

Several groups of
reptiles (not closely
I These were some of I The Jurassic related to dinosaurs or
the first dinosaurs. in the Triassic Period but they remained I Archaeopteryx even to each other)
I ~~ small and insignificant until the dinosaur's may have be~n developed streamlined
I '\ "~ long reign ended. I a bird, or a dlOo- bodies and paddle-like
I --..: I saur, or both. It legs, and swam the
I had feathers and Mesozoic seas.
I I a dinosaur-like
L _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ .J skeleton.

Like the Mesozoic Era, the Paleozoic Era closed with dramatic, worldwide extinctions. Then, too, about half of all known life, including the
trilobites, sea scorpions, pelycosaurs, and many other groups, perished abruptly.

Hard-shelled sea scorpions and trilobites

were some of the first animals commonly
preserved in rocks. Earlier soft-bodied
creatures such as worms and jellyfish
are known but their fossils are rare.

u ~ Primitive fishes
appeared in the
In the last third of the Paleozoic era, amphibians like
Eryops established a foothold on land. Early reptiles

~ middle of the era. such as the "sail-backed" pelycosaurs

(not dinosaurs) soon followed.

DINOSAUR NATIONAL MONUMENT NATIONAL PARK SERVICE

 Therizinosaurus
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
TI,erizinosalirus
Uherizinosaurus ('scythe lizard', from the Greek therizo meaning 'to reap' or Fossil ran : Late Cretaceous
'to cut off and sauros meaning 'lizard') was a very large therizinosaur
(previously known as segnosaur). It could grow up to 10-12 nleters (33-40
feet) long and reach 3-6 tons in weight[)]. TherizinosClurlis lived in the late
Cretaceous Period around 70-75 million years ago. and was one of the later
and largest representatives of its unique group. Its fossils were first
discovered in Mongolia and when it was discovered it was originally thought
to be a turtle (hence the name chelon(formis - turtle-formed) but it is now
accepted as a maniraptoran theropod dinosaur.

!Contents i
i !
! • 1 Discovery and Species I
t
• 2 Characteristics !I
I • 3 In popular culture I
I • 4 Footnotes Ii

l •
._. . _ ........._.5____________
References ---...iI

Kingdom: Animalia
Discovery and Species Phylun1: Chordata
l jle first fossils now attributed to Therizinosaurus were discovered in the Class: Sauropsida
late 1940s by a joint Soviet-Mongolian fossil expedition. The expedition Superorder: Dinosauria
unearthed several giant claws that lneasured up to a meter in length. Order: SZlurischi a
However. it was not known \vhat creature these belonged to until the early
Suborder: Theropoda
1950s, when further fossil expeditions unearthed 1110re bones: several n10re
sets of cIa\vs and parts of a forelilllb and hinc11in1b. Sl1bs~ql1ent finds in (unrClnked) I'v1C1nirZlptonl
northern China allowed paleontologists to assen1ble the general skeletal Family: TherizinosCluridae
structure of the animal, which was determined to be a dinosaur and not a Genus: TherizilloslI lIrliS
turtle. In 1954, the animal was named Therizinosaurlls ('scythe lizard'),
Species: T. clzelolliJorl1lis
referring to the enormous claws. At present, there is one accepted species -
T. cheloniformis.
1,erizinosaurlls clzelon'tnl"H7I'~1
Maleev 1954
The recent discovery of several related dinosaurs - Alxasaurus in 1993 and
Beipiaosaurus in 1996 - helped clarify the positio-; of the therizinosaurs as a whole. Various theories had been
proposed to explain the ancestry of these dinosaurs, with some scientists even suggesting they were descendents
of the sauropodomorphs - but these new, well-preserved fmds, giving details about the bird-like pelvis, feet and
skulls, helped confirm that the therizinosaurs were all maniraptoran, theropod dinosaurs.

Characteristics
Therizinosaurus had a small head with a beaked mouth, atop a long neck. It was bipedal and had a large, heavy ~
l ? body, as evidenced by the wide pelvis, 2.5 meter (8 foot) long arms and legs that ended in four toes (three
brWhich supported the animal's weight), which were tipped by short, curved claws. The Inost distinctive feature
of the animal was the presence of three gigantic claws on its front limbs. Each of the three digi ts of its hand
bore these claws, which reached nearly a lneter (approximately 2-3 feet) in length. The largest claw was on the
first digit[]].
The feeding habits of Therizinosaurus are still debated, but it was most probably an herbivore, using its big
claws to push leaves into its mouth. Other hypotheses suggest that it was a termite eater, using its claws to open
large termite nests - but it seems highly unlikely that an anima] the size of Therizinosaurus could survive on a . n
diet based on insects and features of the skull (including a beaked mouth and flattened teeth) suggest a
herbivorous diet(l] . It is thought that Therizinosaurus lived a similar lifestyle to modern gorillas or prehistoric
ground sloths~ using its long arms and sharp claws to grab food and foliage from trees.

There are other possible functions that could have been served by the claws of Therizinosaurus. such as defense
against predators (e.g. the contelllporary Tarhosallrus) and in intraspecific fighting. such as fighting for territory
or for mating. The claws may even have served all these functions.

It is highly likely that Therizinosaurus was feathered, given that its close relative BeipiaosGlIrus certainly was.

In popular culture
Therizinosaurus appeared in the BBC Walking With Dinosaurs special "Chased By Dinosaurs".

Therizinosaurus appears in the PlayStation video ganle Dino Crisis. In the game, Therizinosaurus is portrayed
as an active predator rather than a herbivore.

Footnotes
1. 1\ abc Svarney, Thomas E. and Svarney~ Patricia Barnes. "The Handy Dinosaur Answer Book". 1st ed. Canton, MI:
Visible Ink Press, 2003.

References
Parker~ Steve. Dinosaurus. 1st ed. Buffalo. NY: Quintet Publishing. Ltd .. 2003.

Retrieved from ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki /Therizinos8urlls''

Categories: Cretaceous dinosaurs I Asian dinosaurs I Therizinosaurs

• This page was last modified 16:18,8 January 2007.

• All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation
License. fSee Copyrights for details.)
Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation,
Inc., a US-registered 50 1(c)(3) tax-deductible nonprofit charity.

n
u Therizinosaurus cheioniformis (Maleev in 1954)

u
Name Means: "Scythe Lizard" Length: 26 feet (8 m)
Pronounced: Ther-ih-Zin-o-Sore-us Weight: 1,000 pounds (450 kilos)
When it lived: Late Cretaceous - 77-71 MYA
Where found: Mongolia, China 1948
Therizinosaurus has been an intriguing puzzle for scientists ever since several huge claws were first discovered
1948. Although there was not enough fossil material to determine its appearance, the claws were so unique that tt
had to be from a new species. Maleev named it Therizinosaurus cheloniformis in 1954.
Around ten years later another large claw was found, but this time along with other fossils, including a tooth, par
the front and rear limbs and even a four-toed foot. They gave paleontologists enough material to get a fairly good . .-o!:
of the animal's body. No skull had yet been found to provide material for head reconstruction. ' .~~
A series of finds in Mongolia in the late 1980?s showed that huge arms that had been previously attributed to
Deinocheirus, actually belonged to the same group as the huge claws and strange bones attributed to
Therizinosaurus. Parts of the pelvis and other bones were also found, which gave paleontologists an even better I
at what was shaping up to be the strangest dinosaur ever to walk the earth.
Therizinosaurus had a small head, a long neck, short tail and a large body. It was so bulky that it could not havE
been a very fast runner. Its most distinctive feature was gigantic claws on its front limbs. They were nearly three·
long. The feeding habits of Therizinosaurus are still debated, but it was most probably an herbivore, using its big
manual claws to push leaves into its mouth.
While the claws were very long, they were not sharply curved. In cross section, they were quite thin. Some
scientists think they were used to tear open termite mounds. Therizinosaurs had a fairly long neck, small head, an
teeth that could have been used to eat plants. The family previously known as segnosaurs is now named after thi~
peculiar dinosaur.

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I. I?inosaur Teeth - Enchanted Learning Software http://www.EnchantedLeaming.com!subjectsidinosaursianatomy:Tccth.shtml
I·

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DINOSAUR ANATOMY AND BEnA VIOR
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NQJrfS~,llli~~1 Reproduction, Nests
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DINOSAUR TEETH
alELS alELS

. - . Camarasaurus : Looking at an animal's teeth can give you a lot of .: :e: r·. Spinosaurus
.. _--------------------
Tooth ., &: ' h ' l' d
~Patula-Shaped : lnlonnatlon on ow It lve.
I D'lnosaur teeth can te 11 : ~ \ \. Tooth
: ~? \ \. f-- Pointed
Il_
,I tooth : you a lot about the animal, including the type of : g "'.\ retooth,
:~ )i !food that it ate, how it obtained that food, and how : 3
I ;::::- \ ... or no'
\

\ ......, serrations'
: Rool ~.. \
J}~ Root :much further digestion was required (did it chew its : broken'orr \ .•.) .
.___ __
I

~
~.t ?~c:.)!n.?:r:o.?l.;c.?,!, _~ food, crush it, or just wolf it down?).
1
: 2cm

U Teeth are harder than bone and therefore fossilize more readily than bones. Many
fossilized dinosaur teeth have been found. Some species of dinosaurs (like Cardiodon,
Deinodon, and Trachodon) are lmown only from fossilized teeth.

The number of teeth that dinosaurs had varied widely. Some, like Gallimimus and
Omithomimus, had no teeth. T. rex had 50 to 60 thick, conical teeth. The dinosaurs with
the most teeth were the hadrosaurs (the duck-billed dinosaurs), which had up to 960 cheek
teeth.

Dinosaurs had replaceable teeth; when a tooth was lost or broken, another one grew in to
take its place.

SA URISCHIANS:

-Sauropods: ~ The plant-eating sauropods (like Apatosaurus, Brachiosaurus,

u
1/26/0011:11 AM
10f4
 -n
Dinosaur Teeth - Enchanted Learning Software http://www.EnchantedLearning.comisubjectsldinosaursianatomyffeeth.shtm)

~ - u - Pi~t~~~~~-~~~Diplodocus,
Supersaurus, etc.) had peg-like or ~- - ~'~ Dipi~d~~~~":u u

:, ~Tooth:, spoon-shaped teeth for stripping foliage but not for :, ''~\ Tooth
Pencil-shaped
: \ Le~-::t~ed : chewing. The tough plant material was digested in :e tooth

: 5 \-.(V' :their huge guts, possibly in fermentation chambers, : ~ \

~ := ~f- A®©a iand frequently with the aid of gastroliths (gizzard ~ 1/1 ~ Rool N

: ' 03>ZMmScllo)ol.o:om : stones, which were stones that the animal swallowed) : \., 'DZ,)om;;(ho;"",',
. ------------------_. that helped to grind up the leaves and twigs. ' -----------------.... '

__ ~I~~~~p-~_<!~,; ___ Theropods (like T. rex, Giganotosaurus,

® ELS (" ______________ _
: \" Allosaurus : Carcharodontosaurus, Allosaurus, Spinosaurus, etc.) were: Troodon 3:
I

:
I
I ..,\,
Tooth
:meat-eaters that had sharp, pointed teeth for tearing flesh :
I Tooth
' {

I:" !

: ~ ~ s~:r~d and/or crushing bones. A recent discovery of a

1,1"", : : 'I '~ } :

:~ '\ tooth ~ Tyrannosaurus rex coprolite (fossilized feces) containing : \ ~ ~f.: :

\ ", H--".
Root, : crushed bone indicates that T. rex did indeed crush its
broken off
'T - I
: \ " , J~::e~d:
'

:. ___ . __ . :~~7~J:~~~':~~:(~:(~(~: food with its strong teeth and powerful jaws. :__ 1___~rl! __ 1______'

ORNITmSCHIANS:
The herbivorous (plant-eating) Ornithischians and some prosauropods had varied teeth,
but mostly had horny beaks and many blunt, leaf-like cheek teeth for nipping and
sometimes chewing tough vegetation.

-Stegosaurids: ~Stegosaurids (like Stegosaurus and Kentrosaurus)

had leaf-shaped teeth.

,
--------------

-Hadrosaurs (the duck-billed dinosaurs which included Maiasaura,

Parasaurolophus, Edmontosaurus, Lambeosaurus, etc.) had about 960 self-sharpening
cheek teeth. They had more teeth than any other dinosaurs.

-Iguanodontids: (like Iguanodon, Ouranosaurus, and

Probactrosaurus) had teeth similar to those of modem-day iguanas.
The rounded, notched crown of the teeth were curved.

u
20f4 1/26/0011:11 AM
Dinosaur Teeth - Enchanted Learning Software http://www.EnchantedLeaming.comlsubjectsidinosaursianatomylTeeth.shtml
, ..

.Heterodontosaurus~- was a small Omithischian dinosaur that had three different

U kinds of teeth (hence its name) and a beak. The sharp, cutting front, upper teeth were used
for biting against the horny beak, the cheek teeth were for grinding food, and it also had
two pairs of long, canine-like teeth that fit into sockets.

I
I

's:
·Ceratopsians ® like Triceratops, Styracosaurus,
, :g IN

Monoclonius, and others, had toothless beaks that were used to gather:
their food and many flat cheek teeth which were used to chew tough,
fibrous plant material.

•Most dinosaurs, like the Ankylosaurs (which included

Ankylosaurus, Sauropelta, Euoplocephalus, etc.), could not chew their food
and might have had large fermentation chambers in which the tough plant
fibers were digested. Ankylosaurs had teeth that were shaped like a hand
with the fingers together.

,l
u .Ornithomimids'~ (like Omithomimus, Ansermimus, Gallimimus, and
Struthiomimus) had no teeth, only beaks, with which they ate plants, insects, and small
animals .

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~.
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~ , DINOSAUR ANATOMY AND BEHAVIOR
;~~_-===I=-=-....:or==""""""'"
.lm~~I~~~1 Rel!ro~ction, Nests

HERDS AND PACKS OF DINOSAURS

Some dinosaur species apparently lived in groups, as revealed by fossil evidence, which
includes:

• many fossils found together in bonebeds (large deposits of bones of the same species
in an area)
• fossilized trackways of many dinosaurs travelling together
• large groups of fossilized nests grouped together.

Some dinosaurs grouped together for protection (like Hypsilophodon), and some for more
u effective hunting, like Velociraptor. The existence of herds can also suggest the necessity
of seasonal migratory movements to feed such a large group of animals.

HERDS - SAFETY IN NUMBERS

Many plant-eating dinosaurs travelled in herds, feeding and perhaps nestirig and migrating
together. The advantage of congregating in herds was primarily in protection against
predators (meat-~ating animals).

Many sauropods may have travelled in herds, as evidence from multiple

trackways (fossilized footprints) suggests. The trackways also indicate that the
young sauropods travelled toward the center of the herd for protection.

~ A bonebed of about 100 Styracosaurus fossils was found in Arizona, indicating

~that they also travelled in herds. Protoceratops bonebeds have also been found.
Other ceratopsians, like Triceratops, may have also travelled in herds.

~ Maiasaura fossils have been found in a huge group of about 10,000 animals.
This strongly indicates herding behavior. These Maiasauras were buried in
U volcanic ash along with a field of nests and eggs. Other duck-billed dinosaurs (hadrosaurs
like Parasaurolophus) may have also congregated in herds to feed, nest, and perhaps

1 of3 1/26/00 10:52 AM

Diposaur Herds and Packs - Enchanted Learning Software http://www.EnchantedLearning.com.subjectsldinosaurslanatomy/Herds.shtmJ

migrate.

U
*"ff A bonebed of about 20 Hypsilophodon fossils were unearthed together on the
Isle of Wight (an island off the coast of southern England).
c',

Other dinosaurs that may have have travelled in herds were Omithomimus .~ and
Dryosaurus.

PACKS - BETTER HUNTING

Many meat-eaters hunted in packs, combining their strength in order to kill even larger
prey.

~The deadly and intelligent Velociraptor may have hunted in packs, attacking
~ even very large animals. Other Dromeosaurids (the most intelligent dinosaurs),
Iike Deinonychus may have also hunted in deadly packs, attacking even huge sauropods
and ankylosaurids.

u ~
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DINOSAUR ANATOMY AND BERA VIOR

DINOSAUR OFFENSIVE WEAPONS AND MANEUVERS

Many dinosaurs were anned with built-in weapons that were used for killing and eating
prey, for dealing with interspecies rivalry, or as protection from fellow carnivores (meat
eaters). These included:

• Big, sharp, pointed teeth - Largest, sharp teeth of most carnivores are for tearing flesh
from prey .
... - .....--.- ..... --~

-~

i/··~:~::··~··---=-~~~~~:\.
• ~~ . .~\ Clawed feet - Many dinosaurs claws on feet and/or hands.
\...) Dromaeosaurids and Megaraptor had a huge retractible sickle-like claws on each foot.
• Grasping hands with clawed fingers - good for catching and slashing prey.
• Large size - Some dinosaurs, like Giganotosaurus and T. rex were so large that they
were at the top of the food chain, and could eat any animal that they could catch.
• Speed and agility- In order to eat, a predator must catch its prey. The only surviving
J'. . .
'dinosaurs, the birds, evolved from the speedy, bird-like theropods .

• Modem-day birds have excellent good color vision; it is likely that the bird-like
dinosaurs (advanced theropods like the coelurosaurs) also had color vision. This
would have helped them find and catch their prey (just as hawks use their acute vision
to spot prey).

-----------------.,-,,--------------- .-.-.-.-- .. --

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1/26/00 10:49 AM
lof2
Dinosaur Defense - Enchanted Learning Software http://www.EnchantedLeaming.comlsubjectsldinosaursianatomy/Dcfcnse.shtml

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DINOSAUR DEFENSIVE WEAPONS AND MANEUVERS

Dinosaurs were armed with built-in defensive weapons and behaviors that were used for
dealing with interspecies rivalry or as protection from carnivores (meat eaters). These
. included:

• Horns, Claws, and Spikes - Many dinosaurs had deadly, knife-like protuberances
that were excellent protection from being eaten (for example, Triceratops
-- ~.-':'.
,.~~

~~7;:-·:ig· Kentrosaurus~).
and Some sauropods had large thumb claws;
these were especially prominent in the young and in juveniles.
• Large size - Some adult diplodocids (like Apatosaurus, Diplodocus,
Supersaurus, etc.) and other dinosaurs were so large that only the hugest carnivores or
packs of carnivores were a danger.
• Armored plating (bony plates fused into leathery skin) - Ankylosaurids .~
(like Euoplocephalus, Ankylosaurus, and Sauropel ta) were plated all over the tops
and sides of their bodies. Even their eyelids had armor plating. Only their underbellies
were unprotected. To kill an Ankylosaurid, a predator would have had to flip over a
terribly heavy animal over - not an easy job.
• Thick, leathery skin - This would provide only a little bit of protection from
predators with sharp, strong teeth like T. rex, Giganotosaurus, and Utahraptor.

• Head butting - ~
Pachycephalosaurs (like Pachycephalosaurus, Stegoceras,
Wannanosaurus, etc.) and other thick-skulled dinosaurs may used head butting to
repel predators.

It had long been thought that Pachycephalosaur's thick domes may have been used for
u ramming rivals during tp.ating and dominance combat, for attracting mates, and as a
last-ditch self-defense against predators. Paleontologist Mark Goodwin of the

lof3 1/26/00 12:02 PM

Din06aur Defense - Enchanted Learning Software http://www.EnchantedLeaming.com!subjectsldinosaurslanatomy/Defense.shtm) "

University of California at Berkeley has analyzed many pachycephalosaur skulls

(including those ofPachycephalosaurus), finding no evidence of healed scars. Also,
under close analysis, the thick skull bone is not rigid and solid, but porous and fragile
when put under extreme pressure. "It's time to kill the myth ... It certainly wouldn't be
in their own best interests to ram heads in a fight," said Goodwin "They would have
killed each other, and a couple of bowling balls would hardly make good targets."
• Speed - "'Leaving a fight can be easier and safer than fighting.

• Bludgeon-like tail clubs - . . .Ankylosaurids (like Euoplocephalus and

Ankylosaurus) had bony tail-clubs that could easily have been used for defense,
which would have been useful for these lumbering, plated grazers. Also, some
theropods, like Shunosaurus,Orneisaurus and maybe Mamenchisaurus had tail clubs
for protection.
• Whip-like tail - Some people believe that sauropods~ may have used
their massive tails as a whip to lash at their attackers. This theory seems unlikely
given the amount of physiological damage to tail tissue that would be caused by the
sudden acceleration near the end of the tail (and the deceleration upon impact). Also,
the large sauropods probably grazed on tree leaves, giving them no room to whip their
tail around without hitting tree trunks and getting severe tail damage.

DINOSAUR DEFENSE ACTIVITY

u · Dinosaur defense printout

. . . . . . . . . ":ft.:.:- ~L......
," . ·alle 7.VII wna •••
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DINOSAUR ANATOMY AND HEBAVIOR

• ~

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DINOSAUR ANATOMY AND BERA VIOR

DINOSAUR REPRODUCTION
Very little is known about dinosaur courtship, rivalry, pairing and mating.

EGGS
Most dinosaurs hatched from ~ ,,'. The eggs were round or elongated with hard shells.
These eggs were similar to those of reptiles, birds and primitive mammals; they contained
a membrane, the amnion, that kept the embryo moist. Some dinosaurs may have have
cared for their eggs, others may have simply laid them and then abandoned them.

Fossilized dinosaur eggs were first found in France in 1869. Many fossilized dinosaur
~ eggs have been found, at over 200 sites in the USA, France, Spain, Mongolia, China,
Argentina, and India. Very rarely, the eggs have preserved parts of embryos in them,
which can help to match an egg with a species of dinosaur. Without an embryo, it it
difficult to match an egg to a dinosaur species. The embryo in an egg also sheds light on
dinosaur development.

According to Dr. Kenneth Carpenter of the Denver Museum, most dinosaur eggshell still
have the original shell, not a fossilized replica. "The slightest change in the calcite making
up the shell destroys the very fine detail that can be seen with the scanning electron
microscope. Amino acids have also been recovered that are very similar to those found in
modem bird eggshell."

Recent Finds: About 10 large dinosaur eggs (plus 3 egg impressions) were found 1999 in
southwestern France (near Albas, in the foothills of the Pyrenee Mountains). No bone
fossils were found. The eggs had been buried in two layers in the sand. No one knows
what type of dinosaur the eggs were.

Much larger egg sites have been found nearby, in northeastern Spain near Tremp, where
hundreds of thousands of eggs (of both sauropods and theropods) have been found. Other
huge dinosaur eggs sites have been found in Argentina and China.

lof4 1126/00 10:54 AM

Dinosaur Anatomy - Enchanted Learning Software http://~.EnchantedLeaming.comlsubjectsldinosaursianatomy/Repro.shtml

DINOSAUR EGG INFORMATION .. - -. -.- -----.-

Fe=:~-~tion •
Where Were
Di nosaur Fossils the
Egg Shape, Size Egg Placement
Lengt h of Adult Were Eggs in
I Found a Nest?
I I --_..

I
Football-shaped, 1 foot
(30 cm) long, 10
inches (25 cm) wide,
I This was the first
Hyps elosaurus
II' France had a volume of5.8 Group of5
I dinosaur egg
No I discovered and the
I pints (3.3 liters), and I
27 fieet (8 m)
I may have weighed up I I largest.
__ I to 15.5poullds (7 kg) I
1---1
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...._.
1----------- --~--.-.-

Potato-shaped, 6
I inches (15 cm) long I . I Yes I

I I .......... I I
~Ii----Th-e-n-es-t-s-w-er-e-
I Iholes scooped out of
! 1 the ground, about

I 16-7 feet (1.8-2 m) in

diameter, and about·
3.5 feet tall.
Newborns were
iabout a foot (0.3 m)
long. Nests were
u
II

~
Maiasaura
Montana Oval, Grapefruit sized,
15 to 25,
arranged in a Yes
placed about 25-30
Ifeet (7.6-9 m) apart,
8 inches (20 cm) long
i25-30 feet (7.8-9 m) circle I just about the size
I ofan adult
! Maiasaura. In
lMontana, one group
i of over 40 nests
I
i covers 2.5 acres (1
ihectare) of land that
IWas an island during·
i the late Cretaceous
I. I period.
!.

~---l-~-~e-s:-:-~;U-m-s-)-r~ll inch (2.5 cm) long F-

l

grOUpF
!

~ -- ~
Protoceratops I
I
IM
! ongo la
I
I.', Potato-shaped,6-8
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'
1
112-30 eggs in a
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~I'----
y The nest was a
es shallow pit dug in
the sand.
6 t'.eet
II
(1' .8 m! ) ! !I . . ..
Ii !!
-------~. Usually laid in I
I

~ Football-shaped, up to a row (as I I

Many 1 foot (30 cm) long though the Rarely 'I

Sauropods I locations and 10 inches (25 cm) dinosaur laid
u over 100 feet (30 ! wide them while
m) walking.
..... _._ ...._________ -'--_ _ _ _--L-_ _ _ _ _ _ _- ' -_ _--'--------"'______
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20f4 1/26/00 10:54 AM

Djnosaur Anatomy - Enchanted Learning Software http://www.EnchantedLearning.comlsubjectsldinosaurslanatomy/Repro.shtmI

U NESTS
Fossils of dinosaurs' burrows and nests can reveal a lot about their behavior. Nests vary
from simple pits dug into the earth or sand to more complicated nests constructed with
mud rims. They may appear in large groups or all alone. The nests and the clutches of
eggs reveal information about the dinosaur's nurturing behavior.

• Eggs with embryonic Therizinosaurs (bipedal meat-eaters, a theropod from the late
Cretaceous) were found in 1991 in central China.

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I?inosaur Tails - Enchanted Learning Software http://www.EnchantedLeaming.conVsubjectsidinosaursianatomyiTail.shtml

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DINOSAUR ANATOMY AND BEHAVIOR

DINOSAUR TAILS
Most dinosaurs had large tails that probably had multiple uses, including acting as a:

• Counterbalance - :E~ most dinosaur tails counterbalanced a long

neck or a large, heavy head. Until a few years ago, people thought that dinosaurs
dragged their tails on the ground, serving to do little but making locomotion difficult.
This seemed pointless and ignored the fact that the large mass at the front of the
dinosaur's body (neck and head) had to be counterbalanced or else the animal would
u tip over!

• Tripod leg - ~ The tails of some dinosaurs could be useful in attaining a

tripod stance, which was probably used to forage very tall vegetation and for mating.

• Help in turning quickly - ~

Some dinosaurs needed to run speedily and to be
able to turn quickly, either to catch prey or avoid predators. In order to tum quickly
while running, the tail's movement can shift the runner's direction, allowing swift
turns.

• Bludgeon for protection - ~

Ankylosaurids (like Euoplocephalus and
Ankylosaurus) had bony nodules at the end of their tails that could easily have been
used for defense, which would have been useful for these lumbering, plated grazers.
Also, some theropods, like Shunosaurus, Omeisaurus and maybe Mamenchisaurus
had tail clubs for protection.
• Whip for protection - ' " ' ' ' -==>In 1961, the British zoologist R. McNeill
Alexander proposed the idea that some sauropods may have used their massive tails
as a whip to lash at their attackers. This theory seems unlikely given the amount of
physiological damage to tail tissue that would be caused by the sudden acceleration
u near the end of the tail (and the deceleration upon impact). Also, the large sauropods

lof3 1/26/00 II :09 AM

Dinosaur T.ails - Enchanted Learning Software http://www.EnchantedLearning.comlsubjectsldinosaursianatomyrrail.shtml

probably grazed on tree leaves, giving them no room to whip their tail around without
hitting tree trunks and getting severe tail damage. In addition, the amount of time to
get a nerve message from the head to the base of the tail (a distance of up to 50 feet,
15 m) would delay the attack considerably. Nerve impulses in humans travel at
around 3 - 4 meters/second. If dinosaurs could match this rate of transmission, the
time for a nerve impulse to travel from the head to the base of the tail would be about
4 - 5 seconds. Add to this the time to start the whip-like motion and the swift
meat-eater would probably already have taken a big bite of Diplodocus.
• Prehensile appendage - Some people theorize that some dinosaur tails may have
been prehensile, able to manipulate objects. The tails may have been used to build
nests, move vegetation, etc., much as an elephant's trunk works .

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DINOSAUR ANATOMY AND BERA VIOR

BRAINS AND INTELLIGENCE

The EQ or Encephalization Quotient is a simple way of measuring an animal's
intelligence. EQ is a ratio of the mass of an animal's brain to the mass of its body.
Assuming that smarter animals have larger brains to body ratios than less intelligent ones,
this helps determine the relative intelligence of extinct animals. In general, warm-blooded
animals (like mammals) have a higher EQ than cold-blooded ones (like reptiles and fish).

Dumbest Dinosaurs:
The primitive dinosaurs belonging to the group sauropodomorpha (which included
Massospondylus, Riojasaurus, and others) were among the least intelligent of the
U dinosaurs, with an EQ of about 0.05.

Smartest Dinosaurs:
The Troodontids (like Troodon) were probably the smartest dinosaurs, followed by the
dromaeosaurid dinosaurs (the "raptors," which included Dromeosaurus, Velociraptor,
Deinonychus, and others) had the highest EQ among the dinosaurs, about 5.8.

EQ • Encephalization Quotient
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 5.8

10f3 1/26/0011:07 AM
qinosaur Anatomy - Enchanted Learning Software http://www.EnchantedLeaming.comlsubjectsldinosaurslanatomy/Braln. shtml

The Encephalization Quotient was developed by the psychologist H. J. Jensen in the

1970's.

A SECOND BRAIN?
It used to be thought that the large sauropods (like Brachiosaurus and Apatosaulus) and
the omithischian Stegosaurus had a second brain. Paleontologists now realize that what
they thought was a second brain was an enlargement in the spinal cord in the hip area,
perhaps containing fat and nerve tissue. This nerve center may have controlled the
animal's hind legs and tail and was larger than the animal's tiny brain .
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20f3 1/26/00 11 :07 AM

Qinosaur Anatomy - Enchanted Learning Software http://www.EnchantedLearning.comlsubjectsldinosaursianatomy/Male.shtml

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DINOSAUR ANATOMY AND BEHAVIOR
~W~lru~~1 Reproduction, Nests
~~= &E

SEXUAL DIMORPHISM
It is very difficult to determine which fossils were male and which were female. Some
paleontologists have theorized that the males of some species may have had larger crests,
frills, or other showy structures that were used in courtship displays, mating rituals, and/or
intraspecies rivalry (contests among members of the same species, like territorial disputes
and mating competition), very much like many modem-day animals. The development of
these structures occurs with sexual maturity, so example of juvenile fossils would have
little or none of these structures.

• ~Hadrosaurs Originally, fossils very similar to Parasaurolophus but with smaller

U crests were thought to belong to a separate species of Parasaurolophus. A similar
situation existed for Lambeosaurus and many other crested dinosaurs (the
lambeosaurine duck-bills) and dome-headed dinosaurs (Pachycephalosaurs). In 1975,
the Canadian paleontologist Peter Dodson showed that many of the supposedly
separate species of frilled/crested dinosaurs were the females and juveniles of the
species. The anatomist James A. Hopson also interpreted the crest and dome sizes as
differing in males and females within a species.

Ceratopsians - Many paleontologists believe that the ceratopsians

(like Triceratops and Protoceratops) used their horns and frills in territorial disputes,
in mating competitions and for attracting females.

• ~ Pachycephalosaurs, the dome-headed hadrosaurid dinosaurs, also exhibit

sexual dimorphism. The anatomist James A. Hopson realized that crest and dome size
differs in the male and female of the species.

lof2 1/26/00 11 :05 AM

l}inosaur Anatomy - Enchanted Learning Software http://www.EnchantedLearning.comlsubjectsldinosaursianatomy/Skin.shrml
..

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DINOSAUR SKIN
COLOR
~ ) No one mows what colors or patterns the dinosaurs were. The largest of
. . ~ dinosaurs (like the giant sauropods) were probably neutral-colored or grey, like
the largest animals today (eg. elephants).

Most likely, dinosaurs that were hunted for their meat were camouflaged in order to hide
somewhat from the predators, colored in a particular fashion to attract mates, or brightly
colored to let predators mow that they taste awful. Different colors are also important in
temperature regulation; they absorb (or reflect) sunlight as the animal controls its body
~ temperature.

TEXTURE
( AIJlfDinosaurs had bumpy skin, as much fossil evidence indicates. A bumpy T. rex
...-,r"
skin imprint was found by a 12 year old.

~ The ankylosaurids had bony plates fused into their leathery skin, which was
~ excellent protection from predators.

INSULATION AND THE BEGINNING OF FLIGHT

/~Some bird-like dinosaurs had proto-feathers. Newly found dinosaurs include:
!'

• Sinosauropteryx prima - (121-135 million years ago). Sinosauropteryx had a coat of

downy feather-like fibers that are perhaps the forerunner of feathers. This
ground-dwelling dinosaur had short arms, hollow bones, a three-fingered hand, and
was about the size of a turkey.
• Protarchaeopteryx robusta - Long, symmetrical feathers on arms and tail, but it
probably could not fly - the size ofa turkey (from China, 121-135 mya) .
• Caudipteryx zoui - a small, very fast runner covered with primitive (symmetrical and
therefore flightless) feathers on the arms and tail, with especially long ones on the tail.
u About the size ofa turkey. (from China, 121-135 mya)

lof2 1/26/00 II :08 AM

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DINOSAUR LIFE SPAN

How old did the dinosaurs get to be? That question is very hard to answer.

6if: ~ecently scientists have found t~at most dinosaur bones have ~owth r~ngs (called
":\:0/ hnes of arrested growth, abbrevIated LAG) that may answer thIS questIon. These
lines are only visible using a microscope. The bones have to be sliced into thin
section and viewed with a polarized lens in the microscope. It's a bit like looking at the
growth ring of trees to determine the age of a tree. Each year of growth leaves a trace in
the bone (or tree trunk).

U Scientists have determined that:

• Troodon- Weight: 50 kg; 3-5 years to reach adult size (Varricchio, 1993).
• the ceratosaur Syntarsus rhodesiensis - Weight: 25+ kg; 7-8 years to reach adult size
(Chinsamy, 1994).
• the prosauropod Massospondylus carinatus~- Weight: 250+ kg; 15 years to
reach adult size (Chinsamy, 1994).
• the sauropod Bothriospondylus madagascariensis - weight 17500 kg; 43 years to adult
size (Ricqles, 1983)
• the ceratopsian Psittacosaurus mongoliensis - weight 80 kg; was 10 to 11 years old
(Erickson and Tumanova, unpublished data)

Another way to estimate life span is based on body size, the known life spans of
modem-day animals, and the fact that large animals generally live longer lives than
smaller ones. It has been estimated that the huge sauropods, like Apatosaurus,
Brachiosaurus, Diplodocus, and Supersaurus lived to be about 100 years old. Smaller
dinosaurs probably lived shorter life spans.

Growth Rates:
v Growth rates based on maximum growth rates of modem-day reptiles, even though there
are probably major metabolic differences. Protoceratops: Adult 177 kg, hatchling 0.43 kg

lof2 1/26/00 II :08 AM

( Qinosaur Life Spans - ZoomDinosaurs.com http://www.EnchantedLearning.cOmisubjectsidinosaursianatomy/Age.shtml

(hatchling weight calculated to be about 90% of the weight of 0.5 liter egg). Age to
adulthood calculated to be roughly 26-38 years.

U Hypselosaurus : Adult 5300 kg, hatchling 2.4 kg. Age to adulthood calculated to be about
82-188 years.

~·-A-n-im~a~l~lr~'·=··-·=Z=o=~=·~=···=·=··'=r=Z=o=o=m==~~-=Z=o=o=m==9===Z=o=om====!l=-z='=oo=m==:?I-=='=-z~'~='~='~~"'~"'~'~"~"~'~'~Z~'~=~~m~--

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DINOSAUR ANATOMY AND BEHAVIOR

HOT-BLOODED OR COLD-BLOODED?

• Hot-blooded animals (homeotherms) generate heat internally and maintain a

relatively constant body temperature (higher than the average temperature of the
environment). Examples include the mammals (including people) and birds. A related
term is endothermy, meaning that an organism generates their own heat to maintain
body temperatures.
• Cold-blooded animals (poikilotherms) have a body temperature that changes with
external conditions. Examples include reptiles, who need to sun themselves in the
morning to warm up, and then protect themselves in the midday heat. A related term
u is ectothermy, meaning that an organism uses external heat sources (and heat sinks)
to regulate its body temperature.

The debate about whether dinosaurs were hot- or cold-blooded is quite controversial. It
used to be assumed that dinosaurs were cold-blooded like their reptile ancestors. Some
paleontologists have recently argued that at least some dinosaurs were fast, active,
competed against hot-blooded mammals, lived in cool areas, were related to birds, and
therefore were endothermic (generating their own body heat, or hot-blooded).

Dinosaurs evolved from cold-blooded animals (the reptiles) and evolved into
warm-blooded animals (the birds). All dinosaurs, however, were not the same, and
perhaps their physiologies differed also. The huge dinosaurs and the tiny dinosaurs might
have used different heat-regulation strategies, just as they used different strategies for
other aspect of living. A good argument for this is found among modem mammals.
Although warm-blooded, there are some mammals (monotremes, the egg-laying mammals
like the duck-billed platypus) whose metabolisms are close to being cold-blooded.

Some dinosaurs seem to have had heat regulating structures on their bodies. For example,
Spinosaurus and Ouranosaurus had large sails on their backs, and Stegosaurus had
numerous plates. These devices were probably used for the collection and dispersion of
u heat. This suggests that they needed these structures to regulate their body heat and that
they were cold-blooded.

1/26/00 10:59 AM
10f3
 ·.~s$Ur Anatomy - Enchanted Learning Software http://www.EnchantedLearning.comlsubjectsidinosaursianatomy/BJood.shtml

Basically, it's difficult or perhaps impossible to answer this Question with today's
lmowledge. There are a lot of people thinking about this, and we'll be hearing a lot more
about it soon.

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DINOSAUR ANATOMY AND BEHAVIOR

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1/26/00 10:59 AM
20f3
 Texas Endangered Species
Program Outline
u
Objective: To· illustrate issues of endaQgerment utilizing ANSC animals, resources and
the Zilker Nature Preserve. .

Station I: How do animals ~ecome endangered?

A. Discuss and clarify terms: threatened, endangered, extincl(See
background information)
B. Discuss natural extinction versus extinction caused by humans.
C. Discuss factors causing endangerment and show animals andlor
props:
1. .Habitat Loss: Accounts for over 70% of endangered or threatened
animals. Human encroachment means loss of homes, food and
water for animals:· Human habitation also leads to death due to
traffic. People are also often frightened by wild animals and feel
they must ldll the animals if they live near people. (Show Gulf Coast
Toad and relate Houston Toad story fro~ pac~t).
2. Over-collection: Collection of wild animals for pets is unhealthy for
a species because a single collected. animal cannot reproduce. Over-
collection has played a major role iit the endangerment of the Texas
u tortoise ( it only lays one egg every two years) and the already
troubled Texas homed lizard. The Mexican red-legged tarantula
is threatened due to over-collection. (Show tarantula).
3. Pollution: Tell Barton Springs salamander story (Splash training).
(Show tiger salamander).
4. Vulnerability: Bats are very vulnerable because many live in large
colonies which can be destroyed all at once by pollution, structural
damage, or human interference. (Show bat).

5. Over-huntinglCompetition: The mountain lion and American alligator

were both hunted on a "no bag limit" "no season" basis. The
American alligator was placed on the Endangered Species list many
years ago and has now recovered to the point that it is no longer
endangered. (Show skull)
~e mountain lions in Texas have historically been hunted and ldlled
by fanners and ranchers who see them as a threat to their livestock.
Viewing animals as a threat is a form of competition. The mountain
lion is now classified as ''threatened'' in Texas.
Humans also view some animals as "competition" for natural
resources. The American bison was considered by Texas settlers
to compete wi$ -domestic livestock for food. The settlers therefore
participated in the full-scale slaughter of these animals, which
u eventually led to their extinction in Texas.
 Texas Endangered
u page 2

6. Multiple Factors: Kemps Ridley turtles are endangered because:

1.) harvest of eggs and meat as "delicacy" 2.) trawl nets
3.) pollution in water--trash, oil 4.) other factors: entanglement
in nets, collision with boats, explosives, entrapment in coastal power
plant intake pipes (Show sea turtle shell. Additional turtle info 4t
~~ .

7. Poaching:· illegal hunting of animals is called "poaching". Some

endangered animals, such as elephants, are hunted and killed for
body parts. It is illegal to bring items made from endangered
animals into this country. Customs officials at.airports and other
points of entry check to make sure persons do not bring such
illegal items acrOS$ our borders. If such items are found they are
confiscated and those attempting to bring them in. are fined.
Items in our Endangered Species box were confiscated by the Fish
and Wildlife Department and were stored in a warehoUse in
San Antonio. (Show some items from box.)
. Station IT: How We Can Help
1.. Captive breeding programs: (See article ''Born to be Wild" in
u information packet) You may want to show pictures and discuss
peregrine falcon and California cond9r efforts. Tell ferret story
(see packet) and show ferret with tube.
2. Legal protection: Discuss protection of Birds of Prey and show owl.

3. Preserves: You may want to show pictures of ocelot and jaguanmdi

(see packet for info) and discuss Wildlife Corridor. Show pictures ·
and explain plight of black-capped vireo and golden-cheeked
warbler.(see packet) Discuss the use of preserves in Austin to
accommodate these endangered animals.
..
Station m: Zilker Nature Preserve and Dilemmas

1. Hike to the preserve entrance and introduce the preserve.· Show the
ashe Juniper and discuss its importance to the golden-cheeked
warbler.
. .
2. Hike to creekbed. Discuss the Edwards Aquifer and discuss the
dilemma it presents. Divide the class into groups. Give' each group
a dilemma card and encourage brain-storming. Let each group report
to the class.

3. What can we eac~ do ~very day to l,1elp endangered species? Recycle,

walk, ride bus, nde bikes, etc. .
u. 4. Why should we heip endangered species? (See article in packet)
Tell starfish story (see below). Show starfISh. .
 - - I

Texas Endan2ered
page-three

Starfish Story
..

S tartish eat mollusks and are therefore key to maintaining mollusk diversity by keepine
different mollusk populations in check. If starfish are removed from the area, one or two
a
species of mollusks (usually type of mussel) take· over and out-compete others. H the
habitat originally contained ten mollusk species, without the starfish only one or two
species survive. nus is hannful because different mollusk species keep other species in
check. .
Mollusks are helpful because they scrape algae. They are filter-feeders--they pull \vater
through their gills. This filtering cleans the water. The fewer the mollusk species, the
dinier the water. Without the starfish to contribute to species diversity, mollusk species
which are not as adept at filtering water may out-compete more competent fIltering species.

See starfish article in packet!

--
 T - Western prairie fringed orchid (Platanthera praeclara) ~

o Animals--46 species
Texas-73 species ~

E - Ampbipod, Peck's cave (Stygobromus (=Stygonectes) pecki) ~

E - Bat, Mexican long-nosed (Leptonycteris nivalis) ~
T - Bear, Louisiana black (Ursus americanus luteolus) ~
E - Beetle, Coffin Cave mold (Batrisodes texanus)
E - Beetle, Coma! Springs riftle (Heterelmis comalensis) ~
E - Beetle, Cornal Springs dryopid (Stygopamus comalensis) ~
E _.. Beetle, Kretschmarr Cave mold (Texamaurops reddellr)
E - Beetle, Tooth Cave ground (Rhadine persephone)
E -- Crane, whooping (Grus americana) ~
E - Curlew, Eskimo (Numenius borealis) ~
E - Darter, fountain (Etheostoma fonticola) ~
T - Eagle, bald (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) ~
E - Falcon, American peregrine (Falco peregrinus anatum) ~
E -- Falcon, northern aplomado (Falco femoralis septentrionalis) ~
E -- Flycatcher, Southwestern willow (Empidonax traillii extimus) ~
E - Gambusia, Big Bend (Gambusia gaigel) ~
E - Gambusia, Clear Creek (Gambusia heterochir) ~
E - Gambusia, Pecos (Gambusia nobilis) ~ .
E - Gambusia, San Marcos (Gambusia georger) ~
E - Harvestman, Bee Creek Cave (Texella reddelll)
o - Harvestman, Bone Cave (Texella reyeSl)
E - Jaguar (Panthera onca) ~
E - Jaguanmdi, Gulf Coast (Herpailurus (=Felis) yagouaroundi cacomitll) ~
E - Manatee, West Indian (Trichechus manatus) ~
E -:- :Minnow, Rio Grande silvery (Hybognathus amarus) ~
E - Ocelot (Leopardus (=Felis) pardalis) ~
T -- Owl, Mexican spotted (Strix occidentalis lucida) ~
E - Pelicat4 brown (pelecanus occidentalis) ~
T - Plover, piping (Charadrius melodus) ~
E - Prairie-chicken, Attwater's greater (Tympanuchus cupido attwateri) ~
E -Pseudoscorpion, Tooth Cave (Tartarocreagris (=Microcreagris) terona) ~
E - Pupfish, Comanche Springs (Cyprinodon elegans) ~
E - Pupfish, Leon Springs (Cyprinodon bovinus) ~
E -- Salamander, Barton Springs (Eurycea sosorum) ~
T - Salamander, San Marcos (Eurycea nona) ~
E - Salamander, Texas blind (Typhlomolge rathbuni) ~
E - Sea turtle, Kemp's (=At1antic) ridley (Lepidochelys kempii) ~
T - Sea turtle, loggerhead (Caretta caretta) ~ .
T - Shiner, Arkansas River (native pop. only) (Notropis girardI) ~
~ - Snake, Concho water (Nerodia paucimaculata) ~
-' - Spider, Tooth Cave (Nealeptoneta (=Leptoneta) myopica) ~
F . Tern, least (Sterna antillarum) ~
~UToad, Houston (Bufo houstonensis) ~
lLl.p:11 WWW .1 WS. gOVlr~eIlu~ppl ~Lau-r"" . .uUIll
 E - Vireo, black-capped (Vireo atricapillus)':
E - Warbler, golden-cheeked (Dendroica chrysoparia) *
E - Woodpecker, red-cockaded (Picoides borealis) ~

Plants-27 species
E - Large-fruited sand-verbena (Abronia macrocarpa) *.
E - South Texas ambrosia (Ambrosia cheiranthijolia) ~
E -- Tobusch fishhook cactus (Ancistrocactus tobuschii) *
E -- St~r cactus (Astrophytum asterias) ~
E - Texas ayenia (Ayenia limitaris) I\:
E - Texas poppy-mallow (Callirhoe scabriuscula)
E -- Nellie cory cactus (Coryphantha (=Escobaria) minima) *.
T -- Bunched cory cactus (Coryphantha ramillosa)::
E -- Sneed pincushion cactus (Coryphantha sneedii var. sneedii) ~
E -- Terlingua Creek cats-eye (Cryptantha crassipes) .
T -- Chisos Mountain hedgehog cactus (Echinocereus chisoensis var. chisoellsis).~
E -- Lloyd's hedgehog cactus (Echinocereus lloyd;;) ~
E -- Black lace cactus (Echinocereus reichenbachii (=melanocentrus) var. albertil)
E -- Davis' green pitaya (Echinocereus viridiflorus var. dal'isii) .:
T -- Lloyd's Mariposa cactus (Echinomastus (=Sclerocactus) mariposensis)
E -- 10hnston's frankenia (Frankeniajohnstonii)
E -- Slender rush-pea (Hoffmannseggia tenella) *.
E - Texas prairie dawn-flower (=Texas bitterweed) (Hymenoxys texana)
E - White hladderpod (Lesquerella pallida)
E -- Walker's manioc (Manihot walkerae)
E -- Texas trailing phlox (Phlox nivalis ssp. texensis)
E -- Little Aguja pondweed (Potamogeton clystocarpus)
T -- Hinckley's oak (Quercus hinckley;) ~ .
E -- Navasota ladies'-tresses (Spiranthes parksii) ~
E -- Texas snowbells (Styrax texanus) ~
E - Ashy dogweed (Thymophylla tephroleuca)
E -- Texas wild-rice (Zizania texana)

Region 2 Listed Species by State, Endangered Species; U.S. Fish &, Wildlife Service Page 1 ofS

u.s. FISH AND WILDUFE SERVICE

DIVISION OF ENDANGERED SPECIES
==:=============== [Return to the State List by Region page.]
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Region' 2 Listed Species Under Fish and Wildlife Semce Jurisdiction By State as of 04/31199

To locate additional regulatory information about a listed species, find and click its scientific name in
the Remonal Index File. Figures or other information may also be available, indicated by a clickable
asterisk (*) after the name below, in the Index FJ1es, or by locating the species with a search. You are
also invited to visit the Regional Home Page. The listing status of each species in each State, T = n
threatened or E = endangered is indicated before its name in this list.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
 Amazing Animals Dodo
The Dodo is a lesson in extinction. First sighted around 1600
Dinosaurs & Descendants on Mauritius, an island in the Indian Ocean, the Dodo was
extinct less than eighty years later.
Disappearing Acts

Fifty Treasures

Under the Sea

Up in tbeAir

World Cultures

Expedition Guide
Thus while the skeleton (above) on view in the Museum is real,
QOJ,lQ the model (below) is not, as there are no complete Dodo
/3arosaurus specimens. Some of the birds may have been eaten by the
UQ~aut:.Em.hryQ Dutch sailors who discovered them. However, the primary
.:lana Island Diorama causes of their extinction were the destruction of the forest
Peregrine Falcon Diorruna (which cut off the Dodo's food supply), and the animals that the
,ea.S_S~M~t.J~igeol1S sailors brought with them, including cats, rats, and pigs, which
Ostrig.bJ)ior&m~ destroyed Dodo nests.
Dinosaur Mummy
7}rq1Jl1.0~.Qur1A§
Gl~Jt RQ.s.~ .Irc:t<;!kw~y

The Dodo's stubby wings and heavy, ungainly body tell us that
the bird was flightless. Moreover, its breastbone is too small to
support the huge pectoral muscles a bird this size would. need
to fly. Yet scientists believe that the Dodo evolved .from a bird
capable of flight into a flightless one. When an ancestor of the
I I
Dodo landed on Mauritius, it found a habitat with plenty of
~ food and no predators. It therefore did not need to fly, and, as
flying takes a great deal of energy ~ it was more efficient for the
bird to remain on the ground. Eventually, the flightless Dodo
evolved.
~ ..... :....~ci~n~~~··~~;:~~~·.A,p}~rt9.a.!lMu~ew.n ofNatur~ Hi~oIY m.d··.
.:.;:. ·:?otl1~r:jIrStifu~roris·:a.r01itfd:theworld continue to stUdy. and
document the impact of human activities on the environment. It
~~. hop~4that the lessOl(of the Dodo can help prevent s~ar
extinctions, and aid us' in preserving the diversity of life on
earth.
,-

c.
u

u
 European ferrets prefer to eat wild hares which in European
countries live underground. They have been domesticated for
several centuries. In some European countries "ferreting" remains
a popular way to hunt. The ferret is sent down into holes where
hares are thought to be. Nets set up at the other openings and ,'---
the hare is caught in these as it exits trying to escape the
ferret. European ferrets have also helped their owners by ridding
the house and barn of rats and mice.
The primary food source of the black-footed ferret has been
prairie dogs. Like its cousin the European ferret, the black-footed
ferret is unmatched for catching burrow-dwelling prey. Unfor-
tunately the prairie dog and its habitat, the prairie dog "town",
are now greatly reduced in number and area. It proved to be a
great conflict of interest between the prairie dogs "squatters
rights" and the cattle rancher who greatly 'disdained shooting
prize cattle and horses that stepped into this small rodent's
hole and broke their legs. Ranchers also perceived the prairie
dogs as competitors for the grass that their cattle grazed. It
has been no surprise that the ranchers have gone to great expense
to rid themselves of this "good-for-nothing rodent." Using poison,
traps, gas, and ammunition, the ranchers with the help of the
United states government have been very successful in their battle
against these animals.
The use of one of the weapons, a deadly chemical called
Compound 1080 has been used to control the prairie dogs as well
as coyotes, wolves, bobcats, and other predatory animals and birds.
One of the most unfortunate results of Compound 1080 has been the
loss of black-footed ferrets. Becaus~ the ferrets are· directly ~
linked to the prairie dogs, the future of the black-footed ferret r J
is most uncertain.
Black-footed ferrets were once found roughly throughout the
northwestern third of Texas in the same areas where black-tailed
prairie dogs prospered. The last known Texas sighting was in
Bailey County in 1963, but they are believed to no longer live in
Texas. In fact, the U.s. Fish and Wildlife Department nearly
declared them an extinct species in the u.s. in 1980. However a
small population of ferrets was confirmed in Wyoming. Now both
federal and private landowners are cooperating to protect these
very rare mammals. '
The story of the plight of the black-footed ferret is a lesson
for us all. It is the story of yet one more animal that has been
brought to the brink of extinction by people and their sometimes
short-sighted economic objectives. If the natural world had
warning lights as do our automobiles we would surely see a number
of red lights on our instrument panel and one of them would have
to be the black-footed ferret.

11
 The Passenger Pigeon

I n all probability, the Passenger Pigeon was once the most abundant bird on the planet. Accounts of its numbers sound like
c:omething out of Alfre.d Hitchcock's The Birds and strain our credulity today. Alexander Wilson, the-father of scientific
(-lithology in America, estimated that. one flock consisted of two billion·birds. Wilson's rival, John James Audubon, watched a
.:lck pass overhead for three days and estimated that at times more than 300 million pigeons flew by him each hour.
Elongated nesting colonies several miles wide could reach a length of forty miles. In these colonies, droppings were thick
enough to kill the forest understory.

passenger Pigeons were denizens of the once great deciduous forests of the eastern United States. The birds provided an
easily harvested resource for native Americans and early settlers. To obtain dinner in the nesting season one needed only to
wander into a colony and pluck some of the fat squabs that had fallen or been knocked from their nests. Audubon wrote in his
classic Birds of America, "The pigeons were picked up and piled in heaps, until each [hunter] had as many as he could
possibly dispose of, when the hogs were let loose to feed on the remainder."

.. ..;-...: "V.... -.r .. -

...,.W'_"",,~

~ -.. ...."' "~ .

:.....:: .... .
~

Old magazine Illustration of hunters shooting Passenger Pigeons.

Note the density of the fiight.(From copy in Schorger, 1955.)

Market hunters prospered, devising a wide variety of techniques for slaughtering the pigeons and collecting their succulent
squabs. Adults were baited with alcohol-soaked grain (which made them drunk and easy to catch), and suffocated by fires of
grass or sulfur that were lit below their nests. To attract their brethren, captive pigeons, their eyes sewn shut, were set up as
decoys on small perches called stools (which is the origin of the term stool pigeon for one who betrays colleagues). Squabs
were knocked from nests with long poles, trees were chopped down or were set on fire to make the squabs jump from nests.
Disruption of the colonies was so severe that wholesale nest abandonment was common and breeding success much
reduced.

So successful were the market hunters that pigeons became cheap enough for use as live targets in shooting galleries. Laws
intended to protect the pigeons did not help. In 1886 an editor's note in Forest and Stream said:

When the birds appear aI/ the male inhabitants of the neighborhood leave their customary
occupations as farmers, bark-peelers, oil-scouts, wildcatters, and tavern loafers, and join in the
work of capturing and marketing the game. The Pennsylvania law very plainly forbids the
destruction of the pigeons on their nesting grounds, but no one pays any attention to the Jaw, and
. the nesting birds have been killed by thousands and tens of thousands.

As railroads penetrated the upper Middle West after the Civil War, many millions of pigeons were shipped to cities along the
Atlantic seaboard, since, by then, clearing of oak and beech forests and hunting had already exterminated the birds on the
East Coast. Extinction of the Passenger Pigeon came with stunning rapidity. Michigan was its last stronghold; about three
million birds were shipped east from there by a single hunter in 1878. Eleven years later, 1889, the species was extinct in that
state. Although small groups of pigeons were held in various places in captivity, efforts to maintain those flocks failed. The last
known individual of the species, a female named Martha, died in 1914 in the Cincinnati Zoo and is now on display in the U.S.
Na~onal Museum of Natural History.

Vourse, market hunting ended as soon as harvesting the birds was no longer economically profitable. That point was
r~ached when tens of thousands of the birds still flew within large stretches of suitable habitat. Much of that habitat still exists
today, although many of the largest nut-producing trees that were common in the heyday of the pigeon were logged. Why,
then, did the birds go extinct? No one knows for sure, but it appears that to survive they needed to nest in vast colonies.
Perhaps this permitted them to "swamp" predators with their enormous numbers, so that the relatively few predators in the
area of a roost were unable to make a significant dent in the huge breeding colonies. And since these colonies dispersed as
soon as breeding was over, predators were prevented from building up their populations on the basis of such an ephemeral
resource. In any case, the fate of the Passenger Pigeon illustrates a very important principle of conservation biology: it is not
always necessary to kill the last pair of a species to force it to extinction.

Sad to say, the lesson of the Passenger Pigeon has not been learned. At.the present time the White-crowned Pigeon is
threatened by the horrendous slaughter of nesting birds on its Caribbean breeding grounds.
n
SEE: Conservation of the California Condor; Island Biogeography; The Decline of Eastern Songbirds.

Copyright ® 1988 by Paul R. Ehrlich, David S. Dobkin, and Darryl Wheye.

n
u FOSSILS
are the remains or indications of an
organism that lived in the geologic past.

Most living things break down when they die with the help of
decomposing organisms, and from chemical &/or physical
weathering. In order for something to become fossilized it must
be located in a spot where the decomposing organisms and
weathering can't complete their work. That usually means that
the remains must be covered relatively quickly with
sediments. The sea was a good environment for getting covered
and preserved.

Other ways of being preserved:

• Death in a dry cave could mummify an animal.
• In cold climates an animal could be frozen in ice.
• An animal could be immersed in tar, lava or quicksand, or
buried in a bog.
The most common fossils.are formed when minerals in solution
u enter the hard remains of the animal or plant and fill the spaces-
and turn the remains to stone (petrifaction). The actual parts
may remain or they may be replaced with minerals.
Sometime, ifa soft-bodied animal or plant is covered with
sediment, all that will remain is a thin layer of carbon
(carbonization), which looks like a black silhouette.

A mold remains if the imprint of the form remains after the

original is gone (dissolved or broken away). Shell molds are
common, both of the outside (external mold) and inside
(internal mold) of the shells.

A cast is formed if the mold filled up with material that

reproduces the form of the original.
Trace fossils are the tracks, burrows, and borings of animals
and may be the only clue to an animal's presence, or may help
the scientist (Paleontologist) understand how and in what
environment an animal lived.
 Major Groups of Fossils found in
the Cretaceous Formations n

URCHINS, STARFISHES, etc.

Echinoid~- (Means: "spiny")
Sea biscuits ~
U rehins · . ,~~:.~.;.
, :., ..
; ~
.. •

SNAILS
Gastropods-(Mea!'s: "stomach foot")
Sea snails (mostly internal molds)
~ Q ~.
AMMONITES, SQUID, etc. ;;E.
Cephalopods-(Means: "head foot")
Ammonites
Chambered nautilus
Squid
Octupus

ALGAE (Aquatic plants)

Porocystis
 F0 SS I LS- are the remains or indications of an organism that
u liued in the geologic past.

Most liuing things break down when they die with the help of
decomposing organisms. In order for something to become a fossil it
must be located in a spot where the decomposing organisms can't do
their worle. That usually means that it lDust be cooered quickly
with sediments. (other ways of being preserued: -a dry caue could
mummify an anima.,. It could be frozen in ice, immersed in 1ft[, lAllA. or
quicksand, or buried in a .IUUJ). The sea was a good enuironment for
getting couered and preserued.

The most common fossils are formed when minerals in solution enter
the hard remains of the animal or plant and fill the SDaces- and turn the
remains to stone. (petrification). The actual parts may remain or they
may be replaced with minerals.

Sometime, if a soft bodied animal or plant is couered with sediment, all

thot will remain is 8 thin layer of carbon (earbanizatiaaJ, which looks
like 8 black silhouette.

R mold remains if the imprint of the form remains after the original is
gone (dissolued or broleen away). Shell molds are common, both of the
outside and inside of the shells.

A cllst remains if the mold fills UP with material that reproduces the
form of the original.

Trace fossils are the tracks, burrows, and borings of animals and may
be the onlg clue to an animals presence, or may help the scientist
(PaleD.talagist) understand more about how an animalliued.
The area around Austin mas II sea in the Cretaceous period for
many millions of years (70 to 100 million yeurs ago), and during that
time thousands of feet of depOSits of lime, mud and animal remains
collected and turned into the limestone we see Bround the hill country
and in the creeks around here. Shoal Creek cuts through 8 formation
that has many fossils.

Rules in creelc- set limits, stay out of water, listen for tall to return to
teathers and do 8 show and tell. (Limit ahead of time how many fossils
eath thild may take with them. Three is 8 good number. Tell them they
u may come batk with their families and collett as many 8S they like .•
 LLANO COUNTY---+---BURNET COUNTY-·lt-----TRAVIS COUNTY
RILEY Balcolle.
MOUNTAINS SpIcewood Fault
I I. IDOD •

D D

.... ....
W -IDDD -IDDD W
W W
~ ~

~ -4DDD -4DDD ~
Z Z
2
..
<I
·~DDD ., -~DDD
2
4
> >
w
W
~ -'DDD -.ODD ..J
w w

.tD,DDD -to.DDO

-.~,DOD

CRATONIC ROCKS OUACHITA STRUCTURAL

BELT ROCKS

Btl U 8
KL
Crelaceous Carboniferous Ordovician
~
Cambrian
D
Block slatl,
~
UpPlr Paleazpic
8
•Lower Paleozoic
KU-Upper oql? rocks rocks
KL-Lower

k~~:~~
Packsaddle
Schist
8
Volley Spring
Gneiss
~
+ 1m
+ +
Town MIn.
Gronite
m P I
Precambrian
undivided

Flo. 2. Schematic aeetion, centnl Llano County to eatem Ttavia County, Tena.

OrdoYicIaD
Upper Ordovici.lft
Bm'IWD Limestone
Lower OrdoYlcian
Cretaceoul EUenburpr Oroup
Lower CretaceoUi Hone,m Formation
Fredericksb1ll'l Division Oormus Formation
Edwards Limestone Tuyud Formation (put)
Comanche Peak Llmeltone Staendebaeb Member •
Walnut Formation 'lbreadgill Member (part)
Keys VaUey Marl Cambrian and Ordovician •
Cedar Park Limestone Tanyard Formation (part).
Bee Cave Marl Threadgill Member (part)
Bull Creek Limestone (included with Olea WlJbenq Fonnatlon (put)
Rose Limeatone on AustiD ud LIuo San Saba Member (part)
Sheets of tbe Tesu Oeologic Atla) Cambrian
Trinity Division UPPU.Cambrian
Upper Trinity Wilhema Formation (part)
Glen Rose Limestone San Saba Member (put)
Hensel Sand Point Peak Member
Middle Trinity MorpD Creek Ljmestone Member
Cow Creek Limestone Welge Sandstone Member
Hammett Shale Riley Formation (part)
Lower Trinity Lion Mountain Sandstone Member
Sycamore Sand Cap Mountain Limestone Member (part)
Hickory Sandstone Member (part)
Pennsylveian Middle Cambrian (1)
Lower PennsylYUlian Cap Mountain Limeltone Member (part)
StraW1l Group lUekory Sandltone Member (part)
Smitbwfek Sbale
Marble FaUs Limestone
Unnamed phOlpborite Precambrian
Misaiaippian IgneoUi roeks
Barnett Formation Llanite (quartz porphyry dikes)
Chappel Limestone Six mile Granite
Miaisal ppian. and Dewnim Oatman Creek Granite
Houy Formation Town MOUDtain Granite
Doublehom Shale Meta-l,neaUi row
Iva Breccia Metagabbro and metadlorite
Red Mountain Gneiu
Bear Sprinl Formation Bil Branch Gneiss
Unnamed Hmestone Metuedimentary rocks (Ie. Clabaugh and McGehee,
Sbibliq Formation p. 14, for subdivisions)
pmar Bluff Limestone Packsaddle Schist
SUuriaD Lost Creek Gneiss
Starcke Limeltone Valley Sprint pneia
 FOSSILS SCRIPT

Today we are going to study about fossils.

What is a fossil? Fossils are the remains of plants and animals that have become rock.

The fossils we find in Austin are fossilized remains of animals that live in the ocean. Why would we
find fossils of ocean animals here in Austin? Austin was once covered by a shallow sea. (Show map
of present coastline of Texas, then map of Cretaceous Austin - 100-65 million year~ ago.)

We find fossils of sea animals here because this area was once covered by a shallow sea, but the
story of our fossi Is begins before that.

Do you know what tectonic plates are? They are like gigantic puzzle pieces under all of the land
area of the earth. They are constantly moving.

About 300 million years ago, the tectonic plate that the South American continent rests upon
moved very quickly and hit the tectonic plate that the North American continent rests upon. When
this happened a large mountain range was formed. These were the Ouachita Mountains and they
crossed from what is now Arkansas through the Dallas-Ft. Worth area, down through the Waco
area, past the Austin area and out to what is now far West Texas. The mountains sank about 200
U million years ago. You can ~iII see the Ouachita Mountains in Arkansas, but they sank completely in
Texas. They become very important in our story later on.

About 150 million years ago, the ocean moved up and covered this area. For about 50 million years
the ocean would cover this area and then retreat. Throughout those 50 million years, millions of
sea animals were living and dying in that sea. When they died, they floated down to the floor of the
ocean and became embedded there.

About 100 million years ago, the ocean covered this area and remained for about 25 million years.
More and more sea animals died and floated to the ocean floor and became embedded there. About
75 million years ago the Rocky Mountains started to erode. Sediments from this erosion came down
to central Texas through streams and rivers. These deposits pushed the sea back to where it is
today.

The sediments deposited were much heavier than the deposits that had been the ocean floor.
After about 15 million years of the heavier sediments causing stress on the softer sediments
beneath them, the softer sediments could no longer support the heavier sediments, and there was a
crack or "fault" where the Ouachita Mountains once sank. In this area we call that crack the
Balcones Fault. When this fault occurred, it opened up layers and layers of sea creatures that had
died and become rock. Every time it rains, more fossils are washed out of the fault and are
deposited in the creek beds in the Austin area.
Demonstrate fossil formation using clay and seashell:

Pretend this shell is a sea creature. It is swimming along and it dies. It floats to the bottom of the
sea. In order for it to become a fossil, it must quickly be covered by sediments. If it is not quickly
covered by sediments, it will simply decompose (decay). If it is quickly covered by sediments, it still
decomposes, but as the body decomposes, minerals and sediments move in to take the place of
where the body has been. When exposed to air and heat, those sediments and mineral harden and
become rock.

There are three main types of fossi Is:

Cast fossilsare the most common types we find in this creek. (Show large clam.) A cast fossil is in
the shape of the plant or animal itself.

Mold fossilsare the imprints of a pla~t of animal. (Show mold fossil.)

Trace fossils are the track of an animal. (Show ·worm track" fossil.)

Now let's look at the kinds of animal fossils we will find in Shoal Creek.

Procedure:

Show examples:

EXOGYRA (oyster) - show examples with and without "back doorn.

It is also called "ram's horn" (Show picture.)

GRYPHAEA (oyster) - also called "devil's toenail"

PELECYPOD (clam)

GASTROPOD (snai I)

ECHINOID (sea urchin)

CEPHALOPOD (ammonite)

Also show limestone, calcite, pyrite nodule, conglomerate sedimentary rock with fossils, chert.

Give creek rules:

1. No throwing rocks.
2. No getting in water.
3. No running. (Limestone is slick!)
4. Boundaries

Supervise students and identify their finds. They may keep three objects from creek.
u
Presentation Outline

Minerals, Rocks and Fossils (3rd-6th)

I. One Group (Three 40 min. stations-l instructor)

A. Resources
1. School Programs MRF boxes

B. Instruction
1. Mineral station and activity (see training manual)
2. Rock station and activity (see training manual)
3. Fossil station and fossil hunt (see training manual)

ll. Two Groups (Three 40 min. stations-2 instructors)

*Resources and instruction are the same except two instructors rotating
stations
u m. Three Groups (Three 40 min. stations-3 instructors)
*Resources and instruction are the same except three instructors rotating
stations
 Presentation Outline
Fossil Hunters (K-2)

I. One Group (Two Stations--Fossil intro and showing fossilsl fossil

hunting in Shoal Creek-! instructor)
A. Resource requirements
1. School Programs Fossil box
a. 9ne complete set of fossils
b. Charts and map
c. Clay and shell for fossil demo

B. Instruction
1. 20-25 min. intro to Austin's geographic past, how fossils form and
show types of fossils we are likely to fmd in the creek
2. 30 min. fossil hunting

IT. Two Groups (J ust like one group except with two instructors
at different parts of the creek)
A. Resource requirements
1. School Programs Fossil box
a. Two complete sets of fossils
b. Two sets of charts and maps
c. Two sets of clay and shells for fossil demo

B. Instruction--(Same as I B)

ITI. Three Groups (J ust like one group except with three instructors at
different parts of the creek)
A .. Resource requirements
1. School Programs Fossil box
a. Three complete sets of fossils
b. Three sets of charts and maps
c. Three sets of clay and shells for fossil demo

B. Instruction--(Same as I B)

=Ie For more than one claSs: spread out along wall, choose different parts of
creek for fossil hunting

u
 Presentation Outline
Minerals, Rocks and Fossils (3rd-6th)

I. One Group (Three 40 min. stations-I instructor)

A. Resources
1. School Programs MRF boxes
B. Instruction
1. Mineral station and activity (see training manual)
2. Rock station and activity (see training manual)
3. Fossil station and fossil hunt (see training manual)

II. Two Groups (Three 40 min. stations-2 instructors)

*Resources and instruction are the same except two instructors
rotating stations
III. Three Groups (Three 40 min. stations-3 instructors)
*Resources and instruction are the same except three instructors
rotating stations

~':.".::.'.(;~.:.. ... '~

 Mineral Script

u Today we are going to learn about minerals. Minerals are made up of elements.(Show
Periodic Table)
Do you know the names of any elements?
Examples: oxygen (in air we breathe), hydrogen, silver ,gold, copper
Minerals are made up of one or more elements. (Show and discuss letter, word and
sentence IIBuilding Blocks" chart) ..
Some p;f;Ro~e made of only one mineral. (Show sulfur.)
O~er minerals are made of more than one element. (Show galena-lead and sulfur)

All minerals have certain characteristics. (Show and discuss "Olaracteristics" chart)

Each mineral has certain properties that make it different from all other minerals.
Sometimes geologists (scientists who study minerals) can't tell just by looking at a mineral what
kind it is. Sometimes a mineral looks very different in nature. Examples: calcite, hematite
In order to properly identify minerals, geologists often have to perform certain tests.
These tests identify properties of minerals. (Show and discuss ''Properties'' chart)
Today we are going to test minerals and identify them by their properties.

Procedure:

Pass out worksheets.

Pass out backboards:
Pass out pencils (if necessary).
Tell students procedures they will use:ie. walk 'around and find minerals which

u fit the clues on their worksheets. .

Discuss and explain worksheet Be sure to tell the students which testing equipment they will
need for each item. Be sure to explain the importance of the "colorless" mineral use-items 11,
12, and 13.

After students finish the activity, go over answers. Use_ your mineral answer sheet to expand
knowledge. .

Show the following samples for the it~ listed below:

1. Show pyrite nodules.
2. Show large quartz crystals.
3.
4. Show large page of mica.
5,
6. Pass galena so the students may smell the sulfur.
7.
8. Pass satin spar.
9. Pass silver-colored hematite.
lO.Pass small piece of"caicite.
11.Pass mineral testing kit
u
Rocks Script

Show and discuss IGNEOUS chart.

Rocks are made up of two or more minerals.

There are three main types of rocks: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary.

All rocks were at one time igneous.

Igneous rocks are formed by volcanoes. Volcanoes are formed by magma pushing up
through the earth's layers: core, mantle, and crust.
Sometimes magma cools in the veins inside the volcano. Magma that cools inside a
volcano forms intrusive igneous rock. The most common type of intrusive igneous rock in this
area is granite. (Show granite)
Granite is found in much of Central Texas, therefore we know that there were once many
volcanoes in this area. "
Examples of old vol~oes:

Pilot Knob (near McKinney Falls State Park)

Enchanted Rock is a granite dome (near Fredericksburg)

u When magma comes out of a volcano it is called lava. Igneous rocks formed from lava
are called ~trusive igneous r o c k s . ' .
Extrusive igneous rocks that cool slowly have large crystals and many air pockets. An
example of this is pumice. (Show pumice)
Extrusive igneous rocks that cool quickly have smaller crystals and few air pockets. An
example of an extrusive igneous rock that cooled quickly is obsidian. (Show obSidian.)
Comprehension questions:

1. What forms igneous rocks? .

2. Igneous rocks formed inside volcanoes are._ _ _ __
3. When magma comes out of a volcano it is called _ _ _ _ _'
4. Igneous rocks formed from magma·are called _ _ _ _ _ _'
5. What is an example of a common intrusive igneous rock in this area?
6. What is an example of an extrusive igneous rock that cooled slowly?
7. What is an example of an extrusive igneous rock that cooled quickly?

Show and discuss METAMORPHIC chart.

The next group ·of ro~ we will talk about are metamorphic rocks. "Meta" means
"change". "Morphic" means "shape".
Metamorphic rocks are formed from igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks
which have been exposed to heat and pressure and have changed without melting.
The heat comes from the core of tf:1e earl:tL The pressure comes from the crust of the
earth.

u
 Page 2

u Some examples of metamorphic rocks and the rocks they.came from are:

Umestone becomes marble. (point out limestone and marble.)

Shale becomes slate.
Slate becomes schist. (Point out schist).
Granite becomes gneiss. (point out granite and gneiss.)

Comprehension questions:

1. Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have been exposed to _ _ _ _ and

- -_ _-J' and have changed without _ _ _ _ _ ___
2. Where does the heat come from?
3. Where does the pressUre come from?
4. Umestone becomes _ _ __
5. Granite becomes _ _ _ __

Show and discuss SEDIMENTARY chart.

The last group of rocks we will talk about are sedimentary rocks.
Sec:liIn.!mtary rocks are
formed by weathering of igneOus, metamorphic, or sedimentarY rocks. Weathering is the .
breaking down of rocks into small pieces, Weathering is caused by erosion of existing rocks by
wind and water. .
After the rocks break down, the small pieces get carried by wind and water and are
u deposited on land or in water. These small pieces of rock a:re cemented together by minerals.
'This cementing forms sedimentary rocks.
Many sedimentary rocks are formed in layers. (Show sandstone.)
Other sedimentary rocks form around object!: (Show conglomerate.)
Sedimentary rocks which form around objects are called "conglomerate" sedimentary
rocks.
Limestone is the most commo~ sedimentarY rock in Austin. It is cemen~ together by
calcite.

Comprehension questions:

. 1. What is weathering? .
2. Wind and water deposit weathered. material.
3. What cements sediIrientary rocks together?
4. What is a sedimentary rock that forms around objects called?

Procedure:
. .
Pass out worksheets, backboards, andpencils (if necessary).
Read and discuss worksheet. .
Explain actiVity.
Supervise as students complete activity.
Go over answers.
1£ time allows, play game.

u
 Austin Nature and Science Center
U Minerals Answer Sheet
Find the mineral that: Write the mineral's name:
1. looks like gold _ _ _ _....
p v.r..;r_it. . e
. __________
The nicknamefor pyrite is Fool's Gold because people sometimes think it is gold It is really sulfur and
iron. It can look like gold or it can be a rusty brown color.
2. has pointed crystals ____a
. . uiiiioia=rtz
. . . . . . __- - - - -
Quartz is made ofsilicon and oxygen. It can be found in igneous rocks with large pOinted crystals, in
metamorphic with small crystals, or in sedimentary chert with microscopic crystals. It is used to make glass. Some
types of quartz such as amethyst, tiger eye, citrine. smoky quartz and rose quartz are used as gemstones in jewelry.
3. looks wooly or hairy (do not open) asbestos
Asbestos is heatprooJ and stronger than steel, but also soft and flexible. It has been used for many things
including oven insulation, oven mitts, ceiling and floor tiles, wall insulation. but it was discovered to be a health
hazard because the tiny thread-like crystals can break off, float in the air and go into a persons lungs, causing
serious lung disease.
4. is thin and flaky (do not open) _ _ _. . . . ; ;IDl=·; .,;:;c.-,a_ _ _ _ _ __
Mica, when it is formed in large sheets, is called muscovite or isinglass. It has been used to make windows
for ovens, iron stoves and horse-drawn carriages. Mica can also be found as small shiny flakes in many other kinds
of rocks. It is made ofpotassium. aluminum, silicon and oxygen.
5. is yellow and smells sulfur
Sulfur is sometimes found as just sulfur, not combined with anything else. It is soft, only J % or 2 on the
hardness scale. Matches have sulfur in the tip because it burns easily. Sulfur is always found in igneous rock.
6. looks like silver and is heavy galena
Galena is made ofsulfur and lead. It is the most important source oflead. It is also the crystal used in a
crystal radio.

u 7. is magnetic magnetite
Magnetite is made ofiron and oxygen. It is an important source of iron. Some magnetite. callet! lodestone.
not only sticks to a magnet, but actually acts as a magnet.
8. feels smooth & slippery like a dry bar of soap talc
Talc is made of magnesium, silicon and oxygen. The niclazame for talc is soapstone. It is the softest
mineral. a J on the hardness scale. Talc is always found in metamorphic rocks. It is used to make talcum powder
and as a lubricant.
9. leaves a red streak on porcelain hematite
Hematite is made of iron and oxygen like magnetite, but combined in a different way. It is harder, makes a
red streak and is not magnetic. The name hematite isfrom a greek word that means "blood/ike". Hematite is an
important source ofiron.
1o. is shaped like a slanted cube or a slanted rectangle _____c:;.:;a_.lc_i_te________
Calcite. is made of calcium, carbon and oxygen. It is a very common mineral and is an important part of
limestone and ofmany cave formations. Calcite is used to make cement, steel and glass.
11. is colorless and is so soft that yon can scratch it with your f"mgernail gypsum
Gypsum is made of calcium, sulfur and oxygen combined with water. Gypsum is soft. having a hardness of
J ~ -2 on the hardness scale and fingernails are about 2.2. Gypsum is a very common mineral used to make
plaster, cement, and wall board.
12. is colorless and so hard that you can scratch a piece of glass_Q....u.....a.....rtzo..=_ _ __
Quartz is being used again here. Quartz crystals have a hardness of7 and glass is 5.5.
13. is colorless and is too hard to scratch with your f"mgernail and
too soft to scratch the glass calcite
Calcite is being used again here. Calcite crystals are a hardness of3, fingernails are 2.2 and glass is 5.5.
 Austin Nature and Science Center
Rocks
u
Find the rock that: Write the rock's name:

1. A sedimentary rock that is gray with wavy markings .;;;li..,m_., ....

esoiioito...D...e_________
Limestone is the most common rockfound in Austin. It isformed in layers under the ocean. Some limestones are hard and grey,
some are softer and some are white, or a pale yellow or pink.
2. A metamorphic rock with different colored stripes agD-.-ei...s-...s_ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Gneiss is rock that almost melted and stretched like taffy. This gneiss is from the Hill Country near Inks Lake and is over one
billion years old.
3. An igneous rock with dark blue crystals ._1l,..a...·t,;;..e_ _ _ _ _ _ __
Dl..
Llanite is a type ofgranite with blue quartz crystals. It is only found near Llano, Texas and is also about one billion years old.
4. A sedimentary rock that could write like chalk ch....al
... ..........k_________......---
Chalk is a soft form oflimestone. Today people make chalk, but long ago chalk rocks were used on smooth pieces ofslate in
classrooms.
5. An igneous rock that is light and floats in water ... ...·c
PoiiiioU=IDl .....e_________
Pumice is froth from a volcano. It floats because many air bubbles are trapped in it. Pumice is sold in drug stores to use
in the bathtub to smooth calluses from feet.
6. A metamorphic rock with very small shiny mica flakes sciiioiiih...is__t_ _ _ _ _ _ __
....
Schist is rock that melted even more than gneiss. This schist is very, very old, some ofthe oldest rock on earth. It is as old as the
rock at the bottom ofthe Grand Canyon. It comesfrom the Hill Country near Llano, Texas.
7. A sedimentary rock made up of different sized pebbles conglomerate
Conglomerate is formed from sediments ofgravel that become cemented together.
U. An igneous rock made up of pink, clear and black minerals .ag.-ran=iioiiote_________- - -
Granite is an important rock for building. This Texas pink granite was used to build the State Capitol building. It is found near
Marble Falls, Tx and at Enchanted Rock. It is also about one billion years old.
9. A sedimentary rock that looks like layers of sand _sa;;::n::.;;d_s_.to_n::.;;e_________
Sandstone is formed from sediments ofsand that become cemented together. It can be golden, red, gray, even green. Green sandstone
can be found near Lake Buchanan.
10. A sedimentary rock that has finger-sized holes ar__s.....t _ _ _ _ _ _ __
.,.k.....
Karst is aform oflimestone. It is the rock thatforms the Edward's Aquifer, a large underground areafllledwith water that is
the source ofwater for Barton Springs andfor much ofSan Antonio.
11. An igneous rock that looks like black glass .-,ob_s_i.-di_·a=n~__________
Obsidian is glass that is made in nature from lava that cooled very quickly. It was used for tools by native people because
it breaks to a very sharp edge, but it isn't very strong at all because it is basically glass.
12. A metamorphic rock that is white and smooth .;;;m=a_r.;:;b.::.;le__________
Marble is used in buildings and for sculpture. Marble comes in many different colors. White marble like this is what Elisabet Ney
used to make her sculptures that are in the State Capitol building.
13. An igneous rock that is dark with small holes; feels rough ._,b.-,as::.;;a;;:;lt__________
Basalt is basically just cooled lava from a volcano.
14. A sedimentary rock that is brown and feels slick. It has
sharp edges and was used by Native Americans to make tools. chert
~~----------------
Chert is also called ''flint''. It is made of microscopic crystals ofquartz. Chert was used by native people to make arrowheads
and knives. It makes a stronger tool than obsidian, so it was used more often.
Extra: What is the texture of each of these rocks? Circle the ODe you choose.
Limestone A. glassy B. fme-grained C. medium-grained D. coarse-grained
Granite A. glassy B. fine-grained C. medium-grained D. coarse-graiDed
Obsidian A. glassy B. fine-grained C. medium-grained D. coarse-grained
U Sandstone A. glassy B. fine-grained C. medium-grained D. coarse-grained
Conglomerate A. glassy B. fine-grained C. medium-grained D. coarse-grained
Gneiss A. glassy B. fine-grained C. medium-grained D. coarse-grained
 L:

u
ROCKS-
1-Rocles are the •••••••• lI'eet, of the elrth.
2-Tbay Ire composed of one Dr more ••••,..••.
3-They tIn be •••11 grlln. or " ••e, •• II~ or In I ••It •• stete.
WORDS USED IN THE ••CIC TI'E MATCHING GRME

IEI.MENTI.'
Limestone
Conglomerate
Sandstone
Layen
Erosion
Deposit

Sldlmlnts stert when roct. breat down, and the pieces are
clrrled .by wind Ind wlter (E••II.N ) Ind IEPIIITEI In LIIEIS, with
the youngest on the top. .
Sldlmentl'll gets farm when sediments (lilee slInd or mud) are
U cemented togetblr with minerai, ,ueb .1 colclte lod 1lllco.
S••~st••• Is cemented Sind,
LI•••t ••• Is cemented shells, timely mudI Ind cllclte.
5".'a II cemented mud
C••,I•••,.ta roctl hlUI a mlHture of different IIz8 rocts
cemented together- (Sind size Ind gl1luel size) .
MElIM••••• t
6neisl
Schist
Marbl.
51,t,
Heet/pressura
Chenge

Metamorphic rocles are rocks that haue been aRposad to 1I••t

••~ .re•••n and e........ without melting (the minerals and the
composition change). Note: Once they malt thay Ire mogml.
Llmestonl turns Into ••nla
Mudstone or shlle turns Into I'.'e, schist or , •••11 depending
u Igneous rocts mey tum Into ••
Sindstonl turns Into ••• rtzlte
a.s.
on bow much heat andlor pressure they wera 8Hpoled ta,
IINE ••S
Magma
Granite
Llue
Intrullus
EHtrullus
lIolelno
'gnsous rocks ore rocks that ore or were melted.
Molten or melted rock Is called •••••• I f It comes out of I
••Ie ••• It Is celled ••••, Ind II considered ID •• Ir••••• roct. (eHlt-
out). Pumice Is laul with Ilr bubble. In It, Ind oblldlon II IluI thlt
cooled so fa.t thl Crystl'S didn't hlue tlml to form Ind II considered
uoleanle glass.
MolteD roct thlt doesn't get to the surflce Ind Insteld cools
underground Ira considered •• tnl••• rock (In • Inllde). 1,...lte Is
one of the mllin Intruslus roctl we find, Ind the IlIrge crystlls tell ~s n
a long cooling procell. Remember. thl Imilier the crystlll, the flster
the coollng- Ind the larger the cryltlll tha-Ionglrthe coDling time.
u SEIIMENTS INI .ICES (bactlrounll infe)

The elrth Ind auerythlng In It Ind on It, lIulng or non- lIulng WIS mlde
Inside .. stir which eHploded (supemoul) more thin 4 1/2 billion years
Igo. The elements which mllee up euerythlng were crelted inside of it
while It WIS I 'shining star (III the alamants up to Iron), or when it
aHplodad (the lass common beluy alemants'.
The sun, pllnets, 81rth Ind III of UI Ire -st.r ....t -•
RII rocks on elrth orlglnilly started II ••, •• It some time In earth's
history•

••• t ...rI••-When rockl Ire eMpoled to the elements they brelk

down, alther by physlca. chlng.1 luch IS heating Ind cooling, or by
chemicil chlnge. clused by Interlctlons of the rockl, weter, lind
chemlclls In the enulronment.
Erall...... ".,.III••• -Rfter the rockl break down, the mlterlals
gets carried by wind Ind wlter (.,..s ••• ) Ind 1I.....lt.~, on lend or in
U water.,
Materials Ire deposited In •••en- the youngest II It the top.
SEDIMENTS ROCKS MRGMR
SEI.MENU.'
LIISE CINSll.lm. MOl....... 1£ MELTEI
(glued 1111 minerai.) (helt + pre.ure.
thlnged without
melting
LI~EY MUD LIMESTONE MARBLE MRGMR
.mln Inimllsbell.
and celt".
ClIY SHILE SLRTE 15tH ISTI&NE I55 MRGMR
mlnerelt ,It.t
'Gnawhaa
Ignea_net•
. breltda••
SRND SANDSTONE QURRTZITE MR6MR
the quartz grain.
len wilen Igneou.
roca Dreat down
6RRUEl CON&lOMERRTE GNEISS MRGMR
roetl If different
lize...II ."ape.
U delendlng on Whether
fre,Ia or .tn... WDrn
MIS .... TlINS INTI ••CIC _lEN IT CIILS.
The wig IgneDus rocks loot dependl upon tbe minerals Dresent. and the
cooling rote.
Ign80us rock thlt Is cooled '"t (I••• ), hiS smlll crystlll end I fine
grain. 1••llt. and ••••11. (E.lr••I•• I'••••• r.ct.)
I goeousrock that eOQls lie", slowlU underground hll Ilrge crystals and
allrge grain. lna.lt. and ••••ra. (I.tnl••• I •••••• nets'
Dolcenit rock that Is cooled uerg fast mey be ...,111••• (uolclnle glass)
or ....Ic. (If air bubblel In It). Both Ire cooled 10 fa.t thlt no crystlls
form.
u
MINERIlS -
Cbaracteristics:
1- Made up of one or more chemical element.
2- Non-Iluing
3- Found In nature (naturally occurring)
4- E8th mineral alway. he. tbe seme elementl In the seme
arrangement (the same through and through).
5- There is an orderly arrangement of atoms (repeating pattems)-
which forms crystals In chlrlcterlstlc shIpes (not III specimens of I
miner.' will show crustlilioe form, but DO I Itomlc leuel the
arrangement II the same).

Compare minerals and laDluage:

1- Elaments • letters (there ar 92 elements Including slluer, gold,
copper, iron, clrbon, - cln be gesses ella such .1 Hydrogen and OHygen)
2- 'Mlnlmls • words (You cln ule lama letters to maka different
words. Minerals sometime. hlue s.ma elements In different
arrangement Ind the m.lnerel. will heue different properties and
u different nlmes).
R few simple eHamples of minerals: Silica + ONygeo • Quartz (5102)1
Hydrogen + OHygen • Water (H20) I I ron + Sulfur· Pyrite (F eS2)
3- Rocks =: sentence.
4- Stroto • paragraphs
S- FormatlDnS • chapters

IIENTIFICRTIIN IF MINERllS-properties
Rminerel, whlt.Der it' size, whether crystalline or masstue, hiS
properties.
Some 8Hlmples of properties:
·crystals (square, pOinted, fit, needlelike)
*eolor (,.ml mlnarll mly comlln different colon - quartz.)
·hardness
*CIBlulge (breale 810ng I plene of weak atomic bonds)
*fracture (Irregular break)
·strellc
*welght (spectfle grtlulty- or lilt heDDY or light for Its size)
·does It fizz If you put acid on It
·magnetic
u ·smell
·Iuster
MI NEilL DETECTI DES
FIN. TIE MINERll TIlT MITCIES TIE CLUE (property) end write It,
name In the blank.
-I n thecenter of the circle pllce:
*gllss to te.t for hirdnesl
*8 porceilin pllte for scratch test
*megnet for megnetlsm test
*other tools Include, flngernell, eyes, sense of smell and touch
-Tell the students:
·geme II not I test
*mlY ule the .Ime minerll mora then anI time
*mlY Isk que.tlonl
*mey shire Informltlon
*1.I.,e the specimen on Its nllme cerd (alt If you·re not sure)
*don't open the albestos container plel••
*try to determine herdness with IS few scratches on the gillS In
pos.lble

- Wllk Iround the circle end say Ibe minerai·, nomes.

- Heue tbe students walt tbe eirele to lei all the IDeelmao••
- 61ue the students the go ahead to became mlnerDI detectlues.
-FINIL ••1'-1' - 60 ouer the Inswen and tell Interesting In10-
 BACKGROUND INFORMATION
ON GEOLOGY
u OF THE EARTH
AND OF TEXAS

COMMON TEXAS ROCKS

Cf)
~
(,J
0
a:
.;
:!
.:
III
>-
a:
iII <t
I-
Z
u ;5 I.&J
:E
I
tit
Q
-0
L&J
I en
8
til
•a
~
~
til
Z

=
ROCX '''AUMENTS. CGIoIMOHL' 'OOIt IEDOINII:Dt:~SIn:D IT INTENSE HEAT DAIIIC AND LIGHT IAHOS.CUfWED FQL.ATlOHSfSCHlSTOSITYI.CI' SLAn CLU'lAGE
JlUNNrNG WATE" ••'ND. OR ICE MAY MELT
~------------------------------------------~SE~MENTARY~--------------------------------------------~
UNCONSOLIDATED SEDIMENTS ItOCICS AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS
~--------~----------------------~--------~
WUTHEIUNG AND nOllON l"UIe
'UIE THEM
liTO
~------~---.~------~----------------------~
INTI_teAT. ~ •.uct va~OIts.
DOWN IGNEOUS AND IIUAMOM'HIC COMUONL' 'JlOM DEE""" BUlliED ra·
IIOCICS TO '01111 NtOUS AOOlS. May ItECIt'fSTALUU
. .TAIIIIOfIAtC ROOCS ,~ lEW
UNCONSOLIDATED
SEDIMENTARY
DEPOSITS
OItANrTE "HYOLln TItACHYTE 'EUIT!
OIlANULAIt "OCKS

FIC. 18. Sketch showing the relationships of the three general kinds of Texas rocks.

u
 ,
,

~
CRUST dna MANTLE (rocky)
Mesosphere. solid
--<.------ CORE (meTdllic)
Inner core 1 solid
Asthenosphere, partly molten outer core. molten
Lithosphere. solid

The Earth has not always been as we see it

today, and it is changing (but slowly) be-
fore our eyes. The highest mountains are
built of materials that once lay beneath
the oceans. Fossil remains of animals
that swarmed the seas millions of years ~ _ _--1I!1:
ago are now dug from lofty crags. Every
continent is partially covered with sed-
?
iments that were once laid down on the ,!
ocean floor, evidence of an intermittent LUJlcs;lh.,. ( I
I
i
rising and settling of the Earth's
surface. (3)
. Earth Volume, Density, and Mus
Av. Volume, Mean
thickness or . millions density, Mass.
radius. km of km~ Q/cm3 x 1(}14 g
AlUlaIO&;Ih_ <
Total earth 6.371 1.083,230 5.52 5.976 i
Oceans and seas 3.8 1.370 1.03 1.41 l
Glaciers
Continental crust 35
1.6 25
6.210
0.9
2.8
0.023
17.39
1.10 The reletiOJWu;ll between the UPJ)e1' mantle and CNIt (contmensaJ and oceofUc:1 ana
the lilho.phere and aatheftOl1)here. (See aIIo FII;we 10.28.1
@
Oceanic crus I 8 2.660 2.9 7.71
Mantle 2.883 899.000 4.5 4.068
Core 3.471 175.500 10.71 1.881
 . .
IGNEOUS ROCIS Satellite
cone -.-----:,;....

u
3.20 Plutons and landforms associ·
ated with igneous activity.

Maqma
reservoir-

Igneous rocks are formed from the solidification of molten matter.

~
r- Igneous activity consists of movements of molten rock inside and outside the eanh and the
'0 variety of effects associated with these movements.
Cl. .. ~:':..7 Cause of igneous activity seems to be the same internal force that elevates mountains. causes
6' .:i·UJ~ earthquakes. and causes metamorphism.
.r . of: • t:: .. -
-£ -:.- 1-. :...
The Eartb's beat is indicated by the thermal gradient to be more than adequate for igneous
~ ":O~:;j
~
.s.
;.:. i·j
~·i-·ffi·~.
activity. Speculations on tbe origin olthe Eanb's beat have included original heat and radioactiv-
ity.
r.~
0...:
.~
. ~"t;J
. .w ;.,..
• .-.;t_ Ipeous rocks at the surface today were fonned from magma.
Magma solidifies through the process of crystallization.
]t 1-:.
,-(
:..J
« 0
a:
BoweD's reactioD series are incorporated in a hypothesis accounting for all igneous rocks
conung from an olivine basaltic magma.
Limitations of BoweD's hypothesis include failure to account for large undifferentiated
td r- CO
ef) CJ) ED masses of granite.
«CO c:(
C!) The rate of crystalUzatiOD is an imponant control over the rocks that fonn.

Texture of ipeous rocks is determined by the size. shape. and arrangement of their interlocking
UJ mineral grains. .
t= w Gr:muJar texture includes large mineral grains from slow<ooling or low-viscosity magma.
en t:: Aphanitic texture from rapid cooling consists of individual minerals so small that they
w c: cannot be identified without the aid of a microscope.
Glassy texture results from ions disorganized as in a liquid but frozen in place by quick
Cl 0 cooling.
Z Q Porphyritic: texture is a mixture of large mineral grains in an aphanitic or glassy groundmass.
« Pegmatitic texture is an exceptionally large granular mass of crystals formed by hydrothermal
solutions late in the cooling of a magma. .
W
w
:J
~ I::::: Types of ipeo1ll rock are arbitrarily defined in terms of texture and composition.

~
0 Dark-c:olored ilDeous rocks (intrusive grabbros, extrusive basalts) constitute 98 percent of
>-
J:
rock fonned from magma that has poured out onto the Earth's surface.
Intermediate types of composition are given arbitrary names, such as 8Ddesfte and diorite,
c: because igneous rock compositions blend continuously from ODe to another from the dark
(.!J to the light side of the classification chart.
.,..,-- Ligbt-colored IlDeoa rocks, sometimes called siaUc, are dominated by granites and gnmodio-
u,.....CI.I rites.
~~ Q)
,-( - +oJ
~ ns
t2~ ,Q c:c CI.I
Qriam of magmas varies from partial melting of portions of the lower crust and upper mantle

.; ~
e
nsw~
ef)~~
.~
>n..
J: 0
that produces primary magmas, to fractional crystallization or other changes that result in
s~on~ma~. .
Three primary magmas are basaltic, granitic, and andesitie.
3A'Sn!::lJ.NI
Relationship of magmas to tectonic: settin81 is demonstrated by different magmas occurring
3A,smUX3 f at di1f'erent plate boundaries.

Masses of igneous rocks are called plutoDS, which are classified according to size. shape.
u and relationships to surrounding rocks.
Sills are concordant tabular plutons.
Dikes are cUscordant tabular plutons.
Lopoliths are tabular concordant plutons shaped like a spoon.
Laccoliths are massive concordant plutons with domed tops.
Batholiths are massive discordant plutons 10 to 1S km thick.
 • ..... 'aIIlUI ,.IIlIe t10CKS

ORIQINAL ROCK Low •• mOlrall.lte Meckulft telftDeralure H'9" "/IIDe,.,,,,.

'nCt.... 'n METAMORPHISM OF SHALE
,n,.n,,,y Ina Ol"'UI, anD ore••url .na DrtUu••
0' ......'" to""/11 SHALE
Clay "'1ftet8II
f
SHALE---~ SLATE SCHIST
SLArE
Gr_ 01 ""croICOD'C: GroWln ol.tfIJl mlCl
CIIY m'nelll' Deq,n 10 m,CI
'ectytlllhl.,n,o ....ICI'OICOOIC 9'1'''' O,vl Guam I"C!
m'CI 9ra,nl wnlcn oroauc:. DO • .,O.y 'e'OIDI'. 911"".
SlalY Cl.av191 tll:ller.

t
SCHIST
MIca CIVIIIII GlOW ..rv_
'''a
101'" CO"IDICUOUI AHYOUTE GNEISS t
'Ollillon ORAHITE
Lne,. 01 ' ..a.ol' ;
t GUlrtZ. Ina "''''0' ""ca. I
9Ir"••.• no l"'onIDa,. .
ONEISS
\4'CI'. laclvillllll.o 10
'110101'. IIICI I
'• .,.,.0 "'uClur. ,. orODUCed
BASALT .-...---------1 .u.CPH'BOl.lTE
COII"'9I1'"'O I"'DnlDOle.
:lllqIOClI..

Figure 7.7 The metamorphism of shale. @

We can never observe metamorphic processes in UMESTONE---~ MARBLE
action because they occur deep within the crust. but we LIIQ' cryattl. 01 CIIC'" or aO'olll'"
OIUI m'nOl ',"DUll""
can study in the laboratory how a mineral reacts to high
temperatures and pressures that simulate. to some extent.
the metamorphic process. These laboratory studies. 5AHDSTOHE----~ OUARTZITE
together with field observations and studies of texture OUI"Z D'u. m'no, '/IIOU''''''
and composition. provide the rationale for interpreting
metamorphic rocks. Figure 7.6 Generalized chart showmg the orlgm at some ~
of the common metamorphic rocks. ~

Metamorphism produces metamorphic rocks by changing i8neous and sedimentary (and other ~
metamorphic) rocks while they an: in the solid state. ~
Agents of metamorphism are heat, pressure. and chemically active fluids.
Heat may be the essential agent.
Pressure may be great enough to induce plastic deformation.
ChemicaUy actiYe fluids, particularly those released late in the solidification ·of magma,
n
react on surrounding rocks.

Types of metamorpiJism are contact and regional.

Contact met:lllDorphism occurs at or near an intrusive body of magma.
CoDtaet metamorphic: miDerais include wollastonite, diopsicie, and some oxides and sulfides
constituting ore minerals.

RegioD81 metamorphism is developed over extensive areas and is related to the formation of
some mountain ranges.
Regicmal metamorphic facies is an· assemblage of mhleraJs that reached equilibrium during
metamorphism under a specific set of conditions.
Regional metamorphic minerals include sillimanite, kyauitc, andalusite, staurolite. almandite
garnet, brown biotite, epidote. and chlorite. .
RegioDal metamorphic zones are identified by diagnostic index minerals.

Metamorphic rocks are found in m~UDtain ranges, at mountain roots. and on continental
shields.
Textures of metamorphic rocks are nonfoliated and foliated.
NoDfoJiated rocks do not exhibit rock cleavage.
Foliated rocks exhibit rock cleavage as slaty, phyllitic, schistose, or gneissic.

Metamorphism and plate boundaries are closely related.

Conyergent boundaries show increased temperature and pressure effects on subducting slabs
of lithosphere with sedimenis intruded by batholiths, downwarped thick sedimentary se-
quences, and plates that have collided.
Di\'ergent boundaries have bigh heat flow at spreading centers with mineralization including
sulfides and evaporites.
Transform or parallel boundaries have less igneous activity but include some metamorphism
and some economic mineralization.

Granitization \'5. Metasomatism refers to the debate over what percentage of the world's granite
is produced by each of these processes.

Geothermometers are animal, plant. or !!lineral indicators of changes in the earth's temperature.
 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
@
Sedimentary rocks cover about 7S percent of the Earth's surface and make up about 5 percent
by volume of the outer 10 km of the solid Eanh.
Qj
Formation of sedimentary rocks takes place at or ncar the Earth's surface.
u
CI ~
c: 1!!
.g iii "i Detrital material worn from the landmasses and chemical deposits precipitated from solution
CI ~
1:1 g 1/1
III
D 1:1 '0
arc the two chief types of sediments.
ii
III
i:
1/1
E Sedimentation is the process by which rock·fonning materials arc laid down; the resulting
c: III
~ E
III
E
deposits vary with the source of material, the methods of transponation, thc processes of
III
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deposition, and the environment of deposition.
®
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g Qj ~
0 Clay, quartz. calcite and some feldspars are the most common minerals in sedimentary
!l :! 1:1 rocks. Other minerals include dolomite. goethite. hematite. limonite. mica. halite. and gypsum.
~ 1:1
c:
:I
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1\1
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~
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>-
Texture depends on the size. shape. and arrangement of the panicles. Texturc may be Ciasllc
iii
en
:.: D
1/1 Gi
CI
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1\1 ~III or nonclastic.
0 iii
1\1
g c;, 1\1 Diaaenesis includes all the physical. chemical and biolo~ical chan~es that occur afler burial
0 Z 1:1
Gi 1:1 III
a: 0 ~ ~ III 1\1 ~ but prior to or immediately following lithification.
>
a: f iii 0 E
III
1:1
~
iii
0 Lithification convens unconsolidated sediments to firm rock by cementation. compaction.
< a:0 g
CI
.5 E
III
iii
0
Q.
III
desiccation. crystallization.
~ rn
W
1:1
III
"-
III ~ U Q.
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~

~1\1
W ~
Ci. U
Q C
III 'iii 1/1
1:1
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Types of sedimentary rocks include detrital. chemical. and biochemical fonns.
m E g i; :I III
i
rn
Z
u
III

>-
1\1
'1:1
III
C
=
III
c
tr
~
iii
1;
D
0
u
U
iii
Detrital rocks include conglomerate. sandstone. siltstone. and mudrock.
Chemical rocks include limestone, dolostone. and evaporites.
0 U III 0 :::I 1:1
£.
:I: iii 1/1
c ~ Biochemical rocks include chalk. coquina. diatomite. coal, and some limestones.
::e 1:1
c
E
ell 1:1
::I
.:. 1\1 co
c
0
0
1\1 U
E 'C
c: ui
III
0 Most abundant are shale and mudstone. sandstone. and limestone. in that order. Thev form
1'0 D
Iii ·iii 0 1/1 1;
D
ii 99 percent of the sedimentary rock family. .
U
"0 "0 ell
C
"0 III
CL E
1/1 III 0 III
c: c c :::I
-D Features of sedimentary rocks include bedding. mud cracks. nodules. concretions. geodes.
iii
c;,
iii
c;,
!i
i e
CI
c
1'0
1/1
U
iii
U and fossils.
W Color of sedimentary rocks is due largely to small amounts of the iron oxidc minerals
t-
W W W
z < W and. less imponantly. to organic matter.
w
Z Z w
a::
w z
0 0 ...I
0
t- 0 Sedimentary facies refers to an accumulation of deposits that exhibits specific characteristics
:IE t- t- < rn :::!! t-
<
Z
en
c
:;)
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rn
...I
l:
rn 0
z
0
-'
en
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:::!!
and that grades laterally into other accumulations formed at the same time but showing
different characteristics.
:::!! iii <
rn "z
0
CJ
::;

Sedimentation is closely related to plate boundaries. with thick accumulations along some
margins.
u
Alluvial fans Glacial Fluvial Tidal Organic
flat reef

Dunes Playa Lagoon Beach Delta oon

(eolian) lake

.u
Figure 6.13 Schematic diagram showing the major '2:'"
environments of sedimentation. ~
 Geolo2ic Time Scale

Epoch Millions Millions Charac- ·Whae

.
~-.~
_
Era
of Years
Ago Period
=~~~======~~~-=~~~-~~-~.-~--~~~-,,-
; Archeozoic
--Pioterozo~c 4000-600 Pre-Cambrian
of Years
Ago
..
eeriseic
Life
Bacteria
Jelly Fish
Happened
in Ausein

Llano region
Corals Algae granites, rhyolites
and metamorphic rock
It
Paleozoic 600-255 Cambrian 600-500 Trilobites, Shallow, warm sea
Molluscs covers the area
Ordovician 500-425 First Limestone forming
Vertebrates

Silurian 425-405 First Land

Animals
Spiders.
Scorpions

Devonian 405-350 Primitive

Fish.
First Land
Plants

Mississippian 350-315 First Deposits of coal

Amphib ians • accumulating
Spore-Bearing
Plants
Pennsylvanian 315-285 First Ouachita Mountains
Reptiles. formed, sea
First retreats westward
Trees

Permiau 285-230 Reptiles in

Texas. Age
0·£ Dinosaurs
Begins

,
Mesozoic 250-65 Triassic 230-180 First Ouachita Mountains
sank

Jurassic 180-135 First Sea advances and

Birds retreats from gulf

Cretaceous 135-65 First Volcanic activity

Flowers. Llano Uplift
Dinosaurs
Become
Extinct
Cenozoic 65-0
Paleocene Tertiary 65-1 First Sea retreats to
)
Eocene Primates, Balcones Fault
Oligocene First (15-25 million years ago
Miocene Grasses
Pliocene
Pleistocene Quaternary 1-0 Ice Age-Man
Recent
 Glossary

. spite of aU efforts to avoid using specialized jargon. a few such

J appear in this book. Perhaps this glossary wtll help the reader. Ice Age. Any time characterized by major glaciers. Generallv used
for the Pleistocene period. .
u Algae. Primitive seaweeci: one of the first forms of life.
Alluvium. A deposIt oi sand or mud fonned by flowing water.
Igneous. Any rock that has solidified from a molten state. From
the latin for fire.
Anhvdrite. Llterallv, without water. Specifically, a sulfate of cal- Inlier. An outcrop of older rocks completely surrounded bv
cium d~posited when ~lneral-rich water evaporates. Gypsum with- younger rocks. .
out the water. Intrusive. An igneous rock that solidified when the magma crys.
Arch. An upward bending of rock layers. tallized below the surface.
Ash. Residue from burning. Geologically, fine particles of crystal-
lised silica from a volcano. Jurassic. The geologic period from about 180 to 140 million years
Basalt. A dark colored volcanic rock. The most commonly seen ago. Named Cor the Jura Alps in Europe.
type of lava. Lava. The hardened rock which flowed from a volcano.
Batholith. A large body of igneous rock. that intruded older rocks Limestone. A sedimentary rock formed largely of calcium carbo.
and solidified far below the Earth's surface. nate. Commonly contains marine fossils.
Calcite. Calcium carbonate. One of the most common rocks and a Lithology. The science dealing with rocks, and thus the physical
major constituent of sea shells. Generally deposited by sea-water as and chemical characteristics of rocks.
limestone. Magma. Any molten rock.
Cambrian. The oldest geological period of which we have fossil Marl. An impure limestone or a limy clay.
record. The name derives from Cambria or Wales, and it includes the Mesozoic. The geologic era between the Paleozoic and the
time from some 700 to 500 million years ago. Cenezoic and including the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous. It
Carboniferous. Literally. the time of coal. That part of geologic includes the time from about 250 to 80 million years ago. The name
time from 330 to 270 million years ago when tree-like plants were the means middle life. In older literature it is called "Secondary".
dominant fonn ofUfe. The Mississippian and Pennsylvanian periods. Metamorphic. Changed in form: thus rock whose character has
Cenozoic. The geologic era coverIng the most recent 80 million been altered as by heat and pressure.
years and including the Tertiary and Quaternary epochs. From the Mica. A common mineral in igneous and metamorphic rock. It may
Greek words meaning common or now-known life. vary from white to black. but always splits easily into thin flat flakes
Chert. A compact sedimentary rock consisting primarily of quartz or booklets.
without evident crystalline fonn. MiDeral. The inorganic erystals or fragments of which rocks are
Conglomerate. A sedimentary rock composed of gravel or boulder formeci.
size rock fragments deposited by moving currents of water. Miocene. That part of the Tertiary period extending from about 25
Cretaceous. The geological period extending from about 140 to 80 to 11 million years ago. Literally "88S recent".
m; ":.,n years ago. Limestone is the dominant rock type as is implied Mississippian. The oldest part of the Carboniferous period of the
t : name from the Latin for "chalk." middle Paleozoic. Named from its wide exposure in Mississippi. and
in Texas considered as the youngest part of the lower Paleozoic or as
u Crust. The rigid outer part of the Earth generally extending to a
depth of about 60 miles 1100 km. J.
Delta. The muds and sands deposited by a river where it reaches
the time of transition from lower to upper Paleozoic. About 330 to 300
million years old.
Normal Fault. A fracture in the Earth's crust caused primarily by
the sea. So-called because of its common roughly triangular shape. a pulling apart of the ·rock due to subsiding caused by gravity.
Devonian. The middle pan of the Paleozoic Era extending for OllgoceDe. The middle part of the Tertiary epoch extending from
about 70 million years, from about 400 million years ago. Named for about 40 to 25 million years ago. The name means that few modern
its wide-spread exposure in the Devon area of England. life forms were then existent.
Dike. A generally narrow and elongate body of igneous rock Orodovician. The lower Paleozoic period from about 500 to 400
fonned when magma was squeezed into a fracture zone. million years ago. Named from an ancient British tribe in northern
Eocene. The period of Tertiary time between about SO and 40 Wales; a time of widespread limestone-depositing seas in Texas.
. million years ago. Literally "dawn of recent". Outlier. An erosional remnant of younger rocks perched on· older
Evaporite. A 28dimentary rock composed ofmineraJs such as salt rocks.
and gypsum which result from the evaporation of salt water. Overthrust. A fault or fracture where older rocks are pushed up
Extrusive. An igneous rock, such as lava. which formed when and over younger rocks. A thrust fault.
magma spread out and cooled on the Earth's surface. Paleozoic. Literally "old life".The time when recognizable fonns
Fault. A fracture in the Earth's crust separating blocks that of life first appeared on Earth from about 600 to 250 million years
shifted past each other. Commonly distinguished because the rocks ago. Sometimes called "Primary".
on the either side do not match. Pegmatite. A coarse grained fonn of gnmite having crystals at
Flint. Similar to chert, but commonly occuring in nodules. Its least an inch (2.5 em.) across; almost always occurs as dikes. Often a
extreme hardness and flaky fracture made it a favorite for arrow good place to collect mineral specimens.
points. axes. etc. .
Fossil. Any remains or trace of an animal or plant that lived in the Pennsylvanian. The part of the Paleozoic time between the Mis-
geologic past, as a shell. skeleton. leaf impression or foot-print. sissipPIan and the Permian. or between about 300 and 270 million
Glacial. Pertaining to or caused by moving ice sheets. Generally years ago.
used to describe the great continental glaciers that covered much of Penman. The youngest period of Paleozoic time. between abut :!iO
the Earth's surface during the Pleistocene period from about 3 to 1 and 250 mi Ilion years ago.
million years ago. Pleistocene. The earliest pan of Quaternary time from about 3 to
Gneiss. A common metamorphic rock composed of re-fonned min- 1 million years ago. ORen called the Glacial or Ice Age. Literally
eral crystals. Somewhat resembles a streaky granite. Pronounced tr near recent".
"nice". . Pliocene. The youngest part of Tertiary time or about 10 million to
Co \te. An igneous rock composed of quartz and feldspar with 3 million years ago. Literally "more recent".
. son. rk minerals. Generally grey to pink in color. Precambrian. The interval of time between the age of the oldest
U Gypsum. An evaporite composed of calcium sulfate and water. known rocks - about 4 billion years - and the start of Cambrian
.. Hiatus. A gap in the geologic record: an unconformity. time about 600 million years ago.
Hornblende. A shiny black or dark green mineral common in
most igneous and metamorphic rocks.
 Quartz. One of the moSt common minerals in most rocks, wnetller
igneous or sedimentary. Silicon dioxide. Tertiary. The interval of time between the end 01: the Cret:lCeol' •
Quaternary. All time since the Tertiary ended about 3 million about 130 million vears ago and the bespnnmg of the QU~lernar\'
years ago. about 3 million ::~ars ago. .
Radiometric. Referring to the measurement of the changes in Thrust Fault. A fracture In the Earth's crust whe' ier -
elements by the los8 of radiant energy. Widely used in estimating the have been pushP.d over younger rocks. ~
age of rocks. Triassic. The interval of time between the end of the P:lI l:
Recent. The last million vears or so of the Earth's history. about 250 million years ago and the start of the Jurassic about L"O
Rhyolite. A light colored ~'ariety of volcanic rock often including million years ago.
volcanic ash. Unconformity. The contact between two or more well deiined
Rock. Any naturally occUlTing. but i~organic. combination of sequences of rocks where a significant time interval elapsed. Com-
minerals. monlyaccompanied by erosion and perhaps tilting of the aider rocks
Sandstone. A sedimentary rock originally deposited as sand. The before deposition of the younger.
individual grains can generally be seen. Unconsolidated. Loose sedimentary material not hardened or
Schist. A common metamorphic rock with a streaky or layered cemented into solid rock.
appearance caused by the presence of mica. Valley Fill. Sedimentary material such as gravel. aand or mud
Sediment. Any natural material that has been transported and deposited in a valley.
deposi ted by water or wind. Vein. Any milleral deposit that fills a fracture in older rocks. May
Shale. A very fine grained sedimentary rock deposited in rela- be either igneous or sedimentary.
tively thin layers. Weathering. The various surface processes that break up or de-
Silica. Silicon dioxide or quartz in its many forms. compose solid rock to fonn soil.
Siltstone. A sedimentary rock with grains too coarse to be shale or
clav, and too fine to be sandstone.
Silurian. That part of Paleozoic: time between the Ordovocian and
the Devonian or about 440 to 400 million years ago.
Stock. A small intrusion of igneous rock: often the solidified core of
a volcano.
Tectonic. Referring to the forces or conditions within the Earth
which cause movements of the crust ranging from minor faults to the
building of mountain ranges.

BOX 10.2 List of the twentieth century's most deadly natural disasters ®
-",
, I

This list of the twentieth-century natural • l00.000--carthquake in Gansu. China, • 30.000-ftood of Yc:llow. Yangtze
disasters that have caused more than 1927 rivers in China, 1935
10.000 d~ths shows that a very large • lOO,OOO-flood in Canton. China. 1915 • 2S.~rthquakes in northeast Iran.
proportion have been associated with • 70.000--earthquake in Gansu, China, 1978
earthquakes. 1932 • 24.047--cycloncs. tidal waves in East
Estimated Deaths • 66,794--earthqua~e in Yungay, Peru, Pakistan, 1965
• 3.7 million-flood of Yellow River in 1970
• 23,OOO-mudflo.ws from volcanic
China. 1931 • 57,OOD-flood of Yangtze River in eruption. Nevada del Ruii Colombia.
• 6S5.000--earthquake in Tangshan, China, 1949 1985
China. 1976 • S6.000--earthquake in Quetta, India,
• 22,778-earthquake in Guatemala.
• SOO,OOO-<:ycione. tidal wave in 1935
1976
Bangladesh. 1970 • SO,OOO-tidal wave in Italy. 1908
• 22.000-storm in Chittagong. E.
• 200.000-ftoods in China, 1939 • 50,OOO-earthquake in Cbile, 1939
Pakistan. 1963
• 180.000--earthquake. landslides in • 50,OOO-earthquake in Turkey. 1939
• 19,()()()..-...earthquake. flood in Kangra,
Gansu. China. 1920 • 50,OOG-ftood of Yellow River in
India, 1905
• 160.000--earthquake in Messina, China, 1933
• 15,()()()-cold in Inner Mongolia and
Sicily. 1908 • 4O,OOO-volcano eruptions in Marti-
Suiyuan, China, 1930
• I 43.000--eanhquake, fire in Tokyo- nique, 1902
Yokohama. Japan. 1923 . • 4O,OOO-cycione in Bengal, India, 1942 • 14,OOO-earthquakes in Central Asia.
1907
• 100.000-ftoods in North Vietnam, • 4O.~ood of Yangtze River in
1971 China, 1954 • 12.2()()..-earthquake in Guatemala.
1902
Mochfied from Los Angeles Times, May 28. • 30,OOO-earthquake in A vezzano,
1985. Italy, 1915 • 12.000-eanhquake in I ran, 1968

10.6 Interpreting Earthquakes 1'1 ~

n
 Table 1. GeologiC age Ind duration
of the major subdivisions ler.sl of geologiC: time
(numbers indicate millions of vears before present).
Name of era Time span
Cenozoic: 70 to present
Mesozoic· 225 to 70
Paleozoic 600 to 225

u Precambrian Prior to 600

-The CtelllC»OUl Period is Pin of the Mesozoic era ulendlRlI

about 135 to 70 million vear, before pre_tn. DUring IhlS lime
IOCkl d the Hili Counvv anet the inn8f' Gulf Coast.1 ~In were forr

o
f
O~I--O-Icm--'
IOmi

D River deposits
Cenozcic
[• Sandy -muddy sediment,

[m Umestone
~ Chalk and clay
Mesozoic
and sandstone

. . Umestane. sandstone. and shale

Precambrian E:] Granite and related rock
i. Generalized geologic map of the CAPCO region (modified from Darton and others, 1937).

(J.33:f) , . , , +1 1 +1 'bl +1
o
+1
1 0 1 + 1+1 1+11
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-oIUIIO..,
 GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL TEXAS

The material in this handout is copied from the books listed in the
references. I have attempted to give some background information so that
the context in which the landforms we see can be understood, both how and
why they were originally created, and why they look the way they do now.

Each picture or statement from one of these books has a number in a circle
which corresponds to the reference so that credit is: given where credit is
due.
This journey will cover geologic formations tha~:span an enormous
amount of time and a great var1ety of processes. I hope everyone returns
with an increased understanding and some wonderful memories.'

REFERENCES

1- ENCHANTED ROCK - A NATURAL AREA SURVEY NO. 14 by the Lyndon B.

Johnson School of Public Affairs. The University'of Texas at Austin. 1979.
This wonderful volume is not available' for sale but can be found in some
libraries.

Textbooks:
2- THE EARTH'S DYNAMIC SYSTEMS by W. Kenneth Hamblin ~('~2nd'edition,1978)

There are more current editions of this book available. I love the
photographs and diagrams in this book and the text is excellent and
informative.

3- PHYSICAL GEOLOGY by Sheldon Judson, Marvin Kauffman, and L. Don Leet

( 7th edition,1987 )
This is the text used in the Physical Geology course I took. The
illust~ations are beautiful and the text clear.

Popular Geology booksl

4- PAGES OF STONE- GEOLOGY OF WESTERN NATIONAL PARIS AND MONUMENTS - #3- The
Desert Southwest. by Halka Chronic, 1986.
This is a wonderful book for anyone going to one of the parks she
covers in the book. I used some of her introductory information in
this handout.
5- THE CRUST OF OUR EARTH- AN ARMCHAIR TRAVELER'S GUIDE TO THE NEW GEOLOGY
by Chet Raymo, 1983.
Clear text and wonderful illustations make this book fun as well as
informative. Each subject is covered on two pages, and though written
for non-geologists i§'basically correct.
6- ROADSIDE GEOLOGY OF TEXAS, by Robert A Sheldon, 1979. ~
For anyone interested in Geology, this little book can inform as well
as make highway travel more fun.

AUSTIN NATURE CENTER LEADERS

are: Margaret Campbell and Frances Pfertner
 i ..
I··
( :.:"
~

A Look Into Austins' Geology and Fossils

Written by N. Charbeneau,
to provide background information
u to the AlSD 6th Grade Rock and Fossil Field Trip

Revisions made in Spring 1984 with

advise from Mary Ann Beauchemin,
Gary Gray, and Rose Farmer

u
 Introduction /

Geology is the study of the earth; its origins, history, and

u composition. Since geologists can't directly observe what the
earth was like millions of years ago, they have to re-construct
its history by analyzing the earths rocks and soils, observing
their position in relation to other rocks, and noting the presence
or absence of such things as fossils contained within those rocks.
Each analysis is then pieced together to form a probably sequence
of events that occurred to produce each region's geologic history.
In this unit we are going to focus on Austin's geology as it
pertains to our activity site and the activities we will be doing
there.
Geologic Time
The earth is thought to be at least 4~ billion years old. To
deal with this vast stretch of time, geologists have divided the
billions of years into various time units and named them ~ and
periods. To give you a broad overview of the geologic time scale,
please refer to the chart on the next page.
The first major geological event to have affected the Austin
area occurred during the Pennsylvanian period (about 300 million
years ago). The Ouachita (pronounced wash-i-taw) Mountains were
thought to have been formed by folding and thrusting actions when
the South American continent pushed up against the North American
;ontinent. See the Texas map on page 3 to find where the mountain
belt was. For an explanation of these continental movements, see
u the theory of plate tectonics in the geologic change section.
During the Triassic period (200 million years ago) the Ouachitas
sank below what became the Gulf of Mexico. The Jurassic and
Cretaceous periods are characterized by the sea advancing and
receeding over this area depositing sediments composed of sand,
clay, dead sea animals, shells and coral. These sediments formed
layers which when hardened, became the sedimentary rock we find
here today. Some of these layers were formed when the water was
warm and shallow and are therefore softer than those layers formed
when the water was colder and deeper. This produced the "step-
stone effect" we sometimes see around Austin where the softer
layers erode before the harder ones. At the end of the Cretaceous
period, volcanic activity occurred at Pilot Knob. It can now be
seen as a rounded hill (only 711 feet tall) southeast of McKinney
Falls State Park. Also during this time a large mass of pre-
Cambrian rock was uplifted to the west of Austin and is called
the Llano Uplift (see map). This area is sometimes referred to
as the central mining region of Texas and is composed of mostly
metamorphic rock such as gneiss and schist, and igneous rock such
as granite (see the rocks and "minerals section for an explanation
of these terms).
Note on the Geologic Time Chart that while the sea was ad-
lancing and retreating forming the limestone layers, various

-1-
 Geologic Time Scale

Millions Millions Charac- What

of Years of Years teristic Happened
Era Ago Period Ago Life in Austin

Paleozoic 600-255 Cambrian 600-500 Trilobites, Shallow, warm sea

Molluscs covers the area

Ordovician 500-425 First Limestone forming

Vertebrates

Silurian 425-405 First Land

Animals
Spiders,
Scorpions

Devonian 405-350 Primitive

Fish,
First Land
Plants

Mississippian 350-315 First Deposits of coal

Amphibians, accumulating
Spore-Bearing
Plants
\
Pennsylvanian 315-285 First Ouachita Mountains
Reptiles, formed, sea
First retreats westward
Trees n
Permian 285-230 Reptiles in
Texas, Age
of Dinosaurs
Begins

Mesozoic 250-65 Triassic 230-180 First Ouachita Mountains

Mammals sank

Jurassic 180-135 First Sea advances and

Birds retreats from gulf

Cretaceous 135-65 First Volcanic activity

Flowers, Llano Uplift
Dinosaurs
Become
Extinct

Cenozoic 65-0 Tertiary 65-1 First Sea retreats to gulf

Primates, Balcones Fault
First (15-25 million year~ .ago)
Grasses
Ice Age-Man
n
IQua te mary 1-0

(Figure 1)

-2-
 -.

u BALCONES FAULT ZONE

SHEl!:T I

u
+
T
o

Physiographic map of Texas.

William H. Matthews III, Texas Fossils. An Amateur

Collector's Handbook (Guidebook No. 2, Austinl Bureau
of Economic Geology, 1960), Plate 9, p. 36,

u
(Figure 2)

-3-
plants and animals were evolving and leaving behind their prints
and bones. Fossils will be discussed in a "later section.
In the beginning of the Cenozoic era, a second major layer
of sediments were deposited here when the Rocky Mountains began
to erode. They sent their sediments made up of sand, rock pieces,
mud, and clay by way of rivers towards central Texas. These sedi-
ments eventually pushed the Texas coastline to where it is today.
Because the new sediments were heavier than the previously deposited
limestone sediments (made up of shells and sea animals), they com-
pressed the underlying layers forcing the water out increasing the
density of the limestone creating instability and stress in this
region. Meanwhile, the buried Ouachita Mountains were undergoing
tension and movement themselves creating the greatest stress along
the Ouachita Belt (see map on page 3). Between 15 and 25 million
years ago these tensions resulted in a rupture or fault along what
we call the Balcones Fault Zone. The fault exposed the previously
buried Cretaceous sediments so that when the cementing limestone
wore away, the fossils they held were carried by water to the
creeks below.
Since then two distinct geographic zones have formed in the
Austin area due to the faulting and different erosion rates which
depend upon the characteristics of the exposed rocks in each area.
These areas are known as the:
Edwards Plateau characterized by higher
elevations, a hard limestone sub-surface
covered by shallow, rocky soils to the
west of Austin. sometimes this area is
referred to as the "Hill Country".
Blackland Prairie characterized by deep
clay soils on a broad, rolling plain to
the southeast of Austin.
Due to the great differences in soil and topography between
the Edwards Plateau and the Blackland Prairie you can see a divi-
sion in the variation of plants and animals that can be found here.
Some examples are the eastern and western meadowlarks, the (wes-
tern) rock squirrel and (eastern) fox squirrel, and the (western)
ash juniper tree and (eastern) virginia juniper.
Rocks and Minerals
By far, the most common rock found in the Austin area is lime-
stone. But what is a rock anyway? In general rocks are made up of
a mixture of different minerals. Minerals are things like quartz,
calcite, mica and galena. They have definite physical properties
and chemical compositions. Most minerals are crystalline, that
is they form crystals (pieces with flat surfaces that join at
definite angles). Some minerals are also elements such as gold,
iron, silver, and lead.
I

/
-4-
 Rocks are classified by the minerals they contain, how they
·~~re formed, andby their physical properties. Some physical pro-
~erties commonly tested for are: hardness, luster (metallic or
non-metallic), color, transparency, the color of streak it makes
u when drawn against a porcelain surface, how they cleave (split),
how they fracture, their brittleness, and other special properties
such as taste, odor, magnetism, and reaction to acids. Some of
these tests you will be doing in the rock activity area.
Rocks are grouped into one of three large classes according
to how they were formed. The three classes are called igneous,
sedimentary, and metamorphic. As you read through the following
explanations of these terms, it may help to refer to the rock
cycle diagram on the following page.
Igneous rocks were once hot and fluid within the earth. They
reach the surface in one of two ways. The best known way is through
volcanoes. when the magma (hot molten rock) shoves its way to the
surface (becoming lava), it cools and hardens quickly so that the
mineral grains tend to be too small to tell apart. These are
extrusive rocks and some examples are obsidian, pumice, and basalt.
The other way they reach the surface is a much longer process.
They cool slowly within the earth so that the minerals contained
in the magma have time to form crystals. Then they are gradually
exposed to the surface by uplifting and erosion. Granite is the
main intrusive rock found in this area, mainly in the Llano uplift
area.
Sedimentary rocks are formed through burial under layers of
accumulated sediments. These sediments are composed of rock and
mineral grains that have come from weathered rocks of all kinds.
Rocks are weathered when water, ice, snow, wind and other agents
cause them to either dissolve or break apart. Often the cementing
together of these grains is done beneath the sea. Sometimes when
rocks ~uch as limestone are weathered, they completely dissolve
then drop out of solution and act as cement to bind othe~ sediments
together. In fact, lime (calcium carbonate) along with silica
(glass) and iron are the-main cementing materials in sedimentary
rocks. Sandstone (cemented sand particles) and conglomerate
(cemented pebbles) are formed this way along with our most common
rock here, limestone (cemented micro-organisms). There are
several different kinds of limestone characterized by their texture
and composition. For a rock to be classified as limestone, it must
contain at least 50% of a chemical called calcium carbonate (Caco ).
Other common sedimentary rocks found around Austin are shale 3
(compacted mud), halite (rock salt), and gypsum which is used in
producing paint, plaster and tiles. Most sedimentary rocks are
gritty and show signs of layering and many contain fossils.
Metamorphic rocks are the third class of rocks and are formed
under conditions of intense heat, pressure, or both usually at
considerable depths within the earth from older "parent" rocks.
The minerals of the parent rock are often altered becoming more
-u
-5-
 Rock Cycle

[Igneous,
~ crystallizatioi.
organic matter heat and~
pressure

~ Sediments melting

erosion IMetamorphicl

Compaction
+ .-.,
lithification
~
e~sion

.JS e d'l.men t ary I.

(Figure 3)

Pilot;s Knob as it must have appeared 100 million years ago

.... 'I
j"
" ~"

(Figure 4)

From Roadside Geology of Texas by Robert A. Sheldon '.

-6-
 coarsely crystalline, harder, and tend to align in layers. You
can remember the name and process by thinking of how a caterpillar
changes into a butterfly by a process called metamorphosis. Some
u examples of metamorphic rock are gneiss (pronounced nice) that
once was granite (igneous) and marble which came from limestone
(sedimentary). Some other common metamorphic rocks are slate (mud),
talc (baby powder!) and schist (made up of mostly mica).
All rocks exposed at the surface are gradually worn away by
the actions of the weather. This weathering process can alter the
appearance of a rock by softening and changing its texture. For
this reason, to identify a rock, it's sometimes necessary to break
it open.
Geologic Change
At the beginning of the manual we mentioned that the .geology
of the earth is constantly changing. We have mentioned some types
of change by discussing how rocks are formed. Other types of
geologic change mentioned previously but not discussed are plate
tectonics, faulting, folding, volcanism, and erosion. You will be
talking about all of these processes during the course of the
field trip so here is a simplified explanation of each process.
Plate tectonics is a theory that has been formulated in recent
years. It maintains that the earth's crust is broken into large
pieces called plates. There are two kinds of plates, oceanic and
continental. Oceanic plates underlie the ocean and continental
u plates underlie the main land masses. The continental plates were
thought to have once been joined together into a large continent
called Pangaea. The plates move over the mantle (the hot, molten
part of the earth's interior immediately under· the crust) by means
of convection currents in molten rock. These currents are caused
by warmer fluid portions rising (because they are. lighter) and
colder more dense portions sinking. These movements are thought
to be responsible for Pangaea breaking up. and pushing the continents
to where they are today. Most geologic changes (such as faulting,
fold.ing, and volcanism) occur on the edges of these plates. There
are three types. of plate movements.:
1. Plates slipping past one another:
an example being the San Andreas
Fault in California. Faulting
2 .• Plates colliding: (see drawing)
an example being the Figure 6
Alaskan Aleutian Trench subduction
an example being the
formation of the
Himalayas. and folding
u
-7-
 Crustal Plates of the World

120" 111' ..,.

rn
EUKASlAN ~TE

,)
1

I
JI1'

CAROUNE PLATE
I.. BISMARCK PLATE
SOLOMON PLATE
. FlJl PLATE

PACIFIC PLATE

The plates are forced apart at the mid-ocean ridges by the intrusion
of magma from the mant:lei this process is called seafloor spreading.
The arrows show the directions of plate movement. Subduction zo~~s
are indicated by small black triangles along the plate boundarie
(Figure 5)

Cross section of Plates ~ :>uthern Alaska

Aleutian Trenc Pacific Ocean

The Pacific plate is being subducted under the continental plate,

creating ea=~hquakes along the zone of contact (called the
Benioff zon~j. The descending Pacific plate pushes the continen-
tal plate no=thward (arrow A) and downward (arrow B).
(Figure 6) n
Both figures taken from the Spring '84 issue of ·the Stanford Magazine
-8-
 3~ Plates moving apart
an example being the Baja
u Rift in the Gulf of
California and Mid-Atlantic
Rifts and Ridges

Rift. (As the plates move

apart, new crustal material
is added to each plate.
In all three types of movements, earthquakes and faulting are
common. Volcanoes are common in the second two. There are about
8 major plates and many smaller ones in the world. Part of the
North American plate boundary used to lie along the Texas coast.
It now lies out in the Caribbean.
Faulting is defined as a fracture in the earth's crust accom-
panied by a movement of one side relative to the other. There are
many different kinds of faults named for the types of movement
that occurs along them. The Balcones Fault Zone is a series of
"normal faults". Normal faults occur when parts of the earth slip
away from each other along along a fracture.

Normal Fault

u As mentioned in the geologic time section, the Balcones Fault

is thought to have occurred 15-25 million years ago and extends
from Waco down to Uvalde. Most areas along the fault have dis-
placements of less than 50 feet in elevation although the largest
one is 600 feet. This fault is not the result of plate movement
as mentioned before, but rather tensions exerted during the for-
mation of the rocks in the surrounding area. Be aware that the
Balcones Fault is not just one continuous fracture. It is a·
series of parallel fractures along the area shown in figure 2.
The main example of volcanism in this area is pilot Knob
which is located just SE of McKinney Ealls state Park. It was
a small volcano active during the Cretaceous period 70 million
years ago. Volcanoes form when the hot magma beneath the crust
forces its way to the surface to relieve the pressure that has
built up within the earth. The contributing factors that cause
volcanoes to form are extremely variable as are the methods they
use for extruding the magma and the volcanoes' resulting form;
i.e., they don't all look or act like Mt. St. Helens. Most of
the world's 600 active volcanoes are located long the plate
boundaries surrounding the Pacific Ocean known as the "Ring of
Fire". Nearly all of Americas I volcanoes are located along the
west coast. Pilot Knob has been inactive since the dinosaurs
became extinct and has been eroding ever since. This brings us
u
-9-
to the last major type of geologic change, erosion.
Erosion is different from a:_ of the previously mentioned ,f")
processes because it happens everywhere, continuously. It can be
very slow or extremely rapid depending on the condition and struc-
ture of the land and the eroding forces. If you look for them,
you can see examples of erosion all around Austin. Generally the
conditions that encourage rapid erosion are small soil
:)article size, lack of anchoring vegetation covering the soil,
steep slope of the land, and exposure to high winds and heavy
rainfall. Eroding or weathering forces are mainly ice, heat and
cold (freezing and thawing), snow, rain, wind, and sometimes
chemical agents for example, acid rain which wears away solid
rock rather quickly.
Fossils
The last major subject coverec ~n this unit is fossils. A
fossil is the remains, print, or o~ ,;r indication of former plant
or animal life preserved in rocks. The majority of fossils are
found in marine sedimentary rocks. People who study fossils are
called Paleontologists. The three requirements that determine
whether an organism will be fossilized·are:
1. The organism should possess hard
parts (bones, shell, teeth, or
woody plant tissues). However,
sometimes soft bodied organisms
such as insects or jellyfish have
been fossilized under very favor-
able conditions.
2. The plant or ar;:. :":".3.1 must not be
immediately an~ ~ta1ly destroyed
after death.
3. The organism S;".. .Ld be rapidly
buried in a mat~~~al that delays
decomposition such as mud, fine
sediments, volcanic ash, quicksand,
tar, tree sap (amber) or ice.
There are many different ways that organisms can be fossilized.
The method usually depends on 1) the original biochemical make-up
of the plant or animal, 2) where it lived, and 3) what happened to
it after it died.
Some of the basic methods of preservation ~re:

1. where the original soft or hard

parts of the organism are
preserved

-10-
 2. where the hard parts are altered
then preserved
3. where the traces of the organism
are preserved
The first type where the soft parts are preserved is rare and
occurs only under very special conditions such as frozen soil ice,
extreme dryness, or in tree resin (amber). Most of the hard
parts preserved are parts like shells, teeth, or bones. These are
fairly common types of fossils where the hard parts contain various
minerals that resist weathering.
t~en the hard parts are chemically altered it's called
Carbonization, Petrification, or Mineralization.
1. Carbonization is where the plant or
animal decomposes slowly leaving a
thin film of carbon behind that
show the details of the organism.
This is how coal is formed.
2. Petrification is where the hard
parts are buried and infiltrated
by water containing minerals
which eventually replace the
material that was once the shell
or bone. Eventually the remains
u become stone as in petrified wood.
3. Mineralization is very similar but
faster. It's where the hard part
completely dissolves and minerals
are simultaneously deposited in
the void. Sometimes the originaL
structure is destroyed by this
process. These fossils are known
.by the type of substance that
replaces the structure such as
calcite, silica or iron.
Fossils also consist of merely the evidence that they existed
such as molds, casts, and tracks. A mold is formed exactly the
way you would imagine. The plant or animal dies and falls into
the sea floor. Its internal parts decay and an impression of its
exterior parts is formed on the sea floor. If at some other time
the mold is filled with another material and that hardens, a cast
is formed. You can find molds and casts in most of the fossil
bearing rocks in Texas. Tracks of an animals' movements are also
found around Austin. Some of the world's more well known dinosaur
tracks are located near the town of Glen Rose, Texas (just south-
east of Ft. Worth). You can see a segment of them on display at
the Texas Memorial Museum as well as the Museum of Natural History
u
-11-
 MOLDS AND CASTS

St-oe 1. A 18. crelture dies Stlge 2. The emplY shen is buried Stage 3. The ahen maleria! hal
and falls to the _bed. The soft under accumulaling sedimenls dlaolved. leaving a mold ..
intemal Plrts quicklV decay and Ind very fine _dimenl begins Sediment has filled the cavity,
lie washed Iway. to 1111 the cavity. forming I Clst of the shell.

mold cast
Stage 4. Millions of years late.
the hardened rock is broken open
to ,eveal the cast and mold of
the ahell.

(Figure 7)

n
-12-
 in New York City. Fossilized tracks, trails and even entire
burrows of both invertebrates and vertebrates have been found.
~ Animals waste products are also fair game for fossilization.
The main fossils you will find at Shoal Creek are going to
b 7 the Pelecypods (clams, oysters, mussels, and scallops; all
b1v.alved shells), Gastropods (snails, etc.; univalved shell), and
Cephalopods (ammonites) from the phylum Mollusca. You may find a
few fossils from the phylum Brachiopods who also have bi-valved
shells. A valve is merely a shell portion, i.e., a clam has two
and snail has one. Brachiopods look much like clams except their
line of symmetry dividi~g the shell into two similar halves runs
through the shell while in Pelecypods, the line runs between the
shells. Usually Brachiopods have one valve larger than the other.
You may also find some Echinoderms who have a five fold radical
symmetry like a sand dollar. See the activity section of the
fossil hunt for drawings of these fossils. Don't be worried
about the identification of these fossils, 95% of what the kids
will find will be Exogyra, a Pelecypod.
In your fossil hunt you may want to ask them how scientists
know how one fossil is older than another. Most of them have been
exposed to the law of superposition which states that the oldest
rocks are the deepest and the youngest ones are on the top. This
will tell you the fossils' relative age but its absolute age (how
old it is in years) is found by analyzing the elements in the rock
surrounding that fossil. Can you figure out the relative ages of
the fossils at Shoal Creek? Why or why not?
··U
Conclusion
The study of rocks and fossils can be fun and interesting to
all ages. Remember that names and dates are seldom of. importance
in comparison to the experience of discovery and observation which
is what the children will remember in years to come. This field
trio is a motivational supplement to what.the teachers have gone
over in the classroom. You are ~ot expected to teach the unit for
them. However, they will be asking question about what they find
and are doing and hopefullY.between this unit, the activity section,
and the training, you will be able to answer most of them accurately .
. Do stress whenever possible Austin's unique geologic past. They
did not get any of that in their unit and geology makes more sense
when you can see actual examples of what is being talked about.
Above all, have fun and think "safety first".

~
-13-
 Some F OSS~·ls You May fino ~n AUS t:~n

CRETACEOUS PELECYPODS

~
f , ."I'
. . ;;.
I :: .
, ~

15
EXOGYRA ARIETINA

INOCERA.l\fUS

EXOGYRA PONDEROSA
NEITHEA

CRETACEOUS GASTROPODS n
CRETACEOUS ECHINOluS

/~~
~J~
GYROOES

TYLOSTOMA
TURRITELLA
SALENIA

BRACHIOPODS / .• ': ... -. .. .

HEMIASTER

d b c
KINGENA WACOENSIS
 Rock and Fossil Vocabulary List

Balcones Fault - A slip-dip fault that runs from the Waco ar,ea to south
of San Antonio.
·~lackland Prairie - The rolling plains located east of Austin where
soils are deep, dark and clay-rich.
Cast - A fossil reproduction of a natural object formed by infiltration
of a mold of the object by waterborne minerals.
Cenozoic - The latest era of geologic time extending from the end of
Mesozoic era to the present.
Cretaceous - The third and last period of the Mesozoic'era.
Drainage Basin - The area surrounding a stream bed that drains its
liquid run-off into that bed.
Edwards Plateau - The "Hill Country" located west of Austin character-
ized by shallow rocky soils.
Element - A substance made up of only one kind of atom.
Erosion - The wearing-away of the earth's surface.
Exogyra - A oyster-like fossil in the pelecypod class of fossils which
all possess a bivalved shell and live exclusively in an aquatic
environment, usually marine.
Fault - The displacement of rocks along a zone of fracture.
Fossil - The remains or traces of organisms buried by natural causes
and preserved in the earth's crust.
~neous - Rocks that have solidified from lava or molten rock.

~ Marine - Something of or related to the sea.

Mesozoic - The era of geologic time that precedes the Cenozoic and
follows the Paleozoic.
Metamorphic - Rocks formed under conditions of intense heat, pressure
or both deep within the earth.
Mineral - A solid, homogeneous crystalline substance.
Mold - An impression made in rock by a natural object. A comple~e mold
---- would be a hollow space.
Paleontologist - A person who studies life of the past as recorded by
fossil remains.
Rock - An aggregation of one or more minerals.
Sediment - Material that has been deposited by settling from water or
air, usually composed of rock fragments.
Sedimentary - Rocks formed from the accumulation of sediments.
Sedimen'tation - The process of laying down and hardening of sediments
to form sedimentary rocks. .
Stratification - The process of forming several horizontal layers of
rock arranged one on top of the other.
=rtiary - The oldest period of the Cenozoic era.
~ Topography - The physical features of a land surface.
Volcano - An opening in the earth's crust from which molten rock and
stearn issue.
 Key to Geologic Time Line Game

1. Llano granite (used in state capital) formed 1,100 M yrs

2. Trilobites and molluscs appeared

3. First vertebrates (relatives of lampreys) • 500 M yrs

4. First land animals • 425 M yrs

5. Fish and land plants both appeared • 405.- 350 M yrs

6. Amphibians appeared • 350 M yrs

7. Reptiles and tree ferns boOth appeared • 320 M yrs

8. The age of dinosaurs began 285 M yrs

9. Mammals appeared • 245 M yrs

10. First trees • 180 M yrs

11. Prehistoric birds appeared 180 - 140 M yrs

12. Fi rs t flowers· 120 M yrs

13. Pilot Knob was an active volcano 78 M yrs

c. 14. Austin was a shallow sea ]00 - 65 M

15. Dinosaurs became extinct 65 M yrs

16. First primates and first grasses 65 M yrs

17. Balcones Fault 15 M yrs

18. Ice ages began 2 M yrs

19. Homo erectus appeared .. 2 M yrs

20. Homo sapiens appeared 500,000 yrs

21. Ice ages ended 1~,OOO yrs

Aus tin Ns :~. re Cen ter

Rocks & Fossils
M Beauchemin 1/84
 TWELVE FOSSIL COLLECTING LOCALITIES IN
TRAVIS COUNTY, TEXAS

CHRIS CARAN, April, 1973

U
Site 1. 2·1/2 miles northw~"t of the intersection of Parkcrest and Northland Drive. on F.M. 2222. Glen Rose <A.<,~1 ~'~.
limestone in roadcut (east side). Fossils~ pelecypods (clams), gastropods (snails), algae. Watch for fast M.c.-p.:-e.
mov ing cars! .. .
Site 2. Vicinity of Highland Hills Terrace. Walnut claystone exposed in several.roadcuts m thiS are~, F08S11s~
pelecypods (clams), gastropods (snails), cephalopods (ammonites), echinoderms (sea w:chms).
Site 3. Ben White Blvd., one mile northwest of the intersection of South Lamar Blvd. Edwards lunestone ex-
posed in roadcut (west side) on north side of Barton Creek. Fossils: pelecypods (clams), gastropods
-'
~ (snails). , "
til
Site 4. Red Bud Trail just west of low water bridge across the Colorado River. Edwards Lunestone 10 ro~dc':1t ~ p..
on south side of Red Bud Trail. Fossils: pelecypods (rudistids), gastropods (snails). ~ ~J1 n~ "tt:~ ....r. ""=:1. «
~

Site 5. Pease Park. Del Rio clay and Georgetown limestone exposed in west b,ank of Shoal Cree~. FO~IIs:
pelecypods (oysters) in the Del Rio clay; brachiopods (lamp shells), echmoderms (sea urchm spmes)
in the Georgetown limestone. , .
Site 6. Ben White Blvd., 0.9 mile northwest of the intersection of South Lamar Blvd. Del RIO clay In road-
cuts (east side preferable) and Georgetown limestone exposed in the south bank of Barton ~reek .. A
major fault cuts between this point and site 3. Fossils: pelecypods (oyster~.. many preser:ed m pyrate
or ufool's gold"), echinoderms (sea urchin parts and spines) in the Del RIO clay; brachaopods (lamp
shells), echinoderms (sea urchin spinE-.s) in the Georgetown limestone .

1Ifj. ~''r~I:ie'':< . M' tee' . . n I'·. "Of ) '¥trdrttrM,ar tW'· _.toldh'"

u
't

Site 7. Intersection of South Lamar Blvd. and Barton Springs Road. Buda limestone and Del Rio clay in
roadcut (southwest corner). Fossils: coelenterates (corals), gastropods (snails) in Buda limestone;
pelecypods (oysters) in Del Rio clay. Watch for falling rock!
S~. Bouldin Creek bank (east side) just west of the intersection of South 5th Street and Columbus Street.
Lower Austin limestone and Eagle Ford claystone in creek bank. Fossils: pelecypods (clams) in lower
Austin limestone; vertebrates (fash teeth and bones), cephalopods (ammonites) in the Eagle Ford
claystone. .
Site 9. Northwest Park. Eagle Ford claystone exposed in banks (east side preferable) of Shoal Creek. Fossils: S.~~~~7~~
pelecypods (clams), vertebrates (fish teeth and bones) in Eagle Ford claystone. A few vertebrate ~. ~ ~ .
(mammoth) bone fragments have been found in the gravels overlying the Eagle Ford claystone.
Site 10. Little Walnut Creek (north of Highway 290). Upper Austin limestones and claystones in west bank of
Little Walnut Creek. Fossils: echinodenns (sea urchin spines, crinoid parts, and starfish) .. pelecypods
(clams), cephalopods (ammonites). b+.....;, 6<..rlc.I·l'Y..~,.\. ~ , ~ '3
Site 11. Yicinit! of Kirksey ~rive (south of River~ide Drive). Taylor clay exposed in several roa~cuts in this ~~t C, t/
ammediate area and Just to the west. Fossils: pelecypods (oysters), cephalopods (ammonites). Wi" LKu s~
Site 12. Intersection of Manor Road and Northeast Drive. Taylor clay in hill slope on southwest corner.
Fossils: pelecypods (oysters), cephalopods (ammonites). ~c:.r~~ ~ '1.&k..

u
 · A Dichotomous Key to Minerals

instructions:
1. Always start with the first pairing! Don't skip steps! It may not get you to the right answer.
2. Dichotomous keys are based on two choices,; yes it has the given characteristic or no it doesn't.
3. At each pair you will be able to get to an identity or be given a number to go to next.
4. Use the simplest method to ID something first! In other words, if you can get it by color, don't try to
scratch it! A bunch of scratched up specimens will not make ID easy for the next person.
5. Use black or white porcelain plates to test streaks
6. Ask counselor for help with Hydrochloric acid fizz tests

MINERAL KEY

1. a. Mineral is yellow SULFUR

streaks yellow or white;
I

smells like rotten eggs

hardness 1.5.:2.5

b. Mineral is not yellow 2

2. a. Mineral is bright green MALACHITE n

streaks green, HCL will fizz on it
hardness 3.5-4

b. Mineral is not bright green 3

3. a. Mineral is reddish HEMATITE

streaks dark reli,
hardness S.5-f}./S

.-
b Mineral is not reddish 4

4. a .. MineraI-looks metallic PYRITE

streaksblack, reddish black or
brqwniSf.l black, harndness 6

b Mineral does not look metallic 5 I

I
5. a. Mineral is magnetic MAGN.ETITE
streaks black, hardness 6
II n
b Mineral is not magnetic 6
 a. Mineral is clear, colorless or white 7

b. Mineral is not as above, is gray TALC

feels soapy or greasy, can be
scratched with a findernail,
hardness 1

7. a. Mineral occurrs in sheets,

can be scratched with a fingernail GYPSUM
streaks white; can be clear,
white, pink; hardness 2

b. Mineral is not like above 8

8. a. Mineral can be scratched with a

copper penny CALcrrE
streaks white; can be w bite,
yellow, clear or orange; HCL
fizzes on it; hardness 3

b. Mineral cannot be scratched with 9

a copper penny

Ui
9. a. Mineral can be scratched with a
pocket knife, is light purple Flourite
streaks white; hardness 4

b. Mineral cannot be scratched with a

1 tknife
poc...<e 10

10. a. Minerai can be scratched by quartz, QUARTZ

is pink streaks white; can come in
many colors; hardness 7

b. Mineral ca.nno~;be scratched by quartz, TOPAZ

is clear streaks white; hardness 8

\
u
 AUSTIN NATURE CENTER
URCHINS, SAND-DOLLARS.e~c. FOSSIL HUNT CHAMBERED NAUTILUS.
SQUIQ, AMMONITE , etc .
.U
SALEHIA ECHINOID SPINES ECHINOID ~L4TE
XI Xl II

T£XANITES
I" ACANTHOCERAS
' ..

~
~
HEMIASTEft HOLAST!It
I. 1/
TU'''''LIT£S
lOll OXYTltO~IDOC£R4S
11:" ....

~
;;;st
"::. ::.. :.. ~ ..
mi»1J»J1t!t p~--~!>
HOL.£CTY'''US IACULIT!I
U \
ll. lit

CRETACEOUS ECH1NOIDS

CRETACEOUS CEPHALOPODS
I.
P!HTAGaflASTEIL

SNAILS
CRETACEOUS
FOSSIL STARFISHES'

'''''001.
III

u
II
......I. .
TUWTIIJ,.A

CRETACEOUS caw.s CIJIITM,.,.

I.
 CLAMS AND OYSTERS
(bjvaJves=2 shells-may be equal or uneQual)

GRYPHAU WASHIT AENSfS

.
P4CHYMYA
...,

aST"!A CA"'NATA
II

OSTfilU QUACNaPUCATA
x. O"Y~HAU GRAYSONANA
II

~HOI.ADO"TA IHOCIP"III
. XI x. II

ElCOGY"A "",£TINA ElCocrrM u&Y11CULA

x. x.

AL£CTIltYOMA LUGU."'I
II

~
••
,...,... IILICA1U.A
•• II

!X0I'tM - . - . -
n
NGTD·
XI £I c.... TDIIIa I •
••
 ~~ ~ ~e ~C/L J -w ~~'""V'\ W.:l ~-~
~!» (.I,..."\..'" ~.Jf"lA.~.:J
J5 \~ u...+> 0- v...::>~.s v::>~""' ~.~r-
~t-~
7l. Guide to Identifying Rocks, l\1inerals and Fossils
u CJJ- VV\..'--LC.l>L ~ of. ~.~
Minerals - \.~'::)\,'\_c.~ ~~ o..r<- (,,'1'\.. ~ ~V- ~
Mineral identification is based upon the following properties: '\eve...~..e...--;
.- 'VV\..~ ~ ~~"'-\ f .
~..s 1. luster - the appearance of a 111ineral under reflected light.
2. hardness - the relative ability of a Inineral to scratch another mineral or object.
SOlne reference hardness incl ude a glass plate (hardness = 6), a steel nail
~J.t,...,~ (hardness ..... 5), a penny (hardness = 3.5), and your fingernail (hardness = 3).
,0 ~> 0+ 3. color - sometiInes useful, but 110t always diagnostic.
4. streak - the color of the pO'vvdery Hne left behind when a mineral is dragged
across a porcelain plate.
5. cleavage - the property of a Inineral to break along certaill~ regular planes of
weakness as opposed to fnlctur'e which is the property of a lnineral to break
unpredictably and irregularly. . .,~
'~c.~~ 6. crystal form - the characteristic shape ofa crystal when allowed togrow freely
..w:J.L LJ-t) of.- into open space.
7. nliscellan~ous properties - ll1aglletism, smell, taste, and fizzing with Hel acid
are also sometimes useful to identify nlinerals.

OU-v\.C-'" Sedimentary Rocks

. ~""'-L.rcsJ"A11 sedimentary rocks fonn at the earth's surface by the activities of wind, water,
)\AcU~ chemicals, or critters. There are two nla1n groups of sedimentary rocks:
U I
l'OcJL~
1. clastic rocks - sedimentary roci<:s.that form by individual grains (clasts) of eroded
rocks being "glued" back together by a lnineral cement· Clastic sediInentary
rocks are identified by grains size and shape.

2. chemical and biochemical sedin'lentary rocks - fonn by the inorganic or

biologic precipitation of minerals to fOlm the grains or crystals of a sedimentary
rock. Chemical and biochelnical sedilnentary rocks are identified by the mineral
conlposition.

Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks fonn froln the solidification of Inagma e~ther:

1. underground where crystals cool slowly to fonll plutonic igneous rocks with
larger crystals.
or
2. abo~e ground, where the lava cools quickJy to form tiny crystals in volcanic
igneous rocks.
or
. 3. both below and above ground 'vvhere the rock 'will have both large and small
crystals (porphyry).

u
 The igneous rock type name is based on:

1. crystal size - related to where and how quickly the magma solidified.
and
2. mineral composition - i.e. mafic (rich in dark, iron and magnesium minerals) or
felsic (rich in quartz and light-colored nlinerals).

Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks fonn underground as any buried preexisting rock (parent rock) is
exposed to high temperature andlor pressure (squeezing). Metamorphic rocks are
identified by:

1. texture - squeezing produces an alignn1ent of lnineral grains into sheet-like

layers called foliation. The amount of foliation is related to the amount of
temperature and pressure the rock is exposed.

However, not all rock types will have minerals that will become organized into layers
when squeezed. These other "non-foliated" nletanl0rphic rock types are identified by:

2. color
3. mineral composition

In general, mUltiple parent rocks may produce the same metamorphic rock i.e. both a
shale and granite can be transfotmed ipto a gneiss at high temperatures and pressures.

But, parent rocks with limited nlineral compositions will only become certain
metamorphic rock types because the classification for these particular metamorphic rock
types happens to be based upon the nlineral composition of the metamorphic rock.

For example:

quartz sandstone (having only quartz) -+ quartzite (nletarnorphic rock with only quartz)·

limestone (having
. .only calcite) -+ n1arble (metalTIorphic rock with only calcite)

Sources

tables and figures are from Long, L. Geology, 9th edition.

 PROGRAM DESCRIPTION:
u GEOLOGY (at Shoal Creek)

Part I Basis for Program

~ Minerals, Rocks and Fossils
Course Description: Float a rock, smell a mineral and find exogyra fossils
in Shoal Creek. This outdoor exploration of Austin's unique geology
provides students 'with several hands on activities while testing
properties of rocks and minerals.
Age Leyel: Grades 3-6
Time: 2 hours
G.aat. Participants will test the properties of minerals to identify them and
their component elements, study rocks and deduce their origin, and
learn how fossils form and why we have the fossils in Austin that we
do.

Part II Instructional Plan

Course Outline: Three 40 minute sessions:
1st: Minerals-Discussion of what minerals are, what they are made
of, and how we identify them .. "Find the mineral that. .. "-
game. Discussion of answers and unique, related minerals
in our collection.
2nd: Rocks-Discussion of how rocks form and what they 'are made
u of (their origins). "Find the rock that. .."-game. Discuss
answers and unique rocks in our collection. If time, play
"Place the word in the correct category"-game.
3rd: Fossils-20 minutes: how fossils form, Austin's geologic past,
what you may find in the creek, rules to follow in the creek.
20 minutes: fossil hunting and selection of a fossil to keep.

Part III Resource Support

Site Needs: Three clearings near creek with minimum of ant beds and dog
poop.
participant Thresholds; Up to 75 kids, 3 instructors.
Transportation Needs: ANC vehicle to go to creek.
Resource Needs: Fossil, minerals and rocks program boxes. Before going
to creek, make sure you have enough cardboard squares for all (25
for rocks and 25 for minerals), enough handouts for all (75 printed
front and back), and enough pencils (in case their teachers didn't
read our pre-pack: 50 plus extras for when points break),
 PROGRAM SCRIPT:
MINERALS, ROCKS AND FOSSILS

First Sessions:
Minerals --- What is a mineral? The inorganic crystals or fragments of which rocks
are formed. Minerals are made up of one or more elements. Use element chart to
equate elements to letters, minerals to words, and rocks to sentences.
How do we identify a mineral? We use traits or characteristics -- color, smell,
weight, cleavage, taste, streak, hardness, luster, etc.

Explain the rules of the IIFind the mineral" game:

* You may get up and move around.
* You may talk to one another and your teachers for help ... this is not a test.
* You may use the same answer on more than one; all answers are on the yellow
cards.
* Please do only the IIfind the mineral ll section.
* Please use porcelain for streak tests, magnets to test magnetism, and glass to test
hardness. .
* Please return all minerals to the cards where they belong after you take them to
the center for testing so that others will be able· to get the right answers.

Allow time for most students to finish this section of the game. Then during the last
10-15 minutes, discuss the answers; also discuss unique and related minerals in
our collection (large quartz crystal, examples of pyrite, book of mica, copper,
malachite, silver hematite).

Second Session:
Rocks --- What are the three kinds of rock? Igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic. The rocks are divided into these three types based on how they
form.
Igneous rocks come from magma within the core of the earth. It arises.
through volcanoes or cracks in the earth IS surface caused by earthquakes.
Intrusive igneous rocks cool inside and are spewed out as a solid (often cooled'
very slowly). Extrusive igneous rocks pour our of the volcano as a.liquid, then cool
once they are outside (often they cool very quickly).
What are some examples of igneous rocks? Granite. Does it cool quickly or
slowly? Slow, leaving lots of time for crystal development. Do you think this is an
intrusive or an extrusive? Int~sive, it cools slowly because it is inside near the
heat source. Another example? Obsidian. Do you think it slow or·fast? Very fast,
has no time for crystal development. Is it intrusive or extrusive? Extrusive, it is able
to cool quickly because it is far away from the heat source.
Sedimentary rocks are formed by sediments which' are carried by wind or
water and deposited in layers or strata. Do you know what it is called when wind or
water carries sediments? Erosion. And when the wind or water stops moving, the
sediments being carried are dropped or deposited in layers.
What are some examples of sedimentary rocks? Sandstone, and the sediments n
that make it are mostly sand. Limestone, made of silt and sand and crushed shells.
Conglomerate, made up of m~ny kinds of sediments (may include ciay., sand, silt,
pebbles, plant bits, minerals, shell$, fossils, etc. usually not layered).
 GEO- script continued

u Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have changed form. They used to be
either igneous or sedimentary. Heat and pressure cause this change --- heat
comes from the core of the earth and rises, pressure comes from gravity pulling the
things on the surface of the earth down toward the center. The rocks in the middle
layers feel both the heat and the pressure and these are the ones to change.
Examples of metamorphic rocks? Marble which used to be limestone, gneiss
which used to be granite, slate or schist-which starts as shale and goes to shale
then schist.

Explain the rules of the IIFindOthe rock" game:

Rules are the same as in mineral game except that the only test material in the
center is water for floating.

Allow time for game, then go over answers in last 10-15 minutes; discuss the
unique/related samples (limestone color variation, gneiss and Llanite, basalt,
polished marble, geodes). If there is extra time, use word cards from other game to
review concepts.

Third Session:
Fossils -- See Fossil Hunters program script.

For more detailed info see attached: A Look Into Austin's Geology and Fossils.
. ,- ---
/"

u Guide to Identifying Rocks, Minerals and Fossils

Minerals
Mineral identification is based upon the following properties:

1. luster - the appearance of a nlineral under reflected light.

2. hardness - the relative ability of a mineral to scratch another mineral or object.
Some reference hardness include a glass plate (hardness = 6), a steel nail
(hardness -.. 5), a penny (hardness = 3.5), and your fingernail (hardness = 3).
3. color - sometimes useful, but not always diagnostic.
4. streak - the color of the powdery line left behind when a mineral is dragged
across a porcelain plate.
s. cleavage - the property of a mineral to break along certain, regular planes of
weakness as opposed to fracture which is the property of a mineral to break
unpredictably and irregularly.
6. crystal form - the characteristic shape of a crystal when allowed to grow freely
into open space.
7. miscellaneous properties - nlagnetism, smell, taste, and fizzing with HCI acid
are also sometinles useful to identify minerals.

Sedimentary Rocks
All sedimentary rocks fonn at the earth's surface by the activities of wind, water,
chemicals, or critters. There are two main groups of sedimentary rocks:
u
1. clastic rocks - sedimentary rocks that form by individual grains (clasts) of eroded
rocks being "glued" back together by a lnineral cement. Clastic sedimentary
rocks are identified by grains size and shape.

2. chemical and biochemical sedimentary rocks - form by the inorganic or

biologic precipitation of minerals to form the grains or crystals of a sedimentary
rock. Chemical and biochemical seditnentary rocks are identified by the mineral
composition.

Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks form frolll the solidification of tnagma either:

1. underground where crystals cool slowly to form plutonic igneous rocks with
larger crystals.
or
2. above ground, where the lava cools quickly to form tiny crystals in volcanic
igneous rocks.
or
3. both below and above ground where the rock will have both large and small
crystals (porphyry).

u
The igneous rock type name is based on:

1. crystal size - related to where and how quickly the magma solidified.
and
2. mineral composition - i.e. mafic (rich in dark, iron and magnesium minerals) or
felsic (rich in quartz and light-colored minerals).

Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks fonn underground as any buried preexisting rock (parent rock) is
exposed to high temperature and/or pressure (squeezing). Metamorphic rocks are
identified by:

1. texture - squeezing produces an alignment of mineral grains into sheet-like

layers called foliation. The amount of foliation is related to the amount of
temperature and pressure the rock is exposed.

However, not all rock types will have minerals that will become organized into layers
when squeezed. These other "non-foliated" nletamorphic rock types are identified by:

2. color
3. mineral composition

In general, multiple parent rocks may produce the same metamorphic rock i.e. both a
shale and granite can be transformed into a gneiss at high temperatures and pressures.

But, parent rocks with limited mineral compositions will only become certain
metamorphic rock types because the classification for these partiCUlar metamorphic rock
types happens to be based upon the mineral composition of the metamorphic rock.

For example:

quartz sandstone (having only quartz) -+ quartzite (metamorphic rock with only quartz)

limestone (having only calcite) -. marble (metamorphic rock with only calcite)

Sources

tables and figures are from Long, L. Geology, 9 th edition.

 ....
'hat.. ,- ~--

168 • GEOLOGY

u Metamorphic Rock Classification

Color Rock name Distinctive features Typical parent rock

Marble Reacts with hydrochloric acid (HCI). Color Limestone,

streaks or blotches may be present. Look for Dolomite
"-
0 calcite rhombohedrons if coarse. Rare "ghost
"0
u fossils."
l:
.:.0
Quartzite Interlocking quartz grains fracture across Quartz sandstone
original grain boundaries. May have a sugary

.:s-
"'0
~ texture; smoother and harder than sandstone.
.s
cQ) Serpen~inite Lime green to dark green or black; dense. Mafic or ultramafic
=•
Q ~
eo
Slickensided surfaces (striated by internal rock
Z movement) are common .
.:..::
u
~ Hornfels Dense, fine-grained rock with conchoidal Any fine-grained rock
:0 fracture.
9
>.
E Anthracite Shiny, low-density black rock; may have Lignite,
eo
.:..:: coal semi-conchoidal fracture and display partings bituminous coal
"0
"-
~
or banding. j
Crystal Rock name Distinctive features Typical parent rock
j
I

u size

... .'
u
'a v.:
Slate Dull to shiny; splits into thin slabs. Harder Shale, siltstone.

. than shale. Commonly dark gray, brown, red, silicic volcanic rock
0-
t. u ~
:0',
. ' ~~ or green .
"- C
.~ u
E
Phyllite Nearly invisible mica crystals impart satiny Shale. siltstone
sheen on foliation surfaces. Commonly gray
or gray-green.

-
"'0
~

.s
C5
Schist Visible aligned platy or elongate minerals
impart a foliation. Mica abundant; garnet or
Shale, phyllite.
volcanic rock
~
staurolite crystals common.

Amphibolite Dark, dense, mafic rock with aligned horn- Mafic igneous rock.
blende crystals. graywacke
:r.
f1l:=
e!l-:r. Gneiss Coarse-grained rock with alternating light Any silicate rock
..EC
u (felsic) and dark (mafic) layers due to
segregation of mineral species.

u
I

I
_f _t
 METAMORPHIC ROCKS • 167

Increasing degree of deformation

Micas appear. Garnet and staurolite
Clay minerals appear. Amphibole
disappear.
quartz sandstone
~~~~~~~~~~~

low medium
original rocks metamorphic grade

Figure 10-1. Progressive Metamorphism of Different Parent Rocks

.'

Austin Nature and Science Center

u Rock and )lilleral Guide
compiled by Katberine Stewart
11/01

Definitions
Bardness
Wben tbe mtneral collector speakS of the bardness of a Dllneral, !Ie always means t!Ie scratch
bardness. ThIs IS tbe resIStance wMcb a lIlIneral exMblts w!Ien it is scratcbed WIt!I a s!Iarp-
edqedroatertal. The concept of scratch hardness was Introduced more than 150 years aqo by
the VIennese lIlIneraloqtst Frtedrlch Mobs (l17B-18B9). USlnq ten lJllnerals of d1ffertnq bardness,
be drew up a comparattve scale (Mob's Scale of Bardness), wblcb IS valt<l tbrouqbout tbe wbole
world to tbe present day. NlIlUber 1IS tbe softest cateqory, 10 tbe hardest. The ll1lnerals Wltb
t!Ie IntermedIate values scratch tlie Dllneral deslqnated Wltli lesser bardness and are scratc!Ied
by the lJ1Ineral WIth the next hardness on the scale. Minerals of equal hardness do not scratcb
one another.
..,.
U Streak . .

The streak color, also called t!Ie powder color or streak for sbott, Is an objecttve means of
deterll1lnlnq lIllnerals. The streak color always reproduces tlie same llnlqlle, constant color
intrinSIc to tDe whole lJ1tneral. With fluorHe, for exaro.ple, the streak color IS always whHe,
reqardless of whetlier the flllorHe looks yellow, bIlle, qreen or black. In order to obtain tlie
streak color, a corner of t!Ie spect1Uen IS rubbed on a small, unqlazed porcelain plate, tbe
streak plate.
Luster
Many ll1lnerals bave a charactertstIc luster. It ortqtnates from the llqnt reflected at the surface
of tne stone and IS dependent on tne refracttve Index of a ll1lneral and tne ll11neral's surface
cnaractertsttcs, but not on tne color.
Cleavaqe
Qeavaqe IS tlie spltHlnq of a lJllneral alonq smootb surfaces or planes. Wbetber a Inlneral can
be cleaved or not dependS on tne lattIce stracture of tne crystal.

u
 '.

Mineral
u
AmIneral IS an entIty wnIcn occurs naturally as part of tne Eartb's ernst or tbe Moon's
surface. Most ln1nerals nave a specIfic crystal form. The scIence of ln1nerals Is called
ln1neralogy.
Rock
Arock IS a natural llltxture of ln1nerals. It forms an IndtVtdual qeoloqIcal body of consIderable
extent. The sctence of rocks Is called petrology or petrograpny.

Iqneolls Rocks (1I1aq1l1atites)

Develop wben llq1Ild molten rock.maqIn~ solldifIes In tbe Eartn's ernst or on tbe Eartb's
surface.

Sed1l11entary Rocks (SedllIlennteS)

Develop at tbe Eartb's surface froIn tne weatnertnq products of otner rocks.
U Metafuorpbic Rocks (1I1etaJllorpbites)
Develop tbrouqb tne transformatIon of otber rocks In tne Earln's ernst as a reslIlt of qreat
pressures and blqb temperatures.

u
u

)Itneral Bardness streak Lllster Oeavaqe

Asbestos 2 whIte vItreous perfect
CalcIte 3 white vItreous perfect
Galena 2.5-3 qrey-blk metallic perfect
Gypsum 1.5-2 white pearly perfect
HematIte 6-6.5 red metalllc none
~aqnet1te 5.5 black metalllc 1lIlperfect
~Ica 2.5-3 whIte pearly perfect
U PyrIte 6-6.5 drk.qreen metallic 1lIlperfect
Quartz 7 colorless vItreous none
Sulphur 2 whIte qreasy none
Talc 1 whIte qreasy perfect

u
..

Minerals
u
Asbestos---It IS tbe COl11lllon name for a group of naturally-oCCUITlng slllcate ll1lnerals nat
separate Into tbln, but strong flbers. There are SIx asbestos minerals which have been used
commerClally-cIrrysotlle, amosHe, crocldolHe, antbophylllte, tremollte, and actlnollte.
Asbestos IS not combustible, bas blgh tenslle strenqtb, bas good tbermal and electrtcal
Insulating properttes, Is moderately resIstant to cbelJllcals, and bas good friCtional properties.
It Is durable, flexible, strong and resIstant to wear. Thus, asbestos bas been used for
tbousands of cOl11lllerClal and public appllcatlons Including: Rooflnq and flOOring Products,
Textlles... etc. 110re recently, asbestos dust bas been recoqnlZed as being cancer-lnduClng.
CaIcHe---Usually translucent wnHe, but sometllnes yellow, brown, gray, blue, pink, or
green. Its lJ1Ineral name Is calCl1[1Jl carbonate and HIs one of tbe most abundant lIlinerals In
Texas. CalCIte fOrIllS a vartety of crystal sbapes, but always wHb cleavage In tbree directions
tbat are not at rIgbt angles. Used In tbe butldtnq Industry, as raw matertalln tne cIte:tnlcal,
qlass and cellulose Industry, and In tIte smeltlnq of Iron ores. Iceland spar IS a clear,
colorless, rbombobedral vartety of calcHe wHb marked double-refraction. Used In optical
Instruments.
GaIena---It IS the heavy, metalltc lJlInerallead slllfHe. Some speCl1J1ens break Into perfect
cubes when struck. Jl1Jlost always Intergrown wHh spbalerIte. occurs In vems, stocks, and
layers. )]e )JJ.ost l1J1portant lead ore.
u
G},])SllDl---It IS a colorless, soft 1J1lneral wblcb occurs In salt deposHs, and In ore 1J1lneral
deposHs. It S01JJ.etl1J1es occurs In rounded sbapes called Rosettes or Desert Roses wblch look me
flowers. GypS1[1Jl that IS transparent In blocks of tIttn crystalltne sbeets Is called selenite. It
forms In cracks and spaces between rocks, espectally clay sedllllents. Used as blltldtng
materials and raw materIal In the cerarotc industry.
BematHe---RematHe, ("'bema" Is latin for 'led"), sometl:tnes looks silver, but leaves a red
streak. It Is tbe most abundant and l1J1portant ore of Iron. It Is often found as a cementlnq
aqent in sandstone.
M:aqnetHe---It IS mainly known for Hs magnetism, black color, and bardness. It is an
l1J1portant tron ore In tbe manufacture of steel.
Mica---Group of slllcate llllneraIs composed of varylnq amounts of alumln1[1Jl, potaSSl1[1Jl,
lllagneSi1[1Jl, Iron, and water. llllJllcas form flat, plate-me crystals. crystals cleave Into
smootb flakes. BiotHe IS dark, black or brown lIlica; lIluscovHe Is lIgbt-colored or clear
mica.
Pyrtte---Reflects a pale, brass yellow. The most c01l1lJ10n forms are cubes wHb faces strIated.
It Is known as "fool's gold". It Is dlStinglIlsbed from gold by Hs bardness. Its cblef use IS a
U source of sulfur for sulfurIc acid.
 Qllartz---The name quartz come from German ll1Iners' lanquaqe of the }llddle lqes. one of the
most COlJ1lJ1on llllnerals. The colortnq Is amazinqly variable because It may be whtte, gray"
u red, purple, pink, yellow, green, brown, and black" as well as belnq colorless. It is sillcon
dioxide, bas a bard qlassy surface, and occurs In many sbapes sucb as clusters, slnqle pOInts,
or solld masses. Quartz Is found In all threecateqortes of rocks. It Is tbe raw material for the
qlass and ceramIc Industries. Used WIdely as qemstones and ornaments: ametbyst, rose
quartz, smokY quartz, tlqer's eye, aventurtne, cttrlne, etc.
Slllpltllr---}lay be yellow or brownish wtth a greenish tlnqe. lias a unIque odor. It
mainly occurs at or near the I1lns of actIVe or extinct volcanoes. Sulphur Is the raw material
for the production of sulphurtc aCId and Is an I1J1portant basIc material for the manufacture of
InsectiCIdes. It IS usually lJlIned by melttnq it underground WIth superheated steam and
pUlllptnq the llquld to the surface where It cools and hardens.
Talc---}lay be colorless, wblte, greenIsh, or yelloWIsh. Feels greasy. Used for llqht-fast
colors, finely ground (known as talCUlll) as base for oIntments and powder, for hlqh-voltaqe
Insulation, and for fire-resIstant construction materials. Talc that Is massIVe and compacted Is
known as soapstone.

u
 Rocks
u
Iqneolls
Basalt--- Colors may ranqe from grey to blact and also brownlsD. Older varieties are
greenlsIt or browntsIt red. The texture of basalt Is usually fine gratned to dense, only very
occasIonally coarse qratned or qlassy. Basalt Is tIte most WIdely distributed of all volcanic
rocks. Basalt Itas many varied uses as a natural stone because of Its good qualHtes and Its
WIde dlstrtb1Itlon. }lelted basalt Is a raw matertalused In tIte production of 1Iltneral wool as
well as tIte base material for ltlqItly resistant floorInq slabs and ltnlnqs.
Grantte---The name granite derIVes from tbe latin ('"qranum" = grain). Granite varies In Its
color fromltqbt to dark. Its major lIlInerals are quartz, feldspar, and lIlIca, wlllcIt create a
coarse-grained texture. Granite IS wIdely lIsed stone for b1l1ldlnqs and decorattve work. It
wears extremely well and Is ItlqItly resistant to weatIterlnq becallse of Hs blqb qlIartz content.
Grey varieties are used for cobble-stones, kerb-stones, etc. Colored qranHes are used as raw
materIal for sClIlpture and, wIten cut and poltsIted, as claddlnq for bulldlnq, for floor coverlnqs
and s11Il1lar slIrfaces.
Uantte---A type of Texas plllk granite found nowItere else In tbe world. LIanne's lInlqueness
reslIlts:from crystals of Sky-bllIe qlIartz lJltnqled wttb tbe qranlte's ruSty-Pink feldspar and
u otIter nilnerals. The rock IS lInlIsually bard, and was quarrIed at one tllJle for blIndlnq stone.
The qlIartz IS bllIe becallse of CDrolIlllIlU 1lJJ.plIrttles.
.
Obstdtan---It IS a compact natural qlass. Named after tIte Roman ObsllIS wbo In anCIent
tlllles fIrSt brouqItt a piece of obSIdian from Etltlopla to Rome. It Is a stltca-rlcIt volcanic rock.
The color IS dark, qrey, brown to deep-black and bas a qlassy texture. 0bsldlan IS volcaniC,
formed by tile very rapid cooltnq of VIscous aCId lava. In tIte Stone Aqe obsidian, toqetIter
wttll fltnt, was a blqItly valued raw material for utensils and weapons on account of Its sItarp
edqed fractue and Its great bardness.
PlIMce---P1l1IlIce (latin: "foam") IS a frotIty volcanic rock. Its color IS lISlIally llqbt grey to
yellowtsb, rarely red or In dark tones. P1I11llce Is sl1nllar to a batll sponqe becallse
It IS riddled WHb pores of trreqular or oval sbape wItlcb are lISUally not connected WHIt one
anotIter. Because of tltls Itlqll pore vollIlUe, wllicb can reacIl85%, plI1Jllce floats on water.
pu1lltce IS formed wben lava spews out of tIte volcano and cools very qlIlckly. Plumce IS used
In tIte productton of llqlltwelqItt blIlldlnq stones. The advantaqe of tltese lles In tItelr
ltqIttwetqbt and In tbe qoon Iteat InSlIlatlon tIter proVIde. The lIse of plI1J1lce as a qrtndlnq
materIal In tecItnology, and for cosmetIc plIrposes, IS due to tIte fact tbat HIlas no sbarp-edqed
crystals wDtcD cOlIld bave a damaqlnq effect, and tItat tile rock slIrface always rematns rouqIt
and Itas a qoon qrtp.

u
 :

}fetamorplttc
u
Gneiss---The name qnelss Is from tbe lanq1laqe of German miners In the Erzqeblrqe.
GneIss bas l1qbt or dark colored bands as well as a coarse-qratned texture. Sandstone or
qranHe can become qnelss under beat and pressure. The most common mInerals found In
qnelss are quartz, potaSSlllln feldspar, and sodium feldspar. Used as bulldlnq stone,
aqqreqates, CItlpplnqs, thIn spliHinq types for claddlnq, and earlier used as rooflnq mes.
narble---The term "marble", Is Greek for "SItlnllnerlnq block of stone". }lade of calcIum
carbonate. }larble forms from llmestone by metalIlorpblc recrystalllzatlon. }lay be a WIde
ranqe of colors. It Is wbHe wben pure calcHe or dolomtte, but often contains lJnpurttles tbat
color Hor g1Ve It streaks. It bas a medium to coarse texture. Marble IS used In claddtnq,
interior arcbltectare, table tops, ornaments, and control panels. Takes a pollsb well, but very
quickly becomes dull In tIte aIr.
Scbtst---The final product of tIte alteration by beat and pressure alone of a mture of
bydrated and oxIdIZed mInerals. TIle factors COlnlllon to scblsts are a fine to medlum-qratned
texture, very distinct scblstosIty, and a feldspar content of less than 20%. Scblstoslty IS tbe
distinct parallel texture wItlcIt IS rerotnlscent of sedllnentary beddlnq. There are a qreat many
types of scItlst. The rocks are destqnated accordtnq to outstandInq properties sucb as notable
minerals or color. Scblst IS stronqly fol1ated and can easlly split Into tbln flakes and slabs.
\e

U
."

u
 SedimeJltary
u
Cbalk---Cbalk, (wrtttnq cl1alk), IS a l1qbt colored llInestone. It Is usually snow-wl11te,
occasIonally l1qbt qrey or yellowtsl1, and porous. Cltalk bas a flne-qraIned texture and It
forms from tbe bard parts of mtcro-orqanlsms, especIally alqae and foramtntfertds. JlInost
pure calcHe-aqqreqate.
Cbert---Its appearance ranqes between qrey, yellow, brown, and reddisb. It is massIVe and
bard lIlicrocrystalllne quartz wttb a flne-qraIned texture. It forms by tbe accumulatIon of
stllca, posSIbly In a colloIdal form on seabeds. HIS a bard rock tbat cannot be scratcbed WltI1
a knIfe. It fractures Into sbarp, useful edqes. Derefore, It was used by NatIYe Amertcans to
make tools.
conqlolllerate---Conqlomerate, (latIn "rolled toqetber"), IS a consolIdated qravel composed
of rounded water-worn pebbles. Grey, blmsb, and yellow colors predolIlinate. They are
reddIsb wbere tbe cementlnq aqent Is stronqly tron-rtcl1. It bas an uneven, qranular, coarse-
qralned texture. The parttcles may vary larqely In sIZe Wltbln anyone sample. ThIs variety
of sIZe IS called poor sortlnq wbere tbe rock may consISt of rocks as larqe as boulders as well
as pieces as small as a slnqle pea. Conqlomerates usually bave larqe opentnqs between tDe
qravel partIcles wbtcb Is filled by some qround mass sucb as sand or mud. ThIs disttnqrrisbes It
between stl11ilar artifiCial stones. Solid types are used as blIildinq stones and for monlUIlents.
Less co.~sOl1~ated conqlomerates are used for gravels and cblpptnqs.
u
Ltlllestone---It IS tbe most abundant sedtlJlentary rock. It IS composed of calctlIl11 carbonate
In a finely qranular texture. The mineral calCite (calCilIl11 carbonate), can make up to 95%.
Its color varies dependlnq on wbat constItutes fie ll1nestone. LI1J1estone is made in tIte sea
from fraql11ents of tbe bard parts of anllnals and plants, from pbystcal preCipItation of
calcareous mud, and from calcareous prectpItatlon by orqanisms. The orqantsms blIlld up tbetr
support structures from calctlIl11 carbonate wblcb bas been dIs·solved In tbe water, and tbese
structures accumulate after deatb on tbe sea floor. They remain eHner as complete unHs, as
broken skeletal remaIns, or finely broken up as calcareous mUd. Used In tbe blIlldInq Industry
for cement production, blItldinq stone, In tbe manufacture of suqar, for tbe manufacture of
qlass and paints, as addttlVe In tbe smeltlnq of iron-ore, and also as ferttliZer.
Karst---It Is a l1qbt colored rock wttb a fine-grained texture. It forms a dtsttnctlYe
landscape (topoqrapby) tbat can develop wbere tie underlytnq bedrock, often llInestone or
marble, Is partIally dissolved by surface or qrolInd water. It IS cbaractertzed by slnklloles,
caves, and underqround dramaqe.
Sandstone---Rallqes In color from pure wbIte to solid black. Formed of sand cemented by
stllca or iron oxIdes, some types are soft and easny abraded; otbers are vtrtually llnpervtous
to weatbertnq, even touqber tban qranIteI lias a flne-qralned texture. sandstone IS always
layered and found wbere anCIent seas used to exist. It was used as butldtnq stone In earlIer
u tllnes for catbedrals, castles, and presttqe butldlnCJs.
 Mineral Information

V Three classes of useful minerals: metals, non-metallic products, and fuels.

Metals

Iron Mercury Uranium Tin

Aluminum Copper Platinum Lead
Silver Zinc Gold Magnesium

Non-metallic products

Building materials Precious and semi-precious stones

Gypsum Turquoise
Nitrates Topaz
Abrasives Gamet
Phosphates Tourmaline
Potash Diamond
Limestone Zircon
Sand Sapphire
Borax Ruby
Talc
Quartz

Fuels

Coal Petroleum Natural Gas Atomic (Uranium)

House Construction

Ore Metal Use

Hematite Iron Beams, girders, posts, nails, machines, screws
Limonite
Magnetite
Azurite Copper Electric wiring, gutters, roofing, pipes
Malachit~.
Chalcocite
Galena Lead Pipes, paint, caulking
Sphalerite Zinc Galvanizing pipe, sheet metal
Cinnabar Mercury Electric switches, thermostats
Bauxite Aluminum Siding, windows, doors, roofs
Quartz Silicon Glass
Kemite Boron Glass
Borax
Limestone Calcium Cement, building stone
.v
,
ftndthe MINERALthaL
1. looks'like gold Pyrite--fools goId ll
- jron and sulfur

2. has needle Dke aystals Quartz- purple- amethyst. pink-

is rose q.uartz
3. looks WOOlly or hairy (do not open) Asbestos- _ insulation (doesDl
cgnduct beat) bad for lunp
4. is thin and flaky Mica- used in MoSCOW before glass-
used in oven windows Cdoesn1t
conduct heat)

5. is yellow and smeDs SuIfur- makes "mtton ea smell-.

used on matches. in other minerals
combined with elements like iron
andJead

6. looks like silver and is heavy GaJena- lead and sulfur Jead ore

7. is magnetic Masnetite- iron ore. only stmn&Jy

malDeHc mineral

8. feels smooth like soap Talc- very soft, used to make talcum
powder
9. Jeaves a red streak on porcelain Hematite- =tlema· means red.
hematite sometimes looJcs
sDver but leaVes a red streak
10. is shaped tike a slanted cube til Calcite- rhombohedral shape due to
cleva.- main mineral in limestone
11. is co1ortess and SO soft that you can ~- sedimentalY mineral
saatch it with your ftngemai1 fonned Wevaporation of sea water-
bardness of 2

12..is colorless and so hard that you can Quartz- hardness of 7. glass 5.5
~tch a piece of glass with it

13. is colorless and is too hard to scratch

With your fingernail, and
too soft to saatch the glass
 ftndtbeROCK.tbaL

14. is a common sedtmentaty rock in Austin limestone can be white. amy. tan.
arbJackl can be crumtW. saUd I can
red~ed as in cave fonnationsl
used as building stone and to make
cement
is. looks Uke wood Petrified woOd - minerals fl)Jed the
spaces and turned it to rock
16. could write like chalk cbalk- made of sheDs of miqoscopic
ore'" organisms Oimestone)
17. is Ught and floats in water Pumice- bas traA*' air! used as
buildtna material! to stone wasb
JI,ani
IS.looks like black glass Obsidian- looks clear in thin sHees I
Was prtsed by Indians for making
moJ&
19. was used by Indians to make tools Cled! mtqoscopcqystals of
quartz. fonn in Umestone I
common rock of river terraces
20. was used to build the Texas state capitol Granite from the llano area- pinlc.
qystaIs ofortboclase

21. is layered With shiny mica flakes in it Scbtst- found in the qeek near
Enchanted Rock

22. is a white matamOtphtc roclc that once White marble

was timestone

17' Which rock or mineral is your fayorite?

 _-~~OG'1RA (oyster)

_ _ GRYPHA!A (oyster)

_ _ PElECfPOO (clam)

GASTROPOO (snan)

.•
•
•
.

_ _....ECHIt-l)IO (\rChtn)
·
tiE · ....
... ... ......

.. : .

_ _ _CEPHALOPOD (ammcntte) ,
_ _....' lME STOtE , '.
_____SEDIr-£HT ARt ROO< WITH LAYERS
___OUAATZ ..
U O£RT
..
_ _....CALCITE -----F«X MACE IS FOSSILS
_ _ JRON COt,GETIc:.. _~FOSSIL ~SS!CH ~ rna.
 . .
combined, the result is a rock. I pass around large pieces '. ,~~ . ; ~S·f;::-i!.7i:J~~'::~",:~,(~;A7~~~i"~tr ~~.~ ~~/~·r"(-: . .... ~.~_-.~~;~.; ..;~.:~; i:~'> :-~'~:
of different kinds of granite, showing the students how Table 1. '
to recognize the minerals quartz, feldspar, and mica in ..' . ~£J,.,(tr;;}.~2.. ~i;:J k\~l~ ~:.';:~';t: _;~;: i- .<);l~<':::'~·:~~. ,'OJ: :.F;,
the rocks. Typically, students ask such questions as, .Some COmm~n :min~rals·tind ttlei'r-u~es:;
"Why are the minerals all different?" (chemical compo-
sition and atomic structure), "Can I build a rock?" (Yes,
but only a model, not the "real thing!"), UWhat is that
mineral or rock used for?" (it depends on the sample
~Mine~!,,]~~t~~cy~i~~~l:;~i~,~~E' ..
being looked at), and UWhy is one mineral kind of
square and another is flat?" (atomic structure).
The National Science Education Standards state
that students in grades K-4 have an understanding of
the properties of Earth materials, including the
physical properties of those materials. By grades 5-8,
study includes the geosphere, with emphasis on
changes in the Earth's crust as shown by the rock
cycle. By grades 9-12 most students feel they are utoo
old" for these activities, but standards to be learned
at this level include the structure of matter, to which
these exercises can readily be applied.

Samples for Students

Imagine students' reactions when they enter the class-
room prepared to study minerals and rocks, only to
discover toys-different colored blocks-at each desk!
The first question asked, with wide eyes and huge
smiles, is often, uCan we build something?" Strange as
it may seem, this is an effective way for students to begin
exploring the characteristics and relationships of min-
erals and rocks. Few students are able to resist these
simple materials, and the teacher is able to guide their
learning without having the unbendable rules and writ-
ten exercises that "tum off" so many students.
For nearly 20 years, I have conducted hands-on
activities where students build crystal models from
I plastic building blocks. This model-building activity
demonstrates Piaget's idea of concrete level of think-
ing without being technical. Piaget believed that chil-
dren, especially ages 7-12, needed concrete objects
to understand and reinforce learning (e.g., the differ-
ences between minerals and rocks).
To begin the activity, I show students samples and
color photographs of common minerals and indicate

1
~ that minerals are the basic geologic materials that
make up the solid part of our planet. It is worthwhile

I for teachers to invest in display quality samples of a

few common minerals such as those listed in the table

i at right. You might check with local geologists or rock

and mineral clubs whose members are often willing to
donate samples to your classes or share collecting
.~
localities. Depending on your geographic location,
\ there may be mineral and rock stores that sell speci-
e
~
!
p
mens. I find such places to be excellent sources of
~ '\..."../
I ALL ROCK IMAGES ARE THE PROPERlY OF AMETHYST GALLERIES, INC
HTTP://MINERALGALLERJES.COM!

39
..., .
J
 CCTT

based on an idea by Anita Gustafson

Who would want to eat a rock? head. Then the crocodile drags the struggling
Not you, I hope. After all, if you chew on a antelope underwater. The weight of the rocks
~i
rock, you'll crack your teeth. Who wants that? in the crocodile's stomach helps the animal dive
And swallowing rocks whole doesn't make much to the bottom of the river and hold the ante-
Sl'11Sl' eitller. A tillY rock would probably just lope there until it drowns.
go down into your stomach, take up some ham- Later the crocodile tears off a chunk of meat
burger room for a while, then pass right through
your body. And you'd choke on a bigger rock
and gulps it down. The food goes down to the
crocodile's stomach. There strong muscles -,
Some animals, however, do eat rocks. It's an chum the food and the stomach rocks together.
odd practice, but it's been going on for ages. The rocks probably help to grind up the food
so the crocodiles can digest it better.
PLESIOSAURS
Probably the first rock-eating animals swam PENGUINS
in shallow bays near shores covered with What do penguins have in common with
strange, cone-bearing trees. These creatures, crocodiles? They eat rocks too. Scientists once
called plesiosaurs (PLEE-zee-uh-sawrs), disap- removed ten pounds of small stones from the .·0
.- peared along with the dinosaurs. But some stomach of one "greedy" penguin!
cI<)se cousins of the plesiosaurs- the But why do penguins eat tiny rocks? No one
crocodiles- still swallow rocks. knows for surc. It's possible the rocks help di-
Why? Scientists aren't sure. But many of them gest food. But the penguins usually eat soft food
think the plesiosaurs of long ago ate rocks for that's easy to digest anyway.
the same reasons crocodiles eat the~ today. Penguins are good swimmers and divers.
They have to be. They catch all of their food
CROCODILES in the water. Some scientists think that the
When a hungry crocodile spots an antelope weight of the stones makes swimming and r
1
0
0

on a riverbank, the crocodile swims quietly diving easier for the birds. '"
toward its prey. It stops in front of the ante- When penguins molt, or lose their feathers,
lope and waits for the creature to lower its head they cannot go into the water. They have to
for a drink of water. stay on land. One scientist suggested that the
While it waits, the crocodile lies very still penguins may eat rocks at this time because
wit h only its nose and eyes above water. It can they are bored and have nothing better to do.
do this probably because of the rocks in its
stomach. They help to keep the top-heavy and ROCKS ON TIlE MENU
tail-heavy animal from turning over. So, if you ever go out to dinner with a croco-
Suddenly the crocodile pushes its head out dile or a penguin, be prepared! One of the
!*I
of the water, opens its powerful jaws. and creatures may want to eat you. The other may
snaps then1 shut around the surprised antelope's order rock stew. The End

15

-n e ¥ 51,.
 MAGNETITE
Var. Lodestone

Specimen: Lodestone (magnetic variety of Magnetite) with nails and and Magnetite fragments attached
to it
Locality: Iron Springs, Iron Co., Utah
Ma~ification: +1
Specimen
A
Grade:
CoUection: Hershel Friedman
Photograph: Hershel Friedman

l"t~netite Im~ges

• B~~klQJb.~ roi.nel"ruJv1&g!l~liJe
• a~~k to ~h~Jll1_a.g~_Q~t~IY._:~M.~gl1~tit~
• Back to the Im8:ge Gallery-=.L..9_d~stQne
• Im~_. fil~JJ~.lp.

HOM! MINElALS A-l GEMS1'QNES RESOURCes GLOSSARY !MAlt US

C.9P'yrigbt © 1997 - 2000 Hershel Friedman, all rights reserved.

 t
MAGNETITE
ffiagll..:ttr ..· • IlllnerJI 72.2.;

The Mineral and Gemstone Kingdom Help Pictures

..

Chemical Formula Fe2+Fe3+20 4

"
"" Composition Iron oxide. May contain many impurj.t.i.e$ partially replacing both the first and the second iron.
Variable Formula (Fe,Mn,Mg,Zn,ND 2+ (Fe,AI,Cr,Mn,y)3+ 20
4

•••,.
Color
Streak
Hardness
Black
Black
5~-6~
Crystal Forms (Isometric) Crystals are usually well-shaped 9_qt~be~drol1s, and less commonly goqecanedrons.
and Aggregates They may also be an interesting combination of the two. Seldom occurs in cubic crystals.
Crystals are usually striated, and some octahedral crystals contain layer growths. Also occurs
rn§$$ive, griJiD~, in veins, as large embedded gr~in~, and as rounded crystals.

•Transparency
II Specific Gravity
~ Luster
Opaque
4.9 - 5.2
Metallic

"•"
Cleavage None. May exhibit p~rting.
Fracture Subconchoidal to uneven
Tenacity Brittle
...

"•Other 10 Marks
Varieties
Strongly attracted to m~gn~ti.c fi~lds C'ferro_m.ruJnetic")
.r!: Lodestone - Massive, magnetic variety of magnetite (acts as a magnet)
:~ TItano-magnetite - Titanium-rich variety of magnetite
;~: Chrome-magnetite - Chromium-rich variety of magnetite

"" In Group
All About
Oxides; Multigle oxides ; §~roup
The magnetic variety Lodestone only comes from a few areas. It is the only mineral that acts as
a magnet. Although its magnetism is weak, it is strong enough to attract large nails. Due to its
magnetic properties, very fine iron filings (usually originating from the mineral itself) cling to its
,.

surfaces.

Magnetite may form a yellow-brown fl:l.§.t coating if washed or kept in a moist area. If a specimen
must by washed, it should be dried immediately. To prevent rusting, specimens should be stored
in dry areas.

Hematite commonly forms Qseudomorphs over Magnetite. These pseudomorphs are known as
Martite, and their appearance may be similar to regular Magnetite. However, they are only
weakly attracted to magnetic fields, and have a reddish-brown streak.

""
Uses Magnetite is an important ore of iron. Its perfect crystals are also famous among mineral
collectors. This mineral is of scientific interest because of its special magnetic properties.
Striking Features Strong attraction to magnets, llard ness, and streak
1/1 Popularity 2
1# Prevalence 1

""
Demand 1
Distinguishing tla.rtkUnit~ - only weakly attracted to magnetic fields
Similar Minerals Spinel - not attracted to magnetic fields, has a white streak
Ilmenite - lighter streak
GJJ.ro_mit~ - has a brownish streak

• Commonly
Occurs With
g~lcite, Phlogopite, Talc, pyrite, Ilmenite, Hematite, 8QE1tite, Gamet, Chlorite

_.
" Noteworthy
Localities
Magnetite is a common mineral, and exists in numerous localities. Only the finest are mentioned.

Some famous worldwide occurrences are Binnental, Switzerland; Pfitschal, Tyrol, Austria; and
the Palabora Mine, Transvaal, South Africa. The largest Magnetite deposits are in northern
Sweden. Other enormous deposits are in Norway, Romania, and Russia.
In the U.S., the magnetic variety Lodestone comes from the Iron Springs area (Dixie National
Forest), Washington and Iron counties, Utah; and Magnet Cove, Hot Spring Co., Arkansas.
 Large masses come from Franklin, Sussex Co., New Jersey, and perfect Q.QtaheJ1La1 cryStals
m Chester, Windsor Co., Vermont. Interesting dodecahedral crystals were at one time
\ abundant at the Tilly Foster Mine, Brewster, Putnam Co., New York. Large cubic crystals occur
in Balmat, St. Lawrence Co., New York, and the French Creek Mine, st. Peters, Chester Co.,
Pennsylvania has produced some large octahedrons.
Large octahedrons were found in Monroe, Orange Co., New York and in Laurel Hill (Snake Hill),
Secaucus, Hudson Co" New Jersey. Massive and poorly crystallized examples of this mineral
still be found in abundance in the dumps of the 19th century iron mines in the Ramapo
ntains e and Rockland Counties, New York.

Picture Links 1. Clu~ter of .rusl~q .Magnetite .9ry!?tal~

2. J;.t9.Dgr;lte~toQ.~~b~cJral crystal
3. Oc~ahedr~t cIY~tal
M~gnetic ~~~Qq~~~9n.e"
5. M etit~ in . C.§l-'91t~
- - - -_._----------------_.__..•..._.._._--_.-.
Additional references

• The Mineral Gallery (Amethyst Galleries)

• Min~[~logyJ;l.~t~Q~s~ (David Barthelmy)
• ~lJs~n:~ut~ (Marc Favre)

JOHN BETTS

IJ,:t'r 111/1• •H.rilr,'

Advertise on this page

This page is open to sponsor.

._ _ _ _ _._._-L-_ _ __ ---------_... _._-_._-----..__.__.._---------

Qru>-yright © 1997 - 2000 Hershel Friedman, all rights reserved.

u
Habitat Hunt
Additional Activities

These activities may be used to supplement those indicated in the ANSC

Trailwalk Guide in order to lend focus and objective to the hiking experience.
The activities are are organized for grade/age level. Materials needed to
implement the activities will be provided in a Habitat Hunt leader's pack.

Materials provided in the Habitat Hunt pack are:

1. Animal track poster

2. Scat boxes
3. Chalkboard and chalk
4. Paint chip cards
5. "Magic Windows"
6. Bandana
7. String
8. Scissors

u Introduction to the Zilker Nature Preserve

The Zilker Nature Preserve is a 60 acre preserve dedicated in 1984 as a

habitat for Austin plants and animals. The Zilker Preserve is one of 13 preserves
in Austin. These are lands set aside to protect our native plants and wildlife
habitats. These preserves are important for endangered animals such as the
golden cheeked warbler, and also for th~ plants and water all living things need.

u
u
Introduction to Habitat Hunt

Activities K-5 .

1. Track Memory

2. Scat boxes

3. List animals thought to be in forest

4. Give tips on looking for signs of wildlife

____ -.:==-.......... __ ~_...........:..-=- _~ ____ ~ J

 Activities for Trailwalk

Pre-K -2

1. Color Savenger Hunt---Students work in pairs. Give each pair a paint

chip card. They match objects they find as
closely as possible to the paint cards. Be sure
they leave the objects where they were found.

2. Duplication

3. Magic Windows·

u
u
Activi ties for Trailwalk

Grades K-5

1. Webbing

2. Bird Calling

3. Nature Knowledge

u
u
Extra Activities

1. List of Forest Awareness Activities

2. Identification Game

3. Scavenger Hunt

4. How Old Was That Tree?

u
 \
,

Track Memory
MATERIALS
Field guide
Paper or cardstock
Scissors
Pencil

A Cut the paper o~ card stock

V into pieces the size of
playing cards. Draw animal
tracks on the pieces of paper.
Use a field guide to find out
what the tracks should look
1.
like. If you want, make more
than one of the same track.
Lay the papers in ~ stack, face
down like a deck of cards. Take
turns picking a "card" off the
top of the stack and naming the
animal that made the track. If
you answer correctly, keep the
card with the track you identi-
fied. If not, put the paper under
the stack and let the na.xt player
take a turn. You can keep score,
or just play for fun. If there are
Guess whose tracks these are.
questions about the tracks, be
sure to look them up in the
guide.

) ) )
 Scat Boxes

Scat is indicative of the types of animals living in a forest. We often do not

see the animals themselves beacause they hear us coming and they hide from us.
We can often, however, identify animals in our area by identifying th!ir scat.
Here are three types of scat we may commonly see in the preserve: de~r, raccoon,
and armadillo.
Examination of the scat can tell us what sort of diet an animal has. The
location of the scat indicates where we might be able to see an animal if we sit
quietly and watch at the right time of day. Raccoons and armadillos are
nocturnal. Deer are crepuscular-they come out to eat at dawn and dusk.

List Animals Thought to Be in Forest

Ask students what kind of animals they think might be in the forest. You
may want to use the chalkQoard to·record their guesses. At the end of the walk
you may review the list to see how many of those animals' signs you have seen.
This list may also be expanded to include plants and trees.

Look For Signs of Wildlife

Activities

1. How to Find Animal Homes

2. Watch For Wildlife

3. Insect Hunt
u Scat Boxes

Scat is indicative of the types of animals living in a forest. We often do not

see the animals themselves beacause they hear us coming and they hide from us.
We can often, however, identify animals in our area by identifyiI:tg th!ir scat.
Here are three types of scat we may commonly see in the preserve: deer, raccoon,
and armadillo.
Examination of the scat can tell us what sort of diet an animal has. The
location of the scat indicates where we might be able to see an animal if we sit
quietly and watch at the right time of day. Raccoons and armadillos are
nocturnal. Deer are crepuscular-they come out to eat at dawn and dusk.

List Animals Thought to Be in Forest

U Ask students what kind of animals they think might be in the forest. You
may want to use the ch.al.k1?oard to record their guesses. At the end of the walk
you may review the list to see how many of those' animals signs you have seen.
I

This list may also be expanded to include plants and trees.

Look For Signs of Wildlife

Activities.

1. How to Find Animal Homes

2. Watch For Wildlife

3. Insect Hunt

u
 FORESTAWARENEssAcr~ms
Debbie Bess
u lAEE Conference

Purpose: Forest awareness activities are used to bring about a sense of wonder in the forest These
activities can be: used to be:Jp students ~me comfQrtable being in the outdoor classroom. The 3CU\1ties
can also be used to suppl~ent concepts covered in the classroom. Students will use their obsetV3lion
skills, prediction :skiDs, and problem soIling skiDs. .. "
. .~

Maten:ds: Paper, pencil bandanna, paint color cards, string, hard sut&ce to write on (optional)

Acth1tfes:
K. . ~ • Forest conununiry survey hike- List the Jiving things believed to be in this forest. When finisht:d
hike through the forest and find c:Yidence that each living thing emu. For example, Spiders lh-e: in
the forest E.,idence that a spider lives here would be.a web or seeing the spider.

• ABC Hike- While walking through the forest the students find objects that begin with A. then B,
and so on. ,.

• Sound mapping- Students sit in one place and document 1he sounds they hear in map form.

• Color Scavenger Hunt- Students use paint chip cards. They match natural objects they find as
closely as. possible to the paint cards. Be sure ther
leave the objects where they were found.

4 - t.." r ~aturalist ]oumaHng- This is a method. ofsketching things in nature. It helps the artist begin
to observe nature more closely.

u 4 -I..p ·For~t Poetry- Write poetry about thc: forest using any fOrIn ofpoetly such as cinquain. free vers.e
allit..ontions, or triplets.

~.....: K • Ban\huma SC:l\"enger Hunt- Hide five objects under :1 bandanna. The students.get 20 seconds to
memorize the ~bjc:cts. After the 20 secon~ recover the objects and have students tty to find
objecTS identical to the onc:s under the: bandanna.

'1 - lop • ~fillion Dollar LeafHWlt- Students find a leafancl write a careful description oCit nus should be
done: l\oithout others seeing their lea! Then, all the leaves are put in a pile in the center oCthe group.
Each student reads their description and lets the rest of the group try to figure out which leaf
, bdongs to the r~der.

.3 - "" • Intersection Floor Study· Stretch a ten Coot long piece ofsuing on the gIOWld. ObselVe: and list ~
natural objects that come within six inches of either side ofthe string. identify the plana ifposSIble.
make inferences about what son of relationships exist between each of these things.

l..{ ... (., • Interview A Tree- Have smdents make up a written account oC an i:nte:rview betwetn Ihemse!\'es
and a tree. Topics for discussion could include the tree's age. historical events of the area.. wt3Iher.
inhabitants of the ~ the tree's hopes and dreams and concems.

RESOl'RCES:
• Project Jflild Wilily ,,,ide
·Sharing :VaIlITC M'ill, CJUJdren by J,,:s~ph C~en

u
c c.
Scavenger Hunt
MATERIALS
..,:on"
Pencil
Paper

A One player makes a list of

V 20 easy-to-find things.
Some good ideas are leaves,
twigs, flowers, feathers, insects,
berries, seeds, pinecones,
rocks-anything you have
around camp.
Divide up into pairs or teams
of players. Give each team 'a
list, and send them out to
search for as many items as
they can find within a certain
time limit. A grown-up should
go with each team to be sure no
one gets lost.
Don't take the items away from
where you found them. Pick
someone from each team to
make a list of what items were
seen and where they were found.
When you get back to camp.
compare what each team found.
 How Old Was That Tree?
ind a tree stump and count
F its rings. Each ring is one
yea r nth e ..J.i f e oft hat t r e e .
i
Count the rings to see how
old the tree was 'when it
was cut down";
Many trees are as old as 500 to
1,000 years old!
. I;
I~v
Look at each ring-is it thin
or thick? When a ring is thin,

r~i
the tree didn't grow much that
year. This could be due to lack
of rain or an early winter. If the
ring is thick, the tree probably ( ,I
received' a lot of water; there
were good growing conditions
that year. Look for dark rings.
If you find a ring that is darker
than the others, the tree proba-
bly survived a forest' fire.
Count back to the year you
were born. Can you find it? See
if you can fi nd a tree with 100
• Rings are thin
rings. Isn't it amazing how - - - during dry years.
long it takes a tree to grow
only a few inches around?
Look for the years your lJlother
and father were born, tab.
Rings are thick when
There are many stories that ..-------- there is plenty of rain.
this stump can tell. How many
can you find?
u

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y------
-.
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it
~

T
IS is a good game for getting children interested
in rocks, plants. and animals. Before a$sembJing
#:
the children to play, secretly gather from the
immediate area about 10 common natural ob-
jects, such as rocks, seeds, conifer cones, plant parts, and
some signs of animal activity. Lay the objects out on a
handkerchief and cover them with another handkerchief.
Call the children close around you and tell them, "Under
tha c10ih are 10 MlUralobjects that you71 be able to
u find netlrby. I will lift the handkeI'Chie/ for 25 seconds so
you am take a good look and try to remember every-
thing you see.II

After looking at the objects. the children spread out

and coUect identical items, keeping their findings to
themselves. After five minutes of searching, call them
back. Dramatically pull out the objects from under the
handkerchief, one at a time. telling interesting stories
about each one. As each object is presented. ask the
children if they found one just like it.
Children have a lively curiosity about the kinds of
things- you'l show them - rocks. seeds. plan ts, and so on.
When you repeat the game several times, it has a notice·
able strengthening effect on the child's concentration
and memory.

Duplication
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--- -=~...:..:..:.....~
.'
Ma~i-c Windows
BackgrQund InfornlatiQD
Magic Windows is an activity developed at the Heard MUseul11 designed to
introduce young children to the diversity of life. Anyone standing on a
\\~ell-nlanicured lawn in the late spring or early summer would find it;hard to picture
any other plant in the lawn except grass. However, in all but the most intensively
cared for ]a\\'DS, nature has its way and diversity sneaks in. It is this diverse plant life
that ?\1agic Windows addresses.

\\Then anyone, from the rough edged nov.ice to a seasoned Ecologist, stands in
an area where a plant survey is to be done the size of the task can appear
overwhelming. The trick is the break the area into small units and this is the Magic
in the Magic Windo\\'s.

Procedure
Each child.receives one Magic Wmdow and a quart size zip]ock bag 'of paper
sand\\'ich bag. At the site ,ask the ~hildren what kinds of plants are covering the
ground. The usual answer is grass and only grass. Use the Magic Window to try to
fmd other kinds of plants in the lawn that are not grass. .

To use the Window, toss it onto the lawn with your eyes closed. Collect a leaf
or flower for every plant inside the Window that is not grass. Put the things you
collect into the ziplock bag.

Back in the classroom place your collections on the clear acetate and cover it
with clear contact paper. Punch a hole in the top of your hanging and thread a
string through it. Hang it in a bright window to show off the colors and shapes in
the sunlight.

Materials
1 wire coat hanger per student 1 6" x 8" clear contact paper per child
1 12" length of orange surveyors tape per 1 12" piece of string per child
child 1 hole punch per class
1 6" x 8" clear acetate per child
u

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~ GAME
'."
': Conti~e conneaul'" , . with strini~s their
H R E .IS that makes very clear the es- ttlationshlp'ho-ttre rest of the group emerge. Bri,ng in
sential mterrelationships among all the mem- DeW elements and considerations, such as other ammals.
bers o.r nature's community. Webbing vividly portrays 1Oil, water and so on, until the entire circle of children is
how all t rocks, plants, and animals function together in Ittung together in a symbol of the web of life. You have
a,balanced web of life. created your own ecosystem.
~e children form a circle: The leader stands inside To demonstrate how each individual is important to
the cucle near the edge, with a ball of string: "Who can the whole community, take away by some plausible
12Ilme a plant that grows in this area? ... Brodillea. '.. means one member of the web. For example. a fire or a
Go~ Here, Miss Brodiaea, you hold the end of the logger kills a tree. When the tree falls, it tugs on the
stnng. /s there an anin1Q/ living around here that might strings it holds; anyone who feels a tyg in his string is in
ellt the bro,dillea? .. Rabbits! . .. Ah. a sumptuous meal SOme way affected by the death of the tree. Now every-
Mr. Rabbit. yo~ take hold of the string here; you are one who felt a tug from the tree gives a tug. The process
connected to MIss Brodiaea by your dependence on her COntinues until every individual is shown to be affected
fl?wers for your lunch. Now. who needs Mr. Rabbit for by the destruction of the tree.
his lunch?"

u
 101

B RD watchers ("bird- shrubs or trees that will partially hide you and give
ers tt) have tradition- birds some thing to land on. Begin calling the series,
ally been thought of after three or four rounds to listen for incoming
as eccentric types
who trudge about the woods The birds will respond quickly if. they are going to
and climb trees with unruly at all. Some birds, like rufous-lided towhees, will
collections of notebookS,biD- to the nearest lookout post to find out what is going
oculars and cameras. But if Others, like the wrentit, win slowly, warily come
you ever get a chance to . When the birds have come near, a single series or
observe birds closely, you'D couple of notes may be all you'll need to keep them
discover that they're beauti- . I think the reason this call works is that the
ful to see and listen to, and " sound resembles many birds' scolding call.
utterly fascinating in their habits. You may find yourself naturalists believe it sounds like a mother bird's
not only understanding the birders' obsession but cateb. call to her young; others,. that it merely provokes
ing it yourselfl ' birds' curiosity.)
In the. bird. world you'll find exquisite beauty and Smaller birds dislike the presence of predators and
a1rnos~ ummagmable homeliness; perfect grace and total frequently mob a hawk or owl in hopes of driving it
clu~sme~s; fea~some power and gentle humility; silent While hiking high in the Sierras, a group of Boy
soanng 10 ranfied heights, and earthy cackling and and I experienced a dramatic case of bird-mob-
squabbling. We were in the middle of a low.growing alder thick-
There !s a bird call that you ca.n easily 4o.with no When a pine marten scampered into view just eight
more equIpment than your own mouth. It attracts many away. (Pine martens are related to the weasels and
of. the smaller species: sparrows, warblers, jays, vireos, about the size of a small domestic cat. They are agile
c!llcka~ees, n~thatches, hummingbirds, flycatchers, bush- rs and snatch birds as part of their diet.) .
tits,.onoles, kinglets, wrens, and others. In the following We gave our "distress call," and in no more than a
sectIon on predator calls, you will learn to attract some tninute ten eager birds had gathered to rescue us. They
of the larger birds. landed very close to the marten, scolding him ferven tly I

The call consists of a series of rhythmically-repeated and indignantly until he decided to move on. ~..
"?sssh" sounds. Different rhythms work with different Children enjoy using this call. Many times I've been '
bl,rds. Here are a couple of simple rhythms you can start . Witli groups of children who lay _
WIth: silently on the forest floor.
j>ssh . . . . . . pssh . . . . . . pssh . . . . . . , completely absorbed in watch·
pssh . . . . . pssh . . . . . pssh-pssh ..•.. pssh . . . . . pssh . ing the birds that flew in overhead
Each of these series should last about three seconds. Coming in answer to the children's signals.
Experiment to find the rhythms that work best for the
birds in your area.
For the best results when you use this call wait until
you hear- birds nearby, then kneel or stand ~otionless
 Nature Knowledge
MATERIALS AThis,game can be played by
Vall ages. Let the younger chil-
Paper .~ ..
dren simply name the item, and
Pencil expect older players to be a bit
more specific. Your little sister may
only be able to tell the difference
between a pebble and a shell, while
you may be able' to tell the differ-
ence between a piece of quartz and
a chunk of fool's gold (iron pyrite).
After all the guessing is over, use

IT)
•.m field guides to make sure the
answers are correct.
Choose one person to organize
the game. This person collects
between 5 and 20 different objects
from around the campground.
Some ideas are plants, flowers,
berries, leaves, pebbles, twigs, or

"
~
shells.
Number each object, and then
give each player a turn identifying
the objects. Give everyone a
,notepad so that they can write
down the number and what they
Number each of the items. Players write do~n their answers. think the object is. After everyone
has made their guesses, compare
the answers.

\~ ) ")
 [

How to Find Animal Homes

omes for some animals and birds can be easy-to find, and,
H for other animals, almost impossible. Some of the easiest to
find are bird and ..j.quirrel nests, or burrows in the ground. To
Nat..re Note If you are
watching an animal and its
ea,;; start twitching and it is
find nests of birds or squirrels, look up in the tree branches or in looking at you, it is becoming
old, hollow trees. scared. Stay where you are
Chipmunks, snakes, ground squirrels, foxes, badgers, coyotes, and you may be able to watch
prairie dogs, and lizards all live underground in burrows. To find it. Go no farther! It may run
if a hole in the ground is occupied, stick a, few small twigs off in fear or try to defend
upright in front of the hole. Leave the area and return later to itself. Wild animals can be
check on the twigs. If they are flattened or bent, it means that unpredictable.
some creature has been using the hole. Sit quietly at a distance
and watch. You may spot the hole's dweller as it enters or leaves
the burrow. I

To find a deer or elk bed, look for a flattened area of grass.. usu-
ally under a tree. The area may contain piles Of scat that looks
like large rabbit droppings. If you spot one of the flattened grass
areas, look around for hair left in the area, or shrubs and grasses
that the animal has been chewing. 'I I
,
~

I ..,.,...
Beavers leave very clear signs of their presence in the forest.
Trees they have chewed down leave a unique stump. This stump
will end in a sharp point with piles of wood chips around the
ground. Beavers don't build dams with large trees. These trees
are stored in the water for their winter food. Beavers eat the bark
I •

off these trees during the winter. .

Beavers build their homes in free-flowing rivers or streams.
They build dams by laying small trees across a stream until it
creates a pond. They build lodges in the pond out of round piles
of stick~. If you spot one of these large piles of sticks in a pond,
look around for the beaver's woodlot and try to spot some of the
pointed stumps. .
If the beaver has built a ponq you can easily spot the dam. They
build it from branches and mud. Don't walk on their dam, as you
can damage it, and fall through into the water.
If you ar~ lucky and find a beaver pond in a marshy area, look
v.,."
( , I for tiny channels 9f water in and among the grasses. These are
the beavers' "highway." The beavers will swim in these lanes as
they travel around the area.

beaver stump

'"

beaver lodge
-
------------~-

\) -) \)
c c c
Insect Hunt
hile you are out hiking,
W watch for insect homes. If
you are looking carefully, you
may spot the small, round'
indentation in the ground that
marks a trap-door spider's home.
mud wasp Look for small amounts of
bubbles on grass stems. These
are homes for small insects
sometimes called "spitbugs" or
"spittlebugs." Can you guess
why? These insects suck the
juice from plants to make a
frothy ball to hide 'in that looks a
little like bubbly spit. paper wasp
Wasps and hornets make
nests that are easy to spot. These
can hang on bushes ,or along the
roof eaves of a building. If you
spot one of these hives, be sure
to observe from a distance
because wasps and hornets can
sting you severely.
Can you spot a spider's web?
Follow a honeybee home to the
hive? Locate an anthill on the
forest floor? There are many
living creatures, right under
your feet! '
 ----------~c 2& J

Watch for Wildlife

hen you are in the wild,
W you may come upon a
small trail made by animals
called a game trai~You won't ..
see any piled rock markers or
blazes on trees to mark the
way. It will be time well-spent tree hole
to follow this trail, keeping
watch for animal signs. The
most obvious sign to look for
I will be tracks and scat (animal
waste droppings). Watch for
tree-scratching, branches and
grass chewed by animals,
homes of small rodents and
birds, hair left on branches,
and deer or elk beds.
Tree scratches can be made
by mice, members of the cat
family, or bears. Look at how
high the scratches are, and the
size of the scratches. The
smallest and lowest would
belong to the rodent family, bird or squirrel nest
then would come the cat fam-
ily, and last and highest would
be made by a bear.

PCP - __, ¢ 44
 If you spot a "scratching
tree," look around the tree for
pieces of f~.. or hair, as these
trees are also used as a back-
rubbing post. If you spot a tree
missing large amounts of bark
in an oblong shape, this could
be a mark made by a porcu-
pine. Porcupines eat tree bark.
If the nibbled patch is above
your head, it wasn't a huge
porcupine-just one that stood
on deep snow to nibble bark.

Nature Note If you find a tree scratches

baby animal or bird, leave it
alone. Don't touch it or move
it. The mother is probably
right in the area or has left
the baby there for safekeep-
ing. Many animals will not
want their baby to smell like
a human. Your smell can also
attract predators to the baby. porcupine gnaw
 Nature Hunt

1. a small pinch of sand

2. a tiny twig
3. a smaIl smooth pebble
4. a small new leaf on the ground
5. aseed
6. something brightly colored
7. a feather (or something that tickles)
8. something white
9. a piece of litter to throwaway
10. something prickly
11. a small piece of rough bark
12. a pinch of soil
13. something with a smell
14. a small rough rock
15. a leaf on the ground without holes
 MARVELS IN-·oN
. .
··GAlLS··
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SOH! INSEcTS A~E "'~i.E .Tt:).
CAUSE PLANTS TO tlHDl4I "(SALlS: (GN.L WASP) "
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. AN 'f~ Is., bGPooSirFD lNSiD~' THE PJ.IfNr .srilf~"
O~ i.~If.F I ~N" rgl:: .6'1.1..'1.' (}~O';".I "A'A',t.lNO ,Ir::: .
• ..J • • • •• ..... • ..: ' .-

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LARYA CELL-IS SVSPEt1DEO'
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·BY RAOIAT/H6 rHItEAD$ • ."
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,
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Back~Qu'Dd lnfounation
M.agic \Vindo\\'s is an activity developed .at the Heard MUseU111 designed to
introduce young chlldren to the diversity of lire. Anyone standing on a
\\Oell-n1anicured lawn in the late spring or early summer would find it hard to picture
any other plant in the la\\'n except grass. However, in all but the most intensively
cared for lawns, nature has its 'way and diversity sneaks in. It is this diverse plant life
that ~fagic \Vindows addresses.

\Vhen anyone, from the rough edged novice to a seasoned Ecologist, stands in
an area where a plant survey is to be done the size of the task can appear
overwhelming. The trick is the break the area into small units and this is the ?\1agic
in the ·Magic Windo\\'s.

Procedure
Each child receives one Magic Wmdow and a quart size zipl~ck bag paper of
sand\\'ich bag. At the site ask the children what kinds of plants are covering the
u ground. The usual ans\\:er is grass and only grass. Use the Magic \\'indow to try to
fllld other kinds of plants in the lawn that are not gras~.

To use the \\,'indow, toss it onl0 the lawn \\rith your eyes closed. Collect a leaf
or flower for every plant inside the Window that is not grass. Put the things you
collect into the ziplock bag.

Back in the classroom place your collections on the clear acetate and cover it
\\·ith clear contact paper, Punch a hole in the top of your hanging and thread a
string through it. Hang it in a bright window to show off the colors and shapes in
the sunlight.

Materials
-
.
0 •

1 \\rire coat hanger per student 1 6" x 8" clear contact paper per child
1 12" length of orange surveyors tape per 1 12" piece of string per child
child 1 hole punch per class
1 6" x 8" clear acetate per child

u
 A Fistful of Sound

Askthe hikers to stop moving and listen carefully. Ask them to spend
30 seconds listening to the sounds around them. Tell them to make a
fist with their hand. Ask them to open a finger for each sound they
hear. After 30 seconds .ask the hikers to share the sounds they heard
with the group.
•
u
Texas Mammals 3 rd_ 6th
1 group- 40 mins classroom, 20 mins-touring mammals
2 and 3 groups- 20 mins- fur, adaptations, reproduction
20 mins- teeth, endangerment
20 mins- tour mammals

What do you mow about mammals? Fur, drink milk, warm-blooded How do mammals
learn? From their parents What are people? Mammals. How do you mow? We have hair

Show killer whale picture. These are mammals because when they are babies, they have
fur around their mouths.
Show stuffed armadillo- Is this a mammal? Yes, you can see the hair underneath. Pass
around. Armadillos always have 4 babies at a time.

FUR AND ADAPTATION

What does "adaptation" mean? What is the annadillo's adaptation? Armor. What is the
bat's adaptation? Flight How does this help the bat? Has a special niche. Can getfood in
a place other mammals cannot (air) Show bat.

•
u
Mammals also have furs that adapt to the habitat that they live in.
Show rabbit fur. Where do you think this rabbit lives, in the cool, or in hot areas? Cool.
They live underground.
Show javelina picture. Where do you think this lives? Dessert. Favorite food is the fruit
of a prickly pear cactus. Show javelina fur. Fur protects against spines of cactus and also
traps cool air close to body to keep them cooled off. Pass fur around.

Mammals also have furs that are used to camouflage.

Show prong homed antelope picture. These live in west Texas where it is hot. The fur is
hollow so cool air traps inside to cool off. Pass fur around.
Show opossum picture and fur. "Wbere do opossums live? Trees How does the color help?
Camouflage

Mammals also use their fur to communicate messages.

Show raccoon picture. Is this animal nocturnal or diurnal? Nocturnal. Raccoons use their
. strip'ed tail to tell other raccoons where a good hunting place is. They wave them in the
air. Show white tailed deer picture. The white underneath is a warning sign to other deer
that danger is around. The white of a skunk is also a warning to other animals to keep
away.

Mammals also use their fur for defense.

Show quill. Quills are adapted fur on the back of the head, neck, back and tail of

•u porcupines. If a predator approaches the porcupine, they will turn their back to the
predator and flares up the quills. They then back up and swing their tail at the predator.
The quills are sharp and have little hooks that make it difficult to remove the quills.
 Show Rabbit. Rabbits have many adaptations. What do you notice about the rabbit? Are
rabbit's prey or predators? prey. What do they eat? Plants. What eats l"abbits? Owls,
bobcats, coyote. The fur keeps them warn underground. Color helps in camouflage. Eyes
can see in every direction so predators have a hard time sneaking up on them. The large
ears help to hear predators, also works in transpiration. Feet are very strong. They can
hop fast and far. They zig-zag~ avoid predators.

REPRODUCTION

How are mammals born? Most are born live from their mothers. But some are born in
eggs. Show picture of echidna and platypus. Some babies are born precocial. These are
babies that can walk and see soon after being born. White tailed deer, horses, cows all
have precocial babies. 'White tail deer live in herds. The babies need to be able to follow
the herd after being born that is why they need to be able to walk. Show picture of hare.
The difference between a hare and a rabbit is that a hare's babies are born precocia!. They
can walk and see soon after being born, where as a rabbit's baby are altricial, which
means it is small, pink, no fur and its eyes are closed. Do people have altricial or
precocial babies? Altricial.
,. .
-:.

Show mice. Mice have a short life span so they have many babies. They have babies at a

• -',
time, and will have several litters per year. The babies are altricial. This means that the
babies are helpless when they are born. They need their parents to care for them and feed
them and move them around.
V,--L.---__·___
TEETH

Show deer skulZ. Notice all the teeth are flat and smooth. They eat soft parts of plants like
leaves and thin branches. They use their long tongue to gather food.

Show porcupine skull. These have incisors and flat teeth. They eat the hard parts of plants
like bark and the trunks of trees. The incisors grow continuously tlrroughout their life.
They must wear down the teeth by chewing.

Show bobcat picture. What does this animal eat? Meat. What type of animal eats only
meat? Carnivore. This skull has only sharp teeth for tearing at the meat.

Show opossum picture and skull. This animal has both sharp and flat teeth. This means
that he eats both plants and meat. This makes him what kind of eater? Omnivore. Would
a opossum have a harder or easier time getting food? Easier.

Show opossum Pablo. What do you notice? Tail, hands, fur. How do they have babies? In
pouches, they are marsupials. What other marsupials can you think of? Kangaroo,
wallaby. Are there any other marsupials in Texas? No. Opossums are food generalists.
They will eat anything, so life is easier for them.

v
 ENDANGERMENT

Even with all these adaptations, some mammals still become endangered.
Ocelot. Show picture. Ocelots live along the Rio GTande River. They are endangered
because they were hunted for their fur. Ocelots need a wide range of area to live because
they need to hunt. They are loosing their habitat due to ranchers on the Rio Grande River
and they have only pockets of land to live on instead of large expanses of land. Their
habitats are being cut into smaller areas and the ocelots that live there have small groups
to breed with. This is causing inbreeding and many of the new ocelots are sick or
deformed.

Fe"et. Show ferret. Do ferrets live in Texas? No. They used to live here. The black-
footed ferret live in the U.S. They only ate one type of food, the prairie dog. They were
food specialists. Farmers did not like the prairie dogs because they dug holes into the
ground and their cows and other livestock would step in these holes and hurt the~elves.
The farmers began killing off the prairie dogs. Without the prairie dogs, the ferrets had
nothing to eat and they began dying as well. Scientists thought the black-footed ferret
was extinct until the 1970s when a man brought a dead one to a taxidermist. The
taxidermist told scientists and they found 20 more black footed ferrets. They were
collected and are now being bred and released. They feed them through holes so that they
learn to hunt underground when they are released. What do the black-footed ferrets
need to do to survive? Adapt.

TOUR THE ANIMALS

u

co~c.:~-

,. J NJb
 Mammals • Characteristics

The mammal characteristics we cover with kids are:

• Warm-blooded
.. F..ur-Or-hair
• Bear live young
• Produce milk
• Differentiated teeth - 3 ~ ~ ~ olt-~ j ~s

From a scientist's point of view, there is more: ~....Ms ~ .J..~

rJI<Lu
• Mammals have true hair, sebaceous (sweat) glknds riJ.t;, bait~ (NtN'- I
• They are homeothermic (warm..blooded) ..:::'/,.0 ,u:~;tJ /;U . ...

.
• They breathe with a diaphragm, have a 4 ..chambered heart, etc. MaKes ~~$IM ~
aw characteristics: single lower jaw bone, the dentary, which forms a effic.;eMl-
•
I? \0 joint with the temporal or squamosal bone in the skull. (Reptiles -have
multiple bones in the lower jaw, and the jaw joint is between the articular
bone on the jaw and the quadrojugal bone on the skull; these bones also
conduct sound to the ear) w 4Wf ~
• Dental characteristics: differentiated teeth, two ~ets of teeth, precise
occlusion of teeth (molars fit together precisely)
• Skull: three middle ear bones (not just the stapes), bowed cheekbone,
u secondary palate. (Reptiles have many more individual bones in their
skulls, which are less rigid). A different set of muscles move the jaw than
in reptiles, for more efficient chewing.
• Other skeletal characteristics: 3-region spine, no cervical or IlJ!llbar ribs,. "J
limbs are canied under the body 7 GANVi t:M. ~~. fe,pfile& ~ ~ b ;.u-+:;;:;;;r
• Mammals lactate (make milk) and most give live birth

How did mammals get to be this way? .When did these traits develop?
Just before the Permian age, there was a large planet..wide mass extinction. Primitive
reptiles developed into a number of different lineages, one of which was the synapsids.

Synapsids ~s~ ~~
Pelycosaurs (including sail..backs, like Dimetrodon. Extinct at end .of Permian)
Early Therapsids di~tuIed /~
Other Therapsid groups J:, ~
Cynodonts ~ ~.'(r~~ -Iv 3. )~
Other Cynodont groups
Mammalia

Therapsids diversified through the Permian and Triassic ages, until they gave rise to true
mammals by the end of the Triassic. Then, all but Mammals went extinct. ~ S~$I·,ls leA
 Mammals • Evolution
Mammalian characteristics appeared a few at a time:
• Synapsids all have cheekbones, and a single opening in the skull for the jaw
muscles.
• Therapsids (which lived about 260-208 million years ago) had more mammal- {i~ do~
like features, including differentiated teeth. Their bones and nasal structures
indicate they were probably warm-blooded. They probabiy had hair. Many later
therapsids show reduction of skull and jaw bones and more rigid skulls.
• Cynodonts had mostly lost cervical and lumber ribs. In cynodonts, the reptile. ~~/~: I
jaw joints were very small, and in some groups a second joint developed between ~ ~
the dentary and the temporal or squamosal bone. The bones in the original joint r~le ~,,~
continued to conduct sound, and eventually became the incus and malleus in the ~~ ~
inner ear of mammals. _ ~~-/i
• By the end of the Triassic, true mammals had appeared, with aImo~the complete 6-H~'~
mammal pac~e of characteristics. 'f1?e E,Ossible exceptions are lactation and ~~
mammal-stylelive'birth. ~~ 1fM46 -l1MJrPfied ~ ~s •
• Mammals were there the entire time dinosaurs were around, but they were mostly
small, and are often mown in the fossil record mostly from teeth. There were
numerous groups, the relationships are unclear, and the methods of birth are
usually unknown:'
• After the dinosaurs were gone, mammals really came into their own, at least in 0.,
most of the world. A number of megafaunas of large mammals have come and
gone since then. .
• At least three lineages of mammals survived the post-Triassic extinction to the
present dRy: the monotremes, marsupials, and placental mammals. All these
groups lactate, but mammaUan live birth is at different stages of development in
th~ L.i~ Ioir-tt. "::ti~~ (Mt-0/lr<- r..,0r+t.. b.tSi~ b ~
fui.t ~~-;:--t,;~~ \O\&t.u.. vlV/i' ~11 1AJcI.o 11 '0
Live Birth
Many animals from many, lineages give live birth (e.g. insects, crustaceans, sharks, bony
fish, amphibians, reptiles). In these cases, the female must still make large eggs with
enough material to make an entire baby.

Monotreme mammals lay small, rubbery eggs, but they do lactate. Marsupials have taken
the first approach to reducing investment in the egg, and nourishing the fetus later. They
give birth to their young at a very early (really fetal) stage, and nourish them with milk at
their teats to complete the offspring's development. At one time marsupials were
di~buted worldwide, but now survive only in the Americas and Australasia

Placental mammals have an even better answer. Their fetuses make a new organ, the
placenta, which allows them to develop within the mother's body for extended periods of
time, and start ~om very minimal eggs.
 Orders of Mammals ~ ~tf"(. fa~ ·

Prototheria (egg-laying)
Order Monotremata (duck-billed platypus and spiny anteaters)

Metather.ia.(marsupial~ P~'17 AI trH.e p9;4 ~~ ~ n-f fJlAMd-

Order Didelphimorphia (American marsupials, including opossum)
Order Dasyuromorphia (marsupial carnivores)
OrderPeramelemorphia(bandicoots) ., S.~~ O)1U ~~
Order Di.protodontia (kangaroos et.al~ ~ ~~.rt::; ~
Order Microbiothenia /~t:J ~ ~ ~
Order Paucituberculata P\tAIvf ~ J ~ •

Eutheria (placental mammaJ~ •~~~fj::

Order Insectivora (moles, hedgehogs, shrews) ~~~~
Order Dermoptera (flying lemurs)
Order Pholidota (pangolins and scaly anteaters)
Order Tubulidentata (aardvark)
Qrder ·Xenartbra..or Edendata (sloths,..armadillas,JiD.te~

7< (order Chiroptera (megabats and microbats - about 1000 species)

lOrder Primates (marmosets, tamarins, lemurs, tarsiers, etc.)
u (Order Lagomorpha (pikas, rabbits and hm:esj "
~ lOrder Redentia (squirrels, beavers, gophers, mice, rats, porcupines,
cavies, etc. - another big, successful group)

Order Cetacea .(baleen whales and toothed w~

-Ie Order Artiodactyla (even-toed ungulates - pigs, hippos, camels,
giraffes, deer, pronghorns, antelope,
bovines, sheep and goats - the third largest group)
Order Peiissodactyla (odd-toed ungulates - horses, tapirs,IhinosJ

t
Order Carnivora (cats, mongooses, dogs, bears, pandas, raccoons,
hyenas, weasels)
Order Pinnipedia~.seals, sea lions, wa.Jmses~

~~ {Order Hyracoidea (h~

. Order Proboscidea (elephants)
Order Sirena (manatees and dugongs)
u Texas Mammals Info

What are the basic mammal characteristics?

• fur
• milk
• live birth
• warm blooded
• learning brain
• differentiated teeth

Why are there so many mammals? How have they survived so long?

Adaptations- changes over the years so that they are better able to survive in their niche.
Examples: armadillo: adaptation is armor, Owl : night predator

Mammal visitor: Mexican Freetail Bat

Go over mammal characteristics
Adaptations: nocturnal, flying, flat! big ears for echolocation, nose flap

Fur Adaptaions
*javelina pic-lives in desert so fur isn't thick so that the animal stays cool and it provides
sun protection, eats flower from a prickly pear cactus so it's fur is brittle to let it get close
to cactus
u *Pronghom pic- antelope in West Texas, show antlers and fur
*Opossum pic- show fur, camouflage is adaptation for hiding
*Racoon Pic- tail signal is adaptation for communication
*Deer pic - sticks tail up so that white the whit underside is visible, communication
adaptation.
*Porcupine quill- (From Africa-Big) Porcupines in TX aren't that big, Quill adapted kind
of fur for protection.

Mammal Visitor-Rabbit
Go over Mammal characteristics
Adaptations- big ears for hearing (they can turn them) and thermoregulation, eyes on
side(prey animal) so they can see all around, nose for smelling, big feet to jump far plus
they jump side to side, long claws for digging burrows and getting food, Camoflage, fur
thick for warmth, Teeth constantly grow just like rodents however they are in their own
group because they have top and bottom incisors vs rodents just have those type of teeth
on top of mouth.

Teeth Adaptations
*Deer skull- Teeth for eating soft parts of leaves and the sharp sides of the teeth are for
scraping bark off trees in winter.
*Porcupine skull- N. America porcupine skull has incisors that grow (not a rodent
though), eats the hard part of plants (like rabbit) like roots, stems, so that it files down
u their teeth
 *Bobcat pic and skulI- Carnivore, all sharp teeth for eating meat
u *Opossum pic and skulI- flat and sharp teeth- omnivore, gives it a lot of choices for food

Mammal Visitor:Opossum
Go over mammal characteristics
Adaptations- Big tail for holding onto things and for balance walking in trees; He can
grab onto things with a114 feet; marsupial- only one in U.S, only the strongest make it
because they have to crawl into the pouch, there are only 13 nipples and a lot of babies;
lots of babies so generations come quickly and the population grows fast.

Mammal Visitor: Mice

Go over mammal characteristics
Adaptations- lots of babies, generations come faster and population grows more quickly,
learning brain adaptation, altricial vs. precocial babies, 2 mammals that don't give live
birth

Show Jack Rabbit Pic- Belongs to the Hare family, not rabbit, precocial vs altricial rabbit
White tailed Deer pic- precocial babies
Ocelot pic- Rio Grande River, Endangered due to hunting for fur, talk about what
endangered means. Also endangered due to need of a wide home range. Farmers with
big ranches and suburbs create pockets and inbreeding, causes deformities and immune
deficiencies

Mammal Visitor: Ferret

Mammal Characteristics
Adaptations- flexible for crawling around in holes, ears flat against head for crawling
underground, good sense of smell, communication through musk. Talk about Black
footed Ferret.

What do Animals need to do to survive? Adapt to their surroundings through fur, teeth,
eyes, smell, scent, etc.

u
 THE KIDS' WIL~..(.JOOK

FOOD HEI
.~ HtlJI,
e.- t 6~~RIf-~

The armadillo Is one of the strangest and most fascinating

mammals found In North America. this odd little creature Is
~ INStl.Ts
only about the size of a house cat. It's covered with hard,
BIRO"S'
horny plates. Whenever possible, the armadillo escapes
. danger by scuttling Into brush so thick that most enemies can't
!=ollow It. or It dives Into its burrow. • •
W ebbs

Its tough
well, covering
however, serves
if it can't escape V~ry~~~~§!~i~§;~ ~~e.~
the armadillo
by running
into a burrow or dense brush. Then it
curls Itself Into a ball to protect Its . .,~~~
soft underside. In this position, It
can also kick Its enemies very
hard with Its strong hind legs
and long claws. This defense
makes many enemies think
twice about having armadillo
fordinnerl
The armadillo belongs to a
special group of mammals that
Includes sloths and anteaters.
Most armadillos live In South
and Central America, but the
nine-banded armadillo also
lives In a small section of the
southwestern United States.
Fun reads: Ask at the library for
lust So Sto~ies: The Beginning
.)f the Armadillo by Rudyard Kipling.
 (
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"'<:!'i:;, .. ,. ' ..: .. . ;":,.: . ',.

L \ \ li$'- Tn)' .'Wi A' , ...

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THE NINE-BANDED ARMADILlO • .

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. ~
•

Lool( at l1y Armor

The first Europeans to come to South and
Central America were Spanish, and they
gave the armadillo Its name. Armadillo
(pronounced arma-DEE-Yo In Spanish)
means little armed (or armored) one.
The armadillo doe~ Indeed look almost
like an animal in a suit of armor, and the

I '\
comparison Isn't silly. The armor worn by
knights In olden days had big plates held
together by flexible joints, so that the
knights could move. Well, the armadillo
uses much the same system. It has one
big plate covering the front part of Its
body, another big plate covering the
rear, and nine flexible bands In the middle
of Its body. These bands, of course, give
our armadillo Its name of "nine-banded. "
let·s compare: Look at pictures In a
library book or an encyclopedia of the
armor that knights used to wear, or go to
a museum that has real suits of armor on
REAl!
FR.ON-r_ display. Then study the armor worn by
Pt..It"8
PLAT' turtles and armadillos. Which animal has
armor that Is the most like the armor
humans used? Think of the advantages
t\eA" and disadvantages that each kind of
f£,I\1'£ armor has. Which kind of armor would
you rather have, and why?
-rA't... fLA1'E-~
 THE KIDS' WILDt.. (,OK

fOOD HEY·'- •

Ofllt\IMH otl..s

@
I n Virginia, In 1612, the famous Captain John Smith became the
first European to describe an opossum, or possum, as It Is known
for short. He wrote, In what seems to us the strange spelling of
that time, "An Opassum hath a head like a Swine, & a talle like a ~WDR"'S.
MILE

rat, and Is of the Blgnes of a Cat. ,.

That's a very good description. It's not hard to tell a possum when
you see one for the first time. With Its long, naked tall, It looks a little"
like a rat, although It's a lot bigger - about the size of
a house cat, In fact. The base of Its tall Is black,
_
--::;;3 .;;;i?fb~,,-:-~----.;;:o
• I .m GA~MG E
~ f,IRPS'
and so are Its short, rounded ears. It has a --.
t6C7S

e
very long, pOinted face that's nearly
white, with a pink nose at the end.
The "fur on Its body Is usually light NII'S
gray In the North, but Is often
darker In the South.

\
t
A mouthful: The possum has Ie
50 teeth - that's more than any other tl
mammal that Isn't a marsupial. How many do C
other mammals have? Try to count your teeth? Ask your C
friends how many teeth they think a dog, a cat, a mouse,
or a whale has? Then ask a grown-up to help you look In the C
encyclopedia to find out the number of teeth these mammals k(
actually have, How close were you and your friends? A
 .
~
. .
~.
THE OPOSSUM •

-
Like all marsupials, possum After about three months,
babies are so tiny and unde- the young possums come out
veloped that they couldn't of the pouch. About a week
possibly survive without the later. they begin traveling with
protection of their mother's their mother on her nightly
pouch. They're born blind, feeding expeditions. Often
deaf, and hairless. they'll ride by clinging to her
Right after birth, the tiny long fur (not by hanging from
possums travel about two her tail), but sometimes they'll
Inches to the pouch, where scamper along beside her.
they nurse on their mother's Then, after a few more weeks,
milk for about three months. they're on their own.
Some of the babies can't So very tiny: Newborn pos-
even manage to travel that sums are no bigger than a
two Inches, and die before raisin. They're so tiny that a
they reach the pouch. teaspoon can hold an entire

ANorth Wherever their mother goes

(and she travels a long way
each night looking for food),
litter of them!
Try It: Fill a teaspoon with 10 -

AmerltaD her babies ride with her In the

pouch. Male possums go their
15 raisins. Can you believe
how tiny these creatures are?

Marsupial separate way after mating

and have nothing to do with
raising the young possums.
No wonder they are such
fragile newborns.

The opossum Is a marsupial, which Is a mammal that carries Its tiny

young In a pouch until they're big enough to come out Into the
world. Marsupials are among the world's most primitive mammals,
but they seem to have been highly successful In surviving for a very
long time. One advantage marsupials have Is that they can carry
their babies with them. This allows the mother to search for food In
a much larger area than she could If she had to return often to a
den to feed her young.
Marsupials are common In Central and South America, and of
course, Australia Is famous for such marsupials as the kangaroo and
1!o~1 ) . However, the opossum Is the only marsupial found In Nortr )
- ca. )
·c C
,,-. ~.
. \. .
~
.-IE OPOSSUM • 23

Opossum is the name which Native The possum wonted to be as handsome as the Tell a tale: Imagine that you're
Americans gave this animal, and It's raccoon, so he pointed a mask on his face. But an American Indian of long ago.
not surprising that they had legends the other animals just mode fun of hIm, so he entertaining your people with
about something that was so coml."", decIded that he wanted his furry toll to have stories around the fire at night.
mon In parts of North America. The rings, like the raccoon's. Make up your own legend about
Creek Indians, who lived in what are Possum asked the raccoon how to have a why the possum has such a long.
now Alabama and neighboring ringed toil, and the raccoon told him to wrap pointed face with so many teeth.
states, created an Interesting legend strips of bark oround his toil and then hold his toll Use your imagination to create
to explain how the possum got his in the fire. Possum did this, but the fire burned 011 the most interesting story you can
long, naked, ratlike tall. the hoir off his tOll, ond his toil remoins naked to think of.
this very doyf

LIFE (AN BE SHORT

One of the most unusual things about this un-
usual animal Is Its short life span. For its adult size,
the opossum Is one of the shortest-lived animals
In the world. A house cat often lives for 15 years
or more, but possums In the wild rarely live to be
more than 2 years old - and most don't even
last that long. Why? No one knows for sur-e, but
possums seem to live life at a very fast pace and
wear out quickly.
Even so, the species has been able to sUNive
because the females have so many babies at an
early age. The mother has her first litter of 10 - 15
babies when she's only 6 - 9 months Old. If she
lives long enough, she'll have another litter in
another 6 - 9 months.
.. _- -- -.-------------- .------------_._-----------_.. ---_ ... _- /
/
/
 ,.... f'"

·c c c
~o ~o ~o
24 • THE KIDS' WILDLIFE BOOK

f:0
PLAYING POSSUM Using Its feet
H ave you ever heard the expression
.. playing possum"? It means keeping so
still that something seems to be d~ad. Some
limp with its eyes wide open and seems ~o be
dead. Sometimes this works, and the predator
loses interest: the possum may continue to
The possum is said to sleep while hang-
Ing by Its tall, but biologists who spend
a great deal of time watching wild
people think that the opossum ploys dead appear dead for several hours. possums have never seen this done.
when it's in danger. Possums often do ap- Possums sometimes wrap their long tolls
Coyote and possum game: Here's something around a branch, but they do this more
pear to be dead when they really aren't but you can play with two or more people - the
they're not exactly pretending. The possum, for balance than to hang by the tall.
more people (opossums), the funnier It gets. The confusion Is probably because of
with its very small brain, isn't smart enough Put on some favorite music; all the opossums
to think, or pretend. Instead, It just reacts the possum's unusual hind feet. Four of
then dance away with all sorts of silly gyra- its toes have sharp claws, but the fifth
automatically, much like you do when you tions. The person who Is the Coyote suddenly
blink when someone waves a hand In front has no nail and Is placed almost like
turns the music off, and the possums must the thumb on a human or a monkey.
of your face. This is called a reflex action. freeze Into total stillness. Don't move a muscle;
A possum threatened by a predator first This means that the possum can grip
don't change to a more comfortable position. a branch with Its hind feet just the way
shows its mouthful of sharp teeth, growls, Coyote walks around and tries to make you
and hisses almost like an angry cot. If that a monkey can with its front feet. A
smile, lough, move, scratch an itch. If you do, possum can easily hang from a branch
doesn't work, the possum may try to run Coyote will have caught you and you will be
away. But if the predator, such as a dog, by Its hind feet. and It's these feet,
out. Last one left gets to be Coyote next time. rather than its tail, which make the
coyote, or human, grabs the possum, it goes
possum such a great climber.

.r ,r !
I ;-
:
I
/.

~ i
J
 c (,nE OPOSSUM • 25

••••••••••••
~ ____~-=: HeME:-=__________
• .SWEET:
:••••••••••••
HeME = P ossums usually rest in some
sort of den. Like their taste
in food, possums aren't fussy about a den, as
long as it provides some shelter and protection
from enemies. A possum den can be in a hollow
tree or log, an underground burrow. an old
• RAN$ME MAP • woodchuck hole, a brush pile, a culvert, or even
Where are we?: After you find underneath a building. Possums otten use a
RANGE As you've noticed,
there are range maps
for each animal In this
yourself on the range mop, flip
through this book and draw a
number of dens, too. As they roam around their
territory in search of food, they may sleep in one
MAPS book. These maps tell
you where each animal
picture of each animal that lives
where you do. Post this on your
den for a night or two, then move on to another.
and then to still another. It doesn't matter to the
species lives In North America. It is impor- refrigerator so that you will know possum, as long as it can find food nearby.
tant to first find where you live on the what animals to look for when
you go out exploring.

- - -. -.- - .
map. That way you will know If there is
likely to be a chance for you to see a
partIcular type of wildlife near where you ma 1~,Y.!,f!~I~r-·---
live. Perhaps you visIt a grandparent or
good friend In another part of the coun-
try. Begin noticing whIch animal species
you might look for on your next visit. MarSUPial ancestors of the possum
Occasionally you'll hear about an were among the early mammals.
unusual sighting of an animal - perhaps The oldest marsupial fossil was found
because of a mild winter. Well, the in Alberto, Canada and is about 85
opossum has actually permanently million years old. That means that
changed Its range over the years. It was • marsupials evolved during the age
once mostly seen In the southeastern of dinosaurs. At that time, most of
United States, although It came as far the continents were part of one
north as Ohio, Indiana, and VirgInia. huge land mass which we now call
SInce then, however, the possum has Gondwanaland.
steadily Increased Its range. This may be
due partly to a very gradual warming of
the climate. Also, people have carried
possums to new places without realizing
It by car and plane. So keep an eye out;
you never know when you will see an /
/
animal out of Its traditional range. /
.-,'. ". .....
...
~..

.:;

·. ·~~.E
'~)n;:\',
~ .- --~ .~~.~. J ·
 After an existence of 100 million years, opossums are not likely to ever
U become extinct because of people. They have adapted very well to human
encroachment and have actually prospered. There are more opossums in
densely populated human areas than there are in the woods! Because of this
however, individual opossums do not fare well at times. Besides falling
victim to cars, they are also killed by cats and dogs, and poisoned by our trash.

I . fOOD HEY
OfE.R\IMM 0/11.$

r.& MILe

C)WORM~

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tGC7S

e Nllrs

A mouthful: The possum he

50 teeth ~ that's more than any othe
mammal that Isn't a marsupial. How many de
other mammals have? Try to count your teeth? Ask you:
friends how many teeth they think a dog, a cat, a mouse
or a whale has? Then ask a grown-up to help you look In thE
encyclopedia to find out the number of teeth these mammal~
actually have. How close were you and your friends';'
 c
.-..... ,-....
. • ~•...... -e ~
-- -e

Whew! 1l Skunk!
-
B ave you ever seen or smelled a skunk? Almost every Skunks aren't quick to spray their scent;
one tias, because skunks are very common. Their they only do It If they're frightened or
strong, long-lasting scent certainly helps to repel most feel very threatened. The striped skunk
predators. simply lifts Its tall and sprays when
When we think of skunks, we usually think of the striped danger threatens, but the spotted
skunk that weighs up to 14 pounds, the size of a house cat. skunk has a very odd way of
This black animal with the white stripes on Its back Is a defending Itself; It stands on
familiar sight throughout most of North America. Sometimes Its front feet when It sprays
Its stripes are so wide that they come together, and Its Its scent. Skunks can spray
whole back Is white. But there are other skunks In North scent for about twelve feet.
America, Including the spoffed skunk - only weighing A skunk can fire two or three
about a pound - which Is also widespread and common. full blasts of spray In quick
Most members of the weasel family are active all winter, succession If it has to. Then It
but not the skunk - at least not In cold northern areas. has to recharge Its scent
Although the skunk doesn't hibernate, It will take to glands - but that's not much
Its den when cold and snow arrive and stay there help, because this only takes
for weeks until the weather warms. about half an hour!
It's hard to tell how the story
got started that a skunk can't
spray If It's picked up by the tail.
~WHR1'5FOR People who have tried It have
found out to their sorrow that It
r----~ DINNER , - Isn't true! Baby skunks are very
cute, and people sometimes
think It's safe to pick them up. It isn't,
L ike opossums and raccoons,
skunks will devour almost
anything. They feed on earth-
for two reasons. First, a baby skunk can
spray Its powerful scent when it's less
than four weeks old, so watch out! If
worms, Insects, nuts, garbage, you don't want to smell like a skunk
dead animals, grain, mice, yourself, It's best to leave ALL skunks
eggs, berries - just about alone. Second, skunks can carry robles, 5
everything an animal could so It's not safe to handle them at any f
possibly eat! age, ever. I-
f
t
 THE WHITE-TAILED DEER • 75

I food for When warm weather foods -like grasses and mushrooms - are no longer
around, deer eat different foods, mostly browse, or the tender tips of twigs.
In the fall, acorns and beechnuts are an Important part of their diet; they
"t({f SHAll ~
~~~
I Thought help build up body fat needed to survive especially cold, hard winters.
Have you ever heard of anyone In your area trying to feed deer during a
r···~ ~ t~'t··,
: ~ me yJ\t\'(
very hard winter? Well-meaning people often try to give deer hay or grain
when the deer are in danger of starving. Unfortunately, It doesn't help, and
can harm the deer. Deer depend on bacteria and other tiny organisms
(called microorganisms) in their stomachs to digest their food, and these
:A
•
•
:
good deer wintering area
(sometimes called a deer-
yard, although nothing like a
:
•:
•
:
microorganisms change according to the deer's seasonal diet.
• barnyard) has dense groves of tall •
In the winter, when deer feed on browse, the microorganisms
: conifers - at least 35 feet tall. The :
In their stomachs can't digest things like hay and grain.
• thick tops of the conifers (ever- •
That's why deer can starve to death in the winter even
with stomachs full of hay
•
• greens that have needles and •
•
• cones) catch much of the snow, •
andgralnl
: keep it from reaching the ground, :
: and also help to break the wind. :
• With less snow on the ground, It's •
: much easier for the deer to make :
• trails and move around to seek •
: food. Good wintering areas are :
• very important to the survival •
: of deer in severe northern winters. :
: Environmentally yours: Find out :
: from your local conservation officer :
• where there are deer wintering •
: areas near you, and then stay out :
• of them In the winter. Urge others •
•
• to stay out of them, too. Why? ••
: Because if deer are disturbed by :
• humans or by dogs, they burn a •
: great deal more energy running :
• away than they would otherwise. •

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:

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In a severe winter, deer can die

·~ ..............
: because of this extra energy lossl
:
:
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SI<:Ir~N'k ST'IlFF
my ~I~Y SNVftfJ:'
..~~.__ -~ ..;,.
~~- .~.4t:!-!'

Skunks and their relatives (weasels, wolverines, ferrets, badgers, otters, minks)
belong to a group of mammals called "mustelids" which is Latin for "mouse
catcher". All of the mustelids have a gland under their tail that produces a smelly
liquid called "musk".

The skunk can spray this liquid up to 15 feet and can spray when only a few days
old. The chemical in the spray has a burning effect which will cause temporary
blindness if it gets in the eyes.

Only the spotted skunk does a head stand before it sprays. A striped skunk will
stamp its front paws as a warning.

Tomato juice or vinegar is really the best way to get the smell off of hair or skin.
Clothes must be bleached. There is a product called SKUNK OFF available at pet
stores, that has shown mixed results.
u
The skunk's bold black and white pattern is a warning to other nocturnal creatures.

A skunk has poor eyesight,poor sense of smell, poor sense of hearing (its ears are too
furry). Its only good sense is its sense of touch.

A skunk uses its long front claws to dig up grubs, worms and other small animals.
Skunks are omnivores and will raid trash cans and eat carrion off roadsides.

A skunk's biggest enemy (besides humans) is the Great Homed Owl. The owls
cannot smell and often prey on skunks.

Baby skunks will folow their mother in single file behind her until they are 6
months old.

Skunks carry rabies. They are also one of the most serious carriers of rabies since
they can be sick with it for a long while before they die from it. Skunks are the
number one carrier of rabies in Texas. You should not try to handle a skunk.
Skunks that are out during the day are SICK. They may have either rabies or
distemper. If you see a skunk wondering around in the daytime, call animal
control.
u
 USEFUL ANIMAL FACTS
COTTONTAILS
Cottontails are prevalent in the meadows at the ANC and it is not uncommon to
see them on the walks. They nest all year, so it is possible to see young at any time.
u The newborns are altricial (hairless and blind at birth) and stay in the nest for
about two weeks before they begin exploring. The mothers often leave the young to
forage and it is very important to stress to the students that no newborn mammals
should ever be disturbed. The cottontails prefer feeding at dawn and dusk; they eat
grasses, weeds, buds, and twigs. Life is very difficult for these beautiful
mammals, and the average life-span is only six months. The most likely predator
at ANC would be the owls. .

OPOSSUMS ~
The common opossum is fascinating because it is the only North American
marsupial. A litter of twenty babies could fit into a teaspoon! They develop in the
mother's pouch and are often seen riding on her back when they first emerge. The
opossum has 50 teeth--more than any other land mammal in the U.S. They are
best known for "playing possum", an involuntary reaction brought on by a
threatening situation. The slow-witted opossum is omnivorous and will eat fruit,
grains, small mammals, insects, eggs, and birds. The female opossum carefully
constructs a nest for her young out of any soft materials she can find, and she
carries these with her tail. The opossum is completely nocturnal.

RACCOONS
The chiefly nocturnal raccoon is never seen on trail ~alks, but because it is a great
favorite witl1 the children it is a good idea to point out possible habitats apd discl.:1ss
its' habits. Raccoons prefer maJting dens in hollow trees or in rock crevices and - .
they·nest near lakes or creeks. when possible so that they may easily find food in the
water at night. This intelligent mammal is omnivorous, and might eat rodents,
rabbits, eggs, insects, fruits and nuts, and o( course, the .fish, frogs, and crayfish
in the creeks. Raccoons are bright and playful, and are well-known for their
.highly coordinated and s.ensitive paws.
ROCK SQUIRRELS·
Plump and playful rock squirrels are often spotted- on the rock ledges. along the
trails. They are only active during the day, and can be seen returning your stares
as they sunbathe lazily. Rock squirrels are ground dwellers and prefer to make
dens under rocky ledges or even in the soft ground of a hillside. Unlike tree
squirrels, they do not like to eat nuts, and choose seeds, grasses, fruits, and
occasionally insects and meat as their staple diet. The females can be seen
carrying nesting materials in their cheek pouches in the spring. It is a treat to see
two rock squirrels chasing and wrestling, and if you are quiet enough they will
give you quite a show.
FOX SQUIRRELS
These squirrels are a common friendly face for most of the trailwalkers. Most at
home in tree branches, their fast and playful antics are always entertaining on the
trail. It is possible to find the large squirrel nests on ANC trails and the students
always enjoy spotting them. These attractive rodents eat nuts, berries, fruit, an
assortment of buds, pine cones, and even mushrooms that would make humans
quite ill! Female squirrels are attentive mothers who train their young to bury food
stores and to avoid predators.

_ .J
NINE-BANDED ARMADILLO
Armadillos, while mostly nocturnal animals, are rarely seen along the ANC
trails, but they make their presence known by the evidence of their burrows and
tbheir conspicuous hrootings. m~~!h tdheir long ,. ~~~erfuldclaws they dig for larval ('\
eetles, ants, eart worms, pe es, and SI ar un erground creatures.
Roots, berries, amphibians, reptiles, and bird eggs make up only a tiny percentage
of their diet. Armadillos are, of course, mammals, despite their shell-like armor.
They do have a sparse amount of hair, and they give birth to live young. There are
always four babies of the same sex, genetically identical quadruplets from a single
egg. Although armadillos can swim, they have an odd habit of walking across a
stream on the bottom! .
 14~I
Fore I 2

I~A
lI;nclI2~1

YOU MAY KNOW TEXAS WilDLIFE, Bur

00 YO(J KNOW7NEIR TRACKS? SOME
lll(E mE RABBITAND POSSUM liRE - Hind
I~~'"
~G
- TR.ACKS OF THE OOtlles-
EASILY RECOGNIZED. OTHERS S(JCH I~ TIC PI6 AilE. ABOUT
AS THE COYOTE, PEER, PECCARY, AN£) _ Q1~ __ TWICE THIS SIZS •
BOBCAT MAY BE. CONFUSED WITH Fro"t.
71fEIR DOMESTICATED COUSINS TilE
00(7, PIG, ANOIIOQ5E{AT. TRACKS
ARE EtlSllYFOllOWEO IN SNOW OR
L.OOSE SAND, BUTPRINT~- MAPE IN
SOFT MUO ARE BEST FOR STUDY .

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7IlA«S (JFA
.a-
';' t 7 MONG/lEJ.lJ(I(.
1'/ t..qa-:\
fie •.".
TRACK'S OF 71/£'~
/J()ME~T1C PI6
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COTTONTAIL RABBIT
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RACCOON
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FWD Leaflet 9000-1 '"~.. ,~~.
Printed for Your Information by TEXAS PARKS AND WILDLIFE DEPARTMENT
 COMMANDMENT~
OF SHOOTING SAFETY
"'i ~
Treat every gun with the respect due a loaded gun. This
- ~ is the cardinal rule of gun safety.
U (J

Guns carried into camp or home must always be unloaded.

'.-.,
~'!
taken down or have actions openi guns always should
.;:~o
be encased until reaching the shooting area.

Always be sure that the barrel and action are clear of

obstructions.

Always carry your gun so that you can control the direc-
tion of the muzzle. even if you stumble. Keep the safety
on until you are ready to shoot.

[~: Be sure of your target before you pull the trigger.

t:;!Jo

Never point a gun at anything you do not want to

shoot.

Unattended guns should be unloadedi guns and ammuni-

:'~/? tion should be stored safely beyond reach of children
:..; 0
and careless adults.

Never climb a tree or a fence with a loaded gun.

Never shoot at a flat. hard surface 0. the surface of

water.

~L~) c' Do not mix gunpowder and alcohol.

~iG~>W~~
buted by TEXAS PARKS AND WILDLIFE

Austin: Texas
 Cats Texas
by W. B. DAVIS
Head of Dept. of Wildlife Management
A&M College
MONG TEXAS BRAGS listed a "first" the In addition, Texas can claim as residents the moun-
A is in
variety of kinds of wild cats that roam her spacious
acres.
tain lion, whose range embraces most of North and
South America, and the bobcat, which ranges from
Four Central American cats (jaguar, jaguarundi, oce- central Mexico northward into Canada. In fact, there
lot and margay) range northward into the brushland is only one native wild cat living north of the Rio
south of San Antonio from Mexico. The jaguarundi and Grande and the Gulf of California which is not found
the margay occur in the United States only in this brush- in Texas. It is that lover of cold climates-the Canadian
land; the other two are found also in Arizona. lynx.

v \!
.. _._- .......

, ,','
Puma. 01' Mountain Lion
T HE MOUNTAIN LION is an unspotted cat. Males
may be as much as 8 feet, 6 inches; females, 6 feet,
71h inches. Weight of three males averaged 184 (160-
227) pounds; six females, 118 (105-133) pounds.
The mountain lion now, because of continued perse-
cution, is common nowhere except in the more remote,
thinly populated sections.
Retiring and shy by nature, and largely nocturnal by
habit, :the mountain lion is seldom seen in its native
haunts.
The food of the lion is almost entirely animal matter,
but, as the domestic cat, it occasionally eats grasses.
The chief item of its diet is deer. But the high percent-
age of predation on deer is beneficial from a game
management view in most instances because the lion
tends to prevent overpopulation of deer-a serious prob-
lem in many areas where the lion has been extermi-
nated. The lion disposes of sick and diseased deer.

Bobcat
T HE BOBCAT IS a medium-sized, reddish brown
cat about the size of a chow dog. Length of the
adult is about 3 feet, 6 inches. Weight is 12 to 20
pounds, occasionally up to 36 pounds in old, fat males.
The bobcat's food consists mainly of small mammals
and birds. Among the mammals found in bobcat stom-
achs, wood rats, ground squirrels, mice and rabbits
supply the bulk of the diet. Occasionally deer are
killed and eaten, but most of the deer meat found in
bobcat stomachs has been carrion. The bobcat also
preys upon domestic sheep, goats and poultry. The
predatory damage is not great, except- in rare instances.
The bobcat is the only native Texas cat which is other reddish. Length of males is about 3 feet, 6 inches,
important as a fur animal. of which the tail is more than haH.
The jaguarundi, a denizen of the dense, thorny thick-
Byra Cat, 01' jaguarunJi ets of South Texas, reportedly eats rats, mice, birds
and rabbits. Of all the cats, this one excels in ability

T HE JAGUARUNDI is about twice the size of an

alley cat. It has two color phases, one grayish, the
to spring and jump, considering its size. No informa-
tion is available on home life, growth and develop-
 mente Anyone having the opportunity to study this in- caries and in the Amazon region it catches fruit-eating
teresting cat should do so and report his .findings for fish using its sharp claws as gaff hooks, and it probably
the record. preys on deer and large ground-dwelling birds when
This cat is too rare in the United States to be of such items are available.
economic importance. The clearing of brushlands in Dr. E. W. Nelson reported that it is also fond of sea
the Rio Grande Valley threatens to destroy its habitat turtle eggs. The jaguar roams the beaches on spring
in Texas and to add it to the growing list of 'Vanished nights, digs up the turtle eggs and enjoys a delectable
Texas Animals." repast.
This large cat is not common enough in Texas to be
Bl Tigre, or Jaguar of economic importance. (If you know of records of
jaguar kills in Texas, please write the author.)

T HE JAGUAR is the largest and most robust of the

spotted American cats. Large males may grow as
long as seven feet and weigh up to 200 pounds. This
cat is now extremely rare in Texas. Its food habits are
Domestic, 01' Peral Cat
not well known. In Mexico it is known to prey on pec- WLE
THE DOMESTIC cat
W has adapted itself in extraordi-
nary fashion to man's customs, it has
not altogether lost its wild traits. Of-
ten sleek, sleepy, and well-behaved
by day, the cat, by night, may be-
come a stealthy and sl'rious predator.
In the course of a bobwhite quail
experiment in East Texas, cats killed
8 quail and 10 cardinals in the ex-
perimental traps, on olle occasion 6
quail at one time.
Cats also are known to catl'll and
consume cotton rats and pocket
gophers, and according to shldics in
T(~xas, cats COllsume Attwah'r prairie
chick('n, m('adowlarks, chick('n flt'sh
-u and featl11'rs.
Margay
~,
S IMILAR TO THE OCELOT in color and color
pattern, but,smaller and more slender is the margay.
Total length is about three feet. Little is known of its
breeding habits and food, but opossums are included in
its diet.
It is known from Texas only on the basis of one
specimen taken at Eagle Pass by Col. S. Cooper almost
100 years ago. Hunters and trappers should take par-
ticular pains to save all skins and skulls of the spotted
cats and send them in for positive identification. It
seems unlikely that the margay is as rare in Texas as
records indicate.

Ocelot
HE OCELOT IS THE MOST beautiful Texas cat.
T Itis unique in that no two ocelot pelts are alike.
Adult males may be as much as 3 feet, 10 inches long;
females up to 3 feet. Weight is 20-35 pounds. Although
the ocelot's food habits have not been determined com-
pletely, Dr. Nelson found that birds, including domes-
tic poultry, are captured on their roosts, and rabbits,
wood rats, mice of many kinds, as well as snakes and
other reptiles are important items in the ocelot's diet.
The beautiful cat is of slight economic importance
in Texas. Its raw pelt commands a price of from $6 to
$10 as a curio. Also, it has some value as an object of ~
sport when hunted with dogs. Its population in the
United States is being reduced year by year, chiefly by
predator control activities of the Fish and Wildlife
Service and the clearing of brush in the Rio Grande
Valley. Its complete extirpation in Texas is anticipated
in the near future. 00

if
,\, ' I

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\ : I~ 1 •. ' J ~~
,

- '_\'.'\ \I
,.
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'
"

PWD Leaflet 9000-22 Reprinted from TEXAS GAME &'FISH, August 1962
April 1977
./

-...
..

u Owl Script

1. (Great Horned owl in tree) This is the way most people see owls in
nature. Owls are more often heard than seen.
2. (Great Horned owl) What kind of owl is this? Notice the feather tufts
(used in display and to focus sound to the ears.) Notice the facial
disk. The ears are located behind the facial disk. What color are
the eyes? Owls with light-colored eyes usually hunt with the sense of
sight.
3. (Great Horned owl close-up) To which group of birds do owls
belong? (birds of prey) What special tools of birds of prey can you
see in this picture? (hooked beak for tearing meat, large yellow eyes
for superior night vision) ...
4. (Great Horned owl talons) and also very powerful talons for catching
their prey. The talons are also used for defense.
S. (Saw-whet owl) This picture shows an owl looking directly behind.
Owls have long necks and can rest their beaks on their backbones.
Why do they need to do this? (Eyes are so large that there is no
u room for eye muscles. They cannot move their eyes).
6. (Barn owl head rotation series <3 slides»
a. What color are the eyes of this owl? Dark-eyed owls usually hunt
by hearing. Their ears are offset so that they move their heads ...
b. to position their ears
c. so that they can "triangulate"-position their heads so that they
can pinpoint the location of sound.
7. (nictitating membrane- Great Horned owl) Here you can see the owl's
nictitating membrane. What happens to your eye if you get something
in it? What causes that? Owls don't have tear ducts. The nictitating
membrane is the third eyelid that goes from the inner to the outer edge
of the eye. It functions as a tear duct and acts to cleanse the eye as well
as to protect it from debris as the owl is eating.
S. (Barred Owl ear) Here you can see the ear of a barred owl. The
white inner part is the eardrum. Feathers usually cover the owl's
ear, but it is just a hole in the head like yours. Not all owls' ears are
this large, but this owl depends on its hearing to hunt.

u
~.

9. (Barn Owl in flight) This is to help you recognize an owl in flight.

u They have a distinctive shape when flying. They have a very big
head and appear to have no neck because their feathers are so fluffy.
Also notice their rounded wings.
10. (Feather comparison) Compare the straight edge of the hawk feather
to the fringes on the owl feather. Does anyone know how the fringed
edge helps the owl? It helps them to fly silently so they can sneak up
on their prey.
11.(Mouse) Many owls eat rodents, and they eat lots of them every
night. Owls are really beneficial to people. We don't want too many
rats and mice around-they spread diseases if there are too many of
them.
12.(Skunk) Some larger owls eat skunks because skunks are easy prey.
How do skunks scare away their enemies? That doesn't work on
owls because the owl has no sense of smell. The owl can't smell the
skunk's spray and the skunks aren't very fast runners, so that makes
skunks easy prey for owls.
13. (Feet andfeathers) Sometimes when an owl eats something large, it
doesn't eat the whole thing. It selects the parts with the most
nutrition and leaves the rest behind. This was a pheasant (a turkey-
sized bird). It was found at the base of a tree in which a family of
u owls roosted.
14. (Pellet) When an owl eats something small, it eats the whole thing
and then coughs up a pellet. This pellet has been opened up so you
can see all the bones inside. What did this owl eat?
15. (Screech owl) Screech owls nest in hollow trees. Is this owl hard to
see? Most owls live in homes that other animals have abandoned.
16. (Burrowing owl) Burrowing owls also nest in holes-but not holes in
trees. They use burrows in the ground dug by gophers and prairie
dogs. In the winter, burrowing owls will often share a burrow with
rabbits, skunks and even rattlesnakes!
17.(Barn owl and egg) This picture shows you what size the barn owl's
egg is. The next slides will show the barn owl as it grows up.
18. (Pinkie) This is what it looks like at about one week old. It has very
few feathers.
19.(2 weeks) Here the owl is two weeks old. It has more feathers and it
is a little bit bigger.
20.(3 ~ weeks) This owl is about three and a half weeks old. It's pretty
much covered with feathers at this age.
u
 21.(4 owls) These barn owls are about 4, 4~, 5 and 6 weeks old. The
u youngest is still covered with down feathers. The two in the middle
have some flight feathers. The oldest has many of its flight feathers
and is toe dusting---a display behavior intended to scare away its
enemies.
22. (Great Horned 3-4 days) This is what a great horned owl looks like
about 3-4 days after it hatches out of its egg.
23. (Great Horned 1 month) This great horned owl is about one month
old, and it is out of its nest too soon. It hasn't gotten its flight
feathers yet. Why do you think it is crouching down on the ground?
24. (Great Horned 2 months) This great horned owl is about 2 months
old. It still doesn't have its flight feathers, but it is starting to
develop feather tufts and facial disk.
25.(Screech owl display) What do you think this screech owl is feeling?
Screech owls use their feather tufts as "display". If the screech owl is
angry or frightened, it sticks it feather tufts straight up, puDs in its
wings and narrows its eyes. Ornithologists think they are making
themselves small so that enemies cannot see them.
26. (Barred owl display) The barred owl defends itself by trying to look
big and scary-it sticks out one wing and puffs up its feathers.
27. (Short-eared owl not threatened) When the short-eared owl is
u relaxed, its facial disk is easy to see.
28. (Short-eared owl display- threatened) When the short-eared owl is
threatened, its facial disk disappears. This helps the owl to hide.
Which other owl do you know of that tries to disappear when
threatened?

u
 rN:_· tEY·J!·$ 'II·.V.·_· ·IT
.Y"I~Y S":Y1':R."
(reprinted from WILD AGAIN MAGAZINE, Spring 1992)

For most of us, being deprived of sight is our worst nightmare. It explains
why humans have an innate fear of the dark, as vision is our most relied on
sense. We are not equipped with the amazing capabilities of npcturnal animals
for survival in a world of star and moon light. Animals use sonar, radar,
telescopes, range finders, light beams and infrared sensors to hunt and avoid
being killed in the hours after the sun sets.

Most people are aware of the nocturnal activities of the bat and owl but
are not aware of the vast number of species that carry on activities at night. The
majority of wild animals are nocturnal or arrhythmicy-meaning they can be as
,active at night as during the day. It is estimated that 850/0 of mammals are
U nocturnal or active at night at some time. Most spiders are nocturnal, as are 60%
of carnivores, 40% of rodents and all bats. The great exceptions are birds, lizards
snakes and tortoises. Creatures active at night are descendant of either those
who fled into the night for protection or those who pursued them there.

The amount of light available even on a moonlit night, is a million times

less than daylight. How is it that some animals can see so well in the dark while
we can only see shadows and silhouettes? To find the answer, we must look at
the basic construction of ~e eye itself. In the retina of the eye are two different
types of light receptors, the rods and the cones. Cones function in bright light
and allow the perception of color. Rods are much more light sensitive and are
used in dim illumination. Humans have more cones in relation to rods than do
" nocturnal animals. Also, nocturnal animal's pupils can dilate to a much greater
degree, allowing more light to enter the retina.
u In order to see well at night, two important factors are involved, the
protection of the light sensitive rods and a supply of Vitamin A which is
necessary for .the rods to function properly. The pupils of arrhythmic animals
contract into slits, instead of smaller circles (like our own, or like owls) which
maximize the light reduction. A nictitating membrane is extra protection from
glare during the day. Also pupil contraction is much more rapid than our own.
Nocturnal carnivores seek out the liver, a storehouse of Vitamin A, from their
prey before eating anything else.

Nocturnal animals can amplify dim light through the tapetum Iucidum,
a mirror -like membrane behind the retina. This is what creates the eye shine
that we see when a light(such as headlights or flashlight) shines into the eyes of
animals such as raccoons at night. The tepetum reflects back light that would
normally be lost through. the transparent retina.

Nocturnal animals have as large an eye as the head can accommodate.

This may diminish eye mobility, which is usually made up for by having a more
u mobile neck (this is easily observed in owls).

To a nocturnal ~al, green is the brightest color (our eyes see lwfJ.~
the brightest). Nocturnal vision is sensitive to shorter wavelengths, hence red
cannot be seen. This is why in many zoos, nocturnal animals are displayed
under red lights.

To really appreciate the nocturnal animals' world, take a walk through

the woods in the spring - without flashlights. Your eyes will adjust somewhat
and you'll be amazed at what you can see. You'll also realize how much you rely
on hearing! That subject is the topic of another paper.

u
u Many people keep their stuff tidy and easy to find by sorting it.
Maybe they have a place for puzzles, a place for books, a place
for pencils and crayons, and so on.

Scientists keep track of living things and the facts known

about them in much the same way. They group living things
by features they have in common. They start with broad
groups, such as animal or plant. They divide each broad group
into smaller and more specialized units. They divide groups
again and again, until they have a unit that is a single
species of living thing. A species has its own unique
two-part scientific name. A scientific name is

PHYLUM

u CLASS

Owls fit the scientific classification FAMILYTYtonidae FAMILY Strigidae

system like this: they belong in the Bam Owls TYPical Owls
KINGDOM Animalia (animals), the
PHYLUM Chordata (animals with·
backbones), the CLASS Aves (birds),
the ORDER Strigiformes (all owls).
After this, owls are split into two
groups, the barn owls (FAMILY
'IYtonidae) and the typical owls
(FAMILY Strigidae). e/Typical"owl is
a name given to the group, not a
description. It does not mean that all
owls in this group are average,
u standard, or alike.)
-- .....
 c l
THE COMMON TOAP " ... 11.9

.~
."

Male toads arrive at the· ~atlng areas first; early In the spring. There they
sing loudly to attract the females. The female toad Is a lot bigger than "
the male, so If you see a really big, fat toad, It's almost certain to
be ci female. When they mate, the females lay two long strings
of Jelly-coated eggs. A female toad can lay 3,000 or more eggs
each spring. Each of her two egg strings may be more than
twelve feet long. Have you ever seen frogs' or toads' eggs
In the water? You can tell one type from the other because
the frogs' .$ggs are In a big ball, Instead of the strings laid
by toads. "
Depending on temperature, the eggs hatch In 3 - 12 . "

.~', .' ..
days. The tadpoles (or toadpoles, as they're sometimes
Jokingly called) are black, so they're easy to tell from
the frog~s brownish tc:rdpoles. Uke all tadpoles, they
soon grow legs, and lose their tolls. Then they've
....
becor:ne tiny toads less than a half-Inch long. ~ ~-'

It takes about two months for this to happen.

These miniature toads move onto land
and begin the slow process of becoming
." .
full-grown adults, which takes three
years.

lOAD
E.66$
•
••
 271

a guide to the ·

STARLAB
GREEK .
MYTHOLOGICAL
.--... . .. ..

u-GONSTELLATION
CYLINDER·

.r-
Copyright 1982 by Learning Technologies, Inc.
\.

Introduction

Classical Greek mythology is as rich and varied

as the culture that engendered it. In addition to the
abbreviated versions of the stories in this Guide, you
will want to explore the vast amount of literature_
available on the Greek constellations and the many
myths associated with each of them. For more details
on the stories found here, consult Percy M. Proctor's
e.
excellent book, .!E!!. Myths Stories from Exposition
Press, Inc., Hicksville, N.Y.

-
 273

Andromeda
Daughter of King Cepheus and Queen Cassiopei.
She is seen stretched out at full length and
chained by her ankles and wrists to a rocky
island where she is being offered as a sacrifice
to Cetus, the Sea Monster.

Aquarius
Aquarius was the constellation in which the
sun was located during ~he rainy season of
the year. Therefore it seemed appropriate
to represent Aquarius as a giant holding a
huge upturned urn or jar from which an unending
stream of water was pouring. All the rivers
owed their waters to this downpour and floods
occurred when, from t~e to t~e. the water
cascaded down from the urn faster than it could
be emptied into the .seas.·

Aqu·ila, the Eagle

The eagle was Jupiter's favorite bird and
was given many difficult tasks to do. The
most difficult task was when he had to fly
back to Mount Olympus burdened by the weight of
a young man, Ganymede. whom he bad been sent to
find. Ganymede would become the new cupbearer of
the Gods. .

Aries the Ram

Aries is a small constellation. It requires a
vivid 1lDagmat1oD to find the t.hree main stars
that form the ram. It is, however, one of the
most famous of the zodiac constellations. Long
ago, before there were calanders to keep track
of the progress of the year, watchers of the sky
learned to rely on the stars to track the passage
of time. Prom 2100 Be to 100 AD. it was the stars
of Aries that announced the spring equinox.
 274
Auriga
In the pictures which show what Auriga is
.~
supposed to represent, no chariot is ever I

- found, but grasped in his right hand are

the reins which a chariot driver would be
holding. Auriga is also shown holding a
goat over his left shoulder and two little
kids in his left hand. This picture tells a
mtxed-up story about a charioteer and ~ goat-
herd. The rising of Capella, the bright
star in Auriga was a welcome sign for shepherds,
for it foretold the coming of the rainy season
upon which they relied for renewed growth of
pasture land. On the other hand, the rising of
Capella was a most unwelcome sign for sailors
for it Signaled the beginning of the stormy
season. The kids were regarded as mad stars
by sailors' wives, who feared for the wellbeing
of their men at sea during the stormy season.

Bootes
Bootes and his two hunting dogs, Canes and
Venatici, were put in the heavens to keep watch
over the Big Bear and make .certain that it kept
ever in its proper place, ~ndlessly circling the .. ~
J •
North Star.

Cancer, the Crab

Legend tells us that Juno sent Cancer to annoy
Hercules as he fought his desperate battle with
the many-headed Hydra, the water snake. Hercules
was the son of one of the many mortal women whom
Jupiter married. each time arousing the jealous
anger of his goddess wife Juno. Juno took a
special dislike to Hercules and tried to make his
life miserable. Hercules easily crushed the crab
with his foot, but Juno who realized the creature
had done its best in trying to serve her, rewarded
it by placing it as a constellation in the sky.

Canis Major, the Big Dog

Canis Major is the largest of the hunting dogs
that had been Orion's faithful companions on earth
and was placed at his feet in the sky so that he
could continue to have his help as he chased Taurus
the Bull across the heavens.
 V i:t I II ~ IVIII I U I , Lilt:: L- I L II ~ &J U ~

The second and smaller of the two hunting dogs

placed in the sky eo keep Orion company. Canis
Minor is less fierce--more like a house pet.

Capricornus, the Sea Goat

Capricornus appears in the sky at the t:lme of
the winter solstice when the sun stopped dropping
and began to cltmb higher and higher in the sky
day by day. The figure of a goae, the antmal
most famous for his cltmbing ability, was chosen
to represent the constellation in which ehe sun
was found at this t~e. The goat of the heavens is
half goat and half f ish, thus a creature not only
able to cl~h, hut also at home in the rains and
floods of the w1neer season.

Cassiopeia, the Queen

Cassiopeia was a heautiful woman who was fond of
boasting about her beauty. The maiclens who attended
King Neptune in his unde~ter kingdom learned ehae
she made a boast that she was tar more beautiful' than
any of them. Tbey demanded Neptune punish her.
Neptune sent a monster sea serpent, Cetus, to
.. -
/
terrify all who lived along the coast of the
country ruled by King Cepheus and Queen Cassiopeia.
The Serpent snatched women and Children whom he found
on the shore. Troubled by this problem in his kingdom,
King Cepheus went to an oracle to find out how he could
rid his kingdom of this horrible monster. The oracle's
answer was that only if he sacrificed his daughter,
Andromeda, to the serpent would the maidens feel
they had been avenged f or the way Cassiopeia had
insulted them and ask Neptune to recall ehe serpent.
Cassiopeia vas placed in the heavens to be punished
rather than honored. She swings every half night
around the ~orth Star. She is upside in the chair
in which she 18 seated, hang:Lng on for dear life in
a posieion .ose humil1ating for a queen of old who
was so proud of her beauty.

Cepheus, the King

Cepheus is a raeher faint and inconspicuous
constellation. This is fitting as King Cepbeus
u always played second fiddle to his wife,.Queen
Cassiopeia. who ruled tbe roost.
 Ce·tus, the Sea Monster
Cetus is the sea monster that Neptune sent
to devour Andromeda and thus punish Queen
Cassiopeia. Cetus had the forked tail of
a dolphin, paws of an an~l, head of a
greyhound with short tusks and long, scaly
neck. Cetus was said to be 40 feet in
length, with ribs six feet long.

Corona Borealis, Northern Crown

As a wedding~gift to his bride, Bacchus pre-
sented Ariadne with a golden crown set with
seven glittering diamonds. Not long after
.their m.arriage, Ariadne died and Bacchus,
in his grief' at tHe loss, resolved to throw
away the crown which she had worn so happily
because it reminded h~ of his lost love. n
Up into the sky he tossed it, and higher
and higher it rose until his friends among
the gods caught it and hung it high in the
sky where its seven diamonds formed the Northern
Crown

Corvus, the' Crow

Legend tells us that the crow once bad s1lver-
white feathers aud a beautiful singing voice.
One morn.1D& the god Apollo sent the crow to fetch
a cup of water. Having spied some half ripened
f1gs, the crow lingered at the spring waiting
for them to ripen. He had quite a feast, but
soon realized he was due for a scolding from
Apollo for his tardiness. The crow lied to Apollo
about h1s whereabouts but Apollo could easily tell
the crow was lying. He angrily punished him by
changing the color of his feathers to black and
condemning him to be known in the future for his
croak instead of·~is song.
-'
,-.
 Crater
u This represents the cup that Corvus the Crow
was sent to fill at a Spring and bring back
to Apollo.

Cygnus, the Swan

Cygnus was the best friend of Phaeton, son
of Apollo. Phaeton was struck by lightening
bolts after wlldly driving Apollo's chariot
across the skies and fell into the river
Ericlanus. In those days, it was believed
that the soul of a dead person must roam the
world forever as a ghost unless his body was
properly buried. Cygnus dove into the river
over and over again in search of Phaeton's
body. Jupiter was so moved by the love and
devotion that Cygnus showed for Phaeton
that he turned Cygnus into a swan so he
could dive more easily. Finally after Cygnus
gave up in despair of ever finding the body
of Phaeton, Jupiter placed him in the heavens
as a swan.

U·
Delphinus, the Dolphin
Apollo placed this constellation in the
sky to honor a dolphin that saved the life of
Arion, a famous musician. Arion was returning
home by boat to Corinth with a great sum
of money after a successful concert tour
in Italy. The ship's crew, knowing of this
money. siezed Arion and were about to throw
h~ overboard when be begged to play one
last song on his harp. So beautiful was
his last song that Apollo, the god of music,
summoned a dolphin to rescue Ar:IDn. The,
dolphin carried Arion safely to Corinth
where he summoned the police to set a trap
f or the incoming sailors. Arion had a
small statue of the dolphin made and
placed a shrine in a temple. Later t Apollo
took it and placed it among the stars so
1 t would be an eternal memorial to a brave
and friendly fish.

u
Draco, the Dragon *
Draco is the dragon set by Juno to guard the golden
apples which she had given Jupiter as her wedding
present to htm. The dragon was a monster whose
n
fiery breath was poisonous and whose enchanted
hide no arrow could pierce. Ever watchful, he
coiled around the tree on which the golden apples
hung and would allow no one to come close except
Atlas, the giant who held the world on his shoulders.
J
To get the apples away from the dragon was one of
the twelve labors Hercules had to accomplish. He
went to Atlas for help and Atlas agreed to get the
apples if Hercules would take over the task of holding
up the world in the meant~e. Atlas enjoyed his
freedom so much, he ran away with the apples and
left Hercules supporting the earth. Hercules was
clever, however, and he asked Atlas to relieve htm
lang enough to place a pad on his shoulder. Atlas
fell for the trick and Hercules ran off with the golden
apples.
To punish the dragon for its failure, Juno placed
it as one of the circumpolar constellations where,
in the northern heaven, it would never set and would
always remain on guard.

*5000 years ago, the fourth magnitude star Thuban close

to the end of Draco's tail was the Pole Star around which
n
the entire northern heavens would then have seemed to
revolve just as now they appear to revolve around the
North Star. This change in the Pole Star has occurred be-
cause the earth is wobbling in the same way that a slowing-down
top wobbles. So the earth's axis does not continue to point
toward the same spot in the nor~hern sky, but slowly traces
out a circle among the stars there. Only after thousands of
years does it become apparent that a new North Star has taken
the place of the one toward which the earth's axis had been
-
pointing.

Equuleus, the Colt

Equuleua i8 said to have been a horse which figured in a con-
test waged ,by Neptune, god of the seas, and Pallas Athene,
goddess of wisdom, to decide who would become patron
of that ancient Greek City which was named Athens
to honor Athene, the winner of the contest. Under
the terms of the contest, Neptune and Athene were
each to make a gift to the city, and a jury of
twelve gods waa to decide who bad the more useful

(continued)
 gift. ~eptune struck a rock with his trident
and a horse appeared.. Athene caused an olive
~ree to sprou~ out of ~he rocky top of the
u hill. The jury of gods had the power to look
far into the future and realize what the
cultivation of ~hat ~ree would mean to the
future prosperity of Greece and declared
Athene the winner.

Eridanus, the River

Eridanus or the river of the heavens can be
traced from where it starts close to
Rigel at the foot of Orion and then
drops down in a series of bends and loops
to where it disappears below the southern
horizon. It stretches more than 60 degrees
in its long course and is outlined by a
host of faint stars.

Allover the world, this curving liDe of

stars was considered a river, often named
after the country's main river: the Nile
in Egypt, the Euphrates in Babylonia, the
Po in Italy.
u The Po river figures in the most familiar
old story. The Po was the river in which
the body of Phaeton plunged after he was
struck down by Jupiter's thunderbolt, ending
his foolish drive across the sky in Apollo's
chariot. .

Apollo was so saddened by the fate of his

son that he placed the river in the sky
as a constellation to be an eternal memorial
to his courageous but headstrong son.

u
 Gemini, the Twins
Castor and Pollux were twin brothers who
were so devoted to each other as to be
..","
inseparable. Pollux was ~ortal like his
father Jupiter, but Castor was mortal like
his mother Leda. When Castor died in battle,
Pollux begged Jupiter to take away his
~ortality so he too could die. Jupiter
was so ~pressed by this demonstration of
love that he arranged for Pollux to spend
half of each day with Cas tor in Hades, and
Castor could spend the other half with Pollux
on Mount Olympus among the Gods. Eventually
Jupiter honored the twins by changing them into
stars and placing them in the heavens to be
a memorial to brotherly love at its finest.

Hercules, the Kneeler

Hercules was the son of Jupiter and a mortal
woman, whom Jupiter had married as he had several
others. This made Juno his goddess wife so
jealous that she decided to punish someone.
To vent her anger she decided to make Hercules'
life difficult and miserable. 1While he was"
still a baby she sent two huge snakes to
kill h~, but Hercules strangled both of 1'1
them. "

When he had grown to manhood. Juno caused him

. to become insane for a brief period durtng
which he murdered his family. To atone for
that dreadful deed, he was bound out as a slaye
and was to earn his freedom only by successfully
completing 12 heroic tasks, the labors of Hercules.
They were:
-killing the Nemean lion
-battling Hydra the water snake
-capturing the wild boar of Arcadia
-capturing a deer with horns of gold and
hoofs of brass
-shooting a flock of man-eating birds with
beaks of brass and feathers like arrows
-cleaning out 3000 cattle stables with
years of accumulated f 11th
-capturing the Cretan bull that snorted fire
-kUling the man-eating horses of King Poinedes
-siezing the jeweled belt of the Queen of the
Amazons
-capturing of a herd of oxen guarded by a
giant with 3 heads, 6 hands and 3 bodies
-bringing back Cerebus; the fierce 3 headed
dog that guarded Pluto's kingdom
-getting the golden apples of Hesperides
 Hydra, the Water Snake
u Hydra is one of the longest constellations,
stretching out for 100 degrees across a full
quarter of the sky. Halfway down its long,
..-.-'

snaky coils are the two small constellations

of Corvus the crow and Crater the cup. Hydra
is the water snake which the Crow tried to
blame for delaying him so long in bringil\g
back the cup of water (Crater) to Apollo.

Leo, the Lion '.

The majestic head and mane of Leo, the Lion

are formed by the curving line of stars known
as the Sickle. Leo's main star, Regulus, is
the faintest of the so-called first magnitude
stars. It was always a star of great importance
to ancient astronomers, howeVer, who considered
it to be the ruler over all other stars. Its
duty was to keep them all in order and in their
proper places in the sky.
Leo was the constellation in front of whose stars
u the sun was found in midsummer. To the ancient
peoples, the explanation of why the sun b~came
so overpowering in swmmer must have been that
the stars of Leo were adding greatly t'o the
heat of the sun. It was nacural, therefore, to
compare these stars· to the most powerful animal
known, the Lion, King of Beasts.

Lepus, the Hare

Lepus is located at the foot of Orion, the
Hunter. Orion, who was so busy chasing taurus
the bull, allowed the bare to remain unnoticed
as long as he stayed absolutely quiet.
Another thought is that the hax:e stayed below
Orion in hopes that he would remain unnoticed
by Sirius, the Big Dog who was swiftly pur-
suing h:lm.
Llora, tne ~cales 282

Uf the 12 zodiac constellations Libra is the

only one that does not represent something
alive. An early astronomer assigned the task
of reforming the calander decided to honor
Julius Caesar by combining the claw stars
of the Scorpion to form the figure of Caesar
holding a pair of old-fashioned balance scales.
The constellation was meant to be an eternal
memorial in the heavens to the infinite wisdom
and justice of Caesar. After Caesar's death,
however, his figure was dropped out of the
constellation picture and only the scales were
retained.
2000 years ago at the t~e of the calander reform,
the stars used to form Libra were in the stars
in front of which the sun was found at the time
of the autumnal equinox, when days Bnd nights
are equal or balanced.

Lyra, the ~yre

"the lyre \laS one of the first stringed instruments
used in Greece. Mercury made the first lyre and
presented it to "Apollo, who in turn gave it to
his son Orpheus. Orpheus learned to play such sweet
music on it that birds came to listen, wild beasts
were tamed and sea monsters charmed by the music's
spell. n
Orpheus married Eurydice, but shortly after their
wedding she was bitten and killed by a poisenous
snake. Orpheus was so Brieved that he was determined
to go down where Pluto ruled the underworld and use
the magic of his music to soften Pluto's heart, rescue
Eurydice and bring her back to ear~h.
He was able to overcome all the dangers on route
to Hades. When he reached Pluto his music brought
the underworld kings under its spell. Pluto gave
Orpheus per.miss1on to take Eurydi~e back to earth
provided Orpheus went ahead of her and never turned
back to see 1£ she was following until they were
almost at the end of their walk. Orpheus suddenly
realized that he could no longer hear Eurydice's
footsteps. Fearing someth:l.ng bad happened to her,
he turned back to look and a great stone dropped
down to block the path ancl hid Eurydice forever from
his sight. For years Orpheus roamed the woods, playing
only sad tunes. Many a maiden f ell in love with h:1m
but he remained true to Eurydice I s memory.
Finally a Iroup of maidens angered by his lack of
attentiveness k:Lllecl Orpheus and tossed his lyre
into the river. Jupiter sent a wlture to bring
back the lyre and placed it in the heavens as a
constellation. The wlture is represented by the
bright blue star Vega, whose name means falling bird.
 Ophuichus, Serpent Holder
Ophuichus was said to represent a famous Greek
physician, Aesculapius, who discovered how ~o
u bring the dead back to life. He used a mys~erious
herb which he had learned about while attemp~ing
to kill a snake one day. Once slain a second
snake appeared who thrust bits of the mysterious
herb into the mouth of its dead mate and the mate
came back to life. Aesculapius studied the herb
and found it growing in his garden.
So successful was Aesculapius's use of the herb,
~ha~ Pluto, ruler of ~he underworld, complained
to Jupiter that he had no dead souls. His business
was ruined. Jupiter. fearing that Aesculapius gave
~orta11ty, like the gods, to every man, sent a
deadly lightening bolt that killed the doctor.
But in tribute to his grea~ skills as a physician.
Jupiter placed Aesculapius among the stars together
With the snake.

Orion, the Hunter

Greek legend tells us that Diana, goddess
of both the moon and hunting, fell in love with,
Orion the bravest h~ter of ancient t~es~ She
began to neglect her duty of driving the moon
u chariot across the sky at night to 'light it up,
in order that she might go down to earth to
hunt with Orion.
When her brother Apollo heard of this neglect,
he decided to do away. with Orion. He shone his
golden rays so bl1ndingly on Orion one day while
he was swimming that he appeared only as a faint
dot in the waves. He then challenged Diana to
hit the tiny target with her bow and arrow. Diana,
not knowing what the target was, shot so accurately
that her arrow hit Orion and k1l1ecl h:lm. When she
found his body on the shore that evening she realized
what had happened •. After trying in vain to bring
Orion back to life, she put his body in her moon
chariot and drove high across the sky where it
was darkest. She put the body of her beloved Orion
in the sky and suddenly the sky became bright with
stars that outlined. his body, jeweled belt and
glittering sword. At his foot to keep him company,
she placed his two favorite hunt·ing dogs and marked
each with a brilliant star. Procyon in the Little
Dog and Sirius 1n the Big Dog.

u
•
 Pegasu·s, the Winged Horse
The most famous of the myths about Pegasus
......
."
identifies it as the winged horse which
carried Perseus through· the sky as he
returned the head of the Medusa. Neptune,
who had loved Medusa when she was young
and pretty, created Pegasus from white
beach sand, rainbow-colored foam of breaking
waves and drops of blood fram the severed
head of Medusa. So perhaps the reason why
Pegasus 18 shown with half a body may be
to represent the newly created horse just
rising out of the sea with half its body
still hidden beneath the waves.
Pegasus was also the favorite steed of
Jupiter, who sent all his thunderbolts
v1a Pegasus. Jupiter presented Pegasus to
the Muses on Mt. Helicon. One day, as he
pranced about there, a casual kick of one
hoof caused the famous spring of H1ppocrene
to gush forth on the mountain top. Its
waters had the magic power of inspiring
whoever drank them to gain the gift of
writing poetry.
- n
Perseus; the Champion
Perseus was known for t~o corageous ·acts. His first
was bringing back the head of the Medusa, who had
snakes f or her hair and was so ugly that anyone who
looked at her turned to stone. Armed with a highly
polished shield from Minerva, winged sandals fram
Mercury, and a magic pouch and helmut from the nymphs
of the North, Perseus set off to slay the Medusa.
His helmut allowed h:lm bo become invisible, the polished
shield acted as a mirror 80 he could back in and watch
the Medusa's reflection. He struck a killing blow,
scooped up the head and tucked it in the pouch, careful
not to look at it.
As he flew off, he met the winged horse Pegasus which
Neptune ha~ created. Perseus mounted the horse and was
swiftly born across the sky. As he flew he noticed a
crowd of people gathered on the beach below h~. As
he guided Pegasus down be saw a maiden, Andromeda, chained
to a rock and a terrible sea monster about to engulf her.
Perseus dropped down like a shooting star, shouted for
Andromeda to cover her face and raised the flap of his
pouch just enough so the monster could see the Medusa's head.
The sea monster was instantly turned into stone. Perseus
freed Andromeda and the people on the beach cheered.
 Pices, the Fishes
Venus and her son Cupid are said to have
changed themselves into _fishes to escape
Typhon, a firebreath1ng dragon. Typhon
u could only live in flames and fire but not
in water. Venus and Cupid tied themselves
together with a long cord in order not to
become separated.

Piscis Australis, the Southern Fisr.

This constellation contains one first magnitude
star called Fomalhaut, which means "mouth of
the fish. 1I This bright star marks the mouth of
the Southern Fish which is opened wide to catch
the torrent of water pouring down from the upturned
urn of Aquarius, the Water Carrier. located above
Piscis Australis.

Sagitta, the Arrow

Legend tells us that Jupiter punished Prometheus
for twice stealing the gift of fire from Mount
Olympus by cha1ning .h~ to~a. rock high, in the
,-. Caucasasus Mountains. Every day he sent a wlture ~
to eat at the liver of the chained victum. Each
cr
u night the liver grew-again so the dreadful torture
never ceased. Finally Prometheus was rescued from -
his agony by Hercules, who killed the vulture with
his bow and arrow and freed· Prometheus from his·
chains. According to myth. Sag it ea is tha t arrow
shot from Hercules bow.

Sagittarius, the Ar.cher

Long ago a stranae race of creatures, the centaurs,
half man and half horae, lived on Mount Pelion :1n
Greece. They had the power and speed of a horse
with the braiDs of a man. They were savage
creatures. known for their evil ways.

One Centaur, Chiron, became known for his goodness

and wisd.om. Be became a famous teacher to whom
kings sent their sons to be educated. Chiroo was
immortal, but due to a painful wound he received
he begged Jupiter to allow htm to die rather than
to live in agony. Jupiter granted his request.

- Before Chiroo died, he designed all the constellations

u to aid the navigators". He desilned Sagittarius to
honor himself since be was known as a great archer.
 ..
Scorpius, the Scorpion
Juno, wife of Jupiter, grew tired of hearing
Orion boast that no animal coulcl ever harm
him •. She clec1cled she would show him how vain
he was by baving him k1l1ecl in a most humiliating
way by a tiny, insignificant animal. She selected
a scorpion.

The scorpion lay in ambush close to a trail that

Orion liked to use on his daily bunting trips,
stuns him in the heel and caused his death.
When Diana, the loddess of the moon, learned
of her lover's death, sbe begged Jupiter to
place him aa a constellation in the heavens.
Juno demanded that Jupiter must also honor the
Scorpion in the same way. So Jupiter placed
them far apart in the sky-Orion in the winter
sky and the Scorpion in the summer sky.

Taurus, the Bull

. .
Jupiter, disguised as a snow white bull, came
down from Mount Olympus one day .to where Europa, n
a beaut1ful maiden, was playmB in the meadow.
The bull va. 80 Bentle tbat Europa climbed on
its back. Then off sped Jupiter to the seashore,
where he plunged into the waves and swam with
his captive Europa.across to the island of
Crete. There Jupiter revealed hmself as the
king of the gods and won Europa as his bride.

Triangulum, the Triangle

Th1a constellation represents the triangle-shaped
island of Sicily tn Italy and was placed tn the
heavens by Jupiter at the request of Ceres, goddess
of agriculture. Sicily vas a land held in high
esteem by Ceres because of the high quality of
the crops raised there. .
 Ursu Major, the Big Bear
Jupiter is said to have come down from Mount Olympus
on many occasions to marry a beautiful earth maiden.
'-- This enraged his goddess wife Juno. One such maiden
u was Callistro. Juno decided to punish ber by taking
away her beauty. She turned Call1stro into a mangy bear.
Callistro had a son, Areas. WhUe Callistro roamed as
a bear, Arcas grew to be a young man and a famous hunter.
One day he trailed a bear through the woods and was about
to shoot an arrow when Jupiter intervened. His prey was
Callistro. his mother. Jupiter turned Areas into a bear.
He grasped both bears by their short, stumpy tails and
heaved them high up into the heavens where they landed
-
near the North Pole. So heavy were the bears that the
strain on their taUs caused them to be stretched out
into the unusual lengths found in their heavenly con-
stellations.
)
As Juno saw the two bears shining brightly in the sky.
she realized that callistro was again beautiful. She
went to Neptune, ruler of the seas, and asked him to
drive the stars of the Big Bear away from his waters
every ttme they dropped down near the sea, never letting
them bathe in the waves.

Ursu Minor, the Little Bear·

u The little bear is better known as the Little
Dipper, one of the Little Dipper's starR is Polaris·,
the North Star. It has been the,guide star for those
who sail their ships across the Northern Hemisphere
and for those who travel across the land.

Virgo, the Virgin

The best-known myth about Virgo identifies her as Ceres,
goddess of growing things, to whom farmers offered their
prayers.

Ceres had a daughter, Proserpine, who was kidnapped by

Pluto, ruler of the underworld. Ceres declared that /
nothiDg was to grow on earth until Proserpine was returned.
Jupiter ordered. Pluto to return Proserpine to earth but
Pluto said it was not possible because Proserpine had eaten
while below in the underworld. Faced with the problem of
"/
what to do because she had eaten the seeds, and pulled one
way by Ceres and the other by Pluto, Jupiter worked out
a compromise by which Proserpine would spend siX months
J
with her mother and six months with Pluto. So it is that
u when Proserpine cames to spend 6 months with her mother,
Ceres shines brightly over the f.ields and: they bring forth
crops. But when Proserpine returns to Hades, Ceres is sad
and lonely and allows the world to become cold and dreary.
 AMERICAN INDIAN
CONSTElLA TIONS'-'"
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/ °1°
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I
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._1
/
I

/
Copyright 1982 by:
LEARNING TECHNOLOGIES, INC.
59 Walden Street
CAMBRIDGE. MASSACHUSETTS'02140
(617) 547·7724
For use with the American Indian Constellation Cylinder
 Campfire· of the North
u

(So'tsoh) Navaho
This is the North Star or home
star. It never moves and acts
as the traveler's guide or
lodestar. Look for it if you
are lost; it will help you find
your way~ All the o~her stars
will revolve around 'it.

u Black God
Black God and his Pleiades
-----
xa sceszina (Navaho) o
Black God is the Creator of
fire and light. When Black God
entered the Hogan of creation,
Pleiades was lodged at his ankle.
In the Hogan itself he stamped i
his foot vigorously which made
the Pleiadobound to his knee. J
He stamped his foot again and
caused the Pleiad to locate at
his hip. .oOn the third tap he
brought the Pleiad to his right
shoulder and on the fourth to his
left temple where "it would stay"
declared the Black God. His feat of
locating the Pleiad where he wanted it
confirmed to the creator group that the
-u Black God alone was in charge of and had
the power of producing constellations for
beautifying the dark upper or sky.
Cold Man of the North

or
First Man

First Woman
or
Cassiopeia

COLD MAN OF THE NORTH and CASSIOPEI (Big Dipper)

These two constellations are located on either side of
the North Star or home fire. They never leave this area
of the sky and no other constellation approaches to inter- ~
fere with their routine. This arrangement of constellations
established a law that ha~ persisted to this day. This
law stipulates that only one couple may live by one
home fire. (Navaho)
u Lizard
Xa'asboii (Navaho)

~o particular legends
about these constellations
exist" to our knowledge
but literature mentions
~he fact that First
Woman made many more
constellations for the
sky un"til nearly every
animal, bird and insect
bad star counterparts
in the sky. -

Butterfly
K'aalogii (Navaho)
First Big One

Xavaho (in Scorpio)

This constellation seems
~o be part of Scorpio. Its
human form suggests an
application to First Man

Man With Feet Ajc.-

This constellation is
part of Corvus.

No folklore was found

on either of these
two Navaho constellation .
 Thunderbird
u
(i'ni) Navaho

The Navaho legends hold that the Thunderbird constellation

carried all the clouds in his tail and rain under his wings.
Thus when the Thunderbird constellation is shining brightly
in the sky, spring or the rainy season has arrived.

Bear

Navaho

The Bear constellation that- is tangent to the Thunderbird is

also tied into the legend of changing seasons. When the bear
is bright in the sky and the feather of Thunderbird is just
touching the nose of the Bear, Spring has arrived. The
u Bear has essentially come out of Winter hibernation.
 Great- Bear
(Shoshoni)
.• Loca'ted on the
Milky Way Path.

One Iroquois legend

tells us that the Great
Bear was pursued by three
Indian braves. The
chase began at the
beginning of time when
the first Indian shot and
struck the Bear in the side
with his bow and arrow~
The wound wasn't serious, however, and the Bear kep~ on
running. He has been running across the sky ever since.
The bear's path changes from season to season. In the
autumn it begins low in the Northwest. During this
season the arrow wound of the Bear opens slightly and
a little blood trickles down upon the land. It covers
the leaves of the trees and dyes them red and that is
why-we have autumn.

Rabbit Tracks
Gahatei (Navaho)
This is the constellation that
governs all hunting. During
the spring· and early summer ~
when the open end of the o 0
tracks point upward, no one o
may hunt game animals. In
the late fall, when the open
end tips toward earth, the hunting
season begins.
Laws governing hunting were very
strict as the Navaho depended on
game for their food. No hunting
was allowed during an animal's
mating season.
 Horned Rattler
u

Hydra
Horned Rattler (Navaho)
Hydra who resembles a
sea serpent was said to
be given charge of the
underground water channels.

u ·Spider God

1\ _____

Blackfoot
~ Spider God sits in his star web
during the summer time, watching
over the earth. To visit the land
he climbs down the Milky Way.
Porcupine

(Dahsani) Navaho

The Porcupine was given charge

of the growth of all trees on
the mountains.

Dog 'Star

Cherokee

Legend tells us that

all depart~d souls on
their sky journey to the
"land of souls" must pa.ss
two barking dogs. These dogs'
stars are Sirius located in the
dog constellation and Autares located
in the First Big One on your American Indian
Constellation Cylinder. If the departed soul fed the first
dog but had nothing for the second dog, it would be left trapped
in the sky forever between the dogs.
 Long Sash

u
or
.Slim One
Long Sash (Tewa)
Slim One (Navaho)
Ace ecozi (Orion)
Long sash lead hi~ people
westward to a new land away
from their enemies who were
attacking vilages, stealing
animals and killing families.
Once settled in this new land,
however, the people began to
quarrel and exchange blows
among themselves. Long Sash
declared "you are hurting
yourselves worse than your
enemies hurt you. If you are to
come to a place of your own there
can be no violence among you. You
u must decide whether you follow me or
take another trail."
- ........._--

Place of Decision·
or
the· Twins

(Tewa)

North and east of Longsash are

2 bright stars. This is where
Langsash's people sat to decide
which path of life to follow and
thus it is called the place of
u decision. People looked to these
stars for guidance whenever they
came to a turning pOint in their
lives.
Coyote

(Canopus) Matii Bizo'

Navaho:
The coyote constellation
is located in the southern
skies. Navaho legend tells
us that the coyote was a
trickster, a bumbler constantly
disturbing the orderly arrange-
ment that was intended for the
sky. In assisting First Man , ,
and First Woman in placing 'J
constellations in the sky,
coyote was said to have mixed
up Castor and Pollux, the twins. This angered First Woman
so much that she forbade the coyote to place any other stars
in the sky other than his own. The coyote placed his own
star (Canopus) directly~over. Coyote Mountain. It is sai4
to shine brightly in the southern sky during mating season.

Hopi:
Hopi legends tell us that the Creator called on all his
creatures to gather tiny sparkling stones to place in
the sky for light. He told each creature to take as many
of the sparkling rocks as they could carry and draw a
picture of themselves in the sky. Most of the animals,
however, were too small to carry enough stones to complete
their picture, so the Creator gave Coyote a large bag of
stones so that he could help the smaller creatures. But
Coyote grew impatient. He took the stones and flung them
into the sky, which is why some of the star figures are
unfinished and why the stars don't all form clear patterns.
It was only then that Coyote realized that he had forgotten
his own picture and there were no rocks left. So Coyote
howled, and still forever a coyote howls at the sky because
his picture is not there.
 v Milky Way Trail
Navaho: Yikaisdahi
Navaho legend holds that the Milky
Way provides a pathway for the spirits
traveling between heaven and earth,
each little star being one footprint.
The Milky Way path was placed in the
sky by the Coyote. After all the stars \
had been chiseled many small pieces of
quartz and quartz dust remained on the
blanket where First Man and Woman had
been working. Coyote is said to have
grasped the blanket by ,two corners and
swung it in the air spraying the stone
fragments and star dust in an arc in the
sky that reached from horizon to horizon
forming the Milky Way.

Algonquin: Pathway of Souls

\ I

l-/ The Algonquin legend tells us that the

Milky Way is the path that our souls
take when we die. Sometimes referred to
as the Pathway of Souls, it is an imperish-
able mark upon the sky which arches across
the heavens. We do not know where the path
~leads nor·do we know what sights they may
behold. Each bright star, however, is
a campfire blazing in the sky where they
have paused in their journey to look
down on us, their people, as we huddle
for warmth around our home fire'.

Other Names 'for the Milky Way:

Fox tribe: ••••••• "A river of stars"
Yokut: ••• '•.•• '•••• "dust from a race be-
tween antelope and deer'
Cherokee: .•••.•••• "corn meal 'dripping
from a dog's mouth"
Ciowa .•••..•.•••• "backbone of the sky"
Hidohsa & Patwin: .• "scattered ashes"
Eskimo: ..•.••••.•• "track made by
Raven's snow shoes"
Skidee Pawnee: .••. "glue holding the
sky together"
\
 References
Learning Technologies, Inc. would like to express special thanks to
the astronomers of the Astronomy Education Program at the Lawrence
Hall of Science. University of California at Berkeley for their
suggestions on the STARLAB American Indian Constellation Cylinder.

Other American Indian sky stories can be found on pages 52-56 of

this manual and in the following references:

Budd, Lillian, Full Moons, Indian Legends of the Seasons, Rand McNally
and Co., 1'9'7r." - -
Clark, Ella E., Indian Legends of !h! Pacific Northwest, University of
California Press. 1953.
Clark, Ella E., Indian Legends ~rom the Northern Rockies, University of
Oklahoma Press, 1966.
Haile, Berard, Starlore Among the Navaho, Muse~m of Navaho Ceremonial
Art, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1947. _
Judson, Katharine Berry, selector and editor, Myths and Legends of
British North .America, A. C. McClurg and Co., 1917. ~.

Judson, Katherine Berry. Myths and Legends of the Mississippi Valley

and the Great Lakes, A.C. McClurg and Co •• 1914.
Littman, Mark. The People - Skylore of the American Indian, Hansen
Planetarium, Salt Lake City. Utah, 1976.
Longfellow. Henry Wadsworth. The Song of Hiawatha.
Marriott, Alice and Carol K. Rachlin, American Indian Mythology. Thomas
Y. Crowell Company. 1968.
Newcomb, Franc Johnson. Navaho Folk Tales. Museum of Navaho Ceremonial
Art, Santa Fe. N.M •• 1947.----
Parsons, Elsie Clews, Tewa Tales. published by the American Folk-Lore
Society, G. E. Stechert and Co., 1920.
~ Challenger, Astronomy Education Program, University of California,
Berkeley, Ca. 94720. 1978.
Thompson, Stith, selector and annotator, Tales of the North American
Indians, Indiana University Press, 1929.
 ~TAR-t-INDINCi AND l.ONSTEllATIONS

F-5, Star-Finding wIth a Star-FInder

u
STAR FINDING WITH A STAR FINDER
A star map of the night sky helps locate different constellations in the same way a road
map helps locate different cities on the earth. In this activity students construct a rotat-
ing star finder to find the constellations vislole in the night sky throughout the year.

CONCEPTS.
Constellations remain :fixed in their relative position to each other.
ConstelliJ,tions appear in the sky at different times, due to the earth's daily rotation and
seasonal Qrbit around ~e sun.

OBJECTIVES
Students will:
• construct a star finder.
• identify constellations using a star finder.
• observe the effect of seasonal changes when viewing constellations.

MATERIALS
Star F'mder patterns: holder, and nyo constellation wheels
scissors
u file folders (one and one-half'per star finder)
glue
stapler

PROCEDURE
Advanced Preparation:
. Make enough copies of the Star Finder patterns so each student can make their own.
Creating a sample ahead of time will help them understand what the final product should .
look like.

CONSTRUCTING THE STAR FINDER

1. Distribute one manila folder and the Star Finder Holder pattern to each student

2. Have students glue the holder pattern to the front of a manila file folder, with the
east-south edge of the holder along the fold of the file folder.

3. Have them cut out the star :finder as indicated on the pattern, including the central
oval. They should staple the front and back together by placing staples exactly on
the staple lines shown on the front of the Star F'mder Holder.

u
© 1994 Pacific Science Center

29 . PROJECT ASTRO' RESOURCE NOTEBOOKIAsTRONOMICAL SOCIElY OF THE PACIFIC

ISTAR-FINDING AND CONSTELLATIONS
F-5, Star-Findtng with a Star-Finder !

4. Distribute copies of the constellation wheels and one-half of a manila folder to each
student Glue one of the constellation wheels to one side of the manila folder. Have
them cut it out, then glue the other constellation wheel to the back. This technique
makes it easier to line up the circle of the two wheels. It is not possible to align the
dates on the two wheels, nor is it important for them to be aligned.

5. Have them insert the star wheel between the pages of the holder so the simple star
field appears through the oval opening. Once the star wheel is completely inserted,
test tum the star wheel to be sure it moves freely. Check to see that the black line
under the dates on the star wheel approximately lines up with the edge of the star
finder cover showing the time of day.

USING THE STAR FINDER

1. Before going outside to use the Star Finder, practice using it in the classroom. Have
the students align the current date on the wheel with the time indicator on the
holder. The following set of questions and directions will help them become famil-
iar with the star finder.
a. Assume you are going to observe at 9:00 p.m. tonight What constellations are
visible?
b. Tum the dial until it is set for 11:00 p.m. tonight.
1. Which constellations are visible?
2. Which constellations were visible at 9:00 p.m., but are no longer visible at
11:00 p.m.? .
3. Which horizon are disappearing constellations closest to?
4. Which constellations are visible at 11:"00 p.m., but were not visible at
9:00 p.m.?
c. Turn the dial until it is set for 5:00 a.m., just around sunrise.
1. Which constellations are still visible that were up at 9:00 p.m.?
2. Describe the motion the constellations follow from 9:00 p.m. to 6:00 a.m.
3. Rotate the dial one complete tum, which represents a 24-hour day. Which
constellations never go below the horizon?
d. Hold the star finder over your head so that the "North" designation on the star
finder is pointing north. The stars showing in the oval opening are those that
can be seen overhead at the time and date set on the star finder. The edge of
the oval represents the horizon. Stars near the edge of the oval are low on the
horizon. The center of the oval is the point directly overhead when you look up
in the night sky. This point is called the zenith. stars near the center of the oval
will be high overhead when you are observing.

n
e 1994 Pacific Science Center

'PROJECT ASTRO RESOURCE NOTEBOOK/AsTRoNOMICAL SOCIETY OF THE PACIFIC 30

 STAR-FINDING AND CONSTELLATIONS!
I
I F-5, Star-Finding wtth a Star-Finder

e. Now you are ready to go star finding in the night sky. A small flashlight or
penlight will help you read the star :finder at night Red plastic, red construction
paper, or a red balloon, over the front of the flashlight will allow you. to read
your star chart by the red light, but will not reduce your ability to see faint stars
in the sky.
Teachers Note: Have students practice using their star finders, pointing to where
they would expect to find specific constellations.

2. The simple star field shows the bright stars visible in the major constellations.
These stars are easily found, especially when viewing from a city where the many
lights make it difficult to see faint stars. Once students are experienced at finding
the bright stars on this side of the star wheel, they can flip the star wheel over and
attempt to :find the fainter stars and constellations. Some of these will not be visible
until observed from a location away from city lights.

3. Once students become famjljar with some of the brighter constellations, they can
use them as guides to find your way around the sky. For example,. they can use the
two outer stars of the Big Dipperls cup to help :find .the North Star. Have them
devise their own technique to use the stars to :find other constellations.
u

u
~ 1994 Pacific Science Center

31 PROJEcr ASTRO RESOURCE NOTEBOOK!AsrRONOMICAl SOOETY OF THE PACIFIC

 STAR-F,ND,NG AND CONSTEllATIONS

F-5, Star-Finding with a Star-Finder

STAR FINDER HOLDER

~ PASTE ONTO FOLDER, ALIGNING THIS EDGE WITH FOLDED SPINE OF FOLDER.
LJ THEN CUT ALONG EDGE OF STAR FINDER, BUT DO NOT CUT FOLDED EDGE!

r:III
a
..I
o
&1.
&1.
o
.,
III
a
III
U
·z
ii
..I
o
.,
&1.

Z
o
..I
.:
III
a
iii
VI
i
t-
Id
U
.:
..I
Do

~ 1994 Pacific Science Cel1.ler

32
. PROJECT ASTRO ReSOURCE NOTEBOOK/ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF THE PACIFIC -
 ISTAR-FINDING AND CONSTELLATIONS
F-5, Star-Finding wtth a Slar-Finder !

u
STAR WHEEL
SIMPLE STAR FIELD

~
U if 6? tttf>
~
Horvw YSHn
f1'~
~
g' rjf,
0
IGtIC.

CI)

~i
~
0
:u
.,,0~+.!J1 :

~VO\,.
:-/
i~ ~
:II
c
CD

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~ ~f'4
-t/~
~i
g4 I!
~

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(l:l~ 0-
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'\.,. ., ~
"J"t

u
@ 1994 Pacific Science Center

PROJECT ASTRO ResOURCE NOTEBOOK/AsTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF THE PACIFIC 34

 STAR-FINDING AND CONSTELLATIONS

F-5, Star-Finding with'a Star-Finder

STAR WHEEL
COMPLEX STAR FIELD

@ 1994 Pacific Science Center

PROJECT ASTRO ResOURCE NOTEBOOK!AsrRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF THE PACIFIC

33
 ~ ..

u Mt. Nose "

A Model of Day and Night

;Before you do the moon balls activity in this session, but with the lamp already set up, there
is a great opportunity to model day and night. This relates to the explanations the students
explored in Session f and helps students gain understanding through their own direct
perceptions.

l. Gather the class in a circle around the lamp. Explain to the ~tudents that each of their
heads represents the Earth. The light in the center represt!l1ts the Sun.

2.· Ask the students to imagine that their nose is a mountain and that a person lives on the
tip of "Mount Nose." With the students facing the lightbulb, ask, "For the person on
your Mount Nose, where in the sky is the sun?" Ihigh in the sky, overhead) Ask, "What
time of day do you think it is for the person on Mt. Nose?" (around noon)
.'

3. Ask. the students to tum 1p their left, and stop when their right ears are facing the sun.
Ask, "For the person on'Mount Nose, where in the sky does the sun seem to be? In~ar
the horizon, low in the sky1 Ask, "What time of day is i~ for the person7" Isunset1

4- Have the students continue to tum~ stopping when their backs are to the Iightbulb. Ask,
. . "What time is ·It for·the perso~' on Mount Nose?" (around midnjghti On what part of
your head is it daytlme71the back of your head, because it is now facing the sunl'

. 5. Have the stl:1dents make· another quarter tum, so that their left ears face the sun. Where is
the sun? now in the sky, just "coming up") What time Is it? [sunrise] Have the class tum
back to face the light.

... 6. You may want to have students hold their hands to the sides of their heads to form
"horizons" The left hand is the "eastern horizon" and the right hand is the "western
horizon." Tell the students to tum slowly and watch for "sunrises" from their "left
hand/eastern horizon" and sunsets on their "right. hand/western horizon."

7. Remind the class of the term model, as someone's explanation for something that has
been observed. Scientists today use a model like the one they have just made to
explain the way the Sun seems to move in the sky.

{
~.
;

24 Activity 4
 AISD Planetarium Outline
u
Classroom Part: 35 min.

1. Introduction:
• If this is what you do first: Introduce yourself and a brief outline of what the
program will be like.
• If this is your second half: Revue some of the things they learned in the first
half.
2. The most important star (to us):
• What star is most important to us?
• Why is the Sun the most important star to us? (show picture of sun)
1. Heat, light, gravity, seasons
2. All food and the energy your body needs comes from the Sun.
3. All other energy comes from the Sun too.
• Solar, wind, water power
• Gasoline, coal, oil, gas, firewood
• Electricity, radio and tv, microwaves
• -Earth and Sun (two ways to model: "Texas Nose" or have a kid to be the
Sun and one to be the Earth)
1. Demonstrate day & night
2. Demonstrate a year
u 3. Show how the stars visible at night change over the year
• How many stars are in the Solar System?
1. Ask them this trick question. Narrow down the guesses to "many"
and "one". Re-state the question with emphasis on the "solar system"
and see if they can figure it out.
2. Ask them if they can name the things in the Solar System
• Use Sherry'S Solar System Game to help them figure out the
planets and the order they go including asteroids, the Moon,
dwarf planets and moons of other planets (every planet has
one or more moons except for Mercury and Venus)
3. So, where ARE those other stars? Outside our solar system.
• How far away is the Sun?
1. 93 million miles, or 8 minutes at light speed (8 light minutes)
• Miles are too small a measure for space. Astronomers use
light speed, the distance light can travel in a certain amount of
time, to measure distances in space.
2. Is this close or far? Do we want to be closer or farther?
• How far away are the other stars?
1. Alpha Centauri is more than 4 light years away (its light has been
traveling towards us for more than 4 years when we see it). This is 25
trillion miles.
2. Rigel is about 930 light years away, Vega is about 261y away, Sirius is
U about 8 ly away.
4. How do stars form, and what happens when they die?
• Play the Nebula Game with the kids. (show the Orion Nebula poster)
• Use the Star Cycle bulletin board to show the cycle from dust and gas, to
protostars, to stars, etc.
1. A Protostar is the beginnings of a star forming from the nebula.
Jupiter and the other gas giant planets are protostars that never
became stars.
2. Our Sun is a medium sized yellow star that will last for several billion
years. This is the best kind of star for planets to have because
they last a long time and help to support life.
3. White stars like Sirius are hotter than the Sun and live shorter lives.
4. Blue stars like Rigel are even hotter than white stars and live very
short lives, maybe only a few million years.
5. Red giant stars are yellow or white stars that are dying. They cool
off, have less gravity, expand and tum red. When they die they
collapse down, heat up for a short time and become white dwarf
stars, then die and become black dwarf stars.
6. Red supergiant stars, like Betelgeuse and Antares, are blue stars that
are dying. They cool off and become enormous. When they
collapse down they may explode in a huge explosion called a
supernova.
7. Red dwarf stars, like Proxima Centauri, are the most common stars,
but we have a hard time seeing them. They last for many billions
of years. Astronomers think they would die by just becoming a
black dwarf, but no red dwarf star that we know about has ever
died in the history of the universe, so no one knows for sure.
8. A Supernova gives energy and gas and dust to start a nebula, to form
new stars.
9. A Black Hole is a place in space with tremendous gravity that used to
be a supergiant star. Black holes are believed to be the central
point of galaxies that hold the stars in rotation around them.
5. What are constellations? (show the constellation poster)
• Connect-the-dot imaginary pictures we make from the stars
• A way to map the sky and remember which star is which and where to find them.
• Illustrations of various ancient myths and stories from many different cultures on
Earth.
• Navigation tools to help sailors, pilots and adventurers find their way across the
world.
• How to use a star map: (pass out the star maps)
1. Hold it up overhead and turn the map as you face different directions
2. Compare the stars on the map with what you see in the sky.
3. Have the right map for the season of the year.
 Telescope: 5 min. (outside between the classroom part and the planetarium part. Do this
u before the classroom if you start in the planetarium and after the classroom part if you are
heading into the planetarium)
• Invented about 500 years ago, it changed our concept of the universe.
• Telescopes let us see things that we could not see with our eyes alone.
• Galileo made its use popular and wrote books about what he saw. He went to
prison for what he said, but today we know it is true.
• Allowed astronomers to prove that the Sun is the center of our solar system and
that planets, including Earth orbit around it.
• Today the Hubble telescope in outer space is changing what we know again
because it is a huge telescope outside the Earth's atmosphere and can see
more clearly.
• Binoculars are small telescopes and are very good for seeing many things in the
night sky.

Planetarium part: 35 min.

1. Sit everyone on the big step in MPR. Explain the rules of the planetarium and have
everyone take off their shoes.
2. Enter the dome, get everyone seated and quiet. Turn off the sun and put on the
constellation cylinder (the top one wth the pictures). Turn down the lights slowly.
3. Identify as many of the constellations as you want as you rotate through the year.
4. Tell a story about one or more constellations.
5. Change the cylinder to the night sky.
u 6. Sing a star song: (optional) could be Twinkle Twinkle Little Star or Deep In The
Heart of Texas (this is a helpful thing if you have some kids who are a little nervous
about the darkness)
7. Show some of the constellations for each season and the circumpolar constellations:
(these are some suggestions but you definitely don't have to do every one)
• Spring: Leo the Lion, Corvus the Crow, Ursa Major, Ursa Minor
• Summer: Scorpio the Scorpion, Sagittarius the Centaur, Cygnus the Swan,
Lyra the Harp, Aquila the Eagle, Draco the Dragon
• Autumn: Pegasus the Flying Horse, Andromeda the Princess, Cassiopeia the
Queen, Perseus the Hero, the Pleides
• Winter: Taurus the Bull, Orion the Hunter, Canus Major Orion's big dog,
Gemini the Twins, Lepus the Rabbit
8. Show the Moon.
9. Turn on the Sun and turn up the lights. Make sure every kid gets out of the
planetarium safely and gets their shoes back on.

u
Texas Nose (a variation on Mt. Nose)

Stand in the center with a group of kids in a circle (no one behind or in front of
another) around you. Tell the group that you are the Sun and that each of
them is the Earth ~ots of Earths!). The top of each kid's head is the North
Pole and their chin is the South Pole. Their nose is Texas and the back of their
head is China or India.

You are sending out tons of energy, heat and light to the Earths. Have them
stand where Texas is facing the Sun (you) and ask them what time it is
(daytime, noon, 12PM). Have them hold up their right fist with thumbs up.
To rotate on their axis, they will turn in the direction that their fingers curl (to
the left). If you look down onto the North Pole from above it would be a
counterclockwise turn.

Have them tum around to show the position of midnight in Texas, or noon in
China or India. Have each kid notice what they see out in the night sky at
midnight. Each side of the circle, each kid, will see something different
because they are facing different directions. If you have enough
parents/teachers/ etc. assign one to be Leo in the spring sky, one to be Scorpio
in the summer sky, one to be Pegasus in the autumn sky and one to be Orion
in the winter sky. The different directions are the seasons of the year. Have
them rotate back to noon. Ask them how long that rotation on their axis took
(24 hours or one day).

Now, ask what other movement the Earth has (orbiting the Sun). That is also
in a counterclockwise direction, so have the kids walk slowly around you to
their left. It is probably not a good idea for them to rotate and orbit at the
same time. When the circle has moved about one quarter or one half of the
way around, ask them to stop and turn to midnight in Texas. Do they see the
same things they saw before? No, because they have moved to a different
season of the year. Now, have them continue to orbit around you until they
get back to where they started. How long did this orbit take? (365 1/4 days or 1
year) So, if they were eight when they started, they are nine now, if ten, then
they are eleven, etc. Point out that what they see over their North Pole or
under their South Pole are the 'same things, just from different angles, all year
long.
 The Nebula Game
u This works best with a group of 10 or more, more is better. Have everyone stand up.
Explain that they are all atoms and molecules of space dust and gas. They are drifting
aimlessly in outer space. Have them just wander slowly and randomly around the room.

Choose one person, preferably their teacher or a parent or another counselor, to be a

supernova and explode with appropriate melodrama. When they have given a big kablooey,
it sends stardust and energy into the cloud of aimless dust and gas (the kids) and causes them
to begin walking in a counterclockwise direction around the room (not in a circle, still all
scattered, but going the same way).

As they walk around, cause two of them to bump gently into each other and join elbows.
They have formed a protostar. Have them choose one other person to join with them to
form a star. These three stand in the center and begin to be very bright and hot, sending
energy out to the others. Now, clump two more kids together into a planet orbiting around
the star. Pull one other kid into the star to make it even hotter, create another planet,
choose one kid to become a moon orbiting a planet, have one or more kids become
asteroids, choose one kid to have a long elliptical orbit into the star and back out to the
edges of the group as a comet.

Do this until every kid has become something: star, planet, moon, asteroid, comet. Tell
them they have become a solar system.

u
 Planetarium Program Outline

General Info: One instructor, one hour presentation in MPR using Sky Lab
Planetarium. Refer to your notebooks for info on setting up planetarium and stories
to tell.

I. Grades K-l: Demonstrate night and day using globe, show picture of the sun,
identify the sun as our nearest star.

Grades 2-5: Discuss the formation of stars (varying complexity to suit age level)
using planetarium posters.

II. Inside Planetarium:

A. Point out Big Dipper, North Star, Little Dipper, Draco, Cassiopeia,
Cepheus and Orion. You may also point out Betelgeuse and Rigel
in Orion to illustrate the relationship between the age of stars and
their colors.

B. Relate appropriate myths.

u
 AISD Planetarium- Classroom Part
Greeting and Introduction:
V If this is the part you do first:
Introduce yourself
Give a very brief overview of what the program will be
If this is the part you do second then skip to the program material
The most important star:
Why is the sun the most important star?
Heat, light, gravity
Show picture of sun
Star energy (keep this brief most of the time)
All food comes from sun
Plants capture energy
All food comes from plants
Energy of our bodies to work and play is star energy
All other energy comes from the sun too
Gasoline, coal, oil, gas
Solar, wind, water power
Earth & Sun (use the earth ball and get a kid to vol~teer tp be the sun) '. '
Demonstrate day & night CtK-ch. tLli.IC{N:j. ~(cC. (l"J~'J-k!(~/l JA J
Demonstrate a year
Tilt of the earth and· how seasons are caused by this tilt
Visible stars change with the seasons as earth moves around sun, northern and
southern stars are visible all year
V Too small a measure (still using the earth ball and sun-kid):
How far away is the sun?
93 million miles or 8 minutes at light speed.
Is this far or close? Do we want to be closer or farther?
Miles too small for space. Light speedllight year=6 trillion miles
Distance to stars other than the sun:
Alpha Centari is 4 light years
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Rigel is 930 light years t'~f -S7~_ v d (Jm
Vega is 26 light years /I., ~(,
Life Cycle of Stars
Star colol'S
Yellow sun 1YlR-d~ ~/) -n ~ ,a . L' ; / ~
Hot blue & white stars ~ (./~d) rP--,L
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Old red stars - ~ 3~s -..12k' If)f~{ j ~ ~'~ (J -
Star Color, Size and Terrlp. Game fI' ()
Life cycle of stars:
Nebula (show Orion Nebula poster) fLL,-hv& ~I~.>
Star Cycle (Nebula) Game 0, .-
Life cycle (show life cycle posters) j~/~ t-.- tC~
Constellations I. 5{vf!M--~~-(? ~ ~_.- .
What are constellations? ~ .~ 5;:::: sM~ ~(v-. ~
Connect the dot pictures ~ '"""-?~ ~ ~
V Imaginary ways to remember real stars ~~
Illustrations of ancient myths, different ones from every different culture on earth.
Maps that astronomers can use to chart the sky and find things ~1. set-

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 Navigation tools to find directions on earth for sailors, pilots, explorers
How to read a star map: (pass out the star maps)
Look up & hold it overhead
Tum it as you tum to face the different directions
Each kid can try out the map by comparing it to the stars on the walls of the room
Need for star maps for each season of the year
Telescope ~r-- AvJ * ~ ~?---
Invented about 500 years ago .
Changed our concept of universe and understanding of space dJ~:::.t-!f-::7;--<!t:!:fl: vJ~2-- ~-~~.
New Hubble telescope in space pr~~~ ~
Telescopes or binoculars on a clear dark night for the fun of it..J~ ~w ~ SO _ ~~Of!{ f~ 10
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u Clues for Solar System Game

1. I am the star nearest to your planet. I am the center of your solar

system. (Sun)

2. I am the planet closest to the sun. 1 have no water and am

covered with craters. (Mer~ury)

3. I am covered with green and white clouds. I ani one of the

brightest objects in the night sky. I am the closest planet to
Earth. (Venus)

3. I am the planet you live on!, I am about 4.5 billion years old.
(Earth)

4. I am calle~ the "red planet". I had water long ago, but now I
am mostly dry desert. (Mars)

5. Weare not planets. More than 100,000 of us revolve around the

u )
Sun between Mars and Jupiter. We are rocky objects that you
call meteors when we enter Earth's "atmosphere. (asteroids)

6. I am the largest planet. My Great Red Spot is a huge storm in

Diy clouds. (Jupiter)

7. I am famous for my rings. They are made of million~ of icy

chunks of rock. (Saturn)

8. 1 have blue and green clouds surrounding me. 1 am tilted so that

my north and south poles stick out from my side. (Uranus)

9. 1 have blue and white clouds surrounding me. I am named after

the ancient god of the seas. (Neptune)

10.1 am the smallest planet. I am the only planet never visited by a

spacecraft. (pluto)

u 1I.We are lumps of ice and dust. When we get close enough to the
Sun, we start to evaporate and jets of gas and dust form long tails
that you can see from Earth. (Comets)
 AISD Planetarium Solar System Game

Objective: Students will be able to use clues to order themselves as

planets in our solar system. Some students will also be
asteroids, moons and comets.

Materials: Inflatable planets, pompoms for comets, rocks for asteroids

and Styrofoam balls for moons.

Procedure: 1. Pass out sun, planets (with their nametags) asteroids,

comets and moons until all children have a prop.
2. Read clues so that students stand in correct order from
the sun:
SUN MERCURY VENUS EARTH MARS ASTEROID BELT

JUPITER SATURN URANUS NEPTUNE PLUTO

• ASSIGN ONE MOON TO EARTH, SATURN (SEVERAL),

JUPITER (SEVERAL), URANUS, NEPTUNE, PLUTO
• COMETS MOVE BETWEEN PLANETS

3. Have children recite the names of planets in order

from the sun.

n
 Life Cycle of Star

u
After explaining the life cycle of stars (using posters), have children stand up on carpet

squares. Have the teacher randomly pass out the yellow and blue cards. Explain to

children that they are part of a nebula. Ask the children what a nebula is? Explain to

children that a nebula is a cloud of gases that are moving around. Have children moye

randomly around the classroom. Have the teacher be a supernova and explode in the

nebula. Tell children to start rotating in the same direction and to pair up with other

children having the same color card. Tell each color group that they have become a

protostar. Have children fonn a circle with their color group and tell the children that

they have now become a main sequence star (because they are now releasing energy

instead of contracting it.) Yellow cards only (the sun): remains in this sequence for 10

billion years. Then have kids make their circle bigger and explain that this is the star
u
expanding and cooling. They have now become a Red Giant star. Have kids leave their

yellow cards in a circle on the floor and move away from them (this is the planetary

nebula) and the kids become a white dwarf. Then the star eventually becomes cool"and

dims. When it stops shinning, the now dead star is called a black dwarf.

Blue cards only (blue supergiant stars): Massive stars evolve in the same way to a small

star (like the sun) until it reaches its main sequence stage. It is only in the main sequence

stage for millions of years instead of billions. Have the kids "run" to the center of their

circle and then blow up (this is the core collapsing causing an explosion called a

supernova). If the core survives the explosion it becomes a neutron star. Have kids stand

u
in a tight circle to demonstrate this. If the core does not survive the explosion then it

contracts to become a black hole.

n
 ~tar Order by Temperature
u
Blue Supergiant surface temp . 19,000 F

Blue Giant

White Dwarf

Yellow Sun surface temp 5,500F

u Red Supergiant

Red Giant

Red Dwarf surface temp 3,500F

u
 ,. ...... ,
-
A Script (of sorts) for using the Evening Star Map
While children are still seated in the circle on their carpet squares pass out appropriate star map to each child. As
you are passing out maps explain that this is a simple star map copied out ofa teacher's manual. You canfind
them on the Internet. You can buy them at book or nature stores Sometimes they are in Astronomy magazines.

Hold the map in front ofyou. Who would like to read the top ofthe page? Jfyou went out before 9:00 tonight to
look at the stars would that make this map "no-good"? No, the constellations would be a little shifted one way or
the other depending ifyou went out before or after the stated time. The map is still good.

Who would like to read the directions at the bottom ofthe page? Wow, that sounds simple, but how do we figure
out which way we are facing?

First, we mustfind the Big Dipper. Who has seen the Big Dipper in the night sky? Is it big or little? Is it hard to
find? There are four black posters around the room. Each one has at least one constellation on it. One has the
Big Dipper on it. please stand-up and raise your hand when you think you hav~ found the Big Dipper on one ofthe
four posters.

Give the laser pointer to a child who has their hand up, or have them just use their finger to point out the Big
Dipper on the poster. GREAT, now who mows how to find the North Star or Polaris, ifyou know where the Big
Dipper is?

That's con-eet. Wefind the two bright stars that make up the end o/the bowl ofthe Big Dipper. Draw an
imaginary line joining those two stars continue the line until it runs into a bright star sort ofby itself. That is the
North Star or Polaris.

Jfyou are facing the North Star which direction you are/acing? Yeal North is right. Everyone tum so you are
'- facing North. Now, ifyou are ever lost in the middle a/nowhere you can look to the night sky, find the Big
Dipper, connect the two stars at the end ofthe bowl. they wiIl point you to the North Star, then you mow what
direction you are facing and you can find your way. This is the same method old sea captains used to find their
way many many years ago.

Read the directions at the bottom of the page once again. Standing at the ''Nortb.~end of the room by the poster of
the dippers, ask the children which direction is North? East? West? South? So, ifwe 're /aeing North the part of
the map that says "NORTHERN HORlZON'~ should be close to your tummy. Walk around the room to be sure
every one has their map oriented correctly.

Let's pretend it is about 9:00 at night and we are going out to star gaze. What do we need to bring with us?
Really nothing, but a star map and a flash light might be useful. Our pointer finger will be our flashlight in this
classroom. Every one hold up your flashlight. Great . .

Now lets look at our star maps andfind CASSIOPEIA, point your flashlight at that constellation on your map. The
word Cassiopeia begins with the letter C, and the constellation looks like a funny W. Walk around to make sure
each child has their "flashlight" pointed at the right constellation. Now, see ifyou canfind it on one o/the/our
posters. Raise your hand when you have found it. The children may wander around, not truly understanding that
it should be on the North wall. After a fair number of children seem to have found it, ask one child to point it out
on the poster with the laser POint~. Great. Do you think in the real night sky Cassiopeia is little or big?

As time permits, have the children find Leo and Pegasus. Ending with Orion usually makes for a nice transition
into red stars, blue stars, or nebulas.
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 The Planetarium program addresses the following Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills:

Scientific Principles: Ia(K, 1st, 2nd)-demonstrate safe practices-home and school

u . 2a(K., 1st, 2nd)-ask questions
2d(K., 1st)-explanations based on information
2e(2nd)-explanations based on infonnation and draw conclusions
2f(2Dd)-communicate explanations
3a(K, 1", 2Dd )_make decisions using information
3b(K, 1st, 2nd)_justify merits of decisions
3c(K, 151, 2nd)-explain a problem and propose a solution
la(3rd, 4th, 5th, 6lh )-demonstrate safe practices during field and laboratory
investigations
2c(3 rd , 4lh, 5th, 6lh)-analyze and interpret information to construct explanations
from direct and indirect evidence
2d(3 rd, 4tb, 5th; 61h)-communicate valid conclusions .
3a(3 nl, 4tb, Stb , 61h)-analyze, review, critique scientific explanations: hypotheses,
theories as to strengths and weaknesses
3c(3nl, 4th, 5th , 61h)-represent natural world using models, identify limitations
Systems: 9c(K)-identify ways Earth provides resources for life
6a(2Dd)-manipulate, ·predict, identify parts separated from whole may not work
Sa(3 nl)-observe and identify simple systems
.11 c(3"')-identify planets in solar system and positions
Ild(3rd)-describe characteristics of.sun
11 a(4tb)-test properties of soils
Sa(Sth)-describe some cycles, structures, processes in simple systems
Sh(SIh)-descnbe interactions that occur in simple systems
6a(Sth)-identify events and descnbe changes that occur on regular basis
12dESth)-identify gravity as force to keep planets and moon in orbit . .
Sa( 6th)-identify apd describe system resulting from combination .of two Ot more
u systems
13a(6th)-identify characteristic~ of objects in solar system-sun, planets, :
meteorites, comets, asteroids, moons
. Properties, Patterns, 8a(K)-identify organisms or objects as living or nonliving
and Models: 9c(K)-identify ways Earth provides resources for life
Sa(lj;sort objects by properties and patterns
Sa(2 )-classify and sequence organisms; objects, events
8b(2Dd)-identify characteristics of nonliving objects
llc(3 rd)-identify planets in solar system and positions
11 d(3rd)-descnbe characteristics of sun
llc(4tb)-identify sun as major energy source
12a(Stb)-intexpret how land fOImS result from constructive and destructive forces·
Sa( 6tb)-identify and descnoe system resulting from combination of ~o or more
systems .
13a(6tb)-identify characteristics of objects in solar system-sun, planets,
meteorites, comets, asteroids, moons
Constancy and Change: Sa(K)-properties of objects and characteristics of organisms
Sa(1 Sl)-sort objects by properties and patterns .
7d(2 nd)-observe, measure, record changes in weather, night sky, seasons
11 c(3 rd )-identify planets in solar system and positions
II d(3 rd)-describe characteristics of sun
11a(4tb)-test properties of soils
12d(SIh)-identify gravity as force to keep planets and moon in orbit
13a(61h)-identify characteristics of objects in solar system-sun, planets,
meteorites, comets, asteroids, moons
Form and Function: 9c(K)-identify ways Earth provides resources for life
u 6a(2Dd)-manipulate, predict, identify parts separated from whole may not work
 llc(3 rd )-identify planets in solar system and positions
11 d(3 rd)-describe characteristics of sun
llc(4th)-identify sun as major energy source
12d(Sth)-identity gravIty as torce to keep planets and moon in orbit
13a(6th)-identify characteristics of objects in solar system-sun, planets,
meteorites, comets, asteroids, moons

Resource Guide and Bibliography

GEMS, c/o Lawrence Hall of Science, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720
Universe At Your Fingertips, ed. Andrew Fraknoi, Project Astra, Astronomical Society
of the Pacific, 1995.
Beyond the Blue Horizon, Edwin C. Krupp, Oxford University Press, 1991.
The Stars, H.A.Rey, Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, 1980.
Stars of the First People, Dorcas S. Miller, Pruett Publishing, Boulder, CO, 1997.
D' Aulaires' Book of Greek Myths, Ingri and Edgar Parin D' Aulaire, Bantam Doubleday
Dell Publishing Group, New York, 1962.
Stars & Planets, ed. David H. Levy, The Nature Co. Discoveries Library, Time Life
Books, 1996.
The Shining Stars, Greek Legends of the Zodiac, Ghislaine Vautier, adapted by Kenneth
Mc Leish, Cambridge University Press, 1981.
The Way of the Stars, Ghislaine Vautier, adapted by Kenneth Mc Leish, Cambridge
University Press, 1981.
Be A Space Detective, Anita Ganeri, Derrydale Books, New York, 1992.
Exploring the Night Sky With. Binoculars, Patrick Moore, Cambridge University Press,
1986.
365 Starry Nights, Chet Raymo, Simon & Schuster, 1982.
A Walk Through the Heavens, Milton D. Heifetz and Wi! Tirion, Cambridge University
Press, 1996.
Magazines
Star Date, The University of Texas at Austin, McDonald Observatory, 2609 University
Ave. #3.118, Austin, TX 78712. 512/471-5285.
Mercury, Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 390 Ashton Ave., San Francisco, CA
94112.
Web sites
stardate. utexas.edu
aspsky.org
nasa.gov
 Star Color, Size &Temperature Game

U Introduction: Use the illustration of the Life Cycle of Stars to explain how stars form from the nebula
cloud of dust and gases, then describe their life cycle. When stars are first formed in the nebula they are a hot
blue-white or yellow. As stars get older and use up their fuel, they cool off and tum red, so new stars tend to be
hotter than old stars. As a star dies and collapses it heats back up because all the gases pack together into a
smaller star, like a white dwarf and it gets hot again for a short time. Giant stars get hotter until they explode in a
supernova. A clue to the colors of stars is to think about a £lame. The hottest part of the flame is the blue part,
then yellow and then red.
Game: Version One: Divide the kids into two groups. Have one group stand up in a line facing the other
group who are sitting down. The standing kids hold up the star circles. (Give one star per child if you only have
7 in the group, but put two each on the giant stars as needed when there are more kids, so every kid has a pan in
holding a star.) The sitting kids are astronomers. Point out that scientists make guesses about things and then
work to get more information to find out if their guesses are right or 'Wrong. :Have the astronomers tty to put
the stars into a line in order of temperature. Then tell them their scien~c experiments show that blue stars are
hotter than other colors and large stars are hotter than small stars, but red stars are the coolest because they are
the oldest ones. Use the Temperature Chart to help them put the stars in order. Three cheers for the famous
astronomers! Then, if there is time, have the two groups switch so that the astronomers become stars and vice
versa. This time do the same thing but putting them in order of brightness. Remind them that in brightness,
large stars are brighter than smaller stars and hot stars are brighter than cooler stars. Use the Color Chan to help
them get it right after they have tried to guess. Their scientific experiments have answered their questions again.
Hooray for the famous astronomers!
V~Ision Two: Do this the same way as ve~.ion one, except that the kids are all astronomers and stars are laid out
on the floor in the order they think is hottest to coolest, then brightest to least bright. "
U Temperature chart: ,
Blue Supergiant Largest, hottest young star
These are the most massive stars, burning fastest and only living for a few
million years. They become red supergiants and can become supernovas
when they collapse, and then might become so dense that their gravity
pulls in everything close to them, becoming a black hole.
Blue Giant Second largest, very hot young star
Very massive stars that only live for a few million years, these also become
red supergiants that are slightly smaller but instead of exploding when
they die, they become dense neutron stars.
White Dwarf Old dying star that heats back up just before it goes out.
A white dwarf began as a medium or small star, became a red giant, and
then collapsed, concentrating its energy into a hot old star at the very end.
Yellow Sun Medium hot medium size young star
These are very stable stars that can live for about 10 billion years. When
they get old they become red giants and then a white dwarf.
Red Supergiant An old very large blue star that has cooled some from burning up most of its fuel.
These big old stars are the ones most likely to explode in a supernova.
Red Giant An old yellow star that has cooled and expanded out, having less density and less
gravity. These are most likely to become white dwarfs when they collapse
and die.
RedDwarf The smallest, coolest star.
A star with barely enough fuel and mass to have a nuclear reaction and be
u called a star at all. They can live for many billions of years because they
bum very slowly.
Brightness chart:
Blue Supergiant Largest, hottest young star
Size matters in brightness, and hotter stars are brighter than cooler stars o n
the same size. Rigel is an example of a blue supergiant.
Red Supergiant Largest old star
Size matters! Betelgeuse is an example of a red supergiant.
Blue Giant Second largest very hot young star

Red Giant Second largest old star

Yellow Sun Yellow stars like our sun are in the middle both in heat and brightness
Why is the sun so much brighter to people here on earth? Qoseness also
matters. Yellow stars like our sun are in the middle for brightness, but
our sun is actually 25 times brighter than the brightest star because it is so
close to us.
Red Dwarf A very small, cool star

White Dwarf These are very small, dying stars. They are pretty hot, but not very bright.
 }facts: About oor Solar System, the Galaxy
and the Universe
**************
""eed of Light 186,000 miles per second
C'I

Uht Year the dis.tance light travels in one year. The speed of light
times the nll1D:ber of seconds in one year:
186,000 miles/sec X 31,449,600 sec = 1 light year
or roughly 6 trillion miles or 6,000,000,000,000 miles!

Our Solar System

The solar system consists of one star, nine planets, more than sixty-two moons, several
thousand asteroids, and over one thousand comets.
The Sun is approximately 93 million miles away, has a diameter of 860,000 miles and a
rotational period of 24 to 35 days, depending on latitude from the equator.
Planet Light distance Diameter Rotation Number of
from SUD ,!Km} Period Moons
Mercury 3 min.· 4,878 59 days -0
Venus 6 min. 12,104 243 days 0
Earth 8 min. 12,756 23 hrs. 56 min. 1
Mars 13 min. 6,787 24 hrs. 37 min. 2
Jupiter. 43 min. 142,796 9 hrs. 53 min. 16
Saturn 1 hr. 19 min. 120,000 10 hrs. 40 min. 18
Uranus 2 hrs. 40 min 52,142 17hrs.14min 15
Neptune 4 hrs. 10 min 49,528 16 hrs. 3 min 8
U Pluto 5 hrs. 28 min 2,300 6 days 9hrs 17 min 1
Our Galaxy: The Milky Way
Our galaxy contains 100,000,000,000 stars; one if which is our sun. The galaxy rotates
around a central point once every 220,000,000 years
Light distance Diameter Temperature
Star from Earth !Km} iEl
sun "'8min 1,391,785 10,000
Nearest star (besides Sun) 4 years 1,448,100 , 10,000
Smallest known star 50 years 6,436 50,000
Largest known star 500 years 482,700,000 5,000
Hottest star 100,000
Coolest star 3,000
The Universe
More than 100,000,000,000 galaxies like the Milky way are within range of the largest
telescopes on Earth, and an unknown number beyond.
Galaxy Light distance to Earth
Andromeda (closest galaxy) 2,000,000 years
u Farthest Observed Galaxy >12,000,000,000 years
Present theory estimates the age of the universe to be 15 Billion years.
ITHE PLANETS
Background: The Planets I

• Charting the Planets • ..

un..." ..
''''"

• •••
Distances In above graphic are not drawn to scale.

~~ .; ~fO ti'~
~fO ~~
Categories ~e~ o$~ ~fb.($" ~fb.~ ')~~ tb~ ~~.. ~
~e~ 4!l'~o

1. Mean Distance
From Sun
57.9 108.2 149.6 227.9 778.3 1.427 2,871 4,497 5,914
(Millions of
Kilometers)

2. Period of 88 224.7 365.3 687 11.86 29.46 84 165 248

Revolution days days days days years years years years y~ars

3. Equatorial
Diameter 4,880 12,100 12,756 6,794 143,200 120,000 51,800 49,528 -2,330
(Kilometers)

4. Atmosphere Helium Hydrogen

Virtually Carbon Nitrogen Carbon Hydrogen Hydrogen Methane
(Main Hydrogen Helium
None Dioxide Oxygen Dioxide Helium Helium +1
Methane Methane
Components)

5. Moons 0 0 1 2 16 18 15 8 1

6. Rings 3 1,000 (?) 11 4

° 0 0 0
°
7. Inclination of 70 3.4 0 00 1.90 1.30 2.5 0 0.8 0 1.80 17.1°
Orbit to Ecliptic

8. Eccentricity of .206 .007 .017 .093 .048 .056 .046 .009 .248
Orbit
6 days
9. Rotation Period 59 days 243 days 23 hours 24 hours 9 hours 10 hours 17.2 hours 16 hours 9 hours
RtItIOgmCle 56 min. 37 min. 55 min. 40 min. Retrograde 7 min. 18 min.
RelnlgnlCle

10. Inclination of 120°

Near 00 1n.2° 23° 27' 25° 12' 3 0 5' 26 0 44' 970 55' 28° 48'
Axis·
1/93

6
PROJECT ASTRO RESOURCE NOTEBOOK/AsTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF THE PACIFIC
 1. Nebula Poster: Stars are "born" in huge swirling nebulae in space. Lumps in
nebulae attract dust l?y their gravity. The spinning globule grows bigger and
.
.. 1 bigger until it collapses under its own weight. The center becomes hotter and
more dense. The heat flows from the center and glows red.

2. Cross Section of the Sun Poster: Several millions of years later, the inside
temperature of the star reaches 18 million degrees F.-" the temperature at which
nuclear fusion occurs. Groups of four hydrogen nuclei are fused into one helium
nuclei. This releases huge amounts of energy. Einstein described the energy
released as E=MC . (E=energy released M=mass lost C=speed of light).

3. Life Cycle of a Solar Type Star Poster: Our sun is about 5 billion years old.
Its formation took about 30 million years. The sun. should continue for about 5
million more years.
Solar-type stars are born in nebulae. The progress through the "main
sequence" of star life-very hot at first, then they begin to use up their fuel and
become cooler. Stars "die" when their fuel is finally used up. The stars swells
and grows red. These are "red giants". Our sun will be~ome a red giant in about
5 billion more years. It will swell out past Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars~ It
will eventually collapse to a dense Star about the size of Earth called a "white
dwarf". When it uses up all of its energy it will become a ''black dwarf"..

4. Life Cycle of a Massive Star Poster: Massive stars begin life just as solar stars
do. They go through the same main sequence as the solar-type stars, but when
. they reach the "red giant" stage they are extremely large. Betelgeuse, the massive
red star we see in the constellation Orion, is so large that millions of stars the size
of our sun could fit in it. Because the massive red gi$lnts are so large, they
undergo more expansion and contraction as they die. This makes their core
temperature hotter and increases the pressure and density of the star. Their
nuclear explosions create elements such as carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen. After
the fusion of iron occurs, they finally collapse. Some explode violently. These are
called "super novas" . ( Novas are stars that may temporarily blaze millions of
times brighter than usual. Novas keep their form and most of their substance
after their outburst and may flare again without warning.) Supernovas may
shine like millions of suns.
Supernovas produce the heaviest elements, such as silver, gold and
uranium. A supernova hurls materials far out into space, where they may
contribute to the formation of new stars and planets. After its death, a supernova
may leave a dense corpse, called a neutron star , which is about 10 miles wide.
Pulsars are neutron stars which emit regular radio signals. Pulsars seem to be
magnetized neutron stars that rotate rapidly.
A neutron star may continue to collapse and form a tiny superdense dead
star called a ''black hole". The gravity of a black hole is so strong that nothing,
not even light, can escape it.
5. Galaxies Poster: For each star we can see with the z:W<ed eye, there are
thousands more we can't see. Stars are arranged in galaxies. Galaxies are gas,
dust, and a group of millions or billions of stars held together by the force of
gravity~
Astronomers believe there may be as many as 100 billion galaxies, each
containing as many as 100 billion stars.
Galaxies occur in three basic shapes: spiral, elliptical, and·irregular.
Our solar system belongs to the Milky Way galaxy. The Milky Way is a
spiral galaxy. Stars in the Milky Way, including our sun and its planets, are
revolving in our galaxy and moving through space at ~5,OOO miles per hour.

6. Constellation Poster: Constellations are groups of stars which seem to make

pictures in the night sky. Ancient peoples made up stories about pictures they
saw in the sky and named them after animals or heroes and heroines in their
myths.
The Ancient Greeks had a system of religion utilizing "multiple deities" .
'These gods and goddesses were believed to control natural phenomena such as
sun rise and set, seasons, and water.. The gods and goddesses of Ancient Greece
lived on Mount Olympus and meddled in the lives of people on Earth. Many of
the stories of the constellations come from the mythology of Ancient Greece. . ., (',
This picture shows the constellation Orion. Orion was a great hunter in
Greek mythology. Though the constellations look flat when we see them from
Earth, the stars in the constellations are actually thousands of light years away
from each other.

, ., _ .... '. '."

: "'.' ! '.. ~ '_.'. . '., • ~ . ',' \ _ o..L •• -. _.~ • ": ~ ~ _ '.
• \.' I •• , .:' ..
u An Intergalactic Invitation
Invite beings /rom ere's away to get your kids written part of the invitation is on the in-
other planets to a party
on Earth.

Objectives:
,
H
thinking about the Earth's
position in the galaxy. First
use the background infor-
mation on pages 3-6 and the "Cosmic
side. Then have them jazz up the outsides
of their invitations with some cosmic
artwork!
Explain what a galaxy Facts" (see right) to review galaxies and
. is and describe the Cosmic' Facts
Milky Way Galaxy. Dis- light-years. Then explain that our sun is • Ught travels at a speed of 186,282
cuss the Earth's loca- just one of hundreds of billions of stars in miles (299,792 km) per second.
tion within the Milky our Milky Way Galaxy. The Milky Way is a
Way Galaxy. spiral galaxy, and our solar system (the • A light-year is the distance light can
sun and its nine known planets) is located travel in a year, which is 6 trillion miles
Ages: (10 trillion km).
Primary and in one .of its spiral arms (see diagram).
Intermediate Earth is the third planet from the sun. • From our solar system, it's about
. Now make copies of the invitaOOh on 30,000 light-years to the center of the
Materials: page 15 and give one to each person to fill Milky Way.
• copies 0/ page 15 in. Tell your kids to pretend they're
• ~arkers or crayons • The Milky Way is about 100,000
throwing a party and that creatures from light-years across and is very flat.
Subject: outer space are invited. (See "Answers to
Science Earth Directions" at the end of the activ-
Answers to Earth Directions:
11:.~;,;;~.~;';;i?::;;~:· ity.) When all the kids are finished, have "Look for a spiral-shaped galaxy. Our solar system is in
Our SOla~rsyste~"""""~>::.if:.I:?"';';',?:~i;.~~i! ,them fold the page in half so that the one of the galaxy's arms. There are nine planets circling
:.-,r:~~, . '." • ..,...;"".'.~.J"".:;"~~•• •# our star, which we call the sun. We are planet number
......~ ••"lff'~ ~/.7'.:'.V~;;i:;l~. :.-
.." "
w~:. .,. ·~~~b~:~II." J~~,~~!"" three."
U ".&,tC1••
.:!v,,:. "'~!4~;.;,.·~ ~:.i;""Jo}1 .,,:'\~'
.·:5~~i~'I:'~~i:;·~:1.~j)\I."·I!"'\+" The Milky Way Galaxy
:'~I~~t~.·;'~/~'

Birth and Death of a Star

Listen to a story about tars have incredible life To prepare for this star journey, you

S
the life cycle 0/ a star. spans. It may take two mil- will need to record some music to play
lion years for a star to form, while you read the story below. (Sug-
Objective: and then the star may bum gested selections are listed in the script)
Describe the stages in for thousands of millions of years before it When you're ready to start the activity,
the life 0/ a star.
dies. In this activity your group can try to have the children lie down on the floor
Ages: imagine what happens during the life of a and close their eyes. Tell them they must
Intermediate star as they listen to a very special story. remain silent as they listen to the story.
Materials:
• music (see sugges-
tions in activity)
THE BIRTH AND DEATH OF A STAR
• copies 0/ page 18 (Begin by playing some quiet, eerie mu- Feel how light you are-lighter than a
• crayons or markers sic, such as "Sonic Seasonings-Winter" feather, lighter than air. Your body
Subject: by W. Carlos. Keep the music at a low spreads out for thousands of miles into
SC,ience volume as you read.) space. You are a huge cl9Ud, drifting and
Imagine that you are very cold-much floating in darkness. (Put on some light
colder than ice. Your body is shapeles~ dance music such as D'ebussy's
u cloud of gases mixed with dust You are
drifting in darkness. All around you it is
"Snowflakes Are Dandng," and continue
to read.)
dark, cold, and empty. There is no heat. All the gases that make up your cloud
Only darkness and freezing cold. Most of are themselves made up of tiny particles
your cloud is made of light gases, such as called atoms. And all the atoms are spin-
hydrogen and helium (the same gas ning very fast, moving constantly and
that makes balloons float high in the sky). pulling on each other with the force of
 gravity. Imagine those billions of tiny inside you. The light you give off shines
atoms in your body, wiggling, jerking, and out through your hazy ou.ter layers of
tugging on each other like magnets. You cooler gases. You are now a protostar.
u feel yourself gradually shrinking as the
particles inside you pull closer and closer
Around you other protostars are begin-
ning to glow too.
together. Your cloud is now getting . You keep heating up more and more.
thicker, heavier, and more solid. Your The fire in your center has reached 10
edges are curving into a round shape. You million degrees and nuclear reactions are
have slowly become a giant dark ball. Feel occurring inside your core. Your dim red
how round and even you are. glow has changed into a bright yellow
Your surface keeps shrinking and pulls light. You are now a star. Every reaction is
in tighter and tighter as you start to an explosion that releases energy in the
spin-slowly at first, then faster and faster. form of heat and light. You are like a huge
Now you are twirling like a top and speed- nuclear bomb. Imagine the blasts
ing through space at 10 miles per second. happening deep inside your body-like
billions of bursting balloons. The ex-
plosions ram against yqur outer layers,
which are still squeezing in. Feel the
tension-the fire in your center growing,
straining to burst, while your outer walls
press in. This push and pull keeps you the
same size for millions of years.
You are now hotter than you've ever
been-thousands of degrees on your sur-
face and mUlions of degrees in your core.
The gases that make up your body are
boiling like hot lava erupting from a
volcano. Feel the bubbles welling up from
deep inside you. Jets of burning gases
shoot up from your surface like huge
geysers. Stretch out your arms-they are
fiery arms that reach way out into space.
Imagine the flames stretching away from
you. Tremendous .hot winds are blowing
across your surface like desert hurricanes,
only much, much hotter and wilder.
There are other baIls of gas and dust The explosions have changed and they
mOving around you in space. Feel your are pushing so hard on the outer layers of
gravity pulling on them and their gravity your body that your wallS can't hold them
pulling on you. Some· of these baIls will, back. You begin to swell. Feel yourself
like you, become stars. Smaller ones may growing larger and larger. You are swell-
become planets and maybe you will ing up like a giant balloon. For the first
become their sun. But you are not a star time in millions of years there is more
'yet You are still very dark and are just space for your gases and so the particles in
beginning to heat lip. (Play some upbeat, your body start to move apart. As you
rhythmic music such as "Infernal Dance of grow, you begin to get cooler. Your hot
King Kashchei," part of Stravinsky's Fire- yellow light cools to red and you grow 100
bird Suite.) times bigger than you were. You are now
As your round body of gases and dust a red giant star-l 0,000 million years old.
continues to shrink, your insides continue. As a red giant, you keep changing all
u to get hotter and hotter. The gas in your the time. Even though your outer layers
center is being squeezed tighter and are cooler than they've been in millions of
tighter. Your core is getting so hot that you years, violent nuclear reactions keep
begin to glow with a dim red light You are erupting inside you-blOwing off whole
red hot Feel the fUrnace of glowing coals layers of your outer body. As you use up
 • ~ 'f, '-'-\~:~~~~/~)';'.'I~':.~i~,;~lt:;';:-i:~
- .-. -.~,

1'1
~_·_..ul_ ...___ -...

your fuel, you begin to shrink-getting star. (Make music slowly fade out.)
smaller and smaller. Your molecules At the close of the story, pass out copies
become so tightly packed together that of page 18. Tell the kids that the story de-
one teaspoon of you would weigh as scribed the life cycle of a medium-sized
much as an elephant does on Earth! (Put . star such as our sun. Then explain that
on some slower music again, such as there are many other types of stars, all of
"Carnival of th~ Animals" by Saint-Saens, which go through their own life cycles.
and continue to read.) Have the kids refer to their sheets as you
You are .now very, very, very heavy. discuss star life cycles using the informa-
With no more fuel to bum you slowly cool tion below. (The numbers in parentheses
down and become very dim.' You no refer to the pictures on page lB.) After-
longer have a source of heat or light. You ward have the kids color the different
are getting cooler, cooler, cooler. Now stages in the stars' life cycles. (Encourage
you are completely cold ... a cold, dark the kids to use the appropriate colors for
sphere drifting in space. You are a dead blue, red, or yellow stars.) .

STAR CYCLES

All stars are born in vast clouds of gas them thousands of times larger than they
and dust called nebulae (1). As a nebula once ·were. When these red giants finally
collapses, the gas and dust it contains are use up their energy, they begin to shrink
pulled into many spinning balls, or pro- until they become small, dense white
u tostars (2). Gravity squeezes each pro-
tostar until it becomes so hot that nuclear
dwarfs (6). White dwarfs shine with a dim
light and gradually cool for billions of years
reactions occur-and when this happens until they are cold, black spheres called
a star is born. Once a protostar has black dwarfs (7).
become a star, it will bum for millions or Some of the most massive stars in the
sometimes billions of years (depending on universe are the blue giants (B). These
how massive the star is when it's born). stars are about 35 times more massive
A star with a very small mass-just than our sun and millions of degrees hot-
enough to start nuclear reactions-shines ter. They use up their. energy faster than
with a reddish glow. These small, reddish any other type of star and often bum for
stars are called red dwarfs (3). Because only a few million years.
red dwarfs bum up their hydrogen fuel so Once a blue giant has used up all of its
slowly, they may bum for billions of years fuel, it puffs up into. a huge red supergiant
before their energy is used up. (9), which collapses and then expands in
Medium-sized stars, such as our sun (4) an enormous explosion called a su-
and the star in the story, are about ten pernova (10). The gas and dust spewed
times more massive and much hotter than into space by a supernova may form new
red dwarfs. They shine with a yellOWish stars and planets.
glow. (Astronomers can usually tell how During a supernova, a star becomes
hot a star is by looking at its color. Cooler brighter than it ever was before. Its core
stars are reddish-orange, warmer stars are collapses and it begins to shrink. Very
yellow, and the hottest stars are bluish- massive blue giants can become so dense
white.) Medium-sized stars bum up their as they shrink that their gravity pulls
u fuel faster than red dwarfs and usually live
only for about ten billion years.
everything into them, and nothing-not
even light-can escape. They become
When red dwarfs and medium-sized black holes (11). Less massive blue giants
yellow stars die, they often follow the can explode and collapse into spinning
Same path. First they use up their core dense spheres called neutron stars (12).
fuel, which causes them to collapse. This Neutron stars are so dense that a teaspoon
triggers a final burst of energy and they of their matter would weigh as much as
puff up into huge red qiants (S)-makina 1(l nnn c!11'1"\o~ ..... I,........ 1
 STAR AND CONSTELLATION PRONOUNCING GUIDE
U· Acamar AKE-uh-mar Gemini GEM-in-eye (or, GEM-in-knee)
Achemar AKE-er-nar
Hadar HAD-er
Adhara add-DARE-ah
Hamal HAM-el
AlNair al-NARR
Hyades HI-ad-eez
Albireo al-BURR-ee-oh
Alcor AL-core Kaus Australis KOSS-oss-TRAY-lisa
Aldebaran al-DEBB-uh-ran Kochab KOE-kab
Alcyone al-SIGH-oh-nee
Alderamin al-DARE-uh-min Lacerta la-SIR-tah
Algenib al-JEE-nib Lapus LEE-puss
Algol AL-gall Libra LYE-bra (or, LEE-bra)
Alioth ALLEY-oth Lupus LEW-puss
Alkaid al-KADE Lyra LYE-rah
Almach AL-mack Markab MAR-keb
Alnllam AL-nih-Iam Megrez ME-grez
Alnitak AL-nih-tack Menkar MEN-kar
Alpha Centauri AL-fah-sent-TOE-rye Menkalinan men-KAL-in-nan
Alphecca al-FECK-ah Menkent MEN-kent
Alpheratz al-FEE-rats Merak ME-rack
Altair al-TAlR Mintaka min-TACK-uh
Andromeda an-DROM-eh-dah Mira MY-rah
Antares an-T AlR-eez Mirfak MURR-fak
Aquarius ack-QUAlR-ee-us Mirzan MURR-zan
Aqulla ACK-will-uh Mizar MY-zar
Arcturus ark-TOO-russ Monocerous mon-OSS-err-us
Aries A-rih-eez
Auriga ol-EYE-gab Nunki NUN-key
Avior ah-vee-OR Ophiuchus off-ih-YOU-kuss
Orion oh-RYE-un
Bellatrix bell-LAY-triJt
Betelgeuse BET-el-jews Pegasus PEG-uh-suss
Bootes bow-OH-teez Perseus PURR-see-us (or, PURR-suss)
Phact fact
Canes Venatici KAY-neez ven-AT-iss-si Phecda FECK-dah
Canis Major KAY-niss MAY-jer Pisces PIE-sees
Canis Minor KAY-niss My-ner Pisces Austrinus PIE-sees oss-TRY-nus
Canopus can-OH-puss Pleiades PLEE-ah-deez
Capella kah-PELL-ah Polaris pole-AlR-iss
Caph kaff Pollux PAW-lux
Carina ka-RYE-nab (or, ka-REE-nah) Procyon PRQ.see-on
Castor KASS-ter Rasalgethi ras-el-GEE-thee
Cassiopeia kass-see-oh-PEE-ab Rasalhague ras-el-haig-we
Centaurus sen-TOR-us Rigel RYE-jell
Cepheus SEE-fee-us (or, SEE-fus)
Cetus SEE-tus Sabik SAY-bilt
Coma Berenices KOH-mah Bear-en EYE-sees Sadr sadder
Cor Caroll kor-CARE-oh-lie Sagitta sah.JIT-tah
Corona Borealis kor-OH-nah bo-ree-ALICE Sagittarius saj-ih-T AlR-ee-us
Corvus CORE-vus Saiph saw-eef (or, safe)
Cygnus SIG-nus Scheadar SHED-durr
Scheat SHEE-at
Delphinus dell-FINE-us Scorpius SKOR-pih-us
Delta Cephei DELL-ta-SEE-(fee-eye Shaula SHAW-lah
Deneb DEN-ebb Scutum SKEW-tum
Denebola den-NEB-oh-lah Sirius SEER-ee-us
Diphda DIFF-dah Spica SPY-ka
Draco' DRAY-ko Tarazed TAR-uh-zed
Dschubba JEW-bah TaUIUS TOR-russ
Dubhe DO-be Thuban THEW-ban
Eltanin el-TAY-nin Vega VEE-gab (or, V AY-gab)
Elnath e1-NATH Virgo VURR-go
Enif ENN-if Vulpecula vul-PECK-you-lah
Equuleus ek-KWOQ.lee-us Wezen WEE-zen
Vf Eridanus
Fomalhaut
eh-RID-uh-nuss
FOAM-al-ought
Zubenelgenubi . zoo-ben-ell-jen-NEW-bee
Zubeneschemali zoo-ben-ess-sha-MAY-lee

36
 This surge in interest in th.e
universe is only partly due to
spacecraft explorations beyond this
planet. Recent theoretical evidence
suggesting that mankind is not the
- n
only intelligent species in the
universe, and that life itself is an
•
integral part of the cosmic fabric, STARS REMAIN ..-=--
FIXED
has made astronomy much more • Put the EARTH ~TES •••
than the esoteric study it was
popularly pictured as back in the
1950's.
•
\ of

In those days amateur

astronomers scanning the night " ..
with binoculars or homebuilt
telescopes were considered by •
friends and relatives to have a
bizarre interest that could barely be
dignified with the description
"hobby. " Today, that's all changed.
Whether you have a telescope or
\ •
•

\
"' .. MAKING- THE SKY seEM TO
not, exploring the universe (rom
your backyard or a rural retreat is MOVE IN OPPOSITE- DIRECTION ..
true involvement with the cosmos
that harbors our own origins.
'This book is roughly divided
into two parts: first, a detailed
step-by-step guide to the night sky 0"
starting with the assumption that
you can locate the Big Dipper but
not much else. (If you are beyond
this stage you may want to skim
through the first few pages.) ,
The second part of the book
consists of a catalog and descrip-
tions of the finest objects in the
sky for small telescopes. Here the
emphasis is on how to find them
and what they look like.
Even if you don't have a
telescope, you may have binoculars.
Many of the objects can be
glimpsed-and a few are very well
seen-with binoculars. We will
specify what types of instruments
are best for various objects.
Enter then, the universe of suns
of all sizes and colors, galaxies with
pinwheeling arms, and clusters
swarming with stars still wreathed
in the swirling clouds of gas and
dust that incubated their nuclear
fires. All can be found once you
know where to look. It's enjoyable
n
and rewarding and all you need to
gPt started are your eyes and a
cloudless night sky.

2
 Dense iron and nickel core sur- Almost no atmosphere. Traces of
rounded by rock. Surface covered helium, hydrogen, and oxygen
with craters, smooth lava plains, and gases.
scarps (long steep cliffs).

VENUS 67 mUllon 7520 miles Iron and nickel core'surrounded by' . ... -Very dense carbon dioxide"'-
miles (12,100" rock. Surface covered with flat rocks, .. ' ·atmosphere. ,Planet surrounded by
. (108mU· Ian) rolling h1lls,.and mountains. thlCkstilfuric.add clouds. .
lion km) .'.

EARTH 93 million 7920 miles Iron and nickel core surrounded by Mostly nitrogen and oxygen, with 24 hours
miles (12,750 rock. Three-quarters of rocky surface traces of other gases. 365 days
(150 mil- km) covered with water.
lionkm)

'~:caibon Oioxid~ atmOsphere.

,p.
MARS"· Iron core surrounded by. rock. Sur~
'face covered.with reddish.rocks, .•;.;: ;:.~~.~~:~f~~~~'. .,.
.. canyons, craters, aridmo~tains. ,:: ...
caps of irozen:CarbOnjiloxiCie .'.':" .
~~ :':'," '.
. ·andwater.·
,';:., .. ..' ··: :,' ::' \
. ,t.',.·.:' . . ,',".f." ,,: ':

Small rocky core surrounded by Layers of brightly colored clouds

metallic and liquid hydrogen. Gaseous made up mostly of hydrogen. There
surface. are also small amounts of helium,
methane, and ammonia.

SATURN 890 million ': " HydrOge~'~d traces'ofhellum, .

miles " .. . methane,. and crystallized ammo..
(1430mlk
Uonlan)

URANUS 1780 mll- 31,570 Core of rock and ice surrounded by Hydrogen, helium, and traces of 13-24 hours
lion miles miles both liquid and gaseous hydrogen. other gases. Methane gives 84 years
23 (2870 mil-
lionkm)
(50,800
krn)
Gaseous surface. atmosphere a greenish tint

NEPTUNE 2790 mil· 30,200 Core of rock and ice surrounded by Hydrogen, helium, and methane
lion miles miles both liquid and gaseous hydrogen. gases. Atmosphere is a bluish color.
(4500mfl· (48,600
'\}' lion krn) krn)
Gaseous surface.

PLUTO 3660 mil- 1900 miles Composition of core unknown. Sur- Very thin methane atmosphere.
lion miles (3060 krn) face covered with methane ice.
2 (5900
million km)
 u

Caloris Basin, a crater on Mercury that was

blasted out by a huge asteroid, is wider than the
distance between New York City and San
Francisco.

. :.', People.once.thoughtVenus might be covered'

. ~;:.·with·lustl:gardensand exotic life·fonns.Butas- .
'. tronomers'havediscovered,that it!s.teaIly a harsh
:~<~plane~ ~here .thunder booms ~~d lightning flash~
:~: a1mostco~@.',· '. " ....... r " .. ': >

Each year, the Earth's continents "drift" a dis-

tance of between V2 and 4 Inches (1.3-10 em).
At this rate of travel, Australia could bump into
Asia in another 50 million years.

. -. -,'

';l90~F:tO,80o:f.
:+~~,G;1o:2?~C),,:}:
-:.::; :~>·t:,-._...,·" ".:": :!-t ~<:',~'
. ,.,'J.'.(

Jupiter's Great Red Spot, a three-century old

storm, could swallow three Earths.

5 _3300 F (-20l0 C) .93 On Uranus, Winter and summer each last 21

Earth years. And night and day can each last as
long as 42 Earth years.

-3060 F (-188" C) 1.2' Even If people could stand the conditlonson

Neptune, nobody would live to be a year old.
That's because one year on Neptune is equal to
165 years on Earth.

.03? At one time. Pluto may have been one of Nep-

tune's moons.

u
 .
Planetarium Program Description Outline &: Script

* Introduction (approx. 10-15 minutes)

What is a planetaruim? Why do we have planetariums? What are the scientists
who study the stars, moons, planets, etc. called?

People have been curious about the stars for thousands of years.
What kinds of things do you think the first Astronomers may have thought
about the stars?
-thought stars were balls of fire burning in the sky
-made up stories about stars in the sky- to make order out'of chaos
After studying the stars people used them for many things, ie.: as road maps, the
first picture books, as calendars

There are still many aspects of astronomy that are mysterious, but we have
solved many of the unknowns of earlier days. FOR EXample...
Catesories of Stars
-colors &: sizes: a star's color depends on its temperature
-RED= coolest (approx. 3,5000 degrees F)
&: smallest star - called RED DWARFS
-a star with a ve.ry smaU ~ass- just enough to start nuclear reactions
-bum up their hydrogen fuel so slowly, may bum for millions of years
before their energy is used up
·u -YELLOW= medium temperatures and sizes (approx. 5,5000 degrees F)
-10 times more massive and much hotter than red dwarfs
-bum up fuels faster than red dwarfs and usually live only for about 10
billion years
-OUR SUN:
-is a yellow star, it is the nearest star to E~ - 93 million miles .
away 9 VV\ I'll t>1s ,'-"- I "rlAJ-sp~~d .
-astronomers say that our sun is middle sized, middle temperature
and middle- aged!

-BLUE=hottest (approx.l0,OOO degrees F)

. most massive are blue giants, 35 times more massive than our sun
-use up their energy faster than any other type of star and often bum for
only a few million years

-magnitude! brightness:
- Hipparcus, Greek astronmomer from 2nd century B.C., cataloged 1,000
stars and developed 6 categories of brightness we still use this system
1st magnitude= brightest stars 6th magnitued = faintest stars
Sirius = -1.5
Sun = -27
u
 BUT... What is a star?·
-all stars are ''born'' in vast clouds of gas and dust called nebulae, as a nebula
collapses~ the gas and dust it contains are pulled into many spinning balls, or
rr- -
protostars
-most stars are made of hydrogen and helium and some have carbon in them too
(explain that gases arEfelements that are found in nature and are invisible, helium
is what is put inside of balloons to make them float)
-as gravity squeez~:tkr protostar becomes denser and denser and hotter and
hotter (reaching l8,iIB aegrees F) as all these gases come together all the teeny
tiny atoms within the gases also come together; when this happens, nuclear
fusion occurs AND A STAR IS BORN (explain that nuclear reactors are places
where power is generated and can create the power for a whole city, this energy .
is created by splitting atoms)
-this nuclear fusion is what causes the brightness of a star

Life Cycle of a STAR

.
,

...
\
.. "
"
i til

\1
\
~

n
 Color, Size and Temperature
u In most cases, the bigger and hotter a star is, the brighter it appears. A star's
brightness is called its apparent magnitude. Astonomers assign numbers to stars based on
their apparent magnitude. "The lower the number, the brighter the star appears. The sun
has an apparent magnitude of -26.7. Sirius, the brightest star we can see without a
telescope, has an apparent magnitude of -1.5. The stars which appear faintest have an
apparent magnitude of +6. .
A star's color shows how hot it is. The order of temperature of stars is from hottest
to coolest: ,
Blue Supergiant 10,000 F
Blue Giant
White Dwarf
Yellow Sun 5,500 F
Red Supergiant
Red Giant 3,500 F
Red Dwarf
Star Order of Brightness
u Blue Supergiant
Red Supergiant
Blue Giant
Red Giant
Yellow Star
Red Dwarf
White Dwarf

Some interesting star facts:

. Red dwarfs have a very small mass-just enough to start a nuclear reaction. They
bum fuel slowly and may bum for billions of years.
.. Medium sized stars tIike our Sun) are lOx as massive and much hotter than red
dwarfs. They bum fuel faster and usually last only about 10 billion years.
Red dwarfs and medium stars become red giants and then white dwarfs. They then
cool for millions of years and become black dwarfs.
Blue giants are "the most massive stars. They are 35x bigger than our sun and
millions of degrees hotter. Blue giants use up energy fastest and often last for only a few
million years. Blue giants become red supergiants and often explode in a supernova. As a
supernova, a star becomes brighter than ever before, then the core collapses and shrinks.
Very massive blue giants can become so dense that their gravity pulls everything into them-
these become "black holes". Less massive blue giants can explode and collapse into dense
spinning spheres called "neutron stars".,
u
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Hyades
Pleiades
•
Capella ~. ... . . . .•
". ,j/f.i/
• --... #.

.
Aldebaran
:'AURIGA : Sa.lJlr, .. ' ~
~
( '" .•... ., . • ,' 'TAURUS
.

...
Rigel

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e"

..• ~"
. ". "Nb .
.....• B~geu;~~;~~\
.....•.
Castor ~i~j,iter~
Pollux....... .•.... _.
GEMINI

~~YOO•
 continued A-om OIIcemtJer f.
A partW IOIer ecIJpIo II visible
for mud! of N America, as far
northeast al Long Island and Use this scale to measure angular distances between objects on diagrams below.
lOUIhwestem New England.
From the West Coast Of the
U.S., the panlal eclipse begins
around noon PST and II over
r 10- 20-
IIILLLLIII
within an hour or two. But as
seen from east of long ~ W,
SUNDAY MONDAY TUESDAY IbocombGr
WEDNESDAY
1--3~
I
SUndoy, December 2
THURSDAY I
Mondo--y-Dec 3: Si1Um
FRIDAY SATURDAY
the event starts late In the Capella Sat Dec " morning and evening:
aftomoon and the view of the • ~ Mondey Dec 3 e
• Kids three hours after sunset at opposition, up all night. Moon shown In first two boxes
eclipse II terminated by &Unset. Hyades 30 minutes before .unrbo: At mag -4.4, Saturn outshines of this row. Moon rises within
Do not obaerve tho SuA /
Jupiter
GEMINI AURIGA • Can you spot Venua lullt nearby Aldebaran by nearty one one hour sher sunset this evening,
directly, either with unaided Saturn.. risen In ESE? It gets closcr mag. RIngs 2e- from edgc-on. 13"' lower leh of Saturn.
cyo or through binoculars or a
telescope. Instead, tab a small Aldebaran to Sun and harder to see
with each passing day. Tucaday Dec 4,
mirror and cover up most of its Dec 1-3, o 8cJndey Dec 2 \,
..
surface with paper or masking one hour TAURUS ono hour before .unriM
tape. Use the uncovered portion Evening: Northommoat DecH,
of the mirror to reflect an Image befof'o Moon 0
6U«- MoonSaturday10· Moon rises about ,,, hours 11'hours
of the eclipsed Sun onto a wall sunrise Pollux Calnor
,,~ ehers aunscrt. About half an before .unriM
or ceiling of a room. UsIng thll
Ilmple method, seversl oeoDIe ORION hour leter, watch for Jupiter SICICLI
• Betelgeu80 Saturday,
Ilmultaneouaty can follOw the o Dec rising to Moon's lower leh. • Dura

.
Moon 1 GEMINI LEO
variousl1ag•• of tho IOlar Moon will paat! closely N 'Q&
eclJpae In complete ttfety. For ORION '0 SundayZ of Jupiter In Monday's • Jupiter I Denebola
more Infunnlltlon on the eclipse
Including tlmel for various
...
bolt
• Saturn Castor
Betelgeuse predawn hours. Soo flrI1 • • IUon'ltlllll lalit Otr •
=re1IU&l?Aa;:e:fu,
c:ltlcs, check the web site:

nina planets: Smm Is

low In ENE: to E at dusk. climb-
W
-'~ ~
Aldebaran.

...
Hyades
~...
•
WNW Pollux
I.'
Mon30
Jupiter.

ENE
E

~
bolt
box In this row. e Procyon

Look WSW to W.
'~Sat8
~
~
Fri7
Look high In S.
Regulus

I' 1"0 higher as month progresses. Dec9& 10, SUndaYIWednesdaYDeC 12. ThuridaY-DeC 13, Night of Thursday, ~ New Moon 3:47 p.m. EST Friday Dec 14. Solar SatUrday Dec 15.
/ Satum Is tho bright -star· In one hour, b. Dec 9 25 minutes 25 minutes before IUnriao December 13: ~ eclipse: Center of the Moon's shadow, where an 25 minutes altar .unset
Taurul, 4· from Aldebaran and altar \ before .unrbo: Gemlnld metoora annular or -ring- eclipse can be seen, first touches
over a magnltudo brighter. L. Earth at sunrise in Pacific Occan near lat 30- N lust W Binoc:ufaJs help
.unMt Gemma Use binoculars Moon Don'1mlso near peale. Best tlmo
Moon COVIfS Satum night 01 for Venus. Frlday'a to loolc 10 p.m.-6 a.m. of Inri Date Line. Tracking loutheastward, tho path of spot thin Moon
1bun-Fd Dec 27-28: Saturn • zeta annublmy paaseslult S of HawaII. resulting In a deep In bright twilight.
solar eclipse: local time. when radlan1,

I
disappears behind Moon's partial eclipse there around 9:25 a.m. local time. 'tWo
leading dark edge before 9 pm. see leh margin. Old noar Castor, Is high hours later, the center of the luner shadow dipa just S
In Hawall,lust after midnight Monday~
in the sky. Meteors
PST from West Coast, and Dec 10 L. Moon from this shower appear of the Equator near long 12r W. Then it tums nonh- Young
• Spica eastward to cross Costa Rica and Nicaragua and enter Moon
around 4 a.m. EST from East
Coast. For times for various
cities, see the web site
InSE ESE Venus ~
I .... d ESI: f I ... __
onus.... s..e J&lower than those in
Vi.
._.-.mostothershowers.
the Caribbean Sea, where It leaves Earth at sunset
near long 16.1- W. lat 14.r N. continued In Id mll'(Jln.
SW
I
/' WSN
......-(,..1.""0-. a.........L....
bnp;l/wyiw lynaT.
Dec 19-21, 11' hours after IUnaot FrI Doc 21: SOlitlee2:2' p.m. EST. Sat Dec 22: Look for Firl1 Quaner Moon about so- (I' circle) leh of
or;cuttatfool comBO',
=no~c:!e,r~:n'= of
JTuelday 18
• Alpha
'8eUI Winter begina in Earth's N hemisphere,
, Alpha D
setting Sun. Note Moon fa balf lIIumlnatt:td. Excellent In binoculars!
LlFri21 • lambda Aqr Aqrsummer in tho southern.
visibility of this event acrosa
Canada and U.S. e Mars In SSVV hMo~nday~~Dec~~24~,ev~e~n~ln~g-:--'-------~--.--~--~Do~C~~~3~0~,~0~ne~hou~r~ah~e~r~su~~~r--------Ca~st-o-r----~Orn-o-ho~u~rl
Man Is In S to SSW at dusk, JMonday17 , Mars, moving east ". per Capell: Kids Pollux·· before
about a ~lI9nltude fainter than • ~Durs20 day against tho stars, passes Saturn.' ~ya~e8 0 Mon 31 .unriso
Saturn. .kqIIter Is very bright
(mag -2.1), rising In ENE within CAPRICORNUS I O.S-SEof4ttHnagLambda AURIGA
2" hours after lunset on Dec 1, Delte Aqr Delte\COP in Aquarius. See next box left. Aldebaran·
shifting earlier to around One hour ..J
Wed 19 ~ • • Uranus .-
&unset at month'a end. Jupiter aftor sunset sw Sunday 16 ! (usc OFriDec28
Is In Gemlnl3r to 31· E of ~-. I ... ' 4 -:10"9 • • Full Moon
Satum and follows it acroaa
the Gky during the night.
M~ Is very low In SW to
sundiY bee 30~ Monday Dec 31.
Full Moon 40 mlnutea after
.jMon
See Dec 24.
Dec 31,
2" hours
binoculars)
Wed a Thu... Dec 26 & 'D.
one hour aftel' sunset
Jupiter·O Sunday 30

WSW last few days of month. O 5:40 a.m. EST .unset: Four naIIed-eye after.unaot
:x g:r3~1t~='~~
MornIng Planetl: Jupiter II
planeb apan 165-
Deepest penumbral along a line Inretchlng Castor
• Jupiter
Pleiades; o
Wed 26 GEMINI
Sat Doc 29 0 Full overnight
Orion'a
Sat 29

eclipse Sunday nearly hom horizon to

:~~la'!n:.':,:.':t.W morning, opposite horizon: Castor • Jupiter Betelgeuse. ~h P.:N!f'-~ht~7":'~:!'-6--"--1111
progresses. Saturn fa low In 5:29 a.m. EST, Morcwy vary low Pollux· Jupiter I
(mag -2.1) Satum.. •
0 Thurs 'D •
SundayO
.. 29
Watch Moon approach Jupiter all
WNW at dawn at stan of 2:29 a.m. PST, SW WSW .._- II
December, 3r lowor right of 12:29 &m. In . , ~ we. at opposition In E • 'H ados PolI~x 30. ENE E night. Compare Moon's polltlons,
Jupiter and settlnr around HawalL up In SSW, Saturn 10 tonight. • V Dec 29 in evening and Dec 30 In
aunrlso. By Dec 3 Saturn sell Southern part E, and Jupiter low In Aldebaran morning, in previoua two boxes.
2" hours tiefor8 BUn rise. Venus.
In flrlt few days of month,
of Moon's disk
appears
ENE, at opposition
overnight.
Moon
o NIght of Thuraday Doc 'D: Moon occults (covel'll' Satum tonight from Hawaii and N
Procyon ~ America, everywhero S of a line from central British Columbia serosa W Canada to N
Penumbral edJpao Sundav
morning: see next box.
has barely risen In ESE In noticeably dusky. ENE e E shore of Lake Superior, then acrosa Ontario and N Vermont to S Maine. See leh margin
mid-twilight, about 45 mlnutOl
before sunrise. By mldmonth,
Venus rlsel only half an hour
I for times and web site for additional Information.

before aunup, but mlgh1 still bo Robert C. Victor, Patti Toivonen

seen with binoculars. Subscriptions: $10 per year. from Sky Calendar, Abrams Planetarium, Michigan State University. East Lansing, MI 48824.
ISSN 0733·6314 Skywatcher's Dial}' is available at www.po.msu.edujabromsjdial}..html.
 •

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 Siy QII"".,ln fbd hal 01
ZOO2 wIIJ follow a ~ 01
evening planet Unoupa and
gatllerfngL As year begins. Use this scole to measure angular distances between objects on diagrams below.
bright Jupiter la at ooll.r
opposition, In Gemini, low In
ENE at duak. Satum Is In E, In
Teurus near Aldebaran, while
Mara la well up In SSW, below SUNDAY MONDAY TUESDAY WEDNESDAY ntURSDAY FRIDAY
Greet Square of Pegasus. Tuesday January 1 at dulk141S hours after sunaet January 5-7,
Mercury Is very low In SW; 'Capell. . .' Kids January 2-4'1 Friday Jan 4
just emerged from Sun's far Denebola 11S hours ", hours MoonSetS
TAURUS
side, It brings total to four before sunrise: Jupiter, before sultriae ~
Saturn * • • • Hyades OTues (lIon's
pbneta visible, on a long line . Jan 1 High SW to WSW retrograding
stretching nearty from horizon Aldebaran. SICIClE talll 8 arcmlnutet Zeta· Gamma
to opposite horizon. On (just over 0.1-)
January 11, Mercury la tit its
hIgbeat for this appearance.
- ~ct~
-0...,. • Catch Mercury before It seta
LEO OFrl4
_ per dav,
SundaYO~
Just past Last Otr
In Virgo

But Mercury fades lilto oolar Jupiter at opposition. in WSW so- lower right Thurs 30 SICIC1E. passes 2.0- N
glare on near aide of Sun ten visible all night. of Mars in SSW, and • Regulus of 3rd-m8gnitude
dayalater, leaving only . . . Saturn 31-to you'll see four planeta, ENe 0 Wed Jan 2 E 0 Epsilon In Gemini. • Spica InS
Satum-Jupher. After Venus its upper right. Me-Ma-Sa-Ju, spanning Regulus. Compare Jan 1,31.
emerges from far side of Sun • Ell 167 across Wed 2
GEMINI rs en 10 at
.
Into evening twilight In late ·Mu the s/cy. Jen 9-11, Frf Jon 11, one hour Sat Jan 12 Antares.
February, at least four planota one hour Four planetl, Mercury-Mars- after sunset 25 minutes
will be vlalble at dusk continu- Epailon • * Jupiter
before lunriae Setum-Jupiter, Ipan 150- before sunriao,
ously until late M8V. And In
late April end .rty MIIy 2OG2.
during Mercury's next evening
appearance and best of the
year, .a five nakecHye pIeneta
- Castor
• Pollux ENE
Betelgeuse
E belt -
Rigel
Thurs10L • Antarel
acroes the s/cy. Compare
Jan 17. Tonight Mercury-
Mars=4S-, Mars·Saturn=7S-,
Saturn-Jupiter Juat over 30-.
Delu. CoP ..... + Uranus

Gamm
0/' (Use blnocul.rs
as slcy darken•. )
S states

wit be Men together In 1M SUndayJonS Momlng: Moon near Spica; see pt8VIous box. ~ast easv Also, Mercury In WSW, 31- Mercu~,
weatam allyl After a aericla of Evenfngs thll week are best for seeing Mercury. Jd Moon lower left of Altair In W 11r '-
planet gatherings In earty May and 31-lower right of from Sun •
and lubaequem departure of Look about 45 mlnutea to one hour after sunset. When you spot It. look Min
Mercury and Saturn, tho for lineup of four pIaneta. Mercury-Mers-Satum-Juplter, across tho s/cy. Fomalhaut In SSW.
brlabtaat. Venus and JupitIr.
wIJJ pW up In eMy.IuM. 8)ANewMoon
en 11 Monct.y ..an '4
Yonul It superior oonJunGtlon. .t ....
11
MlYwittlual ..) Moon
~ lit cIuU: JupIter ~ 8:29 a.m. EST. on far aide of Sun; will emerge four planets end Moon
appears as brightest evening Saturn, retrograding Into view at dUM by late within 144- (minimum
·etar· of mag -2.7 to -2.8 In very slowly, paf18C18 O.S- February. &pan' al Mercury fades
Gemlnllaee Jan " 23-27, 31), . N of 3.5-mag Epsilon In • Delta Cop. + Uranus from mag +0.4 to +1.3.
gaining altitude In ENE to E 81 Taurus. This week la laot • Fomelhaul • Fomalhaut frl18.J
month progresses. Saturn Is In DuaIc Jupiter and Saturn are
E to SE, lOme 30- upper right
of Jupiter and one-tenth 81
bright. Saturn remains about
good chance to lee MercUry
at dusk until ita noxt evening
appearance, mid-April to
I SW
Young Moon
"
Mercury* Mercury*
30- apart. Moon paslcs
Mara aa shown In next
box.
~Ced
4- from Aldebaran, the Bull's earfvMav· . Watch Mars Thu 17..)
eye. M. . II well up In SSW to movc; seo Jan 24.
SW, or to Sir W of Saturn.
Although a magnitude falmer
Thurs Jon 24 at dusIc Frf Jan 25 at dualc: .~sat26
Moon forms compact triangle Moon noarly 5C of at dulk:
~~~ S~~~i:,:~:r.::mlnent with Saturn and Aldebaran; the way from Satum Moon
Aqu~us and Placet; 100 Capella _ .. Klda
Q~23 see previous box. Mars aligns toward Jupiter, see hal
Jan 17-19, 24. Mercury II low with E side of Great Square of large box for Jan 23-27. overtaken
In WSW first throe weeb. Delta Cqp Pegasus this evening and Moon approaches Jupiter;
quite favorable and bright '-. +Uranus Monday 21 Saturn*• • • Hyadea
AURIGA Friday. Watch Mara move Jupiter until 2 hours see
umll mldmomh, then fading
rapidly In following weeIt.
DFirst Quarter lburs240 out of alignment with before sunrise Jan 28. Jan 23-27.
inS Aldebaran those two etars next week.
Mercury Is to lower right of
/)
Mars, by 60" Oil Jan "
decreasing to 44- Jan 11-18,
then Increasing to 49- by
Jan 21. Uneup of four planets
CETUS SU,.y 20
'\"
frl250 -
TAURUS
&los"an 29,
(Meto-Mar-Sat.Jup) spens 1~ two hours after sun... one hOUl
on Jan 1, 144- during Jan 16-21. Jupiter
Mercury at Inferior before IUnriao
WatdI Moon paIS them Jan conjunction, nearly IPollUX end Castor In\E • Ell ORION Merato
14-28. LIneup of throe bright
ou11Ir planets, Mars-Satum-
Jupiter, spana 163- on Jan 1,
between Earth and
Sun. In evening, Moon
1~-22- above
Full
Moon 0
Procyon-
Three brIght
o.*
'Mu
Set 28 . Sau
Satum
a 00-.
Moon SICICu •
Jupiter In E
\ .EII

..
8~ on Jan 31. this threesome near Pollux and luperior planets -Cestor Betelgeuse R19:11
remalnl visible at dU11c until Castor; see large box span 90-. Moon-Me- batt .0 Moon 0 EPII!0n*· Mu
Saturn departl In late Mev. for Jan 23-27. Sa-Ju span 12:J-. • Pollux
January dawn.: Jvphor Is GEMINI -Regulus E _ Regulul Watch for
ENE E ENE changes In thlll
low In WNW earty In momh. InW
It leta at sunrise on Jan " OSunday'D pattern in Feb.
one hour bofore sunup tit
mldmonth, and before start
of twilight In lato January. I Robert C. Victor, Patti Toivonen Subscriptions: $10 per year, from Sky Calendor, Abrams Planetarium, Michigan State University, East lansing, MI 48824.
ISSN 0733-6314 Skywatcher's Diary is available at www.po.msu.edu/obroms/diof}'.litm/.
 Cosmic Dust Page 1 of 1

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~. www.historyoftheuniverse.com r Web AS~ ,
HotuWiki
Basic Information E!.1l1h~IJ.nf.p.rmali.QJ) O.tb~r Hotl] Pages Hotuwiki
PJJyslc~1. EnvirQD.m_ent > Cosmic Dust
Ear.li.~r 11.Bl11iQn Years.ag.Q L~teI:
This site tells the story of the history of the universe. Click Earlier and Later to follow the story. Note:
M have been simplified to make them easier to understand.
We have seen that Dova and SlJpel~nQya are major ways in which the new, heavy
nuclei made in red_gian1 stars are sent out into the galaxy, ready to be incorporated
into new stars and p-Ian~t.s. If this re-cycling did not happen, planets and lif~ could
never have begun.

As they are shot out of the star some f},toms gain too many ~1~glrQns (giving them a
negative electric charge) while others have too few (giving them a positive
charge). This type of atom is called an ion. These opposite charges attract strongly
and glue the atoms together. This type of gluing is called an iQuicbond.

The atoms pack in close together to form tiny crystals we call grains of cosmic
dust. Some of them will eventually form the rocks of the Earth.
u These dust grains are blown out of dying stars and mix with the original gfl~ of the
Galaxy to form dust clouds. The disc of the galaxy became thick with dust.
. AdsJw. GoogIe' C9.~mi~.Ark CQ$rnic.B.ab.y Co.smic Bugs CosmiG Carbone
Lik.~..thi.s_:w.~b._sit~lJ3JJ.Y- .tnej;)Q.Qk!
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Physlc.aLE.nylrQnm.eot> Cosmic Dust
Basic Information Further Information .Other Hotu Page~ BJ2tuwiki

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Cosmic dust - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Page 1 of6

Cosmic dust
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Cosmic dust is composed of particles in space which are a few ;....--.-----...- ..... -......................- ....-.-...--.....--......--.. i
molecules to 0.1 mm in size. Cosmic dust can be further
distinguished by its astronomical location; for example:
intergalactic dust, interstellar dust, circumplanetary dust, dust
clouds around other stars, and the major interplanetary dust
components to our own zodiacal dust complex (seen in visible
light as the zodiacal light): Comet dust, asteroidal dust plus some
of the less significant contributors: Kuiper belt dust, interstellar
dust passing through our solar system, and beta-meteoroids.

Cosmic dust was once solely an annoyance to astronomers, as it Porous chondrite interplanetary dust particle.
obscures objects they wish to observe. When infrared astronomy Courtesy ofE.K. Jessberger, Institut fUr
began, those so-called annoying dust particles were observed to Planetologie, MUnster, Germany, and Don
be significant and vital components of astrophysical processes. Brownlee, University of Washington, Seattle,
under a cc-a-2.S license.
For example, the dust can drive the mass loss when a star is
nearing the end of its life, playa part in the early stages of star
formation, and form planets. In our own solar system, dust plays a major role in the zodiacal light, Saturn's B
Ring spokes, the outer diffuse planetary rings at Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, the resonant dust ring at the
Earth, and comets.

The study of dust is a many-faceted research topic that brings together different scientific fields: physics (solid-
state, electromagnetic theory, surface physics, statistical physics, thermal physics), (fractal mathematics),.
chemistry (chemical reactions on grain surfaces), meteoritics, as well as every branch of astronomy and
astrophysics. These disparate research areas can be linked by the following theme: the cosmic dust particles
evolve cyclically; chemically, physically and dynamically. The evolution of dust traces out paths in which the
universe recycles material, in processes analogous to the daily recycling steps with which many people are
familiar: production, storage, processing, collection, consumption, and discarding. Observations and
measurements of cosmic dust in different regions provide an important insight into the universe's recycling
processes; in the clouds of the diffuse interstellar medium, in molecular clouds, in the circumstellar dust of young
stellar objects, and in planetary systems such as our own solar system, where astronomers consider dust as in its
most recycled state. The astronomers accumulate observational 'snapshots' of dust at different stages of its life
and, over time, form a more complete movie of the universe's complicated recycling steps.

The detection of cosmic dust points to another facet of cosmic dust research: dust acting as photons. Once cosmic
dust is detected, the scientific problem to be solved is an inverse problem to determine what processes brought
that encoded photon-like object (dust) to the detector. Parameters such the particle's initial motion, material
properties, intervening plasma and magnetic field determined the dust particle's arrival at the dust detector.
Slightly changing any of these parameters can give significantly different dust dynamical behavior. Therefore one
can learn about where that object came from, and what is (in) the intervening medium.
r---·····----····. ---·-··-···--------····----·---··---
IContents /

• 1 Detection methods
• 2 Some bulk properties of cosmic dust

12/20/2006
 Cosmic dust - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Page 2 of6

u •
•
3 Radiative properties of cosmic dust
4 Dust grain formation
• 5 Dust grain destruction
• 6 Some "dusty" clouds in the universe
• 7 Images
• 8 References
• 9 External links

Detection methods
Cosmic dust can be detected by indirect methods utilizing the radiative properties of cosmic dust.

Cosmic dust can also be detected directly ('in-situ') using a variety of collection methods and from a variety of
collection locations. At the Earth, generally, an average of 40 tons per day of extraterrestrial material falls to the
Earth label. The Earth-falling dust particles are collected in the Earth's atmosphere using plate collectors under the
wings of stratospheric-flying NASA airplanes and collected from surface deposits on the large Earth ice-masses
(Antarctica and Greenland I the Arctic) and in deep-sea sediments. Don Brownlee at the University of
Washington in Seattle first reliably identified the extraterrestrial nature of collected dust particles in the later
1970s.

In interplanetary space, dust detectors on planetary spacecraft have been built and flown, some are presently
flying, and more are presently being built to fly. The large orbital velocities of dust particles in interplanetary
space (typically 10-40 km/s) make intact particle capture problematic. Instead, in-situ dust detectors are generally
U devised to measure parameters associated with the high-velocity impact of dust particles on the instrument, and
then derive physical properties of the particles (usually mass and velocity) through laboratory calibration (i.e.
impacting accelerated particles with known properties onto a laboratory replica of the dust detector). Over the
years dust detectors have measured, among others, the impact light flash, acoustic signal and impact ionisation.
Recently the dust instrument on Stardust captured particles intact in low-density aerogel.

Dust detectors in the past flew on the HEOS-2, Helios, Pioneer 10, Pioneer II, Giotto, and Galileo space
missions, on the Earth-orbiting LDEF, Eureca, and Gorid satellites, and some scientists have utilized the Voyager
1,2 spacecraft as giant Langmuir probes to directly sample the cosmic dust. Presently dust detectors are flying on
the Ulysses, Cassini, Proba, Rosetta, Stardust, and the New Horizons spacecraft. The collected dust at Earth or
collected further in space and returned by sample-return space missions is then analyzed by dust scientists in their
respective laboratories all over the world. One large storage facility for cosmic dust exists at the NASA Houston
JSC.

Some bulk properties of cosmic dust

Cosmic dust is made of dust grains and aggregates of dust
grains. These particles are irregularly-shaped with porosity
ranging from fluffy to compact. The composition, size, and other
properties depends on where the dust is found. General diffuse
interstellar medium dust, dust grains in dense clouds, planetary
rings dust, and circumstellar dust, are all different. For example,
grains in dense clouds have acquired a mantle of ice and on
average are larger than dust particles in the diffuse interstellar
medium. Interplanetary dust particles (IDPs) are generally
larger still.

12/20/2006
Cosmic dust - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Page 3 of6

Smooth chondrite interplanetary dust particle.

Courtesy ofE.K. Jessberger, lnstitut fur
Other specific du
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• Mafic silicates, which are iron-magnesium-rich silica ( 0 livitwa.fWctlQ)ffc9M~f~obq,rfat~~l~~~
• Cometary dust is general1y different (with overlap) from aSI 'dal",~I~f9i&l@:kCP\lf\1i~~:hl~SY of :
carbonaceous chondritic meteorites, and cometary dust rese: les i~8regr~SnlKhUtlftXtaHmnahldgie, ;
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Most of the influx of extraterrestrial matter that falls onto the Earth is dominated by meteoroids with diameters in
the range 50 to 500 micrometers, of average density 2.0 glcm' (with porosity about 40%).

The densities of most stratospheric-captured lOPs range between 1 and 3 glcm', with an average density at about
2.0 glcm'. label.

Typical IDPs are fme-grained mixtures of thousands to millions of mineral grains and amorphous components.
We can picture an lOP as a "matrix" of material with embedded elements which were formed at different times n
and places in the solar nebula and before our solar nebula's formation. Examples of embedded elements in cosmic
dust are GEMS, chondrules, and CAls.

A good argument can be made backEvans94 that, given the gas-to-dust ratio in the interstellar medium, a large
fraction of heavy elements (other then hydrogen and helium) must be tied up in dust grains, the assembled
elements for the molecules most likely being carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, magnesium, silicon, sulphur, iron, and
compounds of these.

Radiative properties of cosmic dust

A dust particle interacts with electromagnetic radiation in a way that depends on its cross section, the wavelength
of the electromagnetic radiation, and on the nature of the grain: its refractive index, size, etc. The radiation
process for an individual grain is called its emissivity, dependent on the grain's efficiency [actor. Furthermore, we
have to specify whether the emissivity process is extinction, scattering, or absorption. In the radiation emission
curves, several important signatures identify the composition of the emitting or absorbing dust particles.

Dust particles can scatter light nonuniformly. Forward-scattered light means that light is redirected slightly by
diffraction off its path from the star/sunlight, and back-scattered light is reflected light.

The scattering and extinction ("dimming") of the radiation gives useful information about the dust grain sizes. For
example, if the object(s) in one's data is many times brighter in forward-scattered visible light than in back-
scattered visible light, then we know that a significant fraction of the particles are about a micrometer in diameter.

The scattering of light from dust grains in long exposure visible photographs is quite noticeable in reflection
nebulas, and gives clues about the individual particle's light-scattering properties. In x-ray wavelengths, many
scientists are investigating the scattering of x-rays by interstellar dust, and some have suggested that astronomical
x-ray sources would possess diffuse haloes, due to the dust.

12/20/2006
 ... -0'-

u
The large grains start with the silicate particles forming in the atmospheres of cool stars, and carbon grains in the
atmospheres of cool carbon stars. Stars, which have evolved off the main sequence, and which have entered the
giant phase of their evolution, are a major source of dust grains in galaxies.

Astronomers know that the dust is formed in the envelopes of late-evolved stars from their observations. An
pbserved (infrared) 9.7 micrometre emission silicate signature for cool evolved (oxygen-rich giant) stars. And an
observed (infrared) 11.5 micrometre emission silicon carbide signature for cool evolved (carbon-rich giant) stars.
These help provide evidence that the small silicate particles in space came from the outer envelopes (ejecta) of
these stars. label label

It is believed that conditions in interstellar space are general1y not suitable for the formation of silicate cores. The
arguments are that: given an observed typical grain diameter Q, the time for a grain to attain Q, and given the
temperature of interstellar gas, it would take considerably longer than the age of the universe for interstellar grains
to form label. Furthermore, grains are seen to form in the vicinity of nearby stars in real-time, meaning in a) nova
and supernova ejecta, and b) R Coronae Borealis, which seem to eject discrete clouds containing both gas and
dust.

Dust .grain destruction

How are the interstellar grains destroyed? There are several ultraviolet processes which lead to grain "explosions"

u label label. In addition, evaporation, sputtering (when an atom or ion strikes the surface of a solid with enough
momentum to eject atoms from it), and grain-grain collisions have a major influence on the grain size distribution.
label

These destructive processes happen in a variety of places. Some grains are destroyed in the supernovae/novae
explosion (and others are formed afterwards). Some of the dust is ejected out of the protostellar disk in the strong
stellar winds that occur during a protostar's active T Tauri phase and may be destroyed when passing through
shocks, e.g. in Herbig-Haro objects. Plus there are some gas-phase processes in a dense cloud where ultraviolet
photons eject energetic electrons from the grains into the gas.

Dust grains incorporated into stars are also destroyed, but only a relatively small fraction of the mass of a star-
forming cloud actually ends up in stars. This means a typical grain goes through many molecular clouds and has
mantles added and removed many times before the grain core is destroyed.

Some "dusty" clouds in the universe

Our solar system has its own interplanetary dust cloud; extrasolar systems too.

There are different types of nebulae with different physical causes and processes. One might see these
classifications:

• diffuse nebula
• infrared (IR) reflection nebula
• supernova remnant
• molecular cloud
• HII regions
• photodissociation regions

http://en.wikipedia.org/wikilCosmic_dust 12/20/2006
Cosmic dust - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Page 5 of6

Distinctions between those types of nebula are that different radiation processes are at work. For example, H II r1
regions, like the Orion Nebula, where a lot of star-formation is taking place, are characterized as thermal emission
nebulae. Supernova remnants, on the other hand, like the Crab Nebula, are characterized as nonthermal emission
(synchrotron radiation).

Some of the better known dusty regions in the universe are the diffuse nebula in the Messier catalog, for example:
Ml, M8, MI 6, M17, M20, M42, M43 Messier Catalog (http://seds.lpl.arizona.eduJmessierlMessier.html)

Some larger 'dusty' catalogs that you can access from the NSSDC, CDS, and perhaps other places are:

• Sharpless (1959) A Catalogue ofHII Regions

• Lynds (1965) Catalogue of Bright Nebulae
• Lunds (1962) Catalogue of Dark Nebulae
• van den Bergh (1966) Catalogue of Reflection Nebulae
• Green (1988) Rev. Reference Cat. of Galactic SNRs

at

• The National Space Sciences Data Center (NSSDC) (http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.govl)

• CDS Online Catalogs (http://cdsweb.u-strasbg.frlhtbin/myqcat3?V/70AI)

Images

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References
t backEvans94 Evans, Aneurin (1994). The Dusty Universe. Ellis Horwood.

tbackGreen76 Greenberg, J. M. (January 1976). "Radical formation, chemical processing, and explosion of
interstellar grains". Astrophysics and Space Science (Symposium on Solid State Astrophysics, University College,
Cardiff, Wales, July 9-12, 1974.) 139: 9-18.

t backGruen99 Gruen, Eberhard (1999). "Interplanetary Dust and the Zodiacal Cloud". Encyclopedia of the (\
Sola~ System, xx.

t backJess92 Jessberger, Elmar K.; Bohsung, Joerg; Chakaveh, Sepideh; Traxel, Kurt (August 1992). "The
volatile element enrichment of chondritic interplanetary dust particles". Earth and Planetary Science Letters 112,

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 AUSTIN NATURE AND SCIENCE CENTER
Planetarium Program for
'v Austin Independent School District
2nd Grade
v 10/9715

The Planetarium Program for second grade provides students with a visit
to the Starlab Portable Planetarium and activities which teach and reinforce
concepts about stars and space. Students learn to recognize constellations in the
night sky while listening to myths and stories from other cultures.

The program consists of two 35 minute stations.

Station 1: Inside the Starlab dome viewing the "Night Sky" cylinder

Station 2: Activities to teach and reinforce concepts related to stars

- distance and dimension
-brightness
-temperature and size

The Planetarium Program addresses the AlSD district goals for Science
Curriculum. .
-Competency: students compare and contrast objects and events
-Concepts: students learn from using a model
-Content: students study content of earth, moon, sun, stars
The Planetarium program addresses the following Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills:

Scientific Principles: 1a(2 nd )-demonstrate safe practices-home and school

2a(2nd)_ask questions
2e(2nd)-explanations based on information and draw conclusions
2f(2 n,,-communicate explanations
3a(2° )-make decisions using information
3b(2od)-justify merits of decisions
3c(2od)-explain a problem and propose a solution

Systems: 6a(2 nd)-manipulate, predict, identify parts separated from whole may not work

Properties, Patterns, 5a(2nd )-classify and sequence organisms, objects, events

and Models: 8b(2 od )-identify characteristics of nonliving objects

Constancy and Change: 7d(2nd)-observe, measure, record changes in weather, night sky, seasons

Form and Function: 6a(2od)-manipulate, predict, identify parts separated from whole may not work
 .•".".".'•. ..•
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Starlab consists of a silver fabric dome, a fan, and projection cylinders. The dome is made from a nylon-
reinforced, flame retardant, industrial grade fabric. A fan inflates and circulates air throughout the dome. The
Starlab projector creates images of constellations using a high-intensity halogen cycle lamp. Teaching cylinders
project images of constellations and planets onto the fabric dome.
Children sit on carpet inside the dome. Air vents help to keep air circulating and maintain a comfortable
temperature. The bottom of the dome is open to the floor and allows for fast, easy exit and handicap accessibility.

21'

TopView 20'

Floor
Edge

Star Lab

Fan

Side View
11' Dome

\. ~ )~ ! ",
0' __ ) ~) ')
_.J
 Astronomy
() Astronomy is the study of the universe. The universe is made up of many
galaxies. A galaxy is a collection of billions of stars held together by gravity, the force
u that attracts objects to each other. A star is a hot, rotating ball of gas that creates its own
light. Constellations are patterns of stars in the sky. .
In our solar system, nine planets circle around our Sun. The Sun sits in the
middle while the planets travel in circular paths (called orbits) around it. These nine
planets travel in the same direction (counter-clockwise looking down from the Sun's
north pole). The planets are Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus,
Neptune and Pluto. These planets have natural satellites called moons.

PLEASE HAVE YOUR STUDENTS WEAR NAME TAGS.

Reference Books:
The Stars Suggested name tag pattem:
by J.R. Rey

Astronomy Handbook

\~~
by James Muirden (Arco, 1982)

National Geographic Picture Atlas of Our Universe

by Roy A. Gallant (National Geographic, 1986)
(0, . ~ ~----u
.~iru" Ursa Major .

Children's Books: Ursa Minor

The Magic School Bus Lost in the Solar System
u by Joanna Cole (Scholastic Inc., 1990)

The Stars
by Estalella Robert (Barron's Educational Series, Inc., 1993)

Find the Constellations

by H.A. Rey (Houghton Mifflin Company, 1988)

I Wonder Why Stars Twinkle and Other Ouestions About Space

by Carole Stott (Kingfisher Books, 1993)

Astronomy: Planets. Stars, and the Cosmos

by Heather Couper and Nigel Henbest (Aladdin Books, 1983)

Star Signs
by Leonard Everett Fisher (Holiday House, 1983)

The Sky is Full of Stars

by Franklin M. Branley (Crowell, 1981)
_If. - . . . __
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"SCHOLASTlc.com "iL"np'·iiiMiii '§.b'iintiiiii' '.!:iUiii,i@f$illi "iilili!,.1iiliU.i·"

l
. Classroom Activity
Uun-Powered Cooking

t\:laterials:

• large bowl
• aluminum foil
• plastic knives or spreaders
• paper plates and napkins
• peanut butter (refrigerated)
• cheese
• crackers

Goal: Children will investigate solar power.

\Varot-lp: On a sunny day, talk about the wannth you feel from the sun. Ask children, "What
can you tell me about the sun? What does it do for us? How do people use it? Has anyone ever
cooked with the sun? How is an oven like the sun?"

ACTIVITY
u 1. Continue the discussion, explaining that the sun's power can even melt foods. Explain that
you will use the sun to melt peanut butter to spread on crackers.

2. Make a solar oven by lining the inside of a large bowl with aluminum foil. Place a glob of
cold peanut butter on the bottom of the bowl, and position the bowl in direct sunlight so that
the sun's rays are shining on the inside of the bowl. You may need to use blocks to prop the
bowl at an angle to catch the rays.

3. Let the bowl sit for about an hour and encourage children to periodically check the melting
progress. Then help children spread their melted peanut butter on crackers and serve for a
simple picnic treat.

4. Put a slice of cheese on one cracker and some stiff peanut butter on another. Ask children to
predict which they think will melt first. Then find other items to melt, such as an ice cube,
crayon, and birthday candle. Record on a chart the time it takes each item to melt, and compare
children's predictions.

Remelnbcr:

• Be sure to talk about safety when using the sun's power. Point out the danger of some
metal objects getting too hot to touch. Remind children that foods such as cheese can
spoil in the sun.

Observations:

lof2 8/12199 11 :34 AM

 Ln-Powend Cooking Classroom ACUVity

• Do some children feel uncomfortable about eating something that's been coo=\:ed in a
different way?
() Spin-Off
U • Make sun tea by placing two herbal tea bags in a clear, quart-size glass jar. Fill the jar
with water, and cover it tightly. Give children time to observe what the tea looks like.
Place it in the sun for two to three hours. Encourage children to observe the changes in
the water as well as the changes in the way it smells. Record the color changes on a chart.
Then serve the tea chilled with lemon along with some tasty crackers for your hungry
solar scientists! .

BOOKS
Here's some good sunny-day reading.

The Day the Sun Danced by Edith T. Hurd (HarperCollins)

Everything Changes by Ruth R. Howell (Atheneum)
Sun by Michael Ricketts (Grosset & Dunlap)

Return to Activities for School and Home

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U

~ of2 8/12199 11:34 AM

 ~~ -\<>.-f foltD.~~ «C~~~ .
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• I

Color, Size aDd Temperature

:..)
In most cases, the bigger and hotter a star is, the brighter it appears. A star's
U brightness is called its apparent magnitude. Astonomers assign numbers to stars based on
their apparent magnitude... The lower the number, the brighter the star appears. The sun
has an apparent magnitude of -26.7. Sirius, the brightest star we can see without a
telescope, has an apparent magnitude of -1.5. The stars which appear faintest have an
apparent magnitude of +6.
A star's color shows how hot it is. The order of temperature of stars is from hottest
to coolest: . 14(.oao r-r

Blue Supergiant S>" '< ..(.c.. (. e.... J§ J !! ]!I It"

Blue Giant
White Dwarf
Yellow Sun 5,500 $.-t=-
Red Supergiant
Red Giant 3,J'0 £ lL..
Red Dwarf 3 , $"0 0 r-
Star Order of Brightness
Blue Supergiant
Red Supergiant
Blue Giant
Red Giant
Yellow Star
Red Dwarf
White Dwarf

Some interesting star facts:

. Red dwarfs have a very small mass-just enough to start a nuclear reaction. They
bum fuel slowly and may bum for billions of years.
'. Medium sized stars {like our Sun) are lOx as massive and much hotter than red
dwarfs. They bum fuel faster and usually last only about 10 billion years.
Red dwarfs and medium stars become red giants and then white dwarfs. They then
cool for millions of years and become black dwarfs.
Blue giants are . the most massive stars. They are 35x bigger than our sun and
millions of degrees hotter. Blue giants use up energy fastest and often last for only a few
million years. Blue giants become red supergiants and often explode in a supernova. As a
supernova, a star becomes brighter than ever before, then the core collapses and shrinks.
Very massive blue giants can become so dense that their gravity pulls everything into them-
these become "black holes". Less massive blue giants can explode and collapse into dense
Spinning spheres called "neutron stars".,
 Explain that a star's brigh.tness depends
not only on its distance from Earth, but
also on its size and temperature. In most
cases the bigger and hotter a star is, the
brighter it shines.
Now explain that a star's brightness, as
u seen from Earth, is called its apparent
magnitude. Astronomers assign riumbers
to stars based on their apparent magni-
tudes. The brighter a star looks to us, the
lower the number representing its magni-
tude. (For example, the sun is our bright-
est star and has a magnitude of -26.7. The
faintest stars we can see have a magnitude
of about + 6.)
If we could collect all of the stars in our
night sky and arrange them side by side at
a fixed distance from Earth, we could find
out how bright each one really is in com-
parison to the rest This is called a star's
absolute magnitude. Absolute magnitude
is determined bv a star's size and tem-
perature (how much energy it
radiates)-not on how far away it is from brigl)tness depends not only on how he:
Earth. . they are but also how big they are. Ask
Now have seven kids come up and give your group how the size of a red gia'1:
each of them one of the seven stars you affects its brightness as compared with the
drew. Explain that each star's color shows brightness of a blue star. (Even though a
how hot it is. Arrange the stars in order of red giant is not as hot as a smaller blue
u temperature, going from hot to cool (blue
supergiant, blue giant, white dwarf, yel-
star, it would look brighter because it is so
much bigger.) Then arrange the stars in
low sun, red supergiant, red giant, and red order of brightness (blue supergiant, red
dwarf). Explain that the hottest stars are supergiant, blue giant, red giant, yellow
blue or white, wann stars are yellow,' and star, red dwarf, white dWarf).
the coolest starS are orange or red. That Finally, experiment with size, tem-
means that if you compared equal-sized perature, and distance. For example.
blue and yellow stars, the blue star would have the blue supergiant take several
radiate more energy and have a higher steps back and the red supergiant take
temperature than the yellow star. It would several steps forward. Ask which wc~.:
also shine brighter. look brighter in the sky. (The red super-
But since stars are different sizes, as giant, because it would be so much
well as different temperatures, their closer.)

c:.." ,....... \l-

u
)
A Script (of sorts) for using the Evening Star Map

u While children are still seatecl in the circle on their carpet squares pass out appropriate star map to each child As
you are passing out maps explain that this is a simple star map copied out ofa teacher 's manual. You can find
them on the Internet. You can buy them at book or nature stores Sometimes they are in Astronomy magazines.

Hold the map infront ofyou. Who would like to read the top ofthe page? lfyou went OIIt before 9:00 tonight to
look at the stars would that make this map "no-good n ? No. the constellations would be a little shifted one way or
the other depending ifyou went out before or after the stated time. The map is still good.

Who would like to read the directions at the bottom ofthe page? Wow. that sounds simple. but how do wefigure
~ut which
way we are facing?

First. we must find the Big Dipper. Who has seen the Big Dipper in the night sky? Is it big or linle? Is it hard to
find? There are four black posters around the room. Each one has at least one constellation on it. One has the
Big Dipper on it, please stand-up and raise your hand when you think you have found the Big Dipper on one ofthe
four posters.

Give the laser pointer to a child who has their hand up, or have them just use their finger to point out the Big
Dipper on the poster. GREAT. now who knows how to find the North Star or Polaris. ifyou know where the Big
Dipper is?

That's co"ect. We find the two bright stars that make up the end of the bowl of the Big Dipper. Draw an
imaginary linejo;ning those two stars continue the line until it runs into a bright star sort of by itself. That is the
North Star or Polaris.

Ifyou are facing the North Star which direction.you are facing? Yea! North is right. Everyone turn so you are
facing North. Now, ifyou are ever lost in the middle ofnowhere you can look to the night sky, find the Big
u Dipper, connect the two stars at the end ofthe bowl. they will point you to the North Star, then you know what
direction you are facing and you can find your way. This is the same method old sea captains used to find their
way many many years ago.

Read the directions at the bottom of the page once again. Standing at the "Northff end of the room by the poster of
the dippers~ ask the children which direction is North? East? West? South? So, ifwe're facing North the part of
the map that says ##NORTHERN HORIZON" should be close to your tummy. Walk around the room to be sure
every Olle has their map oriented correctly.

Let's pretend it is about 9:00 at night and we are going out to star gaze. What do we need to bring with us?
Really nothing, but a star map and a flash light might be useful. Our pointer finger will be our flashlight in this
classroom. Everyone hold up your flashlight. Great.

.Vow lets look at our star maps and find C4SSIOPEIA. point your flashlight at that constellation on your map. The
word Cassiopeia begins with the letter C. and the constellation looks like a funny W. Walk around to make sure
each child has their "flashlight" pointed at the right constellation. Now, see ifyou can find it on one of the four
posters. Raise your hand when you have found it. The children may wander around, not truly understanding that
it should be on the North wall. After a fair number of children seem to have found i~ ask one child to point it out
on the poster with the laser po~. Great. Do you think in the real night sky Cassiopeia is little or big?

As time permits, have the children find Leo and Pegasus. Ending with Orion usually makes for a nice transition
into red stars, blue stars, or nebulas.

u
 . -
l~M.')

NEBULA ACTIVITY

u
MATERIALS
Envelope containing:
different colored circles representing
stars, planets, comets
six or students
teacher or other adult

ACTIVITY
Have students stand up.
Randomly pass out stars and planets.
Explain how tbeywill pretend to be part ofa nebula (a place where stars are born).
Have students rotate their wrists, simulating active atoms (hydrogen). Explain H atoms are not
stationary. They must float around in the nebula. Have students move slowly and randomly
around the room.
The teacher is a supernova. Explain that the teacher as a supernova will explode and provide the
energy needed for the studentsIHydrogen atoms to start rotating together around the room.
Teacher/supemova explodes.
Studentslhydrogen atoms start moving around the room in the same direction. As they see
other students with the same color drde belp them group up and keep moving.
Students that are planets should be aDowed to rotate around a star group as everyone
keeps moving in tbe circle

If time and the number ofstudents permit have students/comets pass through groups/solar
systems.

u
 Program Description
~ .
1

Part I: Basis for program

TItle: Planetarium.

Course Description: Explore the solar system in our inflatable

planetarium. Learn to recognize constellations that appear
nightly. Listen to myths and stories about how other cultures
view the stars.

Age Level: Grades K-5

Time: 1 hour

.Go.a& Participants will be presented with opportunities to locate

familiar stars and constellations. They will also listen to Greek
and/ or Native American myths. .

u Part II: Instructional Plan

CQurse Outline: Introduction

Grades K-l: Demonstrate night and day using globe, show picture of the
sun, identify the sun as our nearest star.

Grades 2-5: Discuss the formation of stars (varying complexity to suit age
level) using planetarium. posters.

Inside Planetarium:

I. Point out Big Dipper, North Star, Little Dipper,Draco, Cassiopeia,

Cepheus, and Orion. You may also point out Betelgeuse and Rigel
in Orion to illustrate the relationship between the age of stars and
their colors.

II. Relate appropriate myths.

 Planetarium n
Page 2

Part III: Resource Support

Site Needs: Multipurpose Room

Participant Thresholds: 25 students maximum, 2 adults .

Resource Needs: inflatable planetarium, planetarium fan, planetarium

projector, globe, planetarium posters, flashlight, laser pointer

Part IV: Program Script for Grades K-1

Introduce the planetarium by asking questions about night and day. Use
a globe to demonstrate the. earth's rotation on its axis and revolution
. around the sun. Why do-we not see alot of stars in the daytime? What
is the only star we see in the daytime? Show the picture.of the sun. Speak . n
briefly of a star'~ Ufe cycle. You may also sing ''The Planets Go Spinning".

Before entering the planetarium all students and adults must remove
shoes. There are three main rules for the planetarium:

1. Do not touch the planetarium on the inside or outside. This causes

holes and tearing.

2. Listen while the planetarium teacher is talking.

3. Stay on your carpet square.

P~rt V: Program Script for Grades 2-5

1
ISTARS
I
BACKGROUND:
u
STARS

supernova 1987A (Bejore&Ajier)

tars are giant balls of hot gas. They're also Cool stars appear red; hot stars are bluish-white.

S a lot like people. They're born, live

through a long middle age, and, ultimately,
die. They come in different sizes and ~olors.
The constellation of Orion the Hunter, easily vis-
ible even in cities during the winter, is a perfect
place to look for star colors. Betelgeuse, the
Many spend their lives with constant c;:ompan- bright star that represents Orion's right shoulder,
u ions; others, like our Sun, go it alone. And, like shines bright red. Looking down toward the
. Hunter's left knee, you find another bright star,
people, stars change as they age. But because
the changes take place over millions and bil- Rigel, which sparkles with a bluish-white color.
lions of years, an individual star looks pretty
All the stars in the sky (including our Sun)
much the same over the course of many human
are moving through space, most with speeds of
lifetimes. A photograph of the night sky, howev-
many kilometers per second, although it may
er, like a picture taken in a mall that shows peo-
ple of all ages, can capture stars in different not seem that way to us. When we look at the
stages' of their lives. Careful study of the differ- night sky, we see basically the same star pat-
ences we see in stars has given astronomers a terns as the ancients did. That's because the
sense of what goes on inside stars and how they stars are so very, very far away that their
change with time. motions appear tiny to us, even over the course
of hundreds and thousands of years of watch-
Stars come in different sizes. The Sun is ing.
actually a bit on the small side, when compared
to its stellar cousins; as such, it is known as a Stars are born out of the huge clouds of gas
dwarf star. The largest stars can have hundreds and dust that fill some of the space between the
and even a thousand times the diameter of the stars. Occasionally, the densest parts of these
Sun; not surprisingly, they're known as giant reservoirs of cosmic "raw material" become
and supergiant stars. The smallest stars are not unstable and begin to contract, the force of
much bigger than the planet Jupiter. Stars also gravity pulling each atom toward the center. As
appear different colors, depending on the tem- the cloud continues to shrink, gas in the center
perature at the star's gaseous surface. The gets denser and heats up. Temperatures and
pressures build until they finally become so
u coolest stars are nearly 5000 degrees Fahrenheit
(about the same temperature as the filaments in high that hydrogen atoms are forced to "fuse"
incandescent lightbulbs), while the hottest stars together, with four hydrogen atoms becoming
reach a sweltering 90,000 degrees Fahrenheit! one helium atom [stars are almost all hydrogen

PROJECT ASTRO RESOURCE NOTEBOOKI AsTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF THE PAOAC 4

 STARS I
!
I Background: Stars "
.-
f)

(92%); the rest is helium, with trace amounts of so densely packed that a single teaspoonful
other elements]. This process is known as would weigh over 15 tons! This stellar remnant
t _, hydrogen fusion (note that the same thing hap- is called a white dwarf. It initially glows from
1\'\C"\ ) pens in the warhead of a nuclear bomb). Fusion heat left over from the contraction and from bil-
" '~V"

~', ~ J]~_ liberates an enormous amount of energy. Fusion lions of years of nuclear fusion. But, with no
"/
energy creates a pressure that balances the new source of energy, the stellar corpse gradu-
weight of the star's upper layers, halting the ,ally cools and slowly fades from sight, a stellar
contraction. The star then shines steadily, pow- ember feebly glowing in the cosmic fIreplace.
ered by the hydrogen fusion in its center, as it
Stars more' massive than the Sun do not exit
enters stellar middle age.
so gently. When they've exhausted their helium
Our Sun is now about half way through its reselVes, they too begin to contract. However,
middle age. It has been "fusing" hydrogen in its compression from their tremendous weight
center for about 5 billion years, and will contin- allows additional elements to fuse together in
ue to do so for another 5 billion. How long a their centers (for example, carbon fuses to
star lasts, from the initial contraction of a gas become neon), releasing energy and halting the
cloud to its final death throes, depends on how contraction, giving the stars a series of tempo-
massive it is. The Sun is just an average star; rary reprieves. But, ultimately, fusion stops and
stellar masses range from a hundred times that nothing can stop the inevitable core collapse.
of the Sun to just under a tenth. Massive stars This time" the collapse is accompanied by an
'live fast and die young, cramming an entire life- explosive ejection of the outer layers-a super-
time into a few million years before they biow nova explOSion-that literally tears the star
themselves to bits. Smaller stars live qUietly for apart.
tens and hundreds of billions of years and die
. In the meantime, the core shrinks dramati-
much less spectacularly.
cally. If, after the supernova explosion, the left-
All stars, regardless of mass, eventually run over mass is about 2-3 times that of the Sun, the
out of hydrogen "fuel" in their centers. They core collapses until its material is so densely
begin to die. No longer able to support the packed that a sugar-cube-sized lump weighs 100
weight of their outer layers, their cores contract, million tons! The remnant is called a neutron
increasiqg central temperatures until helium star because it consists mostly of super-com-
atoms fuse together to form carbon ones. As pressed neutrons. If the post-supernova mass is
before, energy released during the fusion halts higher still, no force in nature can stop the col-
the contraction and the star temporarily regains lapse. The core shrinks and shrinks and shrinks,
some measure of stability. In the meantime, the until, finally, all its mass is crunched into some-
outer layers swell and cool, dramatically increas- thing with zero diameter and infinite density! It
ing the diameter of the star; during this so-called is a black hole; black in the sense that noth-
"red giant", phase, the Sun will expand out past ing-not even light-can escape from it, and a
the Earth's orbit (bad news for any Earthlings hole in the sense that things can fall in, but they
still around). What happens next depends on can't get back out.
the star's mass. Massive stars may lead more interesting lives
When they finally run out of helium fuel in than those like the Sun, but there aren't very
the center, stars like the Sun (and less massive many of them. Most stars, in fact, have even
ones too) are truly facing the grave. The core smaller masses than the Sun. Something in the
collapses under the tremendous weight of the process of star formation seems to favor the cre-
star. The outer layers are gently ejected away ation of a lot of smaller stars over that of a few
from the star, exposing the core to space. When large ones. Perhaps half of all stars form in
the' core finally stops contracting, its material is pairs, with two (and sometime more) stars

5 . PROJECT ASTRO RESOURCE NOTEBOOK/AsTRoNOMICAL SOCIETY OF THE PACIFIC

ISTARS
Background: Stars I

bound together by their mutual gravitational evetything we see around us, originated in the
attraction. These travel through space together, centers of massive stars. The atoms were origi-
caught in a kind of cosmic square-dance as they nally "cooked" in the nuclear frres deep inside
orbit around one another. these stars. Then, when these stars exploded at
the end of their lives, the newly created atoms
Despite all we now know about stars and
were thrown out into interstellar space. There
their lives,. perhaps the most surprising thing we
they gathered together, fOrming new clouds of
have learned is that, without stars, we wouldn't
gas and dust, which ultimately contracted as new
be here. Indications are that the cosmos began
stars were born. Some of the atoms made their
with only hydrogen and helium, from which it
way into the planets that circled one particular
would not have been possible to construct any-
new star, and eventually into the life that sprang
thing as interesting as one of our students.
up on the one called Earth. We are truly star stuff.
Nearly all the atoms in our bodies, and in our
chairs, our gardens, our cars, and in nearly

PROJECT ASTRO RESOURCE NOTEBOOK!AsTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF THE PACIFIC 6

 " • • , •.: . :/'.': : - . " . ' • • . ' .. _.,;. \"L"t ~\,.~ ~ ~ .••' t;_:"~':' .. !:•.•.....• ~ • .~.J.~ : ... I. ~'.! ••• . t , J .... :. :J .. :. "~""'~. :,....·1:..••·... ·,,·.~~:~.,.·\··.· '" ........ .>.,t.~:.~~_~.I'"'.. ::.:.....~",..:........~~:-:----.-
.. 0 ................. ~ . . . . . , . '•• _ ••• ,.......... • • .. ••• , ................................ ~_._ ••• _ . ' _ . _ •• _.4'~ . . . . . . . . .- ... - ••.•..•..• -- --.----~-----

tandout Stars
Getting to know a few of the bngh!est
~rs In the night sky will help you anent
',urself even better durin" ynur J1(lCtumal
~nturc~. Inslcild of just bt..·mJ( stilrs. they (an
ecome signposts. timekeepers. and indica-
>rs of seasonal change.
Although it may seem like you can spot
lillions of stars some nights. your eyes can
4l1y see about 2.000 stars on the darkest and " Rigtl. The seventh brightest star is located
t'earest evening, There are 88 constellations in the consteUation Orion, below Orion's well-
. the entire sky. About 60 can be seen from known belt (three stars in a row). Rigel is
Ie U.S. throughout the year, but at any Orion's (oot. 1'his bluish white star Is enor·
ven· time of night you can only view about a mous--33 times the diameter of our sun and
)zen. There are approximately 30 very 46,000 times brighter. It is so far away that
ight stars. Here are seven: ' the 6gbt you see left Rigel over 900 years
110·

Antares. The reddish Antares means ..the

rival of Mars" in Greek. It is located in the
Scorpiun (Scorpio) constellation (just below
• its claws), and is number 16 in brightness.
Mars, the "Red Planet," travels dose to An-
tares and can be confused with this Mars
look-alike. Th~ Scorpion skirts our southern
horizon during the smnmer months, then dips
Sin'us. The b~ghtest in the entire sky, Sir- below the horizon in winter.
.s me~s "scorcher" in Greek. Sirius is part Altair. The eye of the Eagle consteDation .
. the BIg Dog constellation, which you can this yellowish white star is number 12 in
brightness. The Eagle is a beautiful P-" ·~or
!e on the southern horizon most of the year.
stellation "flying" down the Milky \\" : ~r
ecause it is low on the horizon, it takes a
you find Altair (go from the Dragon·s ~u tc
~ry clear night to see the other stars in the
Vega and then beyond to Altair), you have
>DsteDation besides Sirius. On some star found the Milky Way. On some star maps tht
aps the Big Dog is labeled with its Latin
Eagle is labeled by its Latin name. Aquila.
me.• Canis Major. Sirius and the Big Dog
n be found in the sky by ~tendinR the line Vega. White Vega, part of the consteDation
ade b)· Orion's belt southward about three Lyra, is the fifth brightest 'star in the night
.nd-spans.· . sky and 50 times brighter than our SUD. But
Vega is 261ight-years away (the distance light
travels in a year), anclthe sun is only 8~
light-minutes away. Our solar system is mov-
ing toward Vega at 12 miles per second. At
that rate. we should bump into Vega in about
500.000 years. The head of the Dragon con-
steDation (one of our circumpolar constella-
tions) points toward Vega. DeMb. This is the brightest star in the
Swan consteDation (Cygnus in Latin). Denet
Arr:lJlnlS. The fourth brightest star is a is 1.600 light-years away and about 50,000
auuf.;.: ;range coJor-25 times bigger than . times brighter than the sun. Like Altair,
r sun and 100 tirD~s as bright Cif vieWed when you find Deneb, you are also lonkin~ a
m the same distance). To find ArctU11lS tht.- Milky WelY. .
In 01 the Herdsman [Bootes 1consteDation) TIle Summer Triangle. The stars Vega. AJ
ow the arc of the Big Dipper's handle away lair. and Deneb fonn a large triangle.~
m the bo'Yl, until you spy a very bright swnmer sky familiar to aD navigator! .
r. That's Arcturus. you find· it?

(Taken from J.Emory's NightprowlBfS)

 c c CWhat's under(,the pond's surface?
C C c
A pond has lots of different areas, with different animals and plants in each.

Hiding places
On the edges of a pond the water is
shallow enough for plants to put down roots.
Some plants emerge above the water surface
and some are completely underwater. . Emergent plants provide space for
a~l111als t.hat cling. li~e sn.ails and dragonfly
11) mphs J eady to spilt then' skin & fly off as
adults.

Muddy world
Plants and animals that drift and There is even life at the bottom of a
float are plankton. Algae, a group of (rlOS-C- pond. Insects and wonllS clean up dead and
planktonic plants, supply the pond with - decaying plants. Clams burrow in the
.-.we of its oxygen. When algae convert the sediment and feed on microscopic plankton
that floats by.
sun's energy to food, they create oxygen in a
process called photosynthesis.
Other plankton, like J ' 11 h"j
crustaceans and one-celled animals, feed The deeper the water, the less light
larger organisms. can penetrate. Organisms that live here get
by with less oxygen since not much
photosynthesis can occur.
 W y~IW Y'IF' f'\IISWt:rr rarm: ..)Q/nlrp:llwww.alleneXpJOrer.comlecology/p60.html

Pond Plant Zones: An Overview

A cross-section of a pond would show plants growing from one

shore right across the bottom of the pond to the other shore. As you
crossed the pond, the plants would fit into many plant zones
according to whether they lived entirely above water, partly in the
water or wholly underwater. We can divide the plants of a pond into
several plant zones. These plant zones are shoreline, emergent,
floating leaved, floating-submerged, and submerged. Each zone has
,different plants that make different habitats for the many animals
u )living in the pond. Among the visible larger plants, there are much
smaller plants called micro-plants. The micro-plants are the main
producers of food in the pond. They are at the bottom of most pond
food chains.

Shoreline Plant Zone

The plants of the shoreline are the ones you walk through as you
circle the pond. They are plants that like wet roots but can tolerate
times when the soil may dry out a little. They can also withstand
flooding when the pond spreads past its usual shoreline. Plants of
this zone include horsetail, sphagnum moss, various ferns, grasses,
rushes, jewelweed, sedges and sometimes carnivorous plants.

U lmergent Plant Zone

lof3 4124/0 I I I :49 AM

 W Y;:'I W yg;/I ftn:;werrrame.•4/http://www.alienexplorer.comlecology/p60.htm

Emergent plants are plants that grow in shallow water. Emergent

plants have their roots and part of their stems underwater, and their
leaves, stems, flowers and seeds above the water. Emergent plants
include sedges, rushes and grasses. These plants, or their relatives,
are also in the shoreline zone. Shrubs such as buttonbush, sweetgale
and leatherleaf are also found in the shoreline zone. Other shoreline
plants are burreeds, cattails, arrow-shaped leafed plants, liverwort
and water mosses.

Floating-Leaved Plant Zone

When the water becomes 0.6 m deep, the emergent zone ends and
the plants appear to be only leaves and flowers floating on the
surface. But below the surface is a tuber or root system growing in
the mud with long stalks joining the roots to the floating leaves and
flowers. Plants in this group include water lilies, fanwort, American
lotus and watershields.

A second group of floating-leaved plants do not stay in one place.

They are the tiny floating plants including duckweeds, water fern
and, smallest of all, wolffia or watenneals. Their tiny roots do not
reach the bottom of the pond.

Floating-Submerged Plant Zone

These plants are often found among the lilies but can grow in even
deeper water. Most of the time they are completely underwater or
submerged. But if a part breaks off, it continues to grow and floats
for several weeks or months until it sinks and roots in another area of
the pond. Some, like the wild celery or vallisneria americana, grow
leaves 2 m long that reach the surface to produce flowers and seeds.
Along with wild celery, this group includes floating pondweed and
sago pondweed.
0.

20f3 4/24/0 I II :49 AM

An Overview of Pond Plant Zones wysiwyg://AnswerFrame.54Ihttp://www.alienexplorer.comlecoJogy/p60.html

Submerged Plant Zone

u
In the deepest parts of the pond, the water is often completely open
with no plants showing above the water line. The plants grow
entirely underwater and are rooted in the bottom mud. Submerged
plants include hornwort, elodea, water milfoil, bladderwort and
stonewort. These plants also grow in shallower water if the floating
plants or plants growing above the water let through enough light.

u;

30f3 4124/0) I) :49 AM

.. .

~
1. INTRODUCTION TO PONDS
u By the window in the Nature of Austin exhibit

What is a pond?
A pond is a quiet body of water shallow enough to permit aquatic plants to
grow completely across it. Water temperature is fairly uniform from top
to bottom and tends to change with air temperature. There is little to no
wave action and the bottom is usually covered with mud. Oxygen content
can vary greatly within a 24 hour period. Typically, plants grow all along
the shore. A pond is a self-contained world or a microcosm. It contains
or produces everything it needs for survival of the plants and animals that
live in or near it. Ponds can be natural or manmade. Ponds can be balanced
or unbalanced (it could be completely covered by algae and therefore
unbalanced) .

What lives In and around a pond?

Usually represen~atives of every major group of plants and anjmals ~n the
world:

U Animals
mammals -- raccoon, ~eaver; opposum, skunk. mice. rats, deer, fox
bird~ -- herons, egrets, sw.aII ows, martins, cormarants, bittern
reptiles -- snakes, turtles, lizards
insects -- nymph stage in water
fish -- shiners, mosquitofish. sunfish
amphibians bullfrog. leopard frog, cricket frogs, tadpoles of many kinds
of . frogs

plants
emergent -- cattails. sedges. rushes, grasses
floating leaf -- water lilies, water ferns. duckweeds
submerged - pondweed, hornwort. waterweed

u
 . .\

What Is a IImnologist?
A scientist who studies fresh water habitats including ponds.
Limnology is concerned with all interrelated factors that influence
inland .. water environment such ~s: chemistry, biology. weather. climate
and geography. Limnologists become acquainted with many kinds of plants
and animals and learn how they live together in an aguatic community.

Name and describe the creatures that live In the aquarium in the
Nature of Austin exhibit.
crayfish -- looks like a small lobster
snails
red-eared slider turtle
fish
Do you think that these creatures live In the pond outside?
A well-balanced aquarium can be like a microcosm.
Is one part of the aquarium darker than another part?
Which creatures like to be on the top? '
Which creatures like to be on the bottom?
How do the. different creatures move?
What do you think these creatures eat?

Show pictures of the life cycles in the pond.

Use a pond guide for a(1swers.

Crayflah

Snails

OudlMl of &aha whida lift 18 • •·IawUII .....

 i •

The life Cyde, in a Pond .~i;:·::. ~'~:'."!: ;.(~ .:~:.:

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2. WILDLIFE IN A POND

Railing of upper pond under the breezeway between the Visitor's Pavillion
and Multi.-Purpose Room

What wildlife do you l.I.I. using the pond?

-Purple martins drink water and eat mosquitoes and other insects
around the pond. They nest in Austin from March until early
summer. The ANC colony has been here since spring of 1988.
-Cliff swallows drink water and gather mud from the edges' of the
ponds to build their nests under the Mopac bridge in spring
-Turtles and frogs may be sunbathing on rocks on sunny days or
poking their heads out of the water. On cold days. they may be on
the bottom of the pond hiding in the mud or vegetation.
-Green-backed herons may be stalking the edge of the pond looking
for fish.
-A bullfrog may be on the rock next to the cattails.

What wildlife do you not' see that could be here anyway?

Snakes,· fish, insects, grogs, turtles! crawfish

What Is a microcosm?
. A small,· representative world. The pond is a microcosm because it
is a small, self-contained world made up of representatives of many
different kinds of plants and animals. (Self-containing means that n
all of' the needs of the' organisms that live in and around the pond are
met in this ·wo~d·).
u 3. AQUATIC PLANTS

Entrance to ponds at weather station

1. Emergent plants are plants that are closest to the shore. The are
rooted to the bottom and have stems and leaves aboue the surface.

What kinds of plants do you see by the edges of the creek and
pond?
cattails - spread by wind-borne seeds and underground roots
sedges - grasslike plants with 3 rows (triangular) on a stem
rushes - flattened, often hollow leaves
grasses - parallel-veined leaves with 2 rows on a stem
Generally: ·sedges have edges and rushes are round·

Are most of these plants above or below the water line?

What kinds of animals do you think would. find food and shelter
among thes~ plants?
frogs, herons, egrets, ·small mammals, protozoans, worms,
u insects, snails, small fishes

Look for shiners-fast water- fish

Compare fast flowing water to still water,_ different creatures, oxygen,

algae growth

Look at the leaves ·of different aquatic plants

2. Floating leaf plants are plants with broad, flat leaves such as water
lilies, water ferns and duckweeds.

Creatures such as snails, bugs and mayflies lay their eggs on the
underside of the leaves.

Examine the underside of a leaf.

u
3. Submerged plants are plants with leaves that are long and sinuous or
bushy and very branched. Flowers of these plants are pollinated above n
the surface. Seeds develop and young plants develop only under the
water. They may be rooted to the bottom or floating.

Typical plants include pondweed, hornwort and waterweed.

.'
u

(X 250)
:, r IX 2501

FILAMENTOUS ALGAE

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(X l,SOO)

TYPES OF ALGAE

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WATER MllFOIL

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4. PONDS CAN BE MANMADE OR NATURALLY OCCURRING

On the path in front of the grey fox's enclosure

This clay lined pond was completed in the· spring of 1988 on the site of an
old gravel pit. Water is pumped from the Edward's Aquifer to the top of
the waterfall in the upper pond. It spills out of this pond, flows down the
creek and into the lower pond. Water is recycled. It is pumped from the
bottom of the lower pond to the top of the waterfall.

What plants do you see on the edge of the pond?

pickerelweeds-grows in shallow water, are rooted in the mud
horsetails-are descendents of an ancient plant group, they grow
along pond and lake shores
bluebells .
bitterweed
cottonwood trees
mulberry trees ,,.
ba~d cypress trees
evergreen yaupon
deciduous yaupon
'!
, ,.
~ ~
- ,
~I
bur oak ',/
silver bluestem
willow trees
switchgrass
Johnson grass

Why Is it important to have a constant source of water here?

1. -it provides habitat and food for many plants and animals
including
insects
raccoon
deer
fox
opposum
frogs
toads
snakes
birds-herons, egrets, kingfishers,
swallows, martins, etc ..
u 2. -it provides water for animals to drink, including those that spend
most of their time away from the water such as:
fox
deer
ringtails
squirrels

u
5. COLLECTING AND OBSERVING POND LIFE

Beach area collecting point

Students should ...

practice cooperation in use of equipment
learn that a successful activity requires planning and
organization
practice safety around water and with equipment

Students should learn how to safely and effectively use equipment while
collecting a variety of pond life (plants and animals).

Skills to emphasize: observing, collecting data, hypothesizing,

communicating.
See manual for more logistical details

1. Sit students down a"d explain safety rules and use of equipment.
2. Show picture of creatures that live in a pond.
3. Explain that we will have to be very careful with what we collect. We
are like giants to these animals. _
4. We are going to observe these creatures and then put them back in the ..
pond.

What creatures do ydou think we will find? n

Do you think that there are animals so smail that you cannot see
them?
Will these creatures have backbones?
What do you call creatures that do not have backbones?
invertebrates

5. Hand out equipment and allow 10-15 minutes .for collecting. (older
groups should identify their finds in the pond guides).
6. All students should use all equipment (manipulation of equipment).
Rotate equipment so each student gets a tum with all equipment.
7. When interest in collecting begins to subside or time is up, gather
students together and observe the joint collection.
 •

How many different kinds of creatures do you· see?

u How do you think they move around?
What do you think they eat?
00 you think any creatures that live in the pond eat these
creatu res?
What special adaptations do they have for living in the water?
What creature did we find the most of?
00 you think that there is anything alive in this bucket that we
cannot see?
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Mayfly Nymph Cr.nefly UJW Dragonny Nymph
Mosq~lto urva
 6. MICROSCOPIC LIFE

Micro-projector station

Skills to emphasize: observing: classifying. hypothesizing, communicating

Have all students look into the collection container:

Do you see anything alive in this bucket?

algae, small insects

The bioscope magnifies things so that they appear much larger than life
Show a feather under bioscope for example
Wh ile looking through the bioscope:

Watch these creatures move, what adapJations do they have for

moving In the wa~er? for eating? for bre":.thing? for
protection from enemies?
Which creat.ures are predators?
Which are prey?
Can you describe the various creature movements?
crawl, wiggle, swim, skitter, stride

Return the water and all creatures to the pond as a group. Students should
take part in this. .

u
7. AQUAT~C HA8iTATS

Fallen tree trunk at south end of the pond

1. surface film-habitat of air-breathing floating animals and animals

with special devices that allow them to walk on the surface (striders)

What creatures do you think could live on top of the water? )'Ir.
water striders, beetles, water bugs, some larvae (these creatures ~~
can walk on top of the water because of surface tension)
free-floating plants
What do these creatures eat?
plants, one another and insects that are dead and float to the surface
What creatures live on the bottom?
sponges,snails, earthworms, insects, crayfish, nymphs
What creatures Jive In the open water?
large, free-swimming fishes and microscopic plants and animals
that drift suspended in the water ~
phytoplankton", mostly algae which are" the basic food in a pond 0" •

What special adaptations do these creatures have for where they

# IJ
live? . .
fish have gills for breathing CCONTA,~
water striders have special feet" for standing on top of the .water

2. Open water-habitat of large, free swimming animals (fish)" and' small

microscopic plants and animals that drift suspended in the water

What kinds of creatures do you think could live out In the open
water, away from the shore? .
-fishes- sunfish, .largemouth bass
-small microscopic plants and animals that drift suspended in the
water
-phytoplankton, mainly algae which is the basic food In ponds
and lakes
-zooplankton-small suspended animals such as: ratifers, tiny
crustaceans, some insect larvae
-turtles-red-eared sliders, Texas sliders, other
-birds-wood ducks (sometimes on the ANC pond), mallards, many
kinds that migrate thru the Austin area

Olant Wat.rbu;,
U 3. Bottom.- habitat containing much organic debris

What kinds of creatures do you think could live on the bottom of

the pond?
-fresh water sponges, snails, earthworms and insects on shallow,
sandy bottom
-crayfish and nymphs of mayfly, dragonfly and damselfly in the
deeper, muddy bottom

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8. DiFFERENCES ~N PlANTS

By the buffalo gourd

What do you think this Is?

a buffalo gourd
What could you use it for?
What does it feel like?
Do you think that it could grow in the water?
How is it different from the water plants?
What does this plant need to live?
air, soil, water, sunlight

Buffalo gourds grow in waste areas and are called pioneer plants, it is a
pest plant that may be able to be used as a feed crop in unirrigated areas
in the future because it is hardy and can survive in poor soils with- ·very
little water. '

palmata
GOURD (CUCURBITA) Running or climbing vines with branched
tendrils, entire or lobed hairy leaves; flowers solitary, males with 3
united anthers, females with 3 to 53-lobed stigmas; 4 N.A. species.
Fetid- or Buffalo-gourd, c. foetidissi~, has rampant prostrate branches
to 20' long, malodorous heart-shaped l' leaves, 4"-long flowers, 3"
striped fruits; grows in dry or sandy soil, Neb. and Mo. to Ind., 5 to
n
Tex., w to Calif. Coyote-melon, C~ palmata, has 5-1obed palmate leaves,
the 4" lobes often lobed; flowers 2" long; 3" striped fruits; ranges from
w Ariz. to Calif.
 u 9. FOOD WEBS

By the cattail stand

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What Is the largest creature that lives in this pond?
iet
large fish, large turtle
What do you think these creatures eat?
plants and smaller fish
What would happen in the pond If there were no more plants?
some creatures would not have food or shelter, no oxygen in the
water
What would happen if there were no more animals?
plants would take over the pond, insects would multiply
What would happen if there were no more insects?
no food for some of' the creatures
What are decomposers?
What does all o~ this tell you?
~II of these plants and animals form a food .web or food pyramid in
the. pond.
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 \§i)-. GROUP lWO TAXA cangn_ .
\;It; 10 SaJtJ: 0ttJerAmphipoda. 1/4:. MliIe 10 ~-•.
higher than I is wide. S!iJnS ~~-e
legs. resembles smaU shrimp.
11 A/detfly IaM£ Family S-sJirJae. 1·1aIJ.W...~~
smaU heUgrammite but t\1S 1 toog.( ~c:X:
tail at bick end (no rooks). No Qin luis t;tE.,-
12 FlShIiy ~ FamilyClJlydaljdJe. Up to 1 1,z
long. lOoks Ina, small hellgrammite tu ~~ z
lighter reddish-tan ~Ior. or with yal!O"ft'ist. ~
No gill tufts um~rreath.
13 DamseJOy: Suborderlyrpptera 1/'Z -1-, a-;!
eyes. 6lhin hOOked legs. 3 broad CQ-~'1a:;: :
positioned nice a tripod. Smooth (no gills) ~:: ~
of lower naif of body. (See arrow.)
14 'NatetS11ipe Fly Larvd: Family AIl1ericiiae (.~"e..
1/4- -'-, pale l~ green, tapered boa/, man,!
- caterpillar-like fegs. mnital head. fezr.;ry-X~
albackend.
15 Crane Fly: SulxJrder NematOCtta 1R/ -'Z. ;;~
green, or light brown. pltrnp caterpi~-Inz
segmemed body. 4finger-like lobes a t:a!X e." -
1& Beetle IJHYa: Order Coleopteta. 1/4-1-, ::~!':"­
colored, 61egs on upper tatf of boOy, !seie;:~
mennae.
17 Dragon Fly: Suborder Anisoptera. 1(ZA ~.
eyet 6hooked legs. Wide ovaJ to rou/ ~.;
18 Clam: Class Bivalvia.

GROUP THREE TAXA

Pollution tolerant organisms can be in any ClBiity :
water.
19 Aquatic Womr Class Oligoc/1aeta 1/4' - ~, cz:
very tiny; ~in wonn-like body.
2D Midge Fly L.arv4 SuborrJer Nematocera Up to 1,'.!
dark head. worm-fike segmentoo bOOy. 2tiny I~
I on ea:h side.
21 BJa;k/ly I..aM£ Family SimuOdal Up to 1/4-, cn:
end of body wider. BIa:k head. suction pad on er.:.
/ ..... 22 Leedl: Older HiIUdinea. 1/4- -~. bnrMl. slimy
21 body. ends willl sudian pads.
23 Poud1 Snail arxJ Pond Snai~ Class Gastropoda.
No operculum. Breathe air. Shell usually opens c.~
lefl
23
24 Other snails: Class Gastropoda. No operaJfum.
1f414l%±':· ~ Breathe air. Snail shell mils in one p~

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Bar lines indicate relative size
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© Austin Nature Center
301 Nature Center Dr.
Austin, Texas 78746
1998 Edition

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-"'"~
What Is a IImnologist? .
A scientist who studies fresh water habitats including ponds.
Limnology is concerned with all interrelated factors that influence
inland .. water environment such ~s: chemistry, biology weather, climate
I

and geography. Limnologists become acquainted with many kinds of plants

and animals and learn how they live together in an aguatic community.

Name and describe the creatures that live In the aquarium in the
Nature of Austin exhibit.
crayfish -- looks like a small lobster
snails
red-eared slider turtle
fish
Do you think that these creatures live in the pond outside?
A well-balanced aquarium can be like a microcosm.
Is one part of the aquarium darker than another part?
Which creatures like to be on the top? '
Which creatures like to be on the bottom?
How do the. different creatures move?
What do you think these creatures eat?

Show pictures of the life cycles in the pond.

Use a pond guide for a(lswers.

Craytlah

Snails
 Pond Studytrrailwalk Logistics
1. Meet your group at the Visitor's Pavillion. (If ANC staff is available,
they will do this).

2. Ask Teacher for name of school and expected program. Be sure you have
the right group.

3. I-welcome the Teachers, 2-give them the post packet and specifically ask them
to complete evaluation and mail it back, 3-collect monies, 4-instruct Teachers as to
how to divide the group, 5-lead group to Dino Pit.

4. Welcome students, tell them the name of the program and tha\ "we will be
scientists this morning, studying life on the trails and ponds.
5. Teachers should already have students divided into groups with adults for each
group. If this has not been done, divide group in half. One half goes to pond study
and one half goes to trailwalk. (Largest group should be 60 children! 30 for ponds,
30 for trails, divide these groups in half for 15 children to each docent.

6. Assign groups to docen~s.

7. Individual docents should then take their group and give an introduction to
what they will do for the morning.
8. If there are 4 docents, there should be 4 groups of 15 children:· -_
The 2 groups fQr the trailwalk should cross the road and begin in the Birds of Prey
enclosure area. One group can start by looking at the birds while the other begins
u on the trails. The group that begins on the trails first can see the birds at the end
of their hike. .

. Trailwalk group. If there are 2 docents, spUt group of30 into 2 groups of
15 and proceed as follows:
Trailwalk group #1 Begin trailwalk at bird enclosures
Finish trailwaIk and visit the bird enclosures

Trailwalk group #2 VISit bird enclosures

Begin Trailwalk
9. Docents can sit pond study groups on the Dino steps and give them an
introduction. Each group of 15 children can then begin.

Pond group '1 Pondlife collecting and examjning

Tour of Ponds with guidebook
Small Wonders exhibit or game
Pond group #2. Small Wonders exhibit or game
Tour of ponds with guidebook
Pondlife collecting and examining

u
 TBAIL WALK LOGISTICS
Meet the students on their buses and welcome them. The tone for the moming can ~
be set at this time, stressing quiet observation skills. If there are two leaders, one
should welcome the teachers and discuss the logistics of the program with them.

Spend a few minutes discussing the ANC and the agenda for the morning, and
give some instructions on behavior in the outdoors.

Divide the group into teams--Half of the group will begin at the pond study site and
the other half will begin with the trailwalk.
t
Before beginning the trail walk, talk about the specifics of the trail: walk and speak
encouragingly about the best behavior for enjoying the woods. Then begin the trail
walk, waiting a few minutes b~tween groups. The first group can begin on the
trails immediately and look at the bird enclosures at the end of the hike. The
second group can spend about five minutes to look at the bird enclosures , then
follow the other group on the trails-maintaining distance between the two groups.

After completing the trailwalk, groups come back together at the dino pit. 'Have
the students sit on the steps around the pit. The leaders should give a brief closing
to the Trail Walk, then introduce the pond activities.

The duration of the trailwalk will vary with each group. Try to allow at least
forty-five minutes on the trails, but always end on time to accommodate the othe!=
docents, next group' and bus schedule.

THE lmlNATURAL TRAIL

.Purpose: The purpose of the Unnatural Trail activity is to reinforce
.outdoor observation skills.

Discuss the concept of a natural community. Explain to the students that they will
be looking for objects that are not usually found in the woods, and for natural '.
objects that are out of place.
Impress upon the students that this is a silent walk--a time for open eyes and
closed mouths. They should use their fingers to count how many "unnnatural"
objects they see.
At the end of the trail, have students name the unnatural objects that they noticed.
If time permits, repeat the trail to discover any objects that were missed.
I~
TRAILGUIDE TIPS

*Have the students find "~ircles" in nature right where you are standing (holes in
u the ground, fruit, flowers, insect galls, the sun, seeds, tree trunks, etc.)
*Have each student take a handful of soil and feel and see what it is made of.
Discuss soil, in general.
*Look for decomposers--lichens on the branches, fungi on the trees.
*Find a leaf gall or a tree gall (or have one in your pocket) and tal}t about small
animal homes. ~

*Look for leaves that are exactly alike. (There aren't any!)
*Turn over any log or rock and see who lives there.

*Have them cover their eyes and mouths and count all the sounds they hear, or
make "deer ears" by cupping their hands around their ears.

*Feel different leaves and leaf edges.

*Find something that smells. They can learn a lot smelling everything around
them.
-- '

REMEMBER--WEAR A WATCH!
u
NATURE. CHII,DREN. AND you. by Paul Goff
Whether we're thinking of the ocean waters, mountains, or other land forms, this
earth is our heritage--this is where the human race had its beginning. And when
man first appeared on this earth, nothing had been disturbed by man--things were I')
natural. Forests, fields, prairies, marshes, swamps, bogs, sand dunes, plus
millions of plants and animals preceded man's coming into being on this earth.
Children, possessing greater instinctive qualities, therefore, have a greater
sensitivity, understanding, and appreciation in regard to undisturbed natural
areas. They still possess a feeling of closeness toward their heritage. Their
instinctive feelings result in their looking at. a woods and accepting everything in it
for what it is. By working with children in the out-of-doors, we can regain or
relearn valuable concepts which will enable us to derive more enjoyment from that
part of our heritage which has not been destroyed. ~

Lichens come in a wide variety of shapes or forms--some grow as greenish-gray

splotches on tree trunks or upon rocks, while others grow up out of poor soils or
sand in various forms, which are called reindeer lichens. British soldiers, goblet
lichens, ladder lichens, etc. But all of them have one thing in common: they are
comprised of two differen~ types of plants which live together as one.
The two plants which form a lichen are a fungus and an alga. Most fungi are
commonly recognized as mushrooms, while most forms of algae are thought of as
that green scum in ponds, lakes, and streams. There also are some forms of algae
which grow out of the water and often form a greenish cast on tree trunks.

A f\JnP C8DDot manufacture-its own food but has the ability to attach itself to 0,
wood or to rocks by means of acids which it produces. An alga contains
cholrophyll and can ~ufacture its own food but has no special meaus of
attaching itself. Somewhere along the line certain types of the two different plants
became combined into one form called a lichen. The fungus portion provided the
"home" while the alga part made the food for itself and the "home".

Again, this is a unique example of interrelatedness in nature. And it should be

emphasized whenever the opportunitY presents itself.
You won't find many, if any, lichens on the trunks of trees or upon bricks and
rocks within our large cities. Lichens need clean air; they cannot stand the fumes
from internal combustion engines and other sources. When you're with a group
in the out-of-doors and see lichens, tell others to take several deep breaths of fresh
relatively pure air. Lichens are living proof that air is fit for breathing.
 PONDSTUDY/~WALKVOCABULARY
adapt&tjon--a physical or behavioral characteristic of an organism which improves its chance of
survival in its environment
aguatjc-living in the water
arboreal - living in the trees.
c1mouflage--an adaptation in which an organism's outer covering blends in with its natural
surroundings.
carnivore - a meat-eating animal.
cold-blooded-having a body temperature regulated by the temperature of its environment, not
internally regulated. Ectothermic.
communjty---a population of organisms that live together in a given area.
cODsymers---animals that eat green plants and/or other consumers.
crepusgular-active at dawn or dusk. .
decjduous-falling off or shed seasonally or at a certain stage of developmenfin the life cycle.
Spanish oaks are deciduous trees.
degompolera--orgamsms such as bacteria, mushrooms, maggots and lichens that feed on the
remains of plants and animals
dioecioul---having male reproductive organs in one organism and female in another. Ashe
Juniper is a dioecious tree.
djumal---active during the day.
egology.----the study of relationships between living organisms and their environments.
emergent plants--plants rooted in the pond bottom which have stems and leaves above the surface
endangered-an organism in danger of becoming extinct.
enyjronment-collective term for the conditions in which an organism lives-temperature, light,
water, and other organisms.
ePiphytes-plants that grow on other plants, ususally trees, but are not parasitic
eukophjg-describes bodies of water with large amounts of dissolved nutrients, resulting in heavy
plant growth. Pollution by sewage results in extremely eutrophic conditions. .- ._
eyeNreen,-having foliage that remains "green and functional through more than one growing
season. Ashe Juniper is an evergree,P tree.
u exotjc or imported pluy-plants that are introduced to a particular habitat in which they would not
occur naturally .
extinct-gone forever, none left
food chain---a linear chain of organisms in which each link in the chain feeds on the one before
.and is eaten by the one after. .
food pyramid-a repres~ntation of the numbers and/or amounts of life forms in an environment in
which the abundant producers (mostly plants) make up the base of the pyramid, with the
progressively less abundant consumers (herbivorous animals, then carnivorous animals)
making up the upper levels
food web--a complex representation of the feeding interrelationships of life forms in an
environment
habitat--the natural home of an organism where it is normally found, consisting of food, water,
shelter, space, air.
herbiyore-a plant-eating animal.
hibernate-become inactive due to extreme cold.
jnsectiygre- insect eater.
invertebrate-an animal who has no backbone.
laryae--the early feeding stage in the life cycle of an invertebrate.
limnglogy-the study of fresh·water ecosystems
littoral zone--the area of a body of water extending from the shoreline outward as far as rooted
plants
metemgrphosjl-a structural transformation in an animal's life cycle.
migratign-periodic movements of animals to new areas or habitats.
metabolism- process in which food is converted into energy, stored or used to build new cells.

natiye plants-plants that occur naturally in a particular habitat, usually they are best suited to the
u climate and conditions of the area
~an animal's role in its environment_
nggtpmal-active at night.
ompiyon--animal that eats both flesh and plants for food.
photosynthesjs--the process by which green plants use chlorophyll (a green pigment) to harness the
sun's energy in producing sugars from carbon dioxide and water, giving off' oxygen as a waste
product
pioneer stage-the primary stage of succession in a community.
p1ankton--microscopic plants and animals that drift suspended in the water and form the base of
the pond's food pyramid
wmd--quiet body of water shallow enough to allow plants to grow completely across it. There is little
or no wave action, bottom usually covered with mud, water temperature is fairly uniform and can
vary with air temperature. It contains or produces everything it needs for survivial of the plants
and animals that live in or near it.
predator--animal that hunts or traps other animal~ for food.
~--animals eaten by other animals.
producers--all green plants which are able to manufacture food from inorganic substances.
pupae--the hardened cocoon-like stage an insect goes through in complete met~orphosis. After the
larval stage.
IifDIl--shallow area of a stream where water flows rapidly across a broken rock or debris strewn
bottom.
scavenger-an animal that eats dead animals.
snag tree--a dead or dying tree that is left standing to provide homes for wildlife.
specjes--group of closely related organisms potentially able to breed with one another.
submerged plants-plants rooted in the pond bottom whose stems and leaves are below the surface.
succession-the natural and orderly process of change when one community replaces another.
surface tension--the tendency for water molecules to crowd most densely at the surface, enabling
very lightweight creatures and objects to rest and even move about on top of the water
symbigsis--the intimate coexistence of 2 dissimilar organisms in a mutually beneficial
relationship
terrestrial-living on land or on the ground
tbreatened--so depleted in num~r~ that becoming endangered is likely.
wanp-blogded-able to regulate internally a constant,body temperature independent- of
surroundings. Endothermic.
 ANC POND LIFE
Common Plants & Anjmals
v
PLANTS
Algae are very simple green
(chlorophyll-containing) plants, which carry
on photosyntheses. There many groups oa
algae, of which the Green is the most
numerous in ponds. Algae may be
free-seimming, one-celled, and microscoptc. or
it may take the form of pond scum, long "Dy
filaments, or dense mats. Algae are extrz..!lldx
important, a~ they form the broad base of the
food pyramid of the ponds, and they produce a
large percentage of the pond's oxygen.

Horsetails are related to ferns, in that they

reproduce by spores. As a group, they are very
primitive plants which can be traced back 280
million years! The jointed stems are hollow,
like miniature bamboo. They contain large
amounts of silicon, which accounts for their
rough feeling, and give them the common
name of "scouring rush". Pioneers found
them"handy for scrubbing pots.
u
Cattails are simple flowering plants, and
reproduce by wind-borne seeds or creeping
rootstocks. They have long; stiff ribbon-like
leaves, and the familiar flower-bearing stalk
with the brown club at the top. Cattail pollen is
very nutricious, and can be added to betters
and flour. The roots are starchy, and were
used by Indians to make flour.

Hornwort is also known as Coontail because of

the dense whorls of leaves arranged about the
stems. The narrow, forked leaves bear small
teeth or horns along their margin. Hornwort
has no true roots and its tiny flowers are
fertilized under water.

Other emergent plants of the ponds include

hia, with their beautifql spring flowers,
Arrowhead, and Elephant Ears.

u
ANIMALS
Protozoans are microscopic, one-celled
animals, abundant in most ponds. Along with
the simple plants, they form the basis of the
food pyramid. Most reproducd by simple
fission. Some move by means of minute hairs
or cilia, others by extrusion of protoplasm or
pseudopods. They eat decaying organic
matter, bacteria, or smaller protozoans. There
are also many multi-celled animals which are
microscopic or only slightly larger, barely
visible to the naked eye. Examples of these are
rotifers (wheel animals) and hydras (related to
jellyfish and coral).

Worms can often be found on the undersides of

floating leaves, rocks, or debris; or in the mud
at the pond's bottom. Most leeches have a
sucker at both ends, but few are blood-suckers.
Flatworms are interesting because of their
regenerative powers. If one is cut in half, it
can form a new head or tail to complete itself.
Crustaceans as a group include 'shrimp and
crayfish. Although crayfish have occasionally crayflab
been seen in the ponds, the most common have U.,. pain of 1.... The Unt palr
1. aned vttb clav.. Tht' look &Dd ba-
crustaceans at ANC are tiny water fleas and nava Uka .uasacun lobet.n.-
scuds.. Scuds in particular are easily seen
amidst the water hyacinth roots or underneath
bits of floating debris. Commonly called
side-swimmers, they are omnivorous
scavengers and an important poart of the food
chains in the ponds.
Spiders are a common sight on the plants of
the ponds, but the spider most likely to be found
2ll the water is the Fisher Spider, with its four
pair of legs and brown-and-gray coloring. It
can reach silver dollar size. The fisher spider
often sits on aquatic plants, occasionally
running out onto the surface film or even
diving beneath, coated with a silvery film of air
trapped in the body hairs. It feeds on insects,
tadpoles, and small fish.
Snails belong to the group of animals called
mollusks, which are soft-bodied animals
usually surrounded by a shell. Pond snails
breathe either with gills or an air-filled "lung",
but 'in either case they can remain submerged •••
indefinitely. The head of the aniI has a mouth, ...... _.wo.a.
haM boll•• din'" mco twa . . . . .U: a
n. fubel' .,ldu
1. . . of the few ~l." cuc epad. le.
a pair of tentacles which bear touch receptors, 11f. ~ 01' Deal' ~al'.

and an eye at the base of each tentacle. Snails

lay eggs in gelatinous mas8e~ which can often WIll.rlD~ 0
be found on the underside of aquatic plants. aN unall, 00 _n ctta 0.2 SDcb loci.
Thall' boll. appeal' co be of OM . .pat.
They are omnivorous, feeding mainly on algae, tbeJ ~, .".__ bri,bcl, color.d
qoc • ..s.s... 01' RlkiD, _oac ~ ehe
but also on dead plant and animal matter. vacal'.
 DSB
Minnows are a very large group of egg-laying
fish which feed:.'on algae. Mosquitofish are
u live-bearers which eat insect larvae. The
males are much smaller than the females.
Several members of the sunfish family,
including large mouth bass also inhabit the
ponds.

INSECTS
Insects have a segmented docy (head, thorax,
and abdomen), an exoskeleton which must be
periodically shed, six uointed legs (attached to
the thorax), and usually 2 pair of wings. All
insects undergo some sort of metamorphosis
(egg/larvalpupa/adult or egg/nymph/adult),
and it is the larval or numphal stage that we
often find in our nets. They stay submerged,
living on oxygen dissolved in the water. Most
of the adult insect forms either come to the
surface periodically for air or swim directly on
the surface. And,. of course, there are usually
always insects above the ponds, on the plants rdragonflle~
or flying around them. Pictured -here are just re.emble short crayons with four lar~,
a few of the most commonly found pond winK. which ar. flnely laced with vel:
u insects. Dragonflies hold their winlls in a hor',
zontal po.ttion when restin~.

Draionflies and dAmselflies mate in flight, Idragonfly nymphs i _.. ,

often over the ponds, where the females cart are usually dull-colored. slow-moving
. down to deposit their eggs. The nymphal stage orRanisa. that ua. a scooplike lip to
ca~ture their food. The dragonfly
may last from 3 months to 5 years. Shed s~ nya~h. are 8enerally larlle and chunky
from various stages can often be found on plant - In comparison to the damselfly.
wtems or sides of the ponds. Dragonflies are
usually heavier bodied than their more delicate
looking relatives, the damselflies. They hold
their wings in a horizontal position when at
rest; damselflies hold their wings folded
upward and backward.

~
...' dal1l88Ullea/t--------r-:'I~'-
po: .. ' , r ••••bl. aatchaUck. with four membra-
The nymphs of both types are carnivorous, nou. villi.. They ara sl1mmar and more
catching other larvae, worms, small dellcate-lookin. than dragonflies. D~­
.alfl1•• hold thalrwln•• close together
crustaceans, or even tadpoles and fish with .ad polntlnl backward. when rest1n8.

~
their scooplike lip. Damselfly nymphs are
slim, with 3 leaf-like gills at the tip of the dam8ellly nympba I I-y. r ....

are .1t..er aDd acra da1icace looking

abdomen. , thaa the dralontly Dy.pha. These
. n,.eh. he.. thr.e 1.af-ahapad 8i11s at
the tl~. of their abda.en.
 AMPHIBIANS

Frogs and Toads use the ponds for breeding

purposes and several kinds are permanent
inhabitants. Bullfrogs are most conspicuous
because of their size, while tree frogs hide in
the cattails.
Frogs and toads are tailess amphibians. In
frogs the hind legs are adapted for jumping
and swimming. The hind legs of toads are less
well developed, the skin is somewhat rougher
and bumpier, and they are more terrestrial.
All amphibians mate in or near the water frogs t
because the eggs and the young must develop ar. amo~th-.kian.d With long. powerful
h1nd 1.Ra. tr•• froga have toes With en-
there. Eggs may be attached to vegetation or larRed Up ••
rocks or may be a floating frothy or jellylike
mass. Tadpoles, the aquatic larval stage of
frogs and toads, may spend from a few weeks toads
to two years before reaching maturity. po••••• a v.rty akin, large neck glands,
Tadpoles have a disclike mouth on their and are rar.ly found mov1nl about during
the day. To._ h..,. ahorter back legs
underside with which they scrape algae off ~.;~,........ the fro,.. .
rocks and nibble vegetation. In some seasons
the ponds at Mayfield contain tadpoles of the
Texas Toad, the Leopard Frog, the Bullfrog,
and the Green Tree Frog. In summer the tree
frogs can easily be seen sitting on lily pads or --
clinging with the large adhesive }tIlds on their tadpoles
toes to the stems of pickerelweed. The others
are less common and more timid, but may
sometines be seen.
.Rf;PI'II rEB
. Reptiles are often the top predators in a pond
food chain. They are not so easily seen as the
smaller and more numerous creatures. The
most likely species of turtle to inhabit the
Mayfield ponds is the Red-eared Slider. Its
leathery eggs have been found in moist places
in the woods. In warm weather the Westem
Ribbon Snake sometimes appears, either
swimming through the vegetation or basking
on the plants. This is a beautiful and harmless
little garter shake with red and yellow
longitudinal stripes.
Turtles are the most noticeable reptile of the
ponds. The most common species are the
red-eared slider and the Texas river cooter.
Both species are omnivorous or herbivorous
depending on the age of the individual (they eat
more plant matter as they age). They may be
seen swimmng near the surface or snnning
themselves on rocks, logs or on the bank.
 ANIMALS THAT MAY LIVE AT OR NEAR THE AUSTIN NATURE CENTER

u MAMMALS
Virginia Opossum
REPTILES
Red-eared Turtle
AMPHIBIANS
Green Treefrog
Nine-banded Armadillo Green Anole Texas Toad
Eastern Cottontail Texas Spiny Lizard Southern Leopard Frog
Rock Squirrel Ground Skink Gulf Coast Toad
Fox Squirrel Texas Alligator Lizard Bull Frog
Black Rat Texas Blind Snake Cricket Frog
House Mouse Racer
Raccoon Rat Snake
Striped Skunk Eastern Hognosed SnaKe
Grey Fox Diamond-backed Water Snake
White-tailed deer RO\lgh Green Snake
Mexican freetail bat Brown Snake
Western Ribbon Snake
Texas River Cooter turtle
Eastern Blackneck Garter Snake

Dangerous reptiles of Central Texas

not sighted at ANC
Texas Coral Snake
BIRDS Copperhead _
Black Vulture Western Diamondback --
Wood Duck .. Rattlesnake
Mallards Western Cottonmouth
u Turkey Vulture
Mockingbird
SeasoDal birds
Purple Martins
Bluejay Hummingbirds
Cardinal Cliff Swallows
Screech Owl Cedar Waxwing
Chickadee
Mourning Dove
Inca Dove
Titmouse
Great Blue Heron
Belted Kingfisher
Carolina Wren
Pigeon
Bewick's Wren
Green-backed Heron
Red-bellied Woodpecker

u
 NATURE GAMES
These are useful when the weather is bad.

1. "Sensing Nature"
This activity is used to emphasize the rewards of using all of-the senses in an
outdoor setting. It can be played on the steps of the dino pit, inside the
buildings, or anywhere the children can sit down Indian style in one or two
lines. Tell the children that they will be handed objects from nature; reassure
them that nothing is alive and nothing will feel "yucky". Ask them to put their
hands behind their backs and to close their eyes. They must use only their
senses of touch, smell, and hearing. When they feel an object in tlteir hands,
they should thoroughly feel and smell it (without looking), and then open their
eyes to see what it is. It should then be passed on, behind their back, to the
next child in line.
This activity often works just as well without asking the children to close their
eyes, especially the younger children. Keep up the pace of the activity by
passing items from both ends of the line. When four to six items have been
examined by everyone, stop and discuss each one. Some items will be .
recognized instantly, but children seem to enjoy those familiar things even
more than the unfamiliar. You may vary this activity by asking for closed eyes
with some items (perhaps the more familiar ones just mentioned), and open
eyes on items which children may not recognize by sight.
It is important to remember tbat1dthough you may request no balking:there is--
= very likely to be noise. It is especially common for younger children to
verbalize when they first feel something or look at it. It is futile to continually
correct this noise--you will only end up causing more disruption. If the mood
is well established, the group should. find this activity challenging and fun.

\- a.
<t ~
fil
N\ 0 \J
~
\J k t-
1\ l\
\\
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U ANIMAL TRACKS

What is an animal track?

It is a footprint made by an animal.
A track pattern is a series of tracks that show how an animal moves.
It is a series of tracks that show where an animal went.

Where is a good place to look for tracks?

In mud near water.
In dust or loose dirt on trails.

Track Identification
Tracks with 2 toes: Tracks with 5 toes:
deer skunk
Tracks with 4 toes: raccoon
cottontail opposum
bobcat (cat)
coyote (dog), fox

Nudgings in the dirt may be from armadillos looking for insects.

u
. , III~

I.~.
~ " : : / 1.1.
DEER HOOF
AND PRINT
7Raccoon
A'I. in.
:/"

~..
~. t
A.W . '1Ys in.

+--1 ~ in. --~

: right front
V
Striped skunk

~.i~ T
s!'J
-
ffiiI ':V..ln.
: right hind
v
A
r. f.

---1~ in.-->

u I. f.
• • ---+
..
Domestic cat tracks

I. h.

Cattonl0l1
. . ~1-7ft.~· • V,
/'
1/

tail mati! oft." INn

2 in.:!:
1. UNDERSTORY PLANT

Turk's cap or Drummond's wax mallow (Malvaviscus arboreus)

Mallow or Hibiscus family

What is an understory plant?

A short plant that lives under the tall trees which are the upperstory
plants in the woods, and likes or is adapted to the shade.

What animal do you think might like this flower when it's blooming?
Hummingbirds love the nectar,they are a major pollinator of this plant
Some animals eat the red seed.

It has a red flower on top, and the big, soft leaves get limp when the ground gets
very dry.
U 2. FEELING LEAVES

Compare the feel of three plants at this spot:

Silktassel (Gan:ya lindheimieri) has slightly leathery leaves that are

fuzzy on the back and have slightly rounded tips. Dogwood family.

Ligustrum (Lisusirum juponicum) has thick leathery leaves with

pointed tips that are smooth on both sides. Olive family.

Hackbeny (Celtis laevigata)1eaves feel like sandpaper and have

pointed tips. Elm family.

Which of these plants do you think keep their leaves throughout the winter,
and which do you think lose their leaves in the winter?
Ligustrum and silktassel keep their leaves, so they are called
"evergreen".
Hackberry loses its leaves, and it is called "deciduous".

Evergreen leaves are usually thicker and feel waxy or leathery. Other evergreen
plants are: live oak, mountain laurel, evergreen sumac, yaupon and cedar. Note
the bud at the base of the leaf stem where it attaches to the twig.
u
Silktassel and hackberry are native plants, which means that they were growing
around here before people came.

Ligustrum is an imported, or exotic, plant from Asia that was brought here by
people to plant in their yards. The seeds are spread by birds and animals who
eat the seeds. We are removing these so that the "natives" have room to grow.

Lindhiemer Silk-tassel
Garrya Lindheimeri Torr.

Netleaf Hackberry, Palo Blanco

Celtis reticulafa Torr.

Japanese Privet
Ligusfrum japonicum Thunb.
3. PLANT MATERIALS USED BY ANIMALS (BIRDS)
(Large, mature cedar) Ouniperus Ashei)

What do you think the bark of this tree might be used for?
Loose bark of mature cedars are used by the Golden-cheeked Warbler
for nesting material. These birds are endemic (they only live here),
and they are threatened (there aren't many left and they may become
endangered).

Do you think it hurts the tree to have the loose bark pulled off?
No, because the bark is thick, and the tender, growing parts are under
the bark.

A tree's bark is like your skin-it provides a protective covering, and keeps
moisture in.

NOTE: Crush a small bit of the cedar leaves and let children smell.
To demonstrate respect for the tree, crush leaves while still on the
branch or break off only a small bit to pass around.

GOLDEN-CHEEKED WARBLER
U 4. TRAIL CARE

At this spot the old trail was blocked off to allow revegetation (new plants
covering the ground) to stop erosion (soil washing away with wind and rain).

What are some reason for erosion?

The trail was too straight.
The trail was too steep.
The trail was used too much.

How can it be fixed?

Close off the trail.
Plant native grasses and wildflowers so the plants will hold the dirt
in place. You might add some dirt if it is needed.
Make a new, curved trail that is less steep.

NOTE: The large, flat rock blocking the old trail frequently has
raccoon scat (excrement, or feces) containing seeds of persimmon and
of berries found in the preserve.
u
NOTE: Look for insect galls on the live oak trees and on the ground.
See manual for more info on galls.
.
,
~I '1I
5. PLANTS THAT LOVE LIMESTONE

Some plants can live in almost any type of soil (sand, clay, loam, etc.), such as the
hackberry. Others like specific types of soil and terrain.

Texas Mountain Laurel (Sophora secundi£1ora) Bean or Legume family.

evergreen (more thick leaves)
purple flowers in spring that smell like grape kool-aid
red beans (in pods) are poisonous
has compound leaves-it has leaflets, and the bud for next year
is at the base of the compound leaf stem

Legume family

THai Mountain Laurel. Mesal Dem·

Sopltcwa S«/lruli/loro (Ort.) DC.
U 6. HABITAT TREE (Old live oak (Quercus fusiformis)
behind the mountain laurel)

Look for the hole at the base of the tree.

Does it look like some animal lives there now?

. Yes, if the dirt in front of the hole looks freshly worked, or walked on.

NOTE: People should not go near an animal home, but should just look
at it from a distance. We might leave our scent and scare the
animal or a predator may follow the human scent and find the
animal.

What animal do you think might live here?

raccoon
armadillo
skunk
fox

NOTE: In recent years, this tree has also become a bee tree. Look for
the honey bees coming out of the hollow part of the tree by the ground.

u
7. YUCCA

Twisted-leaf Yucca (Yucca rupicola) Lily family.

leaves have twisted look
leaves stay on all winter
white flowers bloom on tall stalks from April to June
(farther down trail on the left)

NOTE: Some animals eat the tender inner leaves of the yucca, look
closely to see if someone has eaten recently.
(There are some better specimens of yucca just before the creek on the left
of the trail.)

lily Family

n
 8. CREEK BED-WATER AND GEOLOGY
u If the creek bed is dry-
Where is the water?
Many creeks are intermittent-they have water only when it rains.

If there is water in the creek-

Do you know that there is water in the creek only a short time ever,y
year?
A creek is the collecting channel for rain that falls on the surrounding land
(the watershed), and canies it to the Colorado River (Town Lake).

NOTE: If there has been a heavy rain recently, look for debris in shrubs or
trees. Talk about the dangers of flash flooding in creeks.

Where do you think the water goes?

Much of the water flows into Town Lake. Some of the water
goes into the cracks you can see in the creek bed and becomes
part of the aquifer (an underground water storage area
consisting of interconnected caves and cracks in the
limestone). The water that goes into the aquifer in the
recharge zone, comes out later at springs such as Barton
Springs.

Look at the layers of rock and soil on the cliff face. The layers of limestone are all
Edwards formation, and were deposited millions of years ago during the
Cretaceous period 125 to 70 million years ago. They were laid down on the sea
bottom when this part of Texas was a shallow sea. It took millions of years to
deposit that much limestone.

u
COMAL SPRINGS--NEW BRAUNFELS
 Trifoliolate

9. POISON IVY (Rhus toxicodendron) Sumac family.

Why is it important to learn about poison ivy?

Any part of the plant can cause an uncomfortable and painful allergic
reaction in most people-even the smoke!

The leaves can be big or small, but they always have three leaflets. Compound
leaves with three leaflets are called trifoliate. The leaflet at the end is always
separated from .the other two by a stem (see illustration).

The stems frequently have hairy rootlets on them and can be recognized even
without leaves. They can cause a rash! Compare with Hop Tree, Fragrant
Sumac, Virginia Creeper, and Box Elder.

As you walk along, ask the students to look for stems of vines that deserve the
name "greenbriar" or "catbriar" (Smilax bona-nox) Lily family.

BHua
~
TOXICODENDRON PTELEA TRIEOLIATA
POISON IVY Hop TREE
 10. HARVESTER ANTS
u
Ants are social insects.

They bring leaves or other plant material into their nest to grow a fungus on
which they feed.

One of the rooms in their underground nest is for trash. Tiny little critters live in
their trash areas; they are to the ants as roaches are to us-they tolerate them
unless there are too many, and then they try to get rid of them!

Ant social organization:

Their first job when they become adults is to take care of the eggs, larvae,
and pupae in the nursery.

Their second job is general garden chores and construction chores.

Their final job is fora~g for food and protecting the nest.

*Leave a small amount of bird seed or oats for the ants-you'll be by the mound
on the way back, so you'll have a chance to check what happens to the seed.

F;g. 51. Leal-culler ants. The ant

at tlte right is just cutting 06 a piece
01 leal with its sharp mandibles.
The others are on ,he;r way home
with tlte;r loads. Top lelt. a small
worker rides home 011 a piece 01
leal and repels the attacks 01 para.
sitic /lies with wide-open jaws.

u
11. LICHENS ON A ROCK

(See manual-"Learning to Like Lichens")

Lichens consist of two plants that live together-

1) fungus, which cannot produce its own food, and
2) algae, which can produce food, but needs a home where it can live.
Most free-living algae live in water or very moist spots.

This is a wonderful example of aymbiosis. or interdependency. in this situation

two plants live together in places that neither could live alone and both plants
benefit one another

NOTE: Use this little rhyme to help you remember lichens. Children
like to know it also.

"Freddy fungus and Alice algae took a lichen to each other."

u 12.. Aand B DIOCEIOUS PLANTS

Some plants have the male and female parts on the same plant or tree.
Dioceious plants have the male and female parts on separate plants or trees.

Adult cedar trees have berries on the female tree. The male tree has reddish
brown pollen in the fall. Many people are allergic to the pollen which makes
their noses run, and they call it "cedar fever".

Why does the young cedar have sharp spines?

Probably to keep animals from eating them.

u
Ashe Juniper, Post Cedar, Mountain Cedar
Juniperus Ashei Buchh.
13. YARROW (Achillea millefolium) Sunflower family
also called Milioi!

This small plant that looks like a fern, is a good plant to crush and smell. It has
white flowers in the spring.

What does it smell like?

Medicine or menthalatum ointment.
It was used by Indians and pioneers to make a soothing tea for fever and
restful sleep.

,,.'
.f

t
I!

'---
U 14. MIRROR PONDS
(This is the collecting station)

If it has rained recently and there is water in the shallow ponds, look for tadpoles
and water insects in spring and summer.

Some things you might point out in this creek habitat:

Listen for birds that live near the creek.

Note the willow (Salix nigra) trees-they love the water and grow
around wet spots everywhere. Willow family.

There is a pretty cliff with dark and light stains where the water has
dripped down. It was originally carved by water.

At the top of the cliff is a plant hanging down that looks like grass.
It is really a member of the lily family and is called bear grass
(Nolina texana) or Sacahuista.

NOTE: Ask children if they think the ponds are natural or man-made.
v How can they tell?

"Sedges have edges and rushes are round".

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15. SNAG TREE

A snag tree is a dead tree that is left standing.

Why leave dead trees in the preserve?

They provide homes for animals, such as insects, spiders, worms,

lizards, and woodpeckers.

They provide perches for birds of prey.

Decomposers-fungi, bacteria, and beetles-break down the wood.

Eventually the tree will fall down and become compost for the soil.
 16. MEADOW
u
A meadow is an open area that gets lots of sun. The plants that live in a meadow
have to be able to tolerate the heat and dryness.

Do plants eat?

No. They make their food from sunlight and carbon dioxide and water.
They are considered to be producers.

What do animals eat?

There are many animals that eat plants, some that eat animals only,
and some that eat both plants and animals. All animals are consumers
because they eat living matter.

What kinds of animals might be seen in or near the meadow?

cottontails bees grasshoppers
butterflies moths

How is the meadow different from the woods?

The meadow is sunny and bright while the woods are darker and more
u shady. On a sunny day, children can feel the heat of the sun more
intensely in the meadow than in the woods.

------- --- ----

~., ~-
.. -'
...
....
-.,_. ',.---~.
<. J.-
"'r", .. ,
.:

... ;"./f../I ..

u
17. FOOD FOR WILDLIFE

Do you see anything here that looks good to eat?

A. In late summer, the Prickly Pear (Opuntia lindheimeri) has red fruit that is
eaten by forty-four kinds of animals, including deer, rabbits, skunks, rats, and
many birds. Cactus family.

Some people like to eat the pads-but without the spines!

They have beautiful yellow or orange flowers in the spring.

The pads are not leaves, but stems.

Look for the white fuzzy home of the cochineal bug that lives on the
pads. If you look in the white fuzz carefully, you will see the small
bug. Native Americans smashed the bug to make a beautiful magenta
dye.

B. The Texas Persimmon (Diaspyros texana) is a small tree that has a sweet,
black fruit in late summer. Persimmon family.

It is loved by many animals, including raccoons, skunks, foxes,

'possums, ring-tailed cats, and birds.

The bark is smooth and gray. Feel the bark and compare to other trees.

The leaves are small and soft.

The small, white, bell-like flowers bloom in the early spring.

Texas Persimmon
U -: 18. GRASSES

Why are grasses important in these open areas?

They provide food for wildlife.
They cover the ground to prevent wind and rain from eroding the soil.
They help build up soil with organic material.
They hold moisture in the soil.

What foods do we eat that come from grasses?

Wheat
Com
Oats
Rice
Rye

Two important grasses in Texas:

Little bluestein (Schizachyrium scoparium) is a beautiful native grass

that is eaten by wild life and cattle on climax prairies-prairies that
u can perpetuate themselves indefinitely under prevailing conditions

Side oats gramma (Bouteloua curtipendula)is the official state grass

of Texas.

kIIlWIIl aaw&IDI.&
S'1Il Ol"_Taw
SU" ...." til
19. SPANISH MOSS (Tillandsia usenoides)
BALL MOSS ( Tillandsia recurvata)

These two plants are actually not mosses at all!

Do you know what family they belong to?

They are in the Pineapple family (Bromiliads).

Pick up some ball mosses from the ground and pass them around-but be sure to
put them back. Ask children what they think the plant is before you tell them.

Do you think this plant hurts the tree?

It is an epiphyte, which means that it gets the food and moisture it needs
from the air, dust, and rain, and from the organic matter on the surface of the
branches.
It is not a parasite like mistletoe, which has roots that go into the bark
of the tree that it is living on.

NOTE: This section of the woods is a good spot to listen for birds.
Ask children to close their eyes and mouths and listen to see how many
different sounds they can hear.

When you pass back by the Harvester Ants, see if they removed the food you left
for them.

SPANISH MOSS

BALL MOSS
 20. CLIFF ABOVE THE CREEK-HOMES FOR ANIMALS

What animals do you think would find homes in the cliff? Do you see any
homes?
Rock squirrel
ring-tailed cat
raccoon
fox
rats
mice
lizards
snakes
spiders
insects
black vultures
cliff swallows

Ringtail

,-

u
-- -;.----
f

Raccoon
21. PLANTS AROUND THE CREEK

Look at the roots of the live oak. The rock looks hard and dry.

Where does the tree Bet food and water?

The roots reach down through the limestone cracks to find water and
pockets of soil that accumulated in the cracks. Note that the roots
develop bark on the surface of the exposed surfaces for protection.

Look for grape vines (Vitis sp.) hanging down from the trees. Grape family.

There is a walnut Guglans sp.) tree in the middle of the creek. Look for little
walnuts, but put them back for the animals and other students.
Walnut family.

The rough leaf dogwood (Comus drummondii)has opposite simple leaves and
white fruit in the fall. It has clusters of small white flowers in the spring.
Dogwood family.

The plants that live around a creek-even a dry one-are part of the riparian
community. So are the animals that need to live near a creek or river.

("Sp." following the genus name indicates that we are sure of the genus
identification, but not sure which species it is.)

NOTE: On your way back to the bird enclosure area, look for insect
galls on the ground. Ask children what they think they are. They are
small, round and usually brown ho~es for insects.
U ZILKER PRESERVE
At the gate to the Preserve

What is a preserve?
A place for plants and animals that is kept "natural".

Why have a preserve?

It is a home for plants and animals.
It is a place for people to learn about nature.
It is a place for migrating birds, bats, and butterflies to stop on their
journey.

If you could be the manager of a preserve, what rules would you make to keep
it safe for the plants and animals that live there?
Don't pick things.
Don't move things, and if you pick something up, put it back where you
found it.
Stay on the paths.
No dogs in the preserve-they scare the animals and make messes.
No bicycles.
No motorized vehicles.
Leave dead trees on the ground.
u When trees die, leave them standing for animals to make homes in
them.

u
INSECTS AND SPIDERS <INVERTEBRATES) :~

There is no specific stop for these animals, so ask the students to be on the
lookout and to alert you to what they find. There are millions of different kinds,
so even if you don't know the name, you can talk about general characteristics-
exoskeletons, body parts, camouflage and life stages (egg, larval, pupae,
metamorphosis, adult).

Some things that insects do:

eat plants (caterpillars)
bite people and animals (ants)
pollinate flowers (bees and butterflies)
make silk (silk moth)
become food for other animals

Look for evidence of insect activity on plants.

After rain, look for dew drops on spider webs across the trail

FIRE ANTS

Watch out for the imported fire ants that form loose mounds. They swarm out
when the mound is disturbed and bite anyone nearby, so watch out for them!!!
n
We are treating the mounds with a hormone which interrupts their development,
and thus wipes out the colony.

Redlmponed
FireAnr
&lmDpm
i1Wiela
r -II. WhoAmI?

Use this game to reinforce the names of the animals that are found at the Austin
Nature Center.
Equipment: Picture cards on strings
Time: 15-20 minutes
1. Gather the children into a group away from the other ongoing activities
and have them sit down so that they are all facing you.
2. Outline the game briefly, explaining that' the objective is for one
student to guess the name of the animal picture on his back by asking
questions of the rest of the group. With older students the qu\stions
have to be answered with "yes" or "no". Younger ones may ask
open-ended questions; you may have to help them think of questions.
Explain that all the anim~s in the pictures are ones that they might
see in the Austin Nature Center exhibits, on the trails, or in the ponds.
3. Demonstrate the game yourself. Encourage description of the animal,
rather than just guessing the name. Use vocabulary that you would like
them to use.
Do I have 4 legs? Do I have fur? Do I eat insects? Am I larger than a
beetle?
4. Choose a child from,the group and place a picture card on his back. Have
him ask questions of the group until he guesses the animal.

ill. "Meet a ~ee" .

Define boundaries for the game--these will be discussed during the training, but
are always at the discretion of the leaders-consider the Bird Enclosure area.
Divide the children into pairs. One child of each pair will be blindfolded. The
"seeing" student will choose 'a bush or a tree and then,carefully and slowly spin
the blindfolded child to disorient him to direction. The "seeing" student will then
lead his partner to the chosen tree or bush and guide his hands (and nose) in
exploring it. After another careful spin, he is led back to the starting point, the
blindfold is removed, and he must find the tree or bush he was introduced to.
Conclude the actiVity by gathering and discussing:
How did the tree feel?
Were they able to find their tree after they removed their blindfoflds: If so,
how? .
How did it feel to be blindfolded?
Tell the children that if they ever come back to the trails they can visit their tree.
If time permits, discuss ~ of the trees.
Look at the physical characteristics of the tree (size, leaf shape, bark color and
texture, etc.)
Is the tree alive? How can you tell?
Is the tree asleep (dormant)? Or is it awake? How can you tell?
Listen to see if the tree makes any noise.
What living things might need the tree for survival?
What adjectives could be used to describe the tree?
Has the tree had any accidents? How can you tell?
Does the tree make a shadow? How is it different from the tree itself?
IV. ''Nature Bingo"
1. Introduce the Bingo game explaining that students will have to be good
detectives and use their eyes, noses, senses of touch, and their brains, ~
to win.
2. Explain the rules:
a. All items should fit into an egg carton section (meaning they should be
small)
b. Collecting items must not harm anything. Example: Leaves should not be
removed from plants.
c. Every item will be returned, to approximately where it was found.
d. Bingo can be scored vertically, horizontally, diagonally, or students may try
for a "blackout". ,
e. There is to be no running during the game, especially around the pond
area.
f. Boundaries for the search should be clearly stated. (These can be set
at the discretion of the leader. The boundaries will depend on the group.)
g. The students should return with their items when a signal is given.
3. After all questions are answered, give a Bingo card and an egg carton to each
student.
4. Start the children searching.
5. Check their items as they finish and give them a hand stamp as their reward.
·6. After the signal that the game is finished, have the students return each item to
a place close to where it was found. ..
7. Note: For younger students who cannot read, this game can be greatly
simplified.
u
Did you k~ow, ..
In 1775, the rattlesnake was proposed as a symbol of America's 13 colonies. People
who supported this idea thought the rattlesnake would be a good symbol for several
reasons. For example, the snake's segmented tail was thought to be like the colonies:
Each part is independent of the others, but part of the whole.

. , . , Cleopatra, a queen of ancient' Egypt, killed herself by allowing a poisonous snake to

bite her. -

Hannibal, a ruler in North Africa more than 2000 years ago, thought of a way to beat
the Romans ina battle. His idea was to fill pots with snakes and throw the.m onto
enemy ships. The idea workedl When the pots smashed (lnd the snakes crawled
the Romans went into a panic and surrendered.

People once thought the oddest things... ..

According to Hindu legend, the world rests on the back of fmi-elephants that are
\ standing on the back of a giant turtle.
)

u People once thought that salamanders could crawl through fires without bei ng burned.
Some people also thought that salamanders could put fires out as they crawled
through then\.

Legend claims that, long ago, 5a;nt Patrick drove all of the snakes out of Ireland.

In parts of Europe, people once buried dead lizards under their houses to keep witches
aWa!f. '\) .

Marry people who lived in ancient Rome used frogs to try to cure toothaches. They'd
do this by spitting in a frog's mouth and asking it to take the toothache away. ~

In the middle ages, some people thought toads had a magic jewel in their head. If you
wore a ri ng made from one of these jewels, you'd be protected from poison.

~ Some of the Indians that lived along North America's West Coast worshiped a spiri
. ~ they called Frog Woman. According to their legends, Frog Woman created Earth.

Burmese legend says that a frog causes eclipses by swallowing the moon.
~~ • This Information, and more can be found In. Ranger RIck'. Nature Scope
~ by the National Wildlife Federation. .
. .
 \
TURTLES IN TROUBLE: Ten Things You Can Do To Help
Did you know that 100 of the 240 known species of turtles and tortoises in the
world are in need of serious conservation attention? Many of these are on the brink of
extinction.
If you think there is nothing you can do about it, the New York Turtle and Tortoise
Society would like to suggest ten things anyone can do to help. You will not only help
save the turtles in your neighborhood park, but also turtles around the world.

1. LEAVE WILD TURTLES IN THE WILD.: Don't pick up a healthy wild turtle. If your child
brings you one, put it back exactly where it was found. This is a good rule for all turtle
species; many turtles caught in the wild are threatened or endangered.

2. HELP A TURTLE CROSS THE ROAD: Turtles "know· where they are going, so always
place it on the side of the road in the direction It was headed, never on the side it was
coming from. Otherwise, it will very likely return to cross the road again.

3. TAKE AN INJURED TURTLE TO A WILDLIFE REHABILITATOR.: Many injured turtles can

recover --- even from rather devastating injuries. Keep the animal as quiet as possible.
Transport the injured turtle in a dark container with a clean, mOistened towel. Collect
any shell fragments you find in the area. Don't attempt any other first aid. Contact a
local veterinarian, or in Austin call 472-WILD for Wildlife Rescue.

4. HELP ENFORCE LOCAL CONSERVATION LAWS.: Know the laws of your state. Obey
them and report violations to the state fish and game office.

5. DON'T BUY BABY TURTLES.: Young turtles don't make suitable pets because they need
special care and attention. Often pet turtles don't live the average life span of wild
turtles. Pet turtles rarely contribute to the species by reproducing.

6. BE A RESPONSIBLE PET OWNER: Whether you already own an adult turtle or are
planning to acquire one, you should leam as much as possible about that species and its
specific needs. A commitment of time and money Is requlred-a proper set up may cost
up to $100 and some turtles live long lives (longer than their owners at times).

7. DO NOT PURCHASE PRODUCTS MADE FROM TURTlES: All U.S. sea turties are
endangered species, thus all sea turtte products are banned from U.S. markets.

8. PROMOTE HUMANE ENFORCEMENT IN THE COMMERCIAL HOUSING OF TURTLES.: Pet

shop turt1es and turtles raised for human consumption are otten housed Inhumanely.
Such abuses should be reported to the ASPCA.

9. WORK WITH ENVIRONMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS TO SAVE SPECIES AND TURTLE HABITATS.:

Environmental groups with turtte conservation on their agendas: Center for
Marine Conservation, Earth Island Institute, Earthwatch, Greenpeace, the Intemational
Union for the ConseNation of Nature, the Nature Conservancy, the National Audobon
Society, World wildlife Fund, Uftoral Society and Sierra Club.

10. JOIN IN LETTER-WRITING CAMPAIGNS TO PROMOTE TURTLE CONSERVATION: Be

aware of who your congressional representatives are and how they vote. Let them know
how you feel about conservation and turtie protection Issues. n
 ••

I
u
REPTILES-
Unique characteristics
1. Scaly skin
Shared characteristics
1. Vertebrate
2. Cold blooded
3. Lay eggs with ~on, on land (not dependent on water for reproduction)
Other information
1. Hibernate or estivate.
2. Types: I-snakes, IT- turtles, m-lizards, IV-alligators

OO~[F)lJO[b~®
COLD BLOODED or ECI'01HERMIC
Most reptiles generate very little body heat. Their body temperature
reflects the temperature of their surroundings. Therefore, they must depend
on the environment to keep warm or cool. Before the reptile can move,
hunt, or eat, it must be warm enough for the chemical reactions in its body to
convert food to energy. When a reptile is too cool it will seek out a warm
spot, usually in the sun or on a warm rock that has been warmed by the sun.
u If the reptile is too warm it will fmd a shady spot, go under ground, or get in
cool water.
Reptiles can live. in environments where food supplies are sparse or
sporadic. It takes less fuel to maintain a cold blooded animal than it does a
warm blooded one of the same size. (Compare the energy use of a house with
a furnace and AC to a solar heated and air cooled house.)
DORMANCY or HOW REPTILES AVOID TEMPERATURE EXTREMES
1· HIBERNATION - (BRUMATION or winter dormancy) When the
temperature besins to iet cooler reptiles move to placeS that will protect them
. from extremely cold temperatures. Usually they find a spot underground,
underwater, or deep in a cave or crevice. As a reptile's body temperature
drops, its heart and breathing rates slow down, and it can survive a long time
without food.
In the Austin area many reptiles spend wann winter days out in the
sun. You might see turtles near Town Lake and lizards and snakes out on
sunny rocks during a warm spell.
2- AESTIVATION - When it gets vel)' hot in the summer,reptiles find
cool places to stay. Their body temperature drops and their metabolism slows
down (they become torpid). When the outside temperature cools down they
become active a2ain.
;, . - ..

Jacobson's Organ
Snakes and many lizards use their
u tongues to transfer small chemical
particles to the paired "smell-taste"
organs in the roof of their mouths.
Some mammals also have a
Jacobson's organ. The animal
generally curls its lips when
stimulating the organ

Pit Vipers
The heat sensitive organs or "pits"
u on each side of the head give the
snake a stereoscopic view of
thetemperature range of objects (to
1/5 of a degree C) near the head.
These snakes(the rattler,
copperhead, and the cottonmouth)
are thus able to hunt warmblooded Snake Skull
prey in the dark.

Turtle Cross-SectiOD
Note that the backbone is fused to
the shell and that the ribs are wide
and flat. The rigid chest prevents
expansion during breathing. A
set of muscles in the back of the
viscera increases the space
around the lungs so that air will
come in. Then a set of muscles

v under the viscera contract the

organs forward against the lungs
forcing air out again.
I .. ; -'-

SCALES - All reptiles have scales. which consist of keratin- a tough

fibrous protein, covering their skin. Unlike the scales of fish which are
separate, the scales of reptiles are parts of a continuous epidermal sheet.

u Scales provide protection, and may help in defense, concealment, and

locomotion. Some examples of specialized scales are: 1) The eyes of all
snakes are covered by a clear scale that protects them from dirt and sharp
objects since they don't have eyelids. 2) Hognose snakes have horny scales
on their snout to help them root in the dirt for toads. 3) The rattle of a
rattlesnake is a series of specialized (modified) scales and a new segment is
added to the rattle each time the skin is shed. It is used to warn large animals
to stay away. 4) The shell of the turtle is a mobile home.- 5) The toe pads of
geckos which enable them to climb smooth surfaces are modified scales. 6)
Most snakes have enlars,ed underbody scales which assist in locomotion.
In many species of reptiles the scale patterns are unique and can be
smooth scales used to identify thl!m.
SKIN SHEDDING -In snakes and lizards.the tough, sealey skin can't
expand very much. In order to grow, the old skin must be shed when a new
skin has developed underneath it.
~ Snake skins are usually shed in one piece. As the time for the skin to
shed gets close, the skin colors become dull and the scale over the eye looks
~ cloudy. To remove the old skin, the snake rubs his head against something
keeled scales rough to start it peeling, and it rolls off the body like a sock rolling down your
leg.
Lizards usually shed their skin in patches.
The number of times a reptile sheds depends on how much food it is
getting and how fast it is growing. Around Austin snakes usually shed 3 or 4
times a year.
u SCALE GROWTH As turtles and allilators grow, their scales split and
new material is added around the outside, forming ridges. The original scale
is in the center and new growth rings surround it.
REPRODUcnON - Most reptiles lay .IS that are hatched outside the
body. (oviparous) The eggs may be covered with a tough leathery shell, as in
many snakes, lizards and water turtles, or they may be covered with a hard
calcified shell, as in tortoises, crocodilians and many geckos. Reptiles usually
lay their eggs and leave them in dirt or under leaves, or some other place
where they will be protected from weather and predators. Rat snakes, King
snakes, and Hagnose snakes are common snakes that lay their eggs. (The
females of two North American mud snakes coil around their eggs and
remain with them until they hatch.) Not all reptiles lay their eggs.
Some snakes and a few lizards keeJ? the esgs inside their bodies until
they are ready to hatch. (ovoviviparous) Water snakes, rattlesnakes, and
most other members of the pit viper family are examples of reptiles that have
live birth. The eggs are safer inside a snake than left buried somewhere,
because many animals like to eat reptile eggs, especially raccoons and skunks.
Most baby reptiles are able to take care of themselves when they hatch. One
American reptile that takes care of its young is the alligator. The mother
watches over her eggs and protects the young when they are little. Turtles
and most lizards lay their eggs and leave them.
Note: There are several members of the reptile group that are
viviporous, which means that the mother's body provides some of the
nourishment for the developing embryos. In North America the Garter
snake is the only reptile with this reproductive strategy. (There are also some
lizards and snakes in other parts of the world that are viviparous. Many of
these live in cold climates or high altitude
- & ••
u
,~ J8 ~ ~ ~ ®- are one of the most specialized of all reptiles. The body is
a long tube with no legs. In order to be flexible there is a long backbone made
up of many vertebrae (200 to 400) with a pair of ribs on each one. Their shape
lets them get into very small places to hide and to hunt fqr food, but it doesn't
leave much room for internal organs. Snakes have adapted by generally
having only one long functional lung. Paired internal organs may have one
reduced. or they may be offset from one another to fit more easily into the
elongate shape of the body. The stomach is very long, and other organs are
stretched out and staggered along the length of the body. They have no
bladder, which helps them conserve water. The tail is the portion of a snake
behind the vent (anus), and it is sometimes possible to tell which sex they are
by its shape. The tail of the male is thicker and longer and tapers more
gradually than the female whose tall is shorter and more defined.
SENSES in most snakes are designed for detecting objects that are close.
Eyes- The eyes are covered by a clear scale. A snake can focus a little by
moving the entire lens further from or closer to the retina. (Lizards,
mammals and birds can change the shape of the lens to focus clearly.) Their
vision (like our peripheral vision) is quick to pick up movement but lacks
sharp definition of static detail. In other words, they don't see things that are
still as well as they see things that move. The iris opens wide to let in light
when the light is dim, and narrows to keep out bright light during the day.
u Vibration detection - Snakes don't have ears. However, they can feel
ground vibrations through their bodies. The same nerve that is connected to
our ear (auditory nerve) is connected to the snake's lower jaw.
Smell - Snakes have a nose. They also smell by using special organs
located in the roof of the mouth. They stick their tongue out to pick up
smells (small chemical particles) and examine them by bringing the tongue to
the Jacobson's Organs. This method of smelling is very good for detecting
things that are close to the snake. The tongue of a snake or lizard can't hurt
you, and only tickles if it touches you.
Heat sensors- Some snakes have special heat sensors on their head and
body to detect warm blooded animals. Pit vipers (rattlesnakes, copperheads
and water moccasins) have a special pit under each nostril which is lined
with a thin membrane where heat sensors are concentrated. It is, to quote
Alan Tennant, a "stereoscopic infrared scanner". A pit viper can "see" warm
blooded animals in total darkness and often hunts at night, especially in the
summer when it is very hot during the day. Pit vipers also use the pit to find
the warmest places to hibernate during the colder months. Some boas and
pythons have heat sensors on their lips.
 I,

,t-i.:.1,1 S(.lit'S: EATING- Snakes eat animals. No snakes eat vegetables. They can't ct!t
P:: l ::'t'" up their food, and they don't chew their food, so they must swallow their
.'r' ...... .hJ
food whole. Some snakes just grab an animal such as a fish or amphibian n
and swallow it without killing it first. The Hognose snake eats toads and
0·'

• .~- .,j •••

injects a mild poison with its rear fangs that slows the toads reactions.
Reptiles, birds and mammal~ will fight back when grabbed, so many
.. "'~.~.
. -p", .. i snakes have ways of killing their prey before swallowing it. Some snakes
• ~;-:. !Jb..~" ,~,- '''I.. lj~ wrap their body around their prey and hold it very tightly so it can't breathe.
l..", .. ~ •.lrUh
The prey soon dies from lack of oxygen. This method of killing is called
cons triction.
Another way to subdue prey is to poisOn it. The~oison of some snakes
even pre-digests their food. Poisonous snakes have special teeth called fangs
to deliver the poison. Snakes have undifferentiated teeth, other than fangs in
poisonous snakes .
The prey is often larger in diameter than the snake, so the snake pulls
pl'fOCulus up~r I.blotls
itself over its food like a stretchy sock. Swallowing an animal can take a long
l~rl.bl.ls time. A snake's lower jaw can unhinge from its upper jaw and the mouth
can open as wide as the neck skin will stretch. The windpipe, or trachea, is
reinforced with rings of cartilage so the snake can breathe while swallowing.
Head St-alr:s: Snakes can move each half of the lower jaw independently. The teeth slant
.\'l"1t't:71l1mVlIS SllaJ:,:
backwards towards the throat, and by moving first one half of their jaw
forward on the prey , then moving the other half, the snake "walks" food
down its throat. Broken teeth and fan" are quickly replaced.
LOCOMOTION - On the ground there are four ways that snakes move.
Ser.pentine motion is a way of moving on rough terrain. The snake pushes
its body sideways against rocks, sticks, or irregularities on the ground to slide
it along. In concertina motion the snake moves its body like an accordion.
n
First the snake bunches up its body. Next, it holds the back part of its tail in
place and pushes the front part of its body forward. Finally, the snake pulls
poslocul.n
the back part of its body forward. Cate1J?illar motion is used by heavy bodied
swpr.ocul.u J '."lrrIOr Irmporal snakes when they're not in a hurry, such as when hunting. The snake moves
p.tocu!.n ~ .. ! poslfnor Irmporal
in a straight line by pushing forward on the large scutes (belly scales) on the
bottom of the body. The wave of motion that moves along the body of the
snake that is moving this way looks almost like a caterpillar walking.
,
lorral
Sidewindins can be used to move in loose sand, and is only used regularly by
some desert snakes, including the Sidewinder rattlesnake. The snake makes-
an arc with its body and transfers the rest of its body across that are,
meanwhile laying out another arc with its head.
SNAKES IN THE BALANCE OF NATURE - As predators, snakes play
a very important role in the balance of nature. A111ife is connected through a
series of interdependent relationships, one of them being the food chain, or
who eats who. ("Food web" is more a realistic but more complex concept). If
one link of a food chain is taken out, then the whole food chain is altered.
This can drastically change the makeup of plant and animal communities.
As predators, snakes are important links in many food chains. Without
predators, prey animals can become so numerous that they can't all survive
on the amount of food available. Predators help keep things in balance. On
the other hand, the availability of prey animals determines the number of
predators in an area. Before killing or removing an animal, one must
carefully consider the overall effect it will have on the entire community.
 --

SNAKE ADAPTATIONS- Snakes live in many different habitats and

have some special adaptations to help them survive. Water snakes have
.U sensitive areas along the sides of their body to help them find prey in water.
Arboreal (tree) snakes are adapted for climbing. They have long slender
bodies and sharp edges on their belly scales to help them climb. Burrowing
snakes, like the brown and earth snakes, are short, cylindrical, and have a
pointed snout covered by horny scales to help them dig.
LONGEVITY - Small snakes may live around 12 years and large snakes
may live to 40 years in captivity. Uttle is known about longevity in the wild.
LOCAL SNAKES - In Travis county there are 18 species of non-
poisonous snakes that are listed as "common." There are 9 more that are
listed as "uncommon". Some of the more commonly seen non-poisonous
snakes in our area are: Texas Rat Snake, Great-plains Rilt Snake, Hog-nosed
Snake, Rough Green Snake, Bull Snake, Redstripe Ribbon Snake, Checkered
Garter Snake, Flathead Snake, Western Coachwhip, Diamondback Water
Snake and Blotched Water Snake .
Three species of poisonous snakes are listed as "common" in Travis
county - Western Diamondback Rattlesnake, Copperhead and Coral snake.
One, the Western Cottonmouth is listed as "uncommon."
v.-.z..~"I_1I Once understood, snakes become a source of wonder and amazement.
Therefore, a program which points out the marvelous adaptations of snakes,
their behavior and habits, and their place in the balance of nature, will instill
in the children a feeling of intrigue and an appreciation for these amazing
animals. There is no other animal in our programs that attracts as much
attention and interest as a live snake.

u (!D 00 if 11 ~ ® have existed ess~tially unchanged for over 275 million

years, which makes them the oldest ITOYP of air breathins vertebrates alive
todar· Turtles live on all continents except Antarctica. They swim the seas,
survIve arid deserts, live in ponds and rivers, and inhabit almost every
te~estrial environment. They range in size from a few inches to 6 feet, and
weIgh from a few ounces to 1500 pounds.
v
 SHELL- The most distinguishing feature of a turtle is its shell. The top
shell is called the carapace and the bottom is the plastron. They are joined
together by bridges. The shell is made of two parts: an inner structure of fused
bone and a horny (keratin) outer covering called scutes or la~nae. Except in
the leatherback sea turtle, the ribs and backbone are fused to the carapace.
Obviously, a turtle cannot crawl out of its shell. The joints or sutures of the
bones of a turtle's shell do not harden but continue to grow. When the turtle
grows, new keratin is ~dded around the outside of each scute. During seasons
that turtle growth is slow, such as winter or a very dry season, a depression
forms on the growing edges of the scute, and when there is plenty of food and
growth is fast a ridge forms on the growing edge of the scute. The growth
rings formed by these seasonal changes allow us to approximately figure the
age of the turtle. Land turtles txPically have high vaulted shells as a defense
against their predators' crushing jaws. Aguatic turtles have lower. more
streamlined shells that offer less water resistance during swimming.
BREATHING - Being completely encased in an immovable shell
makes breathing difficult, and to inhale a turtle must expand its whole body
cavity. not just the lungs. Some aquatic turtles are able to take oxygen from
water through their skin and gill-like membranes in their mouth and anus.
The amount of time that a turtle can spend under water varies with the
species and the conditions. Species that overwinter underwater in a torpid
state (slow metabolism with slow heart rate) can survive for weeks without
surfacing.
n
SENSES_- Turtles have good eyesight. A turtle swming on a log will
slip into the water before you .get close. The ears are covered to protect them
from water, dirt and bacteria, especially when a turtle is underwater or
underground. They can't hear airborne sounds very well, but can hear well
underwater. Turtles have a nose and probably a good sense of smell.
, - 4 JJ REPRODUcnON - Turtles lay their eggs in sand or soft soil, where the
~..& r(~ female digs a hole with her rear legs. Some turtle eggs are !=Overed with a
~. ~ leathery shell and others with a hard shell Warmed by the sun, the eggs
. d~ hatch in several months. Females often lay two clutches of eggs a year, and
Q1,it{.~~~kJ~" may require fertilization only every two or three years. Females travel in
.::.u--- t5I search of a good place to lay their eggs. Males often have a concave shaped
~ I~ plastron to make mounting the female easier. The size of males and females
eye':J . . is different in some species of turtles, and in many there is a difference in
length and size of the tall. In a few species there are slight color differences;
for example, usually the male box turtle has red eyes. and the female. brown.
Turtles dontt take care of their young and they must care for themselves.
FEEDING BEBAVIOR - Because of their slow speed most land turtles
eat vegetation, insects, and insect larva. Aquatic turtles eat plants and swim
fast enough to catch small aquatic animals. The alligator snapping turtle has
a worm-like projection on its tongue to lure fish within striking range.
Turtles have no teeth. but their horny beak and strong jaws are very effective
for tearing their food into bite size pieces.
u PROTECTION - The shell provides excellent protection from predators
and the environment. Box turtles have a hinged plastron which doses so
tight that when it pulls in its head, legs, and tail, no part of the turtle is
exposed except the hard shell. This not only offers excellent protection from
predators but protects the turtle from loss of moisture. Not all turtles have a
shell that shuts up completely. Some large and aggressive turtles have less
shell, and some have a leathery shell. But all turtles have their portable
home, and it has been a successful way to live, according to the .fossil record.
LIFE SPAN - Turtles live for a long time. The Ornateoox turtle,
common around Austin, lives to be 50 years old with a record age of 123 years
in captivity. Aquatic turtles probably don't live as long
BALANCE OF NATURE - Land turtles eat berries, flowers, and plants.
Water turtles eat small fish, tadpoles, frogs, and insects as well as water plants.
Eggs and young turtles are prey to many animals, including mammals, birds,
crayfish, and snakes. Of the many young that turtles produce, only a few
reach maturity.
COMMON TURTLES - Around the Austin area the Ornate and
Eastern Box turtles may be found. The most common aquatic turtles are the
Red-eared Slider and the Texas Slider.
TURTLES AS PETS - Since turtles are so easily captured they are often
kept as pets. However, it is not easy to give the turtle the wide variety of food
it needs to remain healthy and many captive turtles become ill and die. If
caught they should be observed and enjoyed briefly, then returned to the area
where you found them.

u
~ ~0 IA 00 ID} ~ - Lizards are a diverse group of reptiles with wide
~~i}~~~- distribution. Most are tropical, but many occur in temperate climates. In the
New World they are found from Canada to the tip of Argentina.
Most lizards are active during the day and live on land. They are
found in the fossil record from the Triassic period to the present, and ..
I

represent the largest living group of reptiles.

. SIZE -They range in size from a tiny gecko less than 3 inches to the
giant Komodo Dragon Lizard that may be 10 feet long.
SKIN - One of the most distinctive features of lizards is their horny
skin folded into scales. Scales vary greatly in appearance from small and
granular to large and plate-like. They may be smooth or have ridges (keels).
The scaled skin is thick and tough; it provides protection, prevents water loss,
and helps in taking up heat from the sun. When the skin is shed it usually
comes off in sections. The alligator lizard is one of the exceptions, where the
skin is shed in one piece. Sometimes scales are modified into sharp spines.
The spiny skin usually found on desert species helps in defense and also
prevents moisture loss and overheating.
TONGUE - The tongue is well developed ~ all lizards and attached at
the back of the oral cavity. The tongue may be long and forked, short and
broad, or very long and sticky. Many lizards have a Iacobson's organ for
sensing chemical information collected by the tongue. ~
 on

JAW - The bones of the lower jaw are united. so food items must be
less than the width of the head. Most lizards have teeth and these are usuallv
~~~U~ J

EARS - The external ear opening is usually visible and hearing is good.
EYES - There is a movable eyelid in most species. Most have good
eyesight.
LEGS - Most lizards have four legs. with five toes on each foot. The
legs may be short or long, slender or stout, depending on ttte life style of the
animal. In a few the legs are tiny or absent. Lizards may crawl, run, leap,
glide, dig, or slither. There is even a desert skink that swims through the
sand. Some have a prehensile tail to help them hang onto rocks and
branches.
TAIL - Some species of lizards are able to lose their tail in order to
tt
escape a predator. There is a special "weak spot between certain vertebrae,
.where the tail breaks off. The wiggling detached tail keeps the attention of the
predator while the lizard escapes. When a lizard loses its tail a new one
eventually grows in its place. The length of time it will take to grow depends
on the season and the amount of food available. A new tail usually looks
different from the original tail.
FEEDING - Only a few lizards eat plants. Most eat insects and small
animals.
REPRODUcnON - Fertilization occurs inside the body. Most lizards
lay their eggs. but a few retain the eggs until hatching. Most don't care for
their young, but a few take care of their eggs and defend their young.
DEFENSE - The most effective way to avoid being eaten is not to be
~. Many lizards exhibit patterns and coloration that blend in with their
backgr~und (camouflase). Some can even change their color to match the

-.. \
background. Many can run fast, or climb well or slip into narrow spaces to
avoid predators. Some live underground, others move around at night, and
a few play dead to discourage, or evade the notice of, a predator. Lizards with
very spiny skin may be hard for a predator to bite.
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR - Many lizards use threat displays to indicate
l territorial ownership or aggressive intent. Color changes, body inflation and
" push-ups, jaw gaping, tail waving, and species-specific head movements are
important signals. Combat sometimes occurs when defending a territory or
mate. Courting behavior is an important part of the mating ritual. Young
lizards sometimes remain together after hatching. Uzards often bask in the
sun.
LONGEVITY - Life span is variable. Some species have lived more
than SO years in captivity.
LOCAL LIZARDS - The most common.lizards around the Austin area
are the Green Anole, Fence Lizard, and Alligator Lizard .. The greatest threat
to lizards is the loss of habitat due to human activities. In some places dogs
and cats are a problem for lizard populations.
-0 What is Herpetology? Herpetoculture? Herping?

Herpetology is the study of amphibians, reptiles, turtles, and

crocodilians. 'Herpetos' is a Greek word meaning 'creeping' - all
of the creeping vertebrates apparently were lumped together in
one field of study, even though a frog is as different from a
snake as a monkey is from a hummingbird.

One can be gainfully employed as a herpetologist and work at a

university or a museum, studying the taxonomy, physiology,
ecology, and other aspects of creeping things. You can also go
out to a vernal pool and watch frogs and salamanders
reproduce and thereby study herpetology.

"The current definition of herpetoculture is the captive

husbandry and propagation of amphibians and reptiles; in more
popular terms, it is "the keeping and breeding of
herps"... Herpetoculture is an interdisciplinary field which can
involve knowledge of herpetology, botany, small-scale open-
system design, nutrition, geography, climatology, physiology,
veterinary medicine, landscaping, etc. By the same token,
herpetoculturists are a diverse lot of people from all walks of life
and from a wide range of professions. A small number of people
are professional herpetoculturists, meaning that herpetoculture
is their primary source of income."

Philippe de Vosjoli, Herpetoculture In A Changing World, Vivarium

Magazine.

Herping, or Field Herping, is the act of putting on your hiking

boots, dropping a sack lunch, a camera and a field guide in your
knapsack, and heading outdoors to see herps (amphibians,
reptiles, turtles, and crocodilians) where they live. Oftentimes it
means getting wet, cold, muddy, exhausted, sunburned, or lost,
but that's all part of the fun. The results can be enormously
satisfying - seeing a rattler coiled on a ledge, watching a
salamander crawl to a vernal pool, listening to the frog chorus
on a rainy spring night. In doing so, you can also visit some of
the most beautiful places on earth.

Field herping is growing in popularity, and field herpers are

starting to organize and hang out together. You can meet fellow
field herpers on the Field Herp Forum
u (www.fieldherpforum.com ).
 • • I-
• • ~ " " J .: ~ ~ • r "

, L.-::'. -~~:~--:<CLL~=:J~ ,. ·
. .

ORDER: Squamata
FAMILY: Agamidae
GENUS: Pogona
SPECIES: vitticeps

i._••..__ o_., •• _.~ .._ ,.h. __ ... _ _. ___ nO •• _,_ __. • • _ _ _ ._._._. '''- _ '~'''_'''''''___ __ •• _ _ _ _._._ . . _ ... _ ...... _~_._._._ ............ __ ........ _ •• _ ..... _ •• _ •••••••••

I. DESCRIPTION:
This unusual mid-sized stocky agamid lizard has prominent spines along its sides and a large, essentially
triangle-shaped head. Forming a sort of shield around the snout is a spiney jaw pouch which, when swollen,
looks like a beard and makes any predator think twice before attacking. This wide-ranging species shows
considerable geographic variation; its basic color varies from shades of brown, gray, and reddish-brown to bright
U orange. The ventral surface ranges from pale to dark gray, with white elongated spots edged with black. Mature
males have dark "beards" which become black during courtship and breeding. Adults can grow as large as ten
inches in body length or two feet in tota1length, including the tail. Males are larger than females.

II. GEOGRAPHICAL RANGE AND HABITAT:

These lizards are native to Central Australia. They prefer semi-arid to arid woodland habitats. Time is spent both
on the ground and in trees. They may be found perched on bush branches and even on fence posts.

III. DIET:
Bearded dragons are omnivorous and consume many types of insects, small vertebrates, and vegetation including
fruits and flowers.

IV. LIFE CYCLE/SOCIAL STRUCTURE:

Sexual maturity is reached at one to two years of age. Mature females typically lay clutches of eleven to sixteen
oblong leathery eggs in early summer. The eggs are laid in nests dug in sandy soil and the unattended young
hatch 3 months later.

V. SPECIAL ADAPTATIONS:
A bulky body and the habit of basking allows them to store heat, making it possible to operate at lower
temperatures than other lizards. They can also survive higher temperatures for several hours, since they can
regulate body temperature by evaporation. .

VT T1\lTERPRETIVE INFORMATION:
U When intimidated, they flatten their bodies and stand erect with mouth gaping. The light-colored mouth lining,
spines bordering the lower jaw and puffed-out blackish beard give a formidable appearance. This defensive
display has earned these lizards the common name of "bearded dragon".

Aggressiveness to other members of the group is shown through "body language". The tip of the tail is slightly
 curved at the end and the head is bobbed rapidly. Submission is signaled by rotating the arms in a full circular ~,,/
motion, which looks a bit like waving. Ritualistic sparring matches take place in which both animals are in flat . /
postures, beards .and tails up and outward; they circle each other, biting at one another's iail; but Usually no .
damage is done. .

Their ability to change shades of color, from light to dark, helps them to regulate body temperature. Color
changes can also depend on emotional state, and may also be used for concealment. When injured, sick, or dying
the back becomes black and the legs pale yellow.

Australian desert lizards often make their escape by rising on their hind legs and running bipedally. They cannot
run as fast as when using four feet, but perhaps this behavior aids in temperature control. They lift their bodies
from the hot ground to lose the heat they generate in running. This reduces the amount of heat they take in from
the ground and increases the cooling airflow over their bodies.

VII. STATUS IN WILD:

Not considered endangered or threatened.

Vlll. BIBLIOGRAPHY:
1. Encyclopedia of Reptiles, Amphibians, and other Cold-Blooded Animals. Burton, Maurice. 1975.· Octopus
Books Ltd, PP 160-161..
2. "The ~nland Bearded Dragon" ,The Vivarium, Vol. 4, No.5., Mar/Apr 1993.
3. "The Social Life of Bearded Dragons". Zoonooz, June/July, 1995. San Diego Zoo.

1--

• ~~2
~ E-mail
The

~
Zoo

www.oaklandzoo.org
copyright © 1997 - 2003 all rights reserved
u

hisbaenia

[The Jacobson's organ] M~~u [Photo credits] [Search]

u
The amphisbaenians or "worm lizards" are the third suborder of the
squamata. A bit strange; amphisbaenians have features that link .
them to both lizards and snakes: yet have enough of their ovvn
derived features to leave them as a separate suborder.

The have 4 families comprising 18 genera and a total of about 160

species. Amphisbaenians have adapted themselves to both an above
and below ground existence. Below is the family menu. As soon as I
can get some good information on these squamatans, there will be
more.
-------------- ._--_..•_--_. __.... - - - - - -

I Family Menu
ITrogonophidae
ISipedidae
IRhineuridae
IAmphisbaenidael

u
FEATURE OF
THE MONTH

Snakes and
Qthe_t:
R~ptU~s
Amphisbaenian
How reptiles live Amphisbaenian (AM fihs BAY nee uhn), also known as worm lizard, is any of a group of
Types of reptiles
wormlike, burrowing reptiles related to lizards and snakes. About 150 amphisbaenian
species live in warm regions around the world, largely in Africa, South America, and
southern North America.
Amphisbaenian

Adult amphisbaenians range from about 3 to 30 inches (8 to 76 centimeters) long. All

species have long bodies with tiny eyes. An amphisbaenian's thick, bony skull helps It dig
tunnels through the soil. Its loose skin enables it to travel underground using rectilinear
L!:zar~
motion. In this motion, the reptile moves part of its skin forward and anchors it against
the tunnel walls. It then uses muscles to move the rest of its body forward with the skin.
Most amphisbaenians have no limbs. However, three Mexican species have well-developed
front limbs with toes and claws for digging.

Amphisbaenians usually lay eggs, but a few kinds give birth to live young. All species are
effective predators, using good hearing and strong jaws to find and capture prey. The
reptiles feed primarily on such small animals as worms and insects.
Related Web sites

Interesting facts Scientific classification. Amphisbaenians belong to the order Squamata in the class
Reptilia. They make up the suborder Amphisbaenia.

An amphisbaenian has a long, wormlike bOdyn

and tiny eyes. It spends most of its life
underground in tunnels that It digs through the
soil. Amphisbaenians inhabit many warm
regions.

©Jany Sauvanet, Photo Researchers

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• @2005 World Book .. Inc. All rights resen·ed. WORLD BOOK and the
...::~ GLOBE DEVICE are registered trademarks or trademarks of World Book. Inc.
u
1'~/1
~nimalS 0 The Florida Scrub

Florida worm lizard

Rhineura floridana
Not a lizard, not a snake, and certainly not a
worm, the peculiar Florida worm lizard is a
burrower that occurs only in dry habitats in
central Florida. (Taxonomically, it's a
member of the Amphisbaenia, one of three
suborders of squamate reptiles, the other two
being lizards and snakes.) Highly adapted for
a life underground, the worm lizard's eyes are
covered over with scales and the snout is
wedge-shaped and very rigid for pushing through the sand. Worm lizards
(they get up to 12" long) are actually not uncommon but they stay
11'1derground and are rarely seen.
U
The Florida
worm lizard is
the only
amphisbanian
native to the
United States.
Other, distantly
related, species
occur in Africa
and Central and
South America. Fossils tell us that the closest relative of the Florida
worm lizard lived in the North American Great Plams 25 million years
ago. They have since gone extinct everywhere except central Florida.

~
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8of14

Fact~~Tracks
Return to The .F1Qridq Scrub
Amphisbaenia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Worm lizards ()
Suborder Ampbisbaenia is a group of peculiar, usually legless squamates distantly related Cretaceous - R~ .t
to lizards and snakes, in spite of their resemblance to wonns (many possessing a pink body
color and scales arranged in rings). They are very poorly known, due to their burrowing
lifestyle and general rarity. Only one species exists in the US, with most of them prevailing
in Africa and South America. Little is known of them outside of their anatomy, and even that
is difficult to study due to the mechanics of dissecting something so small (most species are
less than 6 inches long).

The head is stout, not set off from the neck, and either rounded, sloped, or sloped with a
Kingdom: Animalia
ridge down the middle. Most of the skuI1 is solid bone, and they have a distinctive single
median tooth in the upper jaw. They have no outer ears, and the eyes are deeply recessed and Phylum: Chordata
covered with skin and scales. The body is elongated, and the tail truncates in a manner that Class: Sauropsida
vaguely resembles the head. Their name is derived from Amphisbaena, a mythical serpent Order: Squamata
with a head at each end. Suborder: Ampbisbaenia
Gray, 1844
The skin of amphisbaenians is only loosely attached to the body, and they move using an
accordion-like motion, in which the skin moves and the body seemingly just drags along
behind it. Uniquely, they are also able to perform this motion in reverse, just as effectively. Amphisbaenidae
Trogonophidae
References .
"t\ ev'('.:\. - ~llH"~:·Wc.. c- '.

• Wu X.-c., D. B. Brinkman, A. P. Russell, Z.-m. Dong, P. J. Currie, L.-h. Hou, & G.-h. Cui (1993). "Oldest known \ '~.\
amphisbaenian from the Upper Cretaceous of Chinese Inner Mongolia." Nature 366: 57-59. I )

Retrieved from ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphisbaenia''

Category: Squamata

• This page was last modified 14:35, 14 August 2006 .

• All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License.
(See Copyrights for details.)
Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.
Dave's Amphisbaena
Mythical
Creatures
0d
Places
-----

.HomePage
----,
Description A serpent with two heads, and eyes that glow. From the Greek "goes both ways. "

Features If cut in half, both halves will rejoin. If the heads hold each other, the amphisbaena
can roll along like a hoop. Wearing a live amphisbaena is said to help in pregnancy,
d/P-Izabetical Index and wearing a dead one will help rheumatism. Might actually be an Indian Sand
Boa.

Also called Amphista, Amphivena

Mother of ants (it feeds on ants.)

Described By: Pliny- "the amphisbaena has a twin head, that is one at the tail end as well, as
though it were not enough for poison to be poured out of one mouth. "
u
Sir Thomas Browne- " a smaller kind ofSerpent, which movethfonvard and
backward, hath n1'O heads... Which double formations do often happen Zlnto
multiparous generations, more especia/(v that ofSerpents; whose productions being
numerous, and their Eggs in chains or links together (which sometime conjoyn and
inoculate into each other) they may unite into various shapes and come out in mixed
formations." (Pseudodoxia Epidemica)

Lilzks There are 158 different species of worm lizards in the zoological suborder
Amphisbaenia. One of these species is probably the origin of this legend. An
excellent herpetological resource is the EMBL Reptile Database, which has all of
the different species listed and pictures. http://www.embl-
h~Jg.~IQ~rg.g~~~.I.~t?ff~J.1]jJJ.~~(Amph.i.~R.~~ni4~. .h.tmJ

u Tt:nm of Use - Copyright - Privacy Policy

Thanks to eAudrey for this space. For information about making your own soap. visit her site:
 Amphisbaenian Diversity Notes
by Dr. Carl Gans

\[ ?US authors place these animals in the middle of the Sauria close to the snakes or Scleromorpha or Dibamidae. I do
n~etknow.

Skull forms head shape. Premax teeth azygous. Also egg-tooth. Tabulosphenoid. Annuli often continuous. Caudal
autotomy, but no regeneration. Caudal tip Inay be modified. Hemipenes. Left lung only. Variously egg-laying and
viviparous.

Four families:

1. Bipedidae. Three species.

o Baja California. Continental Mexico.

o No fossil record. Skulls, rounded, suggest primitive status. Dentition pleurodont. Annuli interrupted.
Retain hypertrophied forelimbs

o Molecular study suggested three very distinct lines.

o Hemipenes, similar to Rhineuridae.

o Chromosomes, similar to Rhineuridae.

2. Rhineuridae
U
o One recent species in Florida. There are many American fossils, since Paleocene of western North
America--several genera (families). The earliest are the closest to Amphisbaenids.

o Spade-snouted, caudal boss, no autotomy.

o Vertebrae with ossified tendons.

o Pleurodont.

o Vanzolini, 1951, erected subfamily Rhineurldae of Amphisbaenidae which included the spade-snouted
members of the African and South American radiations. These are not included here.

3. Amphisbaenidae

o Includes approxinlately 140 species of fairly elongate animals.

Two South American fossils, Pleistocene.
Two Kenyan fossils, Miocene.

o South America, Panama to Patagonia, Greater Antilles, Africa from Senegal to Cape Region, from here to
Somalia; not found in Uganda, Sudan, Sahara, Ethiopia.

·0 Africa
U One major spade-snouted radiation.
One or two keel-headed radiations.

o South America
One or two spade-snouted radiations.
 One keel-headed radiation.

o Skulls with regular braincase but facial portion modified.

o Pleurodont.

o Autotomy or not.

o Skull modification correlates with density and depth of soils occupied

o One very primitive genus, Blat!~s, has six species in Spain, South Morocco-Algeria, Syria to Turkey, and
Iraq. Jaw not recessed, 1: 1 dermal:vertebral ratio.

o Fossil record of this genus into Belgium, France, Switzerland, and Italy.

4. Trogonophidae

o Four genera: Trogonophis from Morocco to Algeria. Diplometopodon from Transjordan to Iran to Saudi
Arabia. Pachycalaumun, Socotra. Agamodon. Arabia - Somalia.

o Sand specialists: these dig by nuchal oscillation.

o Trunk triangular or beam-shaped in cross-section.

o Dentition acrodont Body shortened, including nuchal vertebrae.

o Genus Trogonophis retains an epipterygoid strut. This is unique iIi the Amyphisbaenia. Same fossil
elements? From Africa? n
Limbless Locomotion

-Use of friction.

-Burrowing - How?

-Ecology of burrowers. Depth. Length of animal. Moist soils - hardness.

References

Estes, R., and G. Pregill (eds.). 1988. Phylogenetic re'ationships of the lizard families. Stanford University Press,
Stanford.

Gans, C. 1974. Biomechanics: an approach to vertebrate biology. J. B. Lippincott Co.

Gans, C. 1978. The Characteristics and Affinities of the Amphisbaenia. Trans. Z601. Soc. London 34:347-416. (This
summarizes the characteristics of the individual species and genera. It documents that most of the characteristics have
only been determined for a few species.)

ll~c;.k to Herpetology Home Page

First online March 27, 1997.
Added 1 February 2003

Family Amphisbaenidae
Uoduction

The family Amphisbaenidae contains by far the largest number of genera and species of the suborder Amphisbaena.
The following is a list of the genera and their general characteristics and distribution.

Please note that due to the general paucity of readily available knowledge about these creatures, this list is an ongoing
work and will probably take some time to complete. Links will be provided from genus names to a list of their species
when such information is available.

QUICK INDEX
Amphi.~b.(I~.r.1{1 Anc.yc/ocranillnl Anops
Aulura .B.a.ikiq BI01JJIS
l,3.rpniQ c.~.rcJ)!gphia .(;h.~r.i!JC!jq

{)!11i~ca /2qjgpjli,g Q~Qcalqm7ls

.~gp,g§ler!1Q11 LJ1J!!ff.f..gge..q ~1~:qpaenq

~fQ./J.Jl/!.e/lis BJ.J.i.1Jgurq ?J'EQ~P-M.

Genus Common Name No. of Distribution Notes

species
Amphisbaena 66 Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Guiana, Mainly South America (not Chile),
Surinam, French Guiana, Peru, Bolivia, also Caribbean
U Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, Trinidad,
Ecuador, Argentina, Puerto Rico, Cuba,
Hispaniola, Virgin Islands
.., E African genus
Ancyclocranium Sharp-Snouted .J Tanzania, Somalia and Ethiopian
Worm Lizards
Anops 2 Brazil, Uruguay, Argentina

Aulura 1 Brazil
Baikia 1 Nigeria and Cameroon

Blanus 4 Morocco, Portugal, Spain, W Turkey, Mostly Moroccan

Greece (Rhodos, Kos, Cyprus),
Lebanon, pOSSe Israel (but may be
extinct), Syria, N Iraq
Bronia 9 N.S America, Ecuador, Colombia,
N Peru, Brazil, Bolivia, Caribbean,
Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam, French
Guiana ?, Trinidad, Tobago ?, Paraguay,
Argentinia
Cercolophia 4 Brazil, Argentina, Bolivia

Chirindia Pink Round- 5 Tanzania, Republic of South Africa, Rounded head with extensive fusion of
Headed Worm Zimbabwe, Mozambique head shields (usua))y the nasal, 1st
upper labial and prefrontal, and
Lizards sometimes other shields, are all fused
behind the rostral into 1-2 large
1 ) shields).
Cynisca 17 Congo, Sierra Leone, Guinea-Bissau,
Gambia, Nigeria, Gabon, Ghana, Ivory
Coast, Togo, Benin, Burkina Faso,
Central African Republic, Liberia,
Cameroon, Senegal, probably in S Mali
 ~

Dalophia Blunt-Tailed 7 Angola, Zambia, Namibia, Botswana,

Worm Lizards Zimbabwe, Caprivi Strip, Congo,
Republic of South Africa, Mozambique ,
Geocalamus Wedge-Snouted 2 Kenya, Tanzania Compressed snout, well-developed
pectoral shields.
Worm Lizards ()
Leposternon 6 Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, Mainly Brazilian genus
N Argentina
Loveridgea Round-Snouted Tanzania Slender and small. Long conical heads,
Worm Liz.ards snout compressed and very bent.

Mesobaena 1 Venezuela, Colombia

Monopeltis Spade-Snouted 19 Angola, N Namibia, Botswana, Congo, Large species, found mainly in Congo.
Worm Lizards Republic of South Africa, S Broad horizontal-shaped snout covered
Mozambique, SE Zimbabwe, Gabon, with 1-2 large horny shields. Nasals
Cameroon, Congo, Rio Muni, Malawi are always separated by rostral.
Pectoral region usually has enlarged
long smooth shields. Body is
cylindrical with <300 annuli counted
along the belly.
Rhineura 1 USA (Florida, Georgia) Sometimes counted as a separate
family, the Rhineuridae
Zygaspis Purple Round- 6 Zimbabwe, Zambia, Angola, Namibia, Small and stout species: distinct nasal,
Headed Worm Botswana, Congo, Mozambique, prefrontal and ocular scales.
Republic of South Africa
Lizards

Bibliography

Amphibians and Reptiles of North Africa, W Kastle, H H Schleich and K Kabisch, Koeltz Scientific Books, German
1996. Outstanding review ofN African herpetofauna giving detailed account of each species. '

Field Guide to the Reptiles of East Africa by Stephen Spawls, Kim Howell, Robert Drewes and James Ashe. Detailed
and invaluable review of all reptile species in the region.

Snakes and other Reptiles of Southern Africa, Bill Branch, Struik. Very good overview of all reptiles in the region with
identification details.

Links

Back to Anlphisbaenians I J3~ck to Re}Ltiles l.a~J~lt!Q._H~rp~J91Qgy I Back to HomePfl.g~

Added I February 2003. Last updated 30 December 2004: added link to Trogonophis.

Trogonophidae
uus Common Name No. of
species
.,
Distribution Notes

Agamodon :J Somalia, Yemen

Diplometopon I W Iran, S Iraq, Kuwait, N Saudi Arabia,
Oman, United Arab Emirates
Pachycalamus 1 Yemen
Trogonophis I Morocco, N Algeria, we Tunisia

Bibliography

Amphibians and Reptiles of North Africa, W Kastle, H H Schleich and K Kabisch, Koeltz Scientific Books, Germany
1996. Outstanding review ofN African herpetofauna giving detailed account of each species.

u
Added 1 February 2003

Bipedidae
.;,

Genus Common No. of Location Notes

Name species
Bipes 4 Mexico This is the only amphisbaenian genus to have legs, namely two
short ones with hand-like appendages at the front.

This family consists of the single genus above. Remarkably for this group of animals, each species has two hands that
actually seem larger than the limbs joining them to the body: the number of digits on each hand can be used as a guide
to the species. Few details are available on the reproductive biology of the genus, but it is known that clutches of 1-4
eggs are laid.

Carl J Franklin has written a fascinating and useful article at wYiw.kings.nru~~ . .~_Q!:n about his search for Bipes biporus,
and on the biology and captive care of the Bipes species.

Species Common Distribution Size Notes

Name
Bipes
B. alvarezi Mexico Not always considered a separate species.
B. biporus Mole Lizard, Mexico (Baja California) 9~" This species has five digits on each hand.
Ajolote

B. canaliculatus
[Mex.]
Mexico 4- This species has four digits on each hand.
( - "'IIi

4~1t

B. c. canaliculatus

B. c. multiannualatus

B. tridactylus Mexico This species has three digits on each hand.

Back to Amphisbaenians I Back to Reptiles I Back to Herpetolog): I Back to HomePage

 ~dded 1998? Last updated 1 February 2003: updated text and added links to Amphisbaenidae, Trogonophidae and Bipedidae pages.

THE KEEPING AND MAINTENANCE OF

AMPIDSBAENIANS

Amphisbaenians are perhaps the least known of the reptiles, even more obscure than the tuatara. They are also known
as "worm lizards", and constitute a suborder of their own within the Order Squamata (the lizards and snakes), but in
appearance and structure are actually not closely related to the lizards. Amphisbaenians are normally two feet long at
most and resemble giant earthworms, with the obvious difference that as vertebrates they have a bone structure. In this
aspect they resemble the caecilians, their counterparts in the Class Amphibia. It is true that there are legless lizards, but
the amphisbaenians also differ in having a reduced right lung, a much greater degree of bone in the skull as opposed to
cartilage, which is more prevalent in lizard skulls, and scales which are arranged in rings known as annuli around the
body (hence the earthworm appearance). As with many burrowing animals, the eyes have become reduced to vestigial
status.

There are 130 species of amphisbaenians, divided among three families: the Bipedidae, Trogonophidae and
Amphisbaenidae. A fourth family, the Rhineuridae, comprising one species, Rhineura, is now generally considered part
of the Amphisbaenidae. The three Bipedidae species have a pair of reasonably well-developed hands on very short legs
near the head, but otherwise amphisbaenians have no external limbs visible. The name amphisbaenian, roughly
translated, means" going both ways", a reference to the fact that some of these creatures can in fact move backwards
and also to the difficulty in visually ascertaining at fIrst glance which way round the creature is pointing.

~sbaenians are rarely seen in the pet trade, even among exotics: in fact I have never seen one offered for sale,
either in a shop or at a fair. Come to think of it, I don't even recall seeing one at London Zoo or any other such institute.
Part of this is probably due to their low display value: after all, a creature that spends all its time hidden in a substrate
(literally burrowing, as opposed to the mere digging in of some lizards) is hardly likely to make a good talking point.
- .Amphisbaenians are also not exactly con1fl1on in nature: confined to tropical and sub-tropical parts of America and
Africa, plus the south of Spain and Portugal, their lifestyle makes them hard to find, much less catch in nun1bers for the
pet trade. But as in the case of caecilians, one might consider this a pity in some ways. The very lack of information we
have on these strange reptiles will hopefully be a spur to some individuals to make further studies.

According to Mattison, care of captive amphisbaenians is actually fairly easy. The main requirement is a substrate
several inches deep of sand, sandy soil or leaf-litter, depending on the creature's area of origin. A heat pad is placed
under one end of the tank to allow limited thermoregulation. In some cases a flat rock with a moist area underneath is
also provided. Food will be in the form of normal invertebrates - crickets, mealworms, waxworms and earthworms-
dropped into the tank. These can be allowed to run about as the amphisbaenian will consume them from underneath the
surface. For this reason, Mattison also warns that no other reptiles of any sort should be kept in a tank with an
amphisbaenian, as the larger amphisbaenians are certainly carnivorous and will consume ~ead rodents or canned pet
food. Rundquist recommends pinkie or furry mice offered every other week and once or tWice a n10nth supplement~d
with a liquid multivitamin at a dosage of 0.1 cc vitamins per 440 g body weight of captive. Lean beef or horsen~eat IS
also apparently acceptable. He also warns against feeding frozen fish to amphisbaenians, a tendency he has noticed.

Information on individual species is very thin. In an effort to redress the balance, and to .make ~l~e amphisbaenians ~ore
accessible to herpetophiles and the general public, we offer what data w~ can o~ the .baslc famlhes and genera of thiS
sul- ·der. However, this will take some time to complete. Apart fron1 USIng the InestImable EMBL datab~se to check
th~ecies names and origins, all other data has come from field guides to certain areas (so far, only Afnca and
Europe).

For Iuore infonuation on the various amphisbaenian species, please click on one of the family links below.
Aplp-his.b~~mc.l.~~ Worm Lizards.
T.rQgQJlQl1hl~tae Short-Headed Worm Lizards
,B.j.p.-'~Jli4~~ Two-Legged Worm Lizards
n
The Hej4.~lberg zoolQgy sit~ has some generic data on the order, its families and species. This is rather dry but useful
taxonomic classification material, especially as it gives the place of origin for each species.

Back to Rep-tiles I B~ck loH~rpetQIQgy I Ba~·kl0 l-l.om.~Page.

n
 •
Austin Science and Nature Center
Animals in English/Spanish
u Mammals- Mamiferos
Bat- murcielago
Rabbit- conejo
Ferret- huron
Cat- gato
Dog- perro
Deer- ciervo
Raccoon- mapacbe
Rat/Mouse- raton
Coyote- coyote
Fox- zorro
Skunk-mofeta
Opossum-zarigfieya
Bobcat- liDce 0 gato montes
Coati-coati
Ringtail-ringtall
Armadillo- Armadillo

Birds-Pajaros
Bird- Pajaro, Ave
Bird of Prey-Pajaro de la presa
u Owl-biibo, lechuza
HawkIFalcon- balcon
Eagle-Aguila

Reptile-Reptiles
Lizard- Lagarto
Alligator-Caiman
Turtle-Tortuga
Tortoise-Tortuga de tierra
Iguana-Iguana
Bearded Dragon-Dragon barbado

Arthropods-Artropodos
Insects-Insectos
Cockroach-Cucaracha
Butterfly- Mariposa
Fly-Mosca
Flea-Pulga
Caterpillar-oruga
Egg-huevo
Pupa-pupa
Larva-larva
u
 ..,

Adult- adulto
Metamorphasis-metamorfosis
Spiders-arafias
Worm-gusano
Tarantula-Tarantula
Millipede-milpies
Centipede-ciempies
Scorpion-escorpion
Hermit crab-cangrejo ermitaiio
Crab-cangrejo
Crayfish- cangrejo de rio
Lobster- langosta

Amphibian-Anfibios
Frog-Ran a
Toad-Sapo
Salamander-salamandra
Tiger salamander-salamandra tigre

Fish-Pescado

Meat eater-Come carne

Plant eater-Come plantas
Insect eater-Come insectos
 •
Austin Science and Nature Center
SpanishlEnglish Phrases

U Bienvenidos al Centro de Naturaleza y Ciencia de Austin.

Welcome to the Austin Science and Nature Center.

Me llamo----
My name is _ _ _ __

<.Como te llamas?
What is your name?

Por favor sientense alrededor de la carpeta.

Please sit down around the carpet.

Por favor quedense en la linea.

Please stay in line.

Follow me.
Siganme.

Buenos dias.
Good morning.

Buenas tardes.
U Good aftemooon.

<.Como estas?
How are you?

Estoy bien.
I am good.

Gracias.
Thank you.

De nada.
Your welcome.

Por favor silencio.

Please be quiet.

Gracias por su atencion.

Thank you for your attention.

u
i Tienen preguntas?
Do you have questions?

,Cuidado!
Careful!

Lo siento.
I am sorry.

Sf /No
Yes/No

Esperenme.
Wait forme.

Vamos.
Let's go.

lQuien 0 quienes?
Who or whose

iQUe?
'What

i C6mo ?
How

lCuando?
When

iD6nde?
Where

lPor que?/ porque

Why?/ because

lCuantos?
How many

No entiendo.
I don't understand.
 •
"\'0-1
To-You
EI-He
U Ella-She
EI- It
Nosotros-We
ElloslEllas-They

Esto- this
Estos.. these
Eso- that
Esos- those

Mas-more
Menos-Iess

No 10 see
I don't know.

,Claro!
Of course!

~ Como se dice?
How do you say?

U Adios.
Good-bye.

Diseulpe.
Excuse me.

Quedense en el orden.
Stay in order.

Es importante tratar. a eada animal con respeto.

It is important to treat each animal with respect.

Yen aqui.
Come here.

u
 Science Cognates

u *cel ulas-cells
*comunique-communicate
*ciencias-science
*critico-critical
*descnbir-described *descubrimientos-discoveries
*expl icaciones-explanations *fuerza-force
*herencia-inheritance *inagotable-inexhaustible
*no renovar-non-renewable *porcentaje-percent
*propiedades quimicas-chemical properties *razonables-reasonable
*renovar-renewable *superficie-surface
*sustentas-sustain *tenninos-terms
actividad volcanica-volcanic activity_ analice-analyze
analizar-analyze apropiadas-appropriate
asteroides-asteroids atmosfera-atmosphere
atomos-atoms axis-axis
balanzas-balances biomasa-biomass
calculadoras-calculators calidad del aire-air quality
cambios graduales-gradual changes catastrofico-catastrophic
cicIo de Ia roca-rock cycle cicIo del agua-water cycle
ciclo del carbono-carbon cycles ciclo-cycle
cientificos-scientists ciertos tipos-certain types
ci1indrosgraduados-~duated cylinders clasifican-c1assify
cometas-comets compases-compasses
complejas-com~lex componentes-components
compuestos-composed computadoras-computers
u concepto-concept
conclusiones-conclusions
conceptuales-conceptual
conservacion-conservation
consistencia-consistency constancia-constancy
constantemente-constantly consumidores-consumers
continental-continental contribuciones-contributions
criticos-critical decisiones-decisions
defina(e)-define describa-describe
dia-day direccion-direction
direccion-direction directa-direct
distribuir-distribute dominante-dominant
ecosistema-ecosystem electrica-electrical
endotermico-endothennic energia cinetica-kinetic energy
energiap_otencial-potential energy energia radiante-radiant energy
energia-energy ... equilibrio-equilibrium
e_quilibrio-e~uilibrium equipo-equipment
espacio-space especies-species
estimulos-stimuli estructura( s)-structure(s)
evaluar-evaluate eventos-events
evidencia-evidence evidencia-evidence
examinar-examine exotennico-exothennic
explique-explain extemos-extemal
extincion-extinction extrapolar-extrapolate
fases-phases fenomeno-phenomena
u fenomeno-phenomenon fiebre-fever
 formular-formulate( -ing) fornnulas-tc>rnnulas
frecuencia-frequency funci6n-function
funci6n-function galaxia-galaxy
. generaciones-generations genetica-genetic
genetico-genetic grclficamente-graphically
graficas~graphics hidroelectrica-hydroelectric
hipotesis-hypothesis historica-history
humano-human huracanes-hunricanes
identi fican-identify impacto-impact
inel uyendo-including indirecta-indirect
individual-individual inferencias-inferences
infonnaci6n-infornnation informadas-informed
instrumentos-instruments interacciones-interactions
interdependencia- interdependence intema-intemal
internos-internal interprete-interpret
laboratorio-Iaboratory limitaciones-limitations
limitaciones-limitations limitaciones-limitations
mapas-maps maquinas simples-simple machines
matematicos-mathematical materiales-materials
material-material materia-matter
meteoritos-meteorites metodos~methods
metros-meters microscol'ios-microscq~es
movimiento-movement natural-natural
nitr6geno-nitrogen nitrogeno-nitrogen
observaciones-observations C>bservado/a-observed
obtener-obtain oceano-ocean
orbita-orbit orbita-orbits
organismos-organisms organismos-organisms
organizar-organize 6rganos-organs
ortgen-origin originales-origional
oxigeno-oxygen partes-parts
planetas-manets plantas-plants
plasticos-plastics posicion-position
j)racticas eticas-ethical practices presencia-presence
problema-problem producci6n-production
promoci6n de productos y servicios-promotion of recesivo(a)-recessive
products and services
recielaj e-recycling recomendaciones-recommenclations
Rej>resentadoslas-represented ... represente-represent
reproduccion sexual-sexual reproduction rotacion-rotation
sistema solar-solar system sistemas de organos-organ systems
sistemas-systems sociedad-society
solucion-solution substancias-substances
sucesi6n ecologica-ecological succession tabla peri6dica-periodic table
tablas-tables telescopios-telescopes
teorias-theories ternnometro-thermometer
tipos-types transformaciones-transfqrmations
transformar-transfornn tubos-tubes
universo-universe validas-valid
 Estadistica-statistics Modelos-models

u Estimacion-estimation Multiplicacion-multiplication

estime-estimate Multiplos-multiples

Evalue-evaluate No negativos-non negative

Evento simple-simple event Nombre-name

Exactas-exact Numeros-numbers

Experiencias-experiences Objetos-objects

Experimental-experimental Obtusos-obtuse

Exponentes-exponents Operaciones-operations

F actores-factors Ordenar-order

F actorizaciones-factorizations Organizando-organizing

fisicos-physical Pares ordenadas-ordered pairs

Formas-forms pentagonos-pentagons

Formulas-formulas Perimetro-perimeter

Fracciones-fractions piramides-pyramids
u Genere-generate plan-plan

Geometria-geometry Poligonos-polygons

Geometrico-geometric precio-price

incorpore-incorporate Predicciones-predictions

Informal-informal prismas-prisms

Interpretando-interpreting Probabilidades-probabilities

Investigaciones-investigations Probabilidad-probability

Lenguaje-Ianguage Problemas-problems

logico-Iogical Procesos-processes

Matematica-mathematics proporcionalidad-proportionality

modelos concretos-concrete models Proporcion-proportional

Puntos-points Racionales-rational

Razonables-reasonable

Razonamiento-reasoning
u
 vapor de agua-water vapor variedades-varieties
variedad-variety volcan-volcano
vomitar-vomiting
Math Cognates

*modo-mode complementario-complementary

*Paper-paper Complemento-complement

*Pat~ones-pattems Comunes-common

*porcentaj es-percentages conclusiones-conclusions

*propiedades-properties Concretos-concrete

*radio-radius conos-cones

*rango-range Conversiones-conversions
*Redondee-round conversiones-conversions

*Relaciones-relationships Convierta-convert

*situaci ones-situations Coordinada-coordinate

*tablas-tables Cuadrilateros-quadrilaterals

actividades-activities cuantitativo razonamiento-quantitative reasoning

algebraico-algebraic Cuantitativo-quantitative

Analizar-analize Decimales-decimals

Angulos-angles Decimales-decimals

Aplica-applies decisiones-decisions

Aplicaci6n-application densidad-density

area-area Describir-describe

arquitectura-architecture Diametro-diameter

arte-art Dimensiones-dimensions

Capacidad-capacity
- dimensiones-dimensions

cilindros-cylinders Disciplinas-disciplines

Circulo-circ1e Division-division

Circunferencia-circumference Ecuacion-equation

Compare-compare Equivalentes-equivalent

Espacial-spatial modelos geometricos-geometric models

 ;..

Representaciones-representations
u represente-represent

Resul tados-results

resul tados-results

Secuencias-sequences

Simbolos-symbols

sistematicamente-systematically

soluci6n-solution

suplementario-supplementary

T ecnicas-techniques

T ecnologia-technology

Temperatura-temperature

Teorema de Pitagoras-Pythagorean Theorem

Te6rica-theoretical

u Triangulos-triangles

Unidades apropiadas-appropriate units

Unidades-units

validez-validate

V ariedad-variety

Vocabulario-vocabulary

Volumen de un prisma rectangular-volume of a

rectangular prism

u
u Pond Study Vocabulary
Vocabulario de el Estanque

aquatic acwitico
carapace carpacho
ecology ecologia
environment medio ambiente
food chain cadena alimenticia
larva larva
magnify magnificar; agrandar
microscopic microsc6pico
native plants planta nativas de esta area
niche nicho
pond estanque
pit viper pit-hoyo, viper-vibora
depredador que detecta el calor de su pres a
plastron la superficie ventral (abdominal) de la
coraza de una tortuga
pupa crisaIida; ninfa de un insecto entre el
estado de oruga y el de mariposa
scales escamas
scutes escamas que cubren la coraza de la tortuga
u

u
 Minerals, Rocks and Fossils

Fossil- F6sil
Mineral - mineral
Rock - roca, piedra (stone)
Dinosaur - dinosaurio
Gold- oro
Underwater - subacuatico
Sea-mar
Form- forma
Echinoids tiene la estrella in el centro
Make a straight line - forma un fila

Sesenta y cinco millones afios atras - 65 million years ago

u Austin Science and Nature Center
Animals in English/Spanish

Mammals- Mamiferos
Bat- murcielago
Rabbit- conejo
Ferret- huron
Cat- gato
Dog- perro
Deer- ciervo
Raccoon- mapacbe
Rat/Mouse- raton
Coyote- coyote
Fox- zorro
Skunk-mofeta
Opossum-zarigiieya
Bobcat- Iince 0 gato montes
Coati-coati
Rin gtail-ringtail
Armadillo- Armadillo

Birds-Pajaros
u Bird- Pajaro, Ave
Bird of Prey-Pajaro de la presa
Owl-bubo, lechuza
HawkIFalcon- hal con
Eagle-Aguila

Reptile-Reptiles
Lizard- Lagarto
Alligator-Caiman
Turtle-Tortuga
Tortoise-Tortuga de tierra
Iguana-Iguana
Bearded Dragon-Dragon barbado

Arthropods-Artropodos
Insects-Insectos
Cockroach-Cucaracha
Butterfly- Mariposa
Fly-Mosca
Flea-Pulga
C aterpillar-oru ga
Egg-huevo
u Pupa-pupa
Larva-larva
Adult- adulto
Metamorphasis-metamorfosis
Spid ers-araiias
Worm-gusano
Tarantula-Tarantula
Millipede-milpies
Centipede-ciempies
Scorpion-escorpion
Hermit crab-cangrej 0 ermitaiio
Crab-cangrejo
Crayfish- cangrejo de rio
Lobster- langosta

Amphibian-Anfibios
Frog-Rana
Toad-Sapo
Salamander-salamandra
Tiger salamander-salamandra tigre

Fish-Pescado

Meat eater-Come carne

Plant eater-Come plantas
Insect eater-Come insectos

n
 Austin Science and Nature Center
SpanishlEnglish Phrases

Bienvenidos al Centro de Naturaleza y Ciencia de Austin.

Welcome to the Austin Science and Nature Center.

Me lIamo----
My name is _ _ _ __

~ Como te llamas?
What is your name?

Por favor sientense alrededor de la carpeta.

Please sit down around the carpet.

Por favor quedense en la linea.

Please stay in line.

Follow me.
Sigarune.

Buenos dias.
Good moming.
u. Buenas tardes.
Good aftemooon.

~ Como estas?
How are you?

Estoy bien.
I am good.

Gracias.
Thank you.

De nada.
Your welcome.

Por favor silencio.

Please be quiet.

Gracias por su atencion.

Thank you for your attention.

u
;, Tienen preguntas?
Do you have questions?

iCuidado!
Careful!

Lo siento.
I am sorry.

Si INo
Yes INo

Esperenme.
Wait forme.

Vamos.
Let's go.

,Quien 0 quienes?
Who or whose

,Que?
What

,Como?
How

,Cuando?
When

,D6nde?
Where

,Por que?1 porque

Why?I because

,Cuantos?
How many

No entiendo.
I don't understand.
 Yo-I
Tu-You
u EI-He
Ella-She
EJ- It
Nosotros-We
ElJos/EIlas-They

Esto- this
Estos- these
Eso- that
Esos- those

Mas-more
Menos-Iess

No 10 see
I don't know.

,Claro!
Of course!

;.Como se dice?
How do you say?
u
Adios.
Good-bye.

Disculpe.
Excuse me.

Quedense en el orden.
Stay in order.

Es importante tratar a cad a animal con respeto.

It is important to treat each animal with respect.

Yen aqui.
Come here.

u
UT- NtX"GI.e:'lo..(1D-
1Z_\olo.T- COlflej 0
~ ~ v~cl- V\f\..0\, V\ 0

Fe.r~l- H-L»~ \(Y\Ov~ - \oOGO\w

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r

r Austin Nature and Science Center

\
Splash! into the Edwards Aquifer
Instructor Training Manual
Fall 1996
written by Janice Sturrock

"But besides their contribution to an outstanding swimming pool and to the

public water system, the springs also have major ecological and geological
values. They provide a window into a part of the earth's interior and afford
clues to the operation of geologic, hydrologic and biologic systems along
the Balcones Fault Zone and Escarpment". (Woodruff & Slade,1984).'

What is an aquifer?
An aquifer is a permeable underground water bearing stratum of rock, sand or gravel
that stores, transmits and yields water in sufficient quantities for human use.
The Edwards Aquifer of South Central Texas is a reservoir of water held in a cavernous,
porous, honeycombed limestone formation located underground. The aquifer was formed
about 100 million years ago when much of Central Texas was covered by a shallow sea.
Remains of small sea dwelling creatures such as shells and corals, were deposited on the floor

u of this sea and formed layers of ,what is now the Edwards Limestone formation~ Over millions
of years, movements within the earth such as· earthquakes and faulting, shifted the rock,
exposing sections of the limestone south and west of what is now Austin.
About 17,000,000 years ago, shifting in the earth's crust caused major faulting and
uplifting which resUlted in the Balcones Escarpment of Central Texas. (Water, Water
Conservation and the Edwards Aquifer, 1994).

Rock fractures along fault lines allowed rainwater to infiltrate the limestone and dissolve rock,
creating the honeycombed appearance and high porosity of the Edwards Aquifer. (Hill
Country Foundation, 1995). Today's aquifer is a lattice work of tiny holes, cracks, caverns and
caves that serve as a holding tank for water. Over millions of years, water dissolved parts of
the limestone above the ground and carved many channels and caverns below ground. In
Central Texas, the network of caverns and channels below ground is what is called the
Edwards Aquifer.

,.
 \0..,
I

Water enters an aquifer as precipitation that falls in the recharge zone. It eventually .
,

makes its way into the underground water table. Water leaves the aquifer through natural
springs and artificial wells drilled into the aquifer. n!

What is Barton Springs?

Barton Springs is an oasis of clear, cold water located in Zilker Park in Austin, Texas. It
is the fourth largest spring in the state, releasing ~ons of gallons of fresh water from the
Edwards Aquifer each day. For many people who live in Austin, Barton Springs Pool provides
an unique, spring fed swimming hole that offers relief from the long, hot, dry summers of
1
~. Central Texas. For others, Barton Creek, whose waters feed the springs, offers a quiet, green,
natural area just minutes from the hustle and bustle of downtown Austin.
Barton Springs is like a big faucet for the Barton Springs segment of the Edwards
Aquifer. About 95% of water that enters the Barton Springs segment is discharges at Barton
Springs. Water that enters the Barton Springs segment, comes from the watersheds of six
creeks. The creeks are Bear, Little Bear, Slaughter, Williamson, Onion and Barton, with the
greatest amount of recharge coming from Barton and Onion Creeks. Basically, whatever
enters the aquifer as recharge in these watersheds, is discharged at Barton Springs. Water
flows out of the pool, into Barton Creek and enters Town Lake. Austin's drinking water
comes from Town Lake. n I

-,'''1
• ..:..":' ... ~.. ' I •

These creeks wind through rural, suburban and urban areas. Barton Creek provides about
280/0 of the recharge to the aquifer, and water entering Barton Creek reaches the springs
quickly. Water from Onion Creek provides about 34% of the recharge that flows into this
segment of the aquifer. Because water flows through the Edwards Aquifer so quickly,
disturbances that occur upstream can be measured at the springs within a matter of hours.
(Slade, et al., 1986).
The pool created by the springs provides the city with its "jewel in the crown" of unique
natural features that help define Austin's quality of life. The pool is a major recreational
attraction for Austin as well as a supplier for part of the city's municipal water supply. Water
from the springs enters Town Lake about one half mile upstream from the Green Water
Treatment Plant. This plant provides mid and east Austin with drinking water, accounting for
about 280/0 of the total water for the city.
The Barton Springs segment of the Edwards Aquifer is the middle segment of the larger
karst, limestone aquifer that underlies a region known as the Balcones Escarpment of Central
2
I
Texas. "The Balcones Escarpment lies along the major line of dislocation of the Balcones fault
zone ... " (Woodruff & Abbott, 1986). "The Aquifer is located· where it is because of the location,
orientation and magnitude of faults composing the Balcones Fault system." (Woodruff &
·U Slade, 1984).

The Balcones Escarpment is a line of low hills that extends through Central Texas. It is a
surface expression of a deep-seated crustal discontinuity in which dramatic changes in
landscape occur. The Escarpment is also a major weather-maker. Although the limestone hills
are only a few hundred feet high, they offer the first topographic break inland from the Gulf of
Mexico. The Balcones Escarpment is the locus of the largest flood producing storms in the
contiguous United States. (Woodruff & Slade, 1984).
The Balcones Escarpment and fault zone provide physical divisions of east from west.
Within the big picture of North America, the Escarpment marks a break between the Great
Plains to the west and the Coastal Plains to the east. In Texas, this division is marked by
relatively flat,· clay soils and more abundant rainfall of the Blackland Prairie and coastal
regions to the east, and the hilly, thin limestone soils of the Hill Country and desert regions to
the west. (Woodruff& Abbott, 1986). In the 1800s, lifestyles were determined by the fault line

u with cotton farming and urban areas developing to the east and ranching developing to the
wes~. (Woodruff, ¥arsh & Wilding, 1993).
I
The abundance of water provided by Barton Springs has determined flora and fauna of
the area as we¥ as the development of human settlements for the last 11,000 years. The springs
were one ~f the main attractions for development of the city of Austin in the 1830s. The great
diversity of plants and animals in the Austin area is dictated by the fault zone.
Species of plants and animals found in Central Texas along the Balcones fault zone are
numerous because the fault creates an "edge" in which two ecological zones meet. Great
diversity of both plant and animal life can exist. Species from both ecological zones are found
within short distances of one another. For example, to the east there is the fox squirrel and to
the west, its counterpart, the rock squirrel. The blue jay is the eastern counterpart to the scrub
jay of the Hill Country. Some species are limited by the fault zone such as those dependent
upon plants whose distribution is determined by the fault.
Today, there is much competition for water in the Edwards Aquifer. Children who live
in and around Austin will determine the future of the aquifer and the springs with their choice
of lifestyles and their votes for elected officials. How much they know, understand and care

3
\ I
U

\,
 \
about the water will influence their decisions concerning the Barton Springs segment of the
Edwards Aquifer. n
I ,

History of development in the Barton Creek watershed

In February of 1979, the Austin City Council and Planning Commission adopted the
Austin Tomorrow Comprehensive Plan. The plan was developed over several years with
extensive input from citizens. It became a blueprint for growth of the city with consideration
for the threat that uncontrolled growth could present to Austin's unique environment. The
plan outlined a preferred growth corridor to extend north and south along Interstate Highway
35 and did not support construction over the sensitive Barton Springs Zone. (Ramanathan,
1994).
Despite careful planning for the future of the Barton Springs Zone, there has been
extensive construction of homes, roads and commercial ventures in the Barton Springs
contributing watershed zones. Between 1980 and 1994, the total amount of public funds that
had been spent to subsidize growth in the Barton Springs Zone was over $474,000,000.00.
These monies have gone to pay for municipal utility districts, major road construction such as
the Southwest Parkway and Mopac Highway South, new schools and suburban housing
developments. (Ramanathan, 1994).
Ordinances that have been established to protect watersheds and creeks in Austin are ~
.being challenged. Building continues to occur directly over the environmentally sensitive
i aquifer. Construction increases the possibility and probability that runoff and recharge waters
entering the aquifer within the Barton Springs watershed will become increasingly polluted,
transporting pollutants into the aquifer. About 95% of whatever enters the aquifer with
recharge waters in the Barton Springs segment is discharged at Barton Springs. CHill Country
Foundation, 1995). The Edwards Aquifer is more vulnerable to pollution than some other
aquifers because thin layers of.limestone that separate ground water from surface water, offer
little or no filtration of pollutants.
The City of Austin and Travis County continue to struggle to maintain a balance
between economic growth and environmental sustainability. Prevention of water pollution is
desired because the cost in dollars to clean up environmental damage is enormous. (Hill
Country Forum, Summer 1994).
Intricately intertwined in the future of water quality in the Barton Springs segment are
components of the ecosystem of the area. One example is the Barton Springs salamander,
Eurycea sosorum. As of the fall of 1996, federal legislation does not list the salamander as an
endangered species, despite research reports that indicate that it truly is endangered. (Cole,
Hutchison, Roesner, Schram, & Yelderman, 1995).
4

/
 The listing would have implications concerning development within the Barton Creek
watershed and could render as illegal any development causing destruction of habitat or

u danger to the species. In March of 1995, United States Secretary of the Interior, Bruce Babbit
said,

"The Barton Springs salamander, like other species at risk, is

the proverbial 'canary in the coal mine' for Texas residents
who depend upon or care about this priceless natural resource.
The salamander functions here as an indicator of the overall
health of the aquifer spring system and the damage
that can be done to this irreplaceable natural resource. "
(Mittelstadt, 1995).

Local media has pitted those concerned about future water quality against those who
want to build over the aquifer. Citizens of Austin and outlying areas continueto be divided
and polarized concerning no growth versus economic growth versus managed growth.

"Rapid urban development is occurring in the Austin area.

Much of this development is occurring in the watersheds
\ ) which contribute recharge to the Edw~ds Aquifer. Such
u development can degrade the qualitY of runoff from these
areas, and thus degrade the quality of water in the aquifer.
Clearly, there is a need for adequate information to plan
and assess the impacts of development on the aquifer".
(Woodruff & Slade, 1984).

Dangers facing the Barton Creek watershed and ultimately, the discharge of,waters at
Barton Springs, are depletion and pollution. "Ground water originating from Barton Creek
remains in the aquifer for only a short period before discharging at Barton Springs." (Dorsey,
Slade & Stewart,1986). Increased turbidity, indicating high concentrations of suspended clay
and silt in the water, reduce visibility. "Changes in turbidity of Barton Springs water after a
storm show how rapidly recharge water, with its relatively high turbidity, moves through the
aquifer to discharge at Barton Springs." (Dorsey, et al., 1986).

5
\ I
U

I"
1. The Importance of Water
Water is that wonderfully unique compound that is composed of two atoms of
hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. It has special qualities that allow it to exist in three
n
different states, to change from one of these states into another and back again. It can perk up
a thirsty plant and quench a dry throat. Every living thing needs water. The problem is that
there is only so much water. It cycles through its various forms, condensing from o. . . . ~JUS
water vapor to a drop of water and freezing into ice. There is a finite amount of water on
earth, sometimes called the water planet, because 750/0 of it is composed of water. You can
change the state of it, you can change the quality of it, you can drink it, or swim in it, or ski on
it, but you cannot get any more of it. The water that you drink tomorrow, may be the same
water that a dinosaur drank 70,000,000 years ago.
Even though 75% of the earth is made of water, only a small portion of that water is
available for use. About 970/0 of all of the water on earth is salt water. Water frozen in ice caps
and glaciers comprise about 2 %. That leaves only about 1% of water that is usable, fresh
water.
To have a concrete example of the percentage of usable water, imagine a 10 gallon
container filled with water. H you remove all of the salt water, all of the frozen water and all of
the polluted water, there would be 9 drops of usa~le fresh water available. (Barton
Springs/Edwards Aquifer Conservation District, 1995). r-\
I
Because every living thing needs water, water and the qualitY of it is very important. It·
has always been very important, ever since life on earth began; but there has never been so
much competition for it as there is now. Human populations have multiplied, pollution of
water has increased and people are beginning to worry if there will be enough clean water for
the future.
In Central Texas, near the cities of San Antonio and Austin, the fresh water supply
comes from the Edwards Aq~er. Whether or not there will continue to be enough water is of
increasing concern among residents of Central Tex~s. The southern segment of the Edwards
Aquifer, which underlies the city of San Antonio, is located just south and west of Austin. This
segment of the aquifer supports the fresh water needs of 1.5 million people, provid,es for
agricultural crop irrigation in six counties and distinguishes San Antonio as the largest 'city in
the world that depends upon a single source for its drinking water.
Although San Antonio and Austin are both situated atop the Edwards Aquifer, within
70 miles of each other, the two cities lie in different segments. San Antonio lies in the southern
Edwards and Austin lies in the middle portion, known as the Barton Springs segment of the
Aquifer. The northern segment extends north of Austin to Salado, Texas. Because of natural .
physical features in the aquifer, water does not flow back and forth from one segment to r'i
6
 another. Overdraft of one segment does not directly effect water levels in the other two
segments. In Austin, drinking water comes from surface water in Town Lake. On average,
Barton Springs contributes approximately 32,000,000 gallons, or about 10% to the daily flow of
Town Lake.

Although water does not flow between the southern and Barton Springs segments of
the Edwards Aquifer, Austin is indirectly effected by fluctuations in water levels in the
southern segment. Water district officials in San Antonio are looking to the Highland Lakes,
which include Town Lake, located in the middle of Austin, for potential drinking water
sources for the future for San Antonio.
"The water concerns of each area of the state are intricately tied to those of the rest of the
state". (Webb, 1954).

All living things need water. The availability of water on earth determines the
abundance and distribution of life. There is a finite amount of water on earth. Water has

u unique characteristics that distinguish i~ from other compoun~.

1) a1lliving things heed water ·
2) there is a finite amount of water on earth
3) water is the only substance that occurs naturally in three states of solid, liquid and
gas. Water is constantly moving from one state to another and back again.
4) water is the universal solvent, it can dissolve many materials.
Carbon dioxide gas, present in soil and air combines with water to form carbonic acid
which has the ability to dissolve limestone. Throughout millions of years in Central Texas, this
carbonic acid has dissolved the relatively soft limestone rock and created many'caverns and
caves throughout the Edwards Aquifer region.
All living things need water. The human body is composed of about 65% water. This
means that if you weigh 100 lbs., 65 pounds of you is water. Water is essential for bodily
functions of living creatures. It transports food, oxygen and waste products. It aids in
regulating body temperature. It is essential for many of the chemical reactions in the human
body. Without water, humans could only exist for a few d~ys. (Water, Water Conservation
and the Edwards Aquifer, 1994).

7
u
, )
 Plants also need water. In fact, plants need far more water than an animal of -
comparable weight. The transport processes of plants that govern intake of carbon dioxide for n
photosynthesis are dependent upon water. \

2. The Water Cycle

Water is composed of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen, H2O. The water
cycle is a series of repeating events in which water circulates naturally through surface water,
ground water and the atmosphere. In the water cycle, there is no beginning and no end.
Water evaporates (changes from a liquid to a gas), and transpires (a process in which plants
lose water to the atmosphere) to form clouds, condenses (changes from a gas to a liquid), and
falls as precipitation (discharge of water from the air ) in the form of rain, snow or sleet.

The water cycle is much like a terrarium. in which moisture is absorbed from the soil
into plants that transpire water as vapor into the air where it condenses on the top of the
terrarium and falls back onto the plants as dew or rain.
Events of the water cycle that take place in any part of the world are affecte~ by events
in all other parts of the world. Rainfall in Central Texas could come from the Gulf of Mexico orn
it could come from distant seas. (Water, Water Conservation and the Edwards Aquifer, 1994). ( \

3. Ground Water and Surface Water

A. Ground water is water that is stored under the earth's surface. Groundwater is the
largest single source of fresh water available to and commonly used by people. Ground Water
supplies about 61 % of the total water used in Texas. (Ground Water Protection Committee,
1988).
, Water enters the ground as precipitation and begins to fill the water table. Once in the
ground, water moves toward the lower lying places of discharge. Water can move upward if
confined under pressure. Water stored under pressure is under artesian conditio~. A spring
is the natural discharge from a ground water reservoir. Water can discharge from a spring in
both confined and unconfined aquifers. Water can also be withdrawn by means of an artificial
well. In artesian conditions, the water may rise to the surface because of water pressure. In
water table conditions, well water may need to be pumped from the ground.
Ground water tends to move through aquifers very slowly depending on the
permeability of the rock. However; in Central Texas, ground water moves very quickly, 25-55
feet per day, because of the high permeability, (large pores in the rock) of the limestone which ( \
8 ~ ,I
(
 comprises the aquifer. Water moves rapidly through many cracks and crevices in the
limestone. Some of these openings were formed by faulting within the earth and some were
formed when the high mineral content of the water dissolved the limestone and created caves
within the aquifer. (Woodruff & Slade, 1984, page 12).
Infiltration is the process by which water enters the ground through soil or cracks in
porous rock. The porosity, or ability to hold and yield water, determined by the size and
arrangement of the pore spaces, determines how easily water will travel through rock.

B. Surface water is the water that is on the land's surface. It is not different from ground
water, it is just located in a different place. Surface water includes water in lakes, streams,
rivers and glaciers. When surface water enters the ground, it becomes ground water. There is
a continuous interchange between surface. water and ground water. Austin receives most of its
fresh water from surface water in Town Lake.
4. Types of Aquifers
Aquifers can be formed below sand, gravel, soU or rock. Layers of soils act as filtering
devices for water as it enters different kinds of aquifers. Sand and soil filter out impurities in
recharge waters as the water seeps through to the aquifer water table. Gravel soils would filter
!ess than sandy soils. The por9us limestone of the Edwards Aquifer provides very little to no
filtering of recharge waters. In a karst aquifer, any impurities and pollutants in the water
when it enters the ground in a recharge zone, goes directly into the aquifer. That is why the
Edwards Aquifer is so vulnerable to pollution.
A. Important terms
An aquifer is a permeable underground water bearing stratum of rock, sand or gravel
that stores, transmits and yields water in sufficient quantities for human use. The word
aquifer comes from two Latin words. Aqua meaning water andferre meaning to bear or carry;
thus water bearing or water carrying. In Texas, about 61 % of the fresh water used across the
state comes from water stored in aquifers. Texas has 7 major and 16 minor aquifers.

A ground water divide, a natural phYSical feature, near Kyle, Texas separates the
southern Edwards from the Barton Springs segment.
Aquifers may be a few or many hundreds of feet thick. They may cover several acres or
thousands of square miles. Aquifers are described as being confined and unconfined.
9
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U
 Confined or artesian aqyifers store water that is confined or under pressure. Water is stored
under pressure between two impermeable layers and may flow freely out of natural springs
and artificial wells.
Unconfined or water table aquifers store water that is not under pressure. Discharge
occurs because of gravity when water flows out of the aquifer as elevations decrease along the
water table. These aquifers have little stored water and are usually recharged directly above
where they occur, increasing their vulnerability to pollution. Parts of the southern segment of
the Edwards Aquifer, which lies under San Antonio, are unconfined and sensitive to
contamination because of little or no soil or rock to filter recharge waters. (Ground Water,
1981).
The Edwards Aquifer is a karst aquifer which means that the porous, water bearing
limestone that comprises it is characterized by irregular sinks, underground streams and
caverns. The high porosity, full of pores and permeable to liquids, of the limestone in this
area has created over 374 karst features which help define the Edwards Aquifer.
The aquifer lies underground in Central Texas and spans a distance of about 200 miles,
beginning in the west near Brackettville in Kinney Co~ty and extending to the northeast near
Salado in Bell County. The average thickness of the aquifer is about 500 feet. The aquifer is
divided into three hydrologic segments. The south~rn Edwards lies under San Antonio, to tllE~
south and west of AuStin. The Barton Springs segment is southwest of downtown Austin, f""l
with the main discharge occurring at Barton Springs. The northern Edwards extends from
Austin northeastward to Salado. ,.
The Edwards Aquifer is unique in its geologic make up in which limestone provides
little to no filtration of recharge waters, and in its hydrologic importance because unfiltered
recharge water from precipitation enters the aquifer and travels through it quickly, as much as
25-55 feet per day, allowing for little to no filtering of sediments and contaminants from the
recharge waters. (Charbeneau,.1988).
Impervious coyer or coverings on the land such as asphalt, are impenetrable to water
I

and increase the speed of water flowing through the contributing zone and the amount of
pollutants that are picked up by the water. The relatively high speed at which water can flow
through the aquifer makes it difficult to pinpoint sources of pollution. (Slade, et ala 1986).
Impervious cover also can reduce the amount of recharge that replenishes the aquifer because
less land surface is available for water to soak into the ground and make its way to the aquifer.
Overdraft of an aquifer occurs when more water is withdrawn than recharge can replenish.
When overdraft occurs, an aquifer must draw water from all of its sources. As water is
discharged and the water table lowers, water pressure within the drinkable water area

10
 . decreases, making it possible for water from the bad water zone to seep into and contaminate
the fresh water.
( I
LV
B. What makes the Edwards Aquifer unique?
1. Water bearing rock
The Edwards Aquifer is really a formation of water-bearing rock that holds water much
like a sponge. Over millions of years, water has dissolved limestone to form honeycombed
cracks and caverns. Water lies in the cracks, channels and caverns of the rock. The average
thickness of the aquifer is about 500 feet enclosed by two impermeable layers; Del Rio clay
above and Glen Rose limestone underneath. (Wight, 1981).
Because of faulting within the recharge zone, the Barton Springs segment's recharge
waters enter at fault lines in the limestone and clay which provide little to no filtration of
pollutants. This lack of filtration contributes to the unique vulnerability of waters in the
Edwards Aquifer.

2. Three hydrologic segments . ...

• •' =". . .

The Edwards Aquifer is divided into three hydrologic segments div~~%~·!J;>y·natura1,

physical features that prevent water from flowing back and forth betweerr'them. Water flows
from the southwest, where elevations are slightly higher, to the northeast as elevations become
lower.

_.- - r , .. ! ,_ _

1) The southern segment of the Edwards Aquifer or San Antonio segment, begins near
Brackettville in Kinney County and flows northeastward through San Marcos to s~uthern
Hays County. This segment underlies the city of San Antonio, supports fresh water needs of
1.5 million people, provides for agricultural crop irrigation in six counties and distinguishes
San Antonio as the largest city in the world that depends upon a single source for its drinking
water. (Todd, 1995).
2) The middle segment known as the Barton Springs segment, begins at a ground water divide
near Kyle in Hays County and extends to the Colorado River in Austin. This segment is 100
times smaller than the southern segment and has only one main discharge site at Barton
11
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Springs Pool in Austin. Barton Springs is the fourth largest spring in Texas and discharges
32,000,000 gallons of water per day. This segment is also a federally-designated sole source ~
aquifer which means that for 35,000 Texans, it is the only readily available and practical sourcl I~ \
of drinking water. (Barton Springs/Edwards Aquifer Conservation District, 1994).
3) The northern segment of the Edwards picks up at the Colorado River in Austin and
continues northeastward to Salado in Bell County and supplies Round Rock and Georgetown
with some of their drinking water. (Hill Country Oasis, 1992).
The Edwards formation of limestone that covers much of the Hill Country west of
Austin and San Antonio, provides both a recharge zone and a holding tank for the water of the
Edwards Aquifer. Because of geologic formations and differences in elevations of discharge
sites along the aquifer from west to northeast, springs on the northeast end are the first to go
dry mperiods of drought or overdraft. Within the southern segment, these springs are the
ones that feed the San Antonio River, the Comal River and the San Marcos River and
ultimately supply San Antonio with its fresh water. (Water, Water Conservation and the
Edwards Aquifer, 1994).
3. Shared characteristics
Some characteristics of aquifers that the three segments of the Edwards Aquifer share:
*The contributing zone. which is a zone where watersheds of creeks and rivers catch rainfall
and provide water for recharge. The contributing zone for the Barton Springs segment drams
.
n \
about 264 square miles. . '
*The recharge zone is where water enters the aquifer through caves, sinkholes, cracks and
fractures in the Edwards limestone. Large springs in this feature provide natural release
points for the aquifer at Comal Springs and San Marcos Springs in the southern segment and
Barton Springs in the Barton Springs segment. The recharge zone for the Barton Springs
segment covers about 90 square miles.

*The artesian ZOne is where water stored under pressure rises above the water line at artificial
wells and natural springs. Most of the Barton Springs segment is an artesian aquifer.
*The bad water line is the imaginary line where drinkable water is bordered by water that is
considered unsuitable for drinking, the quantity of dissolved minerals exceeds 1,000
milligrams per liter. In the Edwards, below the bad water line, water flows more slowly
through the limestone and stays m contact with it longer. This results in a higher dissolved
mineral content of calcium, sulfate and iron. Water in this area may be low in dissolved

12 r"I,
(
 oxygen, high in sulfates and have a higher temperature. (Water, Water Conservation and the
Edwards Aquifer, 1994).
Overdraft of one segment does not directly effect water levels in the other two
segments. However; water shortages in one area of the state may require redistribution of
water for future needs. For example, when the southern segment has a low water level in
times of inadequate rainfall, the water level in the Barton Springs segment may not be low.
However, because low aquifer levels in the southern segment mean less available fresh water
for San Antonio, water district officials in San Antonio are looking at the possibility of
pumping water from the Highland Lakes to San Antonio. (Todd, 1995). Town Lake is one of
the seven Highland Lakes and is the source of Austin's drinking water. The amount of
available drinking water for Austin is indirectly effected by low aquifer levels in San Antonio.
In Austin, drinking water comes from Town Lake. Barton Springs contributes 32,000,000
gallons, or about 10% to the daily flow of Town Lake. (Charbeneau, 1988). In times of low
water levels, the contribution of water from Barton Springs, both improves the quality, by
adding oxygen, and contributes significantly to the amount of water available in Town Lake.

4. Uniqye karst features

.Lr? ) The Edwards Aquifer is unique geologically in that the pores, or spaces ~d cracks
\J between soil particles, that define the Edwards Formation of limestone are large, giving the
aquifer unusually high porosity. Porosity is the proportion of cracks and pores in rock which
effect the transport of water through it. This means that once recharge waters have entered the
Edwards Aquifer through sink holes, caves and shallow limestone, it is able to move quickly
through large cracks and crevices to where it is discharged. In the Barton Springs segment,
950/0 of recharge waters that enter the aquifer through the watersheds of Barton and Onion
Creeks is discharged at Barton Springs in a relatively short amount of time. (Slade, et aI. 1986).
The western edge of the southern segment,located west of San Antonio, is particularly
vulnerable to pollution during recharge because the protective layer of clay that covers much
of the stored water is thin in some areas or missing altogether in others. In these areas,
limestone has been shifted by movements within the earth. Instead of entering above the
filtering layer of clay, recharge waters enter the aquifer at the porous limestone layer and move
more directly, without much filtering, to the water table area for storage and discharge.

5. Ecology of Barton Creek and Barton Springs

A. Ecological overview

u
13
 The clean, clear, cool waters of Barton Creek have sustained an oasis of plant and .'
animal life on the edge of the Texas Hill Country throughout hundreds of years. Water that n
recharges the Edwards Aquifer in the Barton Creek watershed is discharged at Barton Springs' \
and provides life-giving water to the area. Contributing to the overall green lushness of the
creek valley, are trees including elms, ashe juniper, hackberry, cottonwood, pecan, willow and
redbud. The canopy of trees along with species of native shrubs, provide habitat for birds,
mammals and insects. Plants in the creekbed include ferns, water primrose, wild celery and
cattail. These plants provide food and shelter for white-tailed deer, rabbits, bobcats, foxes,
raccoons, frogs and turtles.
Both the Black-capped Vireo, Vireo AtricapilIa, and the Golden-cheeked Warbler,
Dendroica chrysoparia, breed nowhere else in the world but the woodlands of Central Texas.
The Golden-cheeked Warbler is listed with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the State of
Texas as an endangered species because its habitat is in danger of disappearing. Steep canyons
found along parts of Barton Creek provide the right combination of shelter and food required
for the warbler's survival.
The Barton Springs salamander, Eurycea sosorum, first discovered in the 1940s,lives in
the water filled cracks and crevices of the Barton Springs segment. It lives its entire life
underwater and maintains aquatic characteristics such as external gills. The salamander is
found only in Barton Springs and adjacent sp~g outlets. Monthly salamander surveys
performed by field biologists in the Enviro~ental and Conservation Services Department of . \ ~
- /

the City of Austin reveal that numbers of salamanders fluctuate with an average number
found being twenty.
B. Rapid transmission of water
Contaminarits and pollutants can reach the springs almost immediately.
A report issued in the fall of 1995 by the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department stated, "Over
development in the Barton Cr~ek watershed or improper developmental plans could result in
significant degradation of the quality of ground water in a relatively short time frame". (Cole,
et al., 1995). Roadway construction and urbanization contribute to pollution of these
waterways. Basically, whatever enters the aquifer as recharge in these watersheds,.is
discharged at Barton Springs. This water flows out of the pool, into Barton Creek and enters
Town Lake. Austin's drinking water comes from Town Lake.
C. Historical background
Archeological finds along Barton Creek show evidence that native peoples inhabited the
area in and around Barton Springs and Barton Creek as early as 11,000 years ago. Scientists
have identified over 274 archeological sites in the Barton Creek valley. Flint spearpoints and
knife remains suggest that hunters and gatherers were the first people to inhabit the area.
14
 Additional artifacts document continued use of about 120 square miles of the creek area
through present times. These remains of past civilizations tell us that this small part of
Central Texas that we know to be so beautiful and vital to life today, has been an important
h) life-sustaining resource throughout the last 11,000 years. (Hill Country Oasis, 1992).
Remains of campsites along the creek, show that early Europeans who settled in the
area in the1800s had frequent contact with native Indians such as the Commanche and
Tonkawa. In 1837, William Barton settled on the land around Barton Springs and named the
springs after his two daughters, Parthenia and Eliza. The springs today still bear his name.
After Austin became the capitol of the Republic of Texas in 1839, numbers of inhabitants
in the area increased dramatically. By the end of the nineteenth century, Barton Springs had
become a popular swimming hole and spring water powered an ice-making plant and mill.
(Hill Country Oasis, 1992).
In the twentieth century, with increased population and competition for the high
quality, clean, clear water from the springs, natural disasters like drought underscores the
realization of water problems in Texas. In 1954, Walter Prescott Webb wrote,

IIWhat is happening now is but a repetition of what has happened

over and over in Texas, and throughout the western· portion of the
United States. It has happened several times in memory, and it
will happen many more times in the future. Drought is the certain
recurring weather phenomenon of more than half of the state and
of about half of the nation... Unfortunately a good rain washes away
more than the drought; it washes away much of man's interest in providing for the
next one, and it washes the supports from under
those who know that another dry cycle is coming and those who
urge their fellows to make ready for it". (Webb, 1954).

D. Unique location '

The Edwards Aquifer contains water under both artesian and water table conditions.
The recharge areas of aquifers are the areas where water enters the ground to eventually refill
water that is taken out of the aquifer. In the Edwards Aquifer, under both artesian and water
table conditions, recharge occurs directly over the aquifer or within a short distance from
where the water is discharged. When recharge occurs close to the points of discharge, aquifers
are very vulnerable to pollution.
Severe flooding occurs in the Hill Country with great frequency. There were 15 major
floods between 1843 and 1938. C.M. Woodruff reported in 1992 that, liThe Hill Country is

u 15
especially prone to flooding, owing to the coincidence of extreme rates of rainfall, steep slopes, .
and a large number of small, high gradient streams". (Woodruff, et al., 1992, page 2-4). Heavn
rains, rapid run off and unfiltered recharge all contribute to the unique vulnerability of the 1,-)
quality of water in the aquifer.

6. The Future of the Edwards Aquifer

A. Varied Interests
As of the spring of 1996, use of water from the Edwards Aquifer is governed by several
districts throughout approximately 200 miles that the aquifer transects. Ranchers, farmers,
environmentalists and land developers all have their interests and opinions about how the
water from the aquifer should be used. Increased population and demand for drinking water,
irrigation, recreation and needs of endemic plant and animal species all compete for a
vulnerable and limited water resource.
B. Problems
Problems facing the watersheds of creeks and streams in the contributing zone of the
Barton Springs 's~gment and ultimately the discharge of waters at Barton Springs, are
overdraft, ~ which more water is pumped from the aquifer than is replenished with recharge, ~
and polltition of water, which renders water unusable ?y humans without cleaning. '
Recent research shows that there is a need to continue studying the effects of continued
urbanization within the Barton Springs recharge zone. The report issued in 1995 by the Texas
Parks and Wildlife Department states,

"Knowledge of ground water flow in the areas adjacent to

sensitive spring habita~ would prove invaluable for proper
planning and urban developments to insure that ground w~ter
flow to the springs is not altered. Ground water sources should
be viewed as extremely sensitive with regard to the potential
for contamination. Extreme care should be taken in the
development/ alteration of surface environments near major
recharge zones. Water quality and quantity, both surface
and ground water, in the Travis county area has declined
over the past decade and a half'. (Cole et al., 1995).

16
 c. Goyerning Organizations
The Barton Springs/Edwards Aquifer Conservation District was created in 1987 by the
Texas Legislature to conserve, protect and enhance ground water resources of the Barton
Springs segment of the aquifer. The District registers and issues permits for water wells;
monitors the aquifer; manages effective pollution, sedimentation and erosion controls at
roadway construction sites and provides educational materials to the public.
The Edwards Aquifer Authority was established by the Texas Legislature in 1993. It is a
special regional management district to regulate the aquifer. It's purpose was to prevent the
federal government from taking control of a state resource. As of the fall of 1996, the
Authority has not set pumping limits for the Edwards Aquifer.
Withdrawals are currently (March 1996) governed by an ancient common-law doctrine
called the "rule of capture", which says anyone has the right to drill a well and pump whatever
water can be captured.
D. Ecological Needs of the Aquifer
Besides the importance of water for drinking and recreation, there are agricultural,
hydroelectric and biological needs that the water provides for. Biological needs include the
maintenance of ecosystems both along the rivers and creeks that funnel water into the aquifer
and ecosystems un~erground within the aquifer. There are plants and animals living in the
aquifer that both depend on the quantity of water available for their existence and contribute
to the quality.?f water.
About 40 known species of organisms live within the aquifer including bacteria,
copepods, isopods, flat worms, crustaceans, snails, beetles, catfish and salamanders. Some of
these creatures eat organic matter that enters the aquifer with recharge, thus contributing to
the quality of the water. (Water, Water Conservation and the Edwards Aquifer, 1994).

u 17
 E. Conservation
Conservation of the Edwards Aquifer involves managing the water so that it will last
longer while teaching each water user how to reuse and reduce waste and loss. n)
I \

Awareness of water use and wise use of water will determine the future for each person
and the future of the Edwards Aquifer area.
Suggestions:
Conserve water and teach others how to do the same.
Use native plants in landscaping.
Follow water guidelines as set by the City of Austin .
Use mulch around yard plants and trees.
Don't use water to clean sidewalks.
Install low use showers heads and toilets.
Repair leaky faucets.
Insulate water pipes.
Wash only full loads of laundry.
Do not let water run while brushing your teeth.
Be informed about water resources where you live.
Urge officials to have a water plan for the future.
Teach others about the aquifer and how to use water wisely.

18 n\
 Splasltlilito tlte Ed.wards 'l4quifer

Creek Station

Much of the following information is borrowed from the Biomonitoring Guide of Lower
Colorado River Authority.

Background Information

1. Collecting and observing macroinvertebrates (macro=able to be seen

without a microscope, invertebrate=without backbone) from a stream can
provide information about the health of an ecosyste~.

2. Examples of macroinvertebrates are:

·Urunahueandlarv~formsofinsects
black fly larva
stonefly nymph
mayfly nymph
• snails .
• clams
• leeches
• crayfish
·water penny
.' )
U 3. Benthic macroinvertebrates (macroinvertebrates that feed on the bottom)
can be classified according to their food gathering techniques. For example:
increased numbers of scrapers may indicate nutrient runoff, but increased
numbers of collectors may .indic~te qrganic enrichment.. .

4. As aquatic organisms, macroinvertebrates are dependent upon oxygen-

. rich, pollution free water. Th~ir presence or lack of presence in a particular
body of water indicates water quatlity.

Safety
1. Wash hands after monitoring
2. Be careful of slick surfaces such as ~gae covered rock.
3. Poison ivy, snakes and fire ants are common ~ong creek bank. Be careful
where you stand or sit.

Procedure
1. Arrive at creek bank, establish an area to put equipment.
2. Assign 3-S students to work together in a group.
3. Distribute equipment to work groups.
4. Students survey and record information about the creek.

u
S. Bring everyone back together. Collect equipment. Observe critters.
6. Return to lab room.
 .'·
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L=-'
Information to record at Creek Station
1. Turbidity of water
Students use a cle~ plastic bottle, fill the bottle with water and
allow it to settle. Measure the volume of settleable solids.
Students use a seechi~ to observe the clarity of the water.
2. What do you see? +'-\.be,. .
Students use water viewers (PVC pipe with clear plexiglass)
hold in water and view underneath.
Could also use gallon tin can and plastic baggies.
3. Human impact aspect
StUdents record the # of people present (feeding birds, fishing,
canoeing, swimming etc.)
4. Air temperature/humidityweather of the day
Students use a thermometer and hygrometer and records
readings.
Students record Qoudy, rainy, clear, sunny, etc.
5. Erosion of creek bank-steep bank. ."
Students record the condition of the creek bank-little vegetation,
exposed roots, etc.
6. Domesticated /wild birds present
Students record what domestic ·and wild animals are prese~t.
7. pH of water
Students use paper pH strips and record data.
example of why this matters
8. Stream f l o w ' .
Studentsmark 2 spots on the side of the creek. They drop g stick
into water and time how long it takes it to go from the first mark
to the second, repeat 3 times and take the average time. Students
can calculat~ the speed of the water by dividing·the
distance (say 10 feet) traveled by the averaged time. This is the
velocity in feet per second. (Go with the Flow-AIMS)
9. What lives in the mud?
Students use' trowels to dig in the mud by the bank of the creek
to discover what critters may live there.
10. Collect aq.uatic macroinyertebrates
Students use paper cups and s~all zip lock baggies while
working in pairs to collect organisms. Observation is good
through the baggies. Some critters can be put into the white
obs~rvation pans and soine critters can be taken back to the lab
room. Most samples should be observed and returned to the
creek.
 11. Water temperature
u Students hold thermometers about 15cm beneath the surface of
the water. Water temperature should be taken in the shade and
at the same location each time.
Start downstream and move upstream to avoid disturbing the
area.
12. Take pichlres weekly of creek and banks
Students can use a poloroid camera to take pictures of the creek
area weekly.

*take water sample and some critters to lab room for viewing

Diversity is the preserice of several different kinds of organisms in the stream

community. Healthy streams can support a more diverse community of
macroinvertebrates that includes organisms from all tolerance groups.

Pollution -Intolerant Organisms

Stoneflies
Dobsonflies
Snipe Flie~
...
Moderately Pollution-Intolerant Organisms
u Alderflies
Caddisflies
Mayflies
."

Riffle Beetles
Water Pennies
Dainselflies ."

bragoriflies .
Crane Flies .
Aquatic Moth L~ae
Scuds . ,

Fairly Pollution- Extremely Pollution-

Tolerant Organisms Tollerant Organisms
Black Flies Aquatic worms
Deer Flies Leeches
Midges" Pouch snails
Biting Midges
Soldier Flies
Sowbugs
Clams, Mussels
Gilled Snails
Planaria
Crayfish
Sturrock 9/96
 ·. Glossary
)
u
(
1. aquifer - a permeable, underground water bearing stratum of rock, sand or gravel that
stores, transmits and yields water in sufficient quantities for human use. The Edwards Aquifer
is a karst, limestone aquifer.
2. artesian aquifer - a type of aquifer in which two impermeable layers surround one water-
bearing layer. It is the same as a confined aquifer or an aquifer in which water is stored or
confined under pressure. Water will flow out of the aquifer if it is pierced by an artificial well
or natural spring. The Edwards Aquifer is made up of both confined and unconfined water.
3. bad-water zone - an imaginary line in the freshwater supply characterized by having more
than 1000 mg/l of dissolved solids. It may be low in dissolved oxygen, high in sulfates and
have a higher temperature. The bad-water line is the southern boundary of good water in the
Edwards Aquifer.
4. Balcones Escarpment - a line of low hills extending through Central Texas marking the
break between eastern Black.land Prairie and-coastal plains, and western Hill Country and
desert areas. It lies along the major line of dislocation of the Balcones Fault zone.
5. Balcones Fault zone - The area bo~ding the Edwards Plateau having extensive ~acks and
faults caused by the force of CIUS~ movement
~ .. Barton Springs segment of the Edwards Aquifer - the middle segment of the Edwards
.Aquifer which has its main discharge at Barton Springs Pool in Austin.
7. contributing zone - a zone where watersheds of creeks and rivers catch rainfall and provide
water for recharge.
8. discharge - wat~ which leaves an aquifer by way of springs, flowing artesian wells, or
pumping.
9. dissolved oxygen - the oxygenfree1y available in water. Traditionally the level of dissolved
oxygen has been accepted as the single most important indicator of a water body's ability to
support desirable aquatic life.
10. ecosystem - the natural unit that includes a community of organisms and all of the
environmental factors effecting the community.
11. Edwards Aquifer - a karst aquifer in Central Texas located where it is because of the
location, orientation and magnitude of faults composing the Balcones Fault system. It spans a
distance of about 200 miles extending from Brackettville to Salado.
12. endangered species - a species that is threatened with extinction.
13. geologist - a scientist who studies the history of the earth, especially as it is recorded in the
rocks.
14. ground water - water that is stored unde.t:..the earth's surface.

14
 15. ground water divide - a natural physical feature which prevents water frQp1 flowing back
",.

and forth between two regions. In the Edwards Aquifer, a ground water divide separates the
southern and Barton Springs segments of the Aquifer. n \
16. hydrologic c;ycle - (also the water cycle) the natural cycle of water in which water is
constantly moving as it condenses into water droplets, falls as precipitation, evaporates and
transpires into water vapor, forms clouds and falls again as precipitation. Water comes from
and returns to, either directly or indirectly to the ocean.
17. hydrology - a science dealing with the properties, distribution and circulation of water on
the surface of the land, in the soil and underlying rocks, and in the atmosphere.
18. impenneable - material such as dense rock or clay that will not permit liquids such as
water to flow through it
19. infiltration - the process by which water enters the ground through soil or cracks in porous
rock.
20. limestone - a rock that is formed chiefly by accumulation of organic remains, consisting
mainly of calcium carbonate.
. .
21. overdraft- when more water is taken from an aquifer than can be replenished by recharge.
22. permeable - having a texture that permits liquid to move through the pores.
23. pollutant - any substance which restricts or eliminates the use of a natural resource.
24. porosity - any property of geologic formations which has the ability to hold and yield
. water due to the spaces between particles.
25. potable- suitable for drinking
26. precipitation - discharge of water from the air in the form of rain, snow or ice.
27. recharge - process by which water is added to an aquifer.
28. recharge zone': where water from rivers and streams enter an aquifer.
29. reservoir - an artificially devised body of water contained behind a dam.
30. §pring - a place where water flows from rock or soil upon the land or into a body of surface
water. -.
31. turbidity - the condition of a liquid that is clouded with sediment.
32. unconfined aquifer - an aquifer in which the water is not stored under pressure, water is .
said to be under water table conditions. Water flows out of this type of aquifer due to gravity.
33. water c;ycle - see hydrologic cycle
34. watershed - an area of land that feeds rainwater into specific creeks or waterways.
35. water table - the part of the aquifer nearest the surface or the upper surface of the zone of
saturation.

n \
 Austin Nature and Science Center - Education Programs

Splash! into the Edwards Aquifer

09/05 Program Guide

Introduction Location: Outside, near entrance to the Exhibit

Greet teacher(s). Confirm that they are here for Splash! program. Collect money
and give teacher receipt. Ask if pre..packet activities completed.
Do "headcount and record demographics. Have teacher divide students into 3
groups. Confirm that everyone understands they must have on shoes to go in
the water and they will be getting their feet wet. Greet students & set stage:

"Welcome to Barton Springs Pool and the Splash! into the Edwards Aquifer
Program I" [Introduce self and other program guides]

"We will be doing several activities this morning. Everyone will get to do all the
activities, but in a different order." [assign groups to program guides]

Concepts: First impressions are important - know their age and where they are
in the study of the topic. Brief discussion on why they are here for this program.
U See pre..packet questions. What do they know? What will we look at?

What is an aquifer? Where is an aquifer located? Why is Austin's aquifer, called

the Edwards Aquifer, unique? Why is Barton Springs pool important to Austin?

Schedule:
GrouQ 1 GrouQ 2 Grou~ 3
9:30 Collecting* Game Exhibit

10:00 Lab (10:10) Collecting* Game

10:30 Exhibit Lab (10:40) Collecting*

11:00 Game Exhibit Lab (11 :10)

11 :30 all groups meet out front. Give teachers post"packets, posters, and game
sheets. (remind them to fill out evaluations) Have students go to restrooms, use
hand sanitizer, and stamp dry hands.

Clean up lab room, return supplies to closet; return critters to creek. Lock up.

u *Finish collecting at end of 30 minutes and return to lab at beginning of next

period. The Lab time includes the return walk from the creek.
 Austin Nature and Science Center - Education Programs

Splash! Into the Edwards Aquifer - Online Resources, 09/05

http://www.aust;n360.com/recreat;on/content/recreat;on/guides/barton/barton.htm
links to history, biology, geology, and pool map. Mostly accurate.

www.ci.austin.tx.us/watershed/ecamp.htm
City of Austin Earth Camp teacher resources

www.cLaustin.tx.us/salamander/ lots of information about our favorite amphibian

http://www.ci.austin.tx.us/water/watertreatmentinfo.htm Austin's drinking water

www.bseacd.org/
Barton Springs/Edwards Aquifer Conservation District website

www.Edwardsaguifer.org/Pages/framesaquifer.html
The Edwards Aquifer Authority (San Antonio segment) website

www.edwardsaquifer.net!
Edwards Aquifer Homepage by Gregg Eckhardt. Aquifer info., Last updated??? n
www.sosalliance.org
non-profit advocates for saving Barton Springs

http://waterdata. usgs.gov/nwis/uv/?site no=08155500&PARAmeter cd=DD065,0

0060,00062 USGS gauging station for Barton Springs. Use to check current
=
flow rate. Conversion factor is 1cfs 646,272 gpd.

http://www. epa. gov/bioindieators/htmll bioindicators and aquatic biodiversity

http://www.epa.gov/win/questions.htrnl#resources watershed information ..
http://www.gwpc.org/gwreportlAcrobaUtexas.pdf Texas groundwater conditions

http://www.lera.org/water/state.html
Lower Colorado River Authority website. Water quality information.

www.tec.org
Texas Environmental website. (undergoing re-design?) link to cd-rom.
 Splash! into the EdwArds 14.qulfer
u Creek Station

Much of the following information is borrowed from the Biomonitoring Guide of Lower
Colorado River Authority.

Background Information

1. Collecting and observing macroinvertebrates' (macro=able to be seen

without a microscope, invertebrate=without backbone) from a stream can
provide information about the health of an ecosystem.

2. Examples of macroinvertebrates are:

-immature and larval forms of insects
black fly larva
stonefly nymph
mayfly nymph
-snails .
-clams
-leeches
-crayfish.
·water penny
u 3. Benthic macroinvertebrates (macroinverlebrates that feed on the bottom)
can be classified according totheir food gathering techniques. For example:
increased numbers of scrapers may indicate nutrient runoff, but increased
numbers of collectors 1:1UlY indic~te 9rganic enrichment.

4. As aquatic organisms, macroinvertebrates are dependent upon oxygen-

. rich, pollution free water. ~ presence or ~ack of presence in a particular
body of water indicates water quatIity.

Safety
1. Wash hands after monitoring
2. Be careful of slick surfaces such as algae covered rock.
3. Poison ivy, snakes and fire ants are common along creek barik. Be careful
where you stand or sit.

Procedure
1. Arrive at creek bank, establish an area to put equipment.
2. Assign 3-5 students to work together in a group.
3.. Distribute equipment to work groups.
4. Students survey and record information about the creek.
5. Bring everyone back together. Collect equipment. Observe critters.
u 6. Return to lab room.
Information to record at Creek Station
1. Turbidity of water
Students use a clear plastic bottle, fill the bottle with water and
allow it to settle. Measure the volume of settleable solids.
Students use a 5eechi~ to observe the clarity of the water.
2. What do you see? -t"""b e...
Students use water viewers (PVC pipe with clear plexiglass)
hold in water and view underneath.
Could also use gallon tin can and plastic baggies.
3. Human impact aspect
StUdents record the # of people present (feeding birds, fishing,
canoeing, swimming etc.)
4. Air temperature /humidityweather of the day
Students use a thermometer and hygrometer and records
readings.
Students record q.oudy, rainy, ~ear, swmy, etc.
5. Erosion of creek bank-steep bank, .
Students record the condition of the creek bank-little vegetation,
exposed roots, etc.
6. Domesticated/wild birds present n
Students' record what domestic and wild animals are present.
7. pH of wAtelj·
Students use paper pH strips and record data. ~.
example of why this matters
8. Stream f l o w ' .
Studentsmark 2 spots on the side of the creek. They drop it stick
into water and time how long it takes it to go from the first mark
to the second, repeat 3 times and take the average time. Students
can ca1culat~ the speed of the water by dividing·the
distance ( say 10 feet) traveled by the averaged time. This is the
velocity in feet per second. (Go with the Flow-AIMS)
9. What lives in the mud?
Students use'trowels to dig in the mud by the bank of the creek
to discover what critters may live there.
10. Collect aquatic macroinyertebrates
Students use paper cups and sp:tall zip lock baggies while
working in pairs to collect organisms. Observation is good
through the baggies. Some critters can be put into the white
obs~rvation pans and soine critters can be taken back to the lab
room. Most samples should be observed and returned to the
creek.
 11. Water temperature
u Students hold thermometers about 15cm beneath the surface of
the water. Water temperature should be taken in the shade and
at the same location each time.
Start downstream and move upstream to avoid disturbing the
area.
12. Take pictures weekly of creek and banks
Students can use a poloroid camera to take pictures of the creek
area weekly.

*take water sample and some critters to lab room for viewing

Diversity is the preserice of several different kinds of organisms in the stream

community. Healthy streams can support a more diverse community of
macroinvertebrates ~at includes organisms from all tolerance groups.

Poll uti on -Intolerant Organisms

Stoneflies
Dobsonflies
Snipe Flie~

Moderately Pollution-Intolerant Organisms

Alderflies
u Caddisflies
Mayflies
Riffle Beetles
Water Pennies
.' .
Dainselflies
bragonmes'
Crane Flies .
Aquatic Moth L~ae
Scuds

Fairly Pollution- Extremely Pollution-

Tolerant Organisms .Tollerant Organisms
Black Flies Aquatic worms
Deer Flies Leeches
Midges. Pouch snails
Biting Midges
Soldier Flies
Sowbugs
Clams, Mussels
Gilled Snails
Planaria
u Crayfish
Sturrock 9/96
 Glossary

u 1. aQJJifer - a permeable, underground water bearing stratum of rock, sand or gravel that
stores, transmits and yields water in sufficient quantities for human use. The Edwards Aquifer
is a karst, limestone aqtrifer.
2. artesian aquifer - a type of aquifer in which two impermeable layers surround one water-
bearing layer. It is the same as a confined aquifer or an aquifer In which water is stored or
confined tUlder pressure. Water will flow out of the aquifer if it is pierced by an artificial well
or natural spring. The Edwards Aquifer is made up of both confined and unconfined water.
3. bad-water zone - an imaginary line in the freshwater supply characterized by having more
than 1000 mg/l of dissolved solids. It may be low in dissolved oxygen, high in sulfat~s and
have a higher temperature. The bad-water line is the southern boundary of good water in the
Edwards Aquifer.
4. Balcones EScall'ment - a line of low hills extend±rig through Central Texas marking the
break between eastern Blackland Frame and coastal plains, and western Hill Country' and
desert areas. It lies along the major line of dislocation of the Balcones Fault zone.
S. Balcones Fault zone - The area bounding the Edwards Plateau having extensive cracks and
faults caused by the force of crustal :plovement.
6. Barton Springs segment ..of the Edwards AQJlifer - the nUddle . segment of the Edwards
u .~

Aquifer which has its mam discharge at Barton Springs Pool in Austin.
7. contributing zone - a zone where watersheds of creeks and rivers catch rainfall and provide
water for recharge.
8. discharge - wate;- which leaves an aquifer by way of springs, flowing artesian wells, or
pumping.
9. dissolved oxygen - the oxygen freely available in water. Traditionally the level. of dissolved
oxygen has been accepted as th~ single most important indicator of a water body's ability to
support desirable aquatic lif~.
10. ecosystem - the natural unit that includes a community of organisms and all of the
environmental factors effecting the commuru:ty.
11. Edwards AQJJifer - a karst aquifer in Central Texas located where it is because of the
location, orientation and magnitude of faults composing the Balcones Fault system. It spans a
distance of about 200 miles extending from Brackettville to Salado.
12. endangered species - a species that is threatened with extinction.
13. geologist - a scientist who studies the history of the e~ especially as it is recorded in. the
rocks.
14. ground water - water that is stored unde:r:.the earth's surface.
u

14
 15. ground water divide - a natural physical feature which prevents water from flowing back
and forth between two regions. In the Edwards Aquifer, a ground water divide separates the
southern and Barton Springs segments of the Aquifer. ~
16. hydrologic cycle - (also the water cycle) the natural cycle of water mwhich water is
constantly moving as it condenses into water droplets, falls as precipitation, evaporates and
transprres into water vapor, forms clouds and falls again as precipitation. Water comes from
and returns to, either directly or indirectly to the ocean.
17. hydrology - a science dealing with the properties, distribution and circulation of water on
the surface of the land, in the soil and underlying rocks, and in the atmosphere.
18. impermeable - material such as dense rock or clay that will not permit liquids such as
water to flow through it.
19. infiltration - the process by which water enters the ground through soil or cracks mporous
rock.
20. limestone - a rock that is formed chiefly by accumulation of organic remains, consisting
mainly of calcium carbonate.
21. overdraft- when more water is taken from an aquifer than can be replenished by recharge.
22. permeable - having a texture that permits liquid to move through the pores.
23. pollutant - any substance which restricts or ~tes the use of a natural" resource.
.24. porositr - any property of geologic formations which has the ability to hold and yield
water due to the spaces between particles.
25. potable- suitable for drinking
26. precipitation - discharge of water from the air in the form of rain, snow or ice.
27. recharge - process by which water is added to an aquifer.
28. recharge zone': where water from rivers and streams enter an aquifer.
29. reservorr - an artificially devised body of water contained behind a dam.
30. §pring - a place where water flows from rock or soil upon the land or into a body of surface
water.
31. turbidity - the condition of a liquid that is clouded with sediment
32. unconfined aquifer - an aquifer in which the water is not stored under pres~, water is .
said to be under water table conditions. Water flows out of this type of aquifer due to gravity.
33. water cycle - see hydrologic cycle
34. watershed - an area of land that feeds rainwater into specific creeks or waterways.
35. water table - the part of the aquifer nearest the surface or the upper surface of the zone of
saturation
 Sp'".,,'1mo til. E...",. ~
Purpose of the Program

u The program is designed to answer these questions:

1- What Is an ag ulfer .
*How does water get into an aquifer?
*How is water withdrawn from an aquifer?
Students will answer this by
*Constructlng a model of an artesian aquifer.
*Exploring and interacting with lab station activities.
*Vlewing the vld~,. "Journey through the Edwards Aquifer".
2- What is the water cycle? Why is it Important?
Students wl1l ~er this question by;
*Participating in the "Go to th~ Aquifer" activity.
*Dlscusslon and review the questlonnaires and water cycle.
3- Why Is the Edwards Aquifer unique and Important to pegple who
live in Austin? . .
Students will answer this question by;
"'Viewing the video.
*Completing the written survey. (pre-visit activity) .
*Performlng the flltratlOD experiment.
*Explorlng and interacting with Jab station activities.
4- Why Is Barton SPOn.s .
unIQue and important to .us? . ..
Students will answer· this question by;
*Performing blomoDltoring sampllng In Barton Springs and Barton Creek.
*Observing live animals that live in the water both with hand lens an~
with microscope.
5- What can we do to conserve and preserve the aquifer and the
..sprlnss7
Students will answer this question by;
*Role pla~g in dlIemmas about the creek and the springs in which they
must present different points of view and reach compromises about the future
of the Aquifer.
*Keeplng a water use Journal.

Sturrock 9/96

u
 ::>p!aSh! Into the Ed\\'ards Aquifer
StuJent()uestioonaDJs
Please have students complete in class before field trip
;,. ..

1~ VVhat do you think an aquifer is?

c "vater- (.L.~ (jrou.,n:J. 1 ~ ~ ~ s ~-tIA.r£:eJ ("'-0e., (Ilk. G"J~s A.,v.'\fe~ ': s '111\ •
~ u...sUA.1~ ~ ~~ 'l~ otn-'\.~e tl-V\J pt.4..r e... \lVV\e.$-b'lle, ("oc.k.'~'~ v~ \$
'De.ca.c.Lse \+ V\o:-S \oeeYl of.\ltereJ ~s ,t pe.r~l~es <'lD(J.)of) , M\ of V\oles- l,k.e oSlA)\SS
2. Where do you think Austin's drinking water comes from? ~se.. or ~ '7Jpo~e.. .
Color~o 2l6>~V\ w.e. i ~~\c:.lA ·\Sl\"e~ b'J -+he ];"J.uJd-rJs A'lA.\fer (~tov\ <£prl"5S f Cou. Sfrl~
() . L . ' 'P~-tl",
~\ oer- k~ Prv..vf,
f\ ..;
3. \'\Thy do you ~ that it is important for people and animals to have clean water?
+
" S0 ~e J.o.v.,.. ~e..,t o\d=:-
.. Ow- ~&.'es d1-e I'I'\esK~ wk. tJe. VIed LUder +0 "t.~ ~l+k:J ,f,:, c::U~sl-~ac1
-to e\\M\~-e. wa..stes a~ ~r -(~'~l~ .
4. What do you think polluted water is?
tk wa:t~ ~ \$ ~~~\ +c, r\fe..~ ?elUtAtt~ C&l.v\ \oe \\I\troJ"'-CeJ ~eM\ceJs o..v-J.("r
'vV\.l.o~l~e.s .,V\ 4.e ~r~l ~eM\$+rj" f\
" l+(fCS)U~f>") l~ ncr a..lu.)~ vl~'l\c{e.. (~ '(f.lA ~ po\Lu..+~oV\1' - ~ al~ , )
5. What do you think would llappen if people drank polluted water?
• ~e~ u-'O v..U. tfT .t;,\ k . eXAmples.~ e. eoll \:7.:tc.+e.rl "'-. ,
CA.,nc.e.,- - &'t.te.. +0 1Ou.( t&-·uf ~ -\-ex:\ V\. s
6. Where do you think water goes after it ~ used in the kitchen, the bathroom or on the n
lawn and garden? 'Do lA.)e,. euer ~n tI\.,~ \t. ~\'" "? . : ..
. \+- ~e.5 ;4-0 ~e t.i8!> ~r'i>j~+eW\ -\-04 j,l)4.$~lU4-er-h-e:.d-mev.t~HHj'
\AD~~fu1{'J \Al/O le~~. \t ~ d.l~o t! .~+O A.. ~ptrc.~~~tew'l.
7. What do you think would happen to Austin's water if Barton Springs dried up?
It ~V.U Ie€. CL. ~'i~V\ M
t.l)e .:u-e &eple:H"~&c::t1..tlfer; kp\e:H~ Dv..r-
~ 6UfP~"\. tfcA.' ~ (.aecJJ.~'t ~ "-'5 ~~. $eo~e. l&Lfl Q V)"I"'-j'
O\-\A.e.r ll.tI\\N\A1s ~~ toe affed-ed ~~~ ~~) '.
8. How could someone who lives in a town called Dripping Springs ~ct the water that
comes out of the aquifer at Barton Springs?
l){'\~p\",~S~r\~~ "tS tc\- ~~ heMWa:\-e.r~ '*
k-to", c..reek.~ ~ ~+Aftef 4e.
.

~
~4.e..,t • -\w.. tplL....+\oV\ 'Y\~ '1I\.to -/.he ~~s {1Q.o~ .dou:ln ltl\ ~\ ~r- 1,...+0
. ~ ~~(f~r ~ ~~S o~ _~~II\ ld- ~O~ cG(>Ci ~ ~ 11\ :. ~e StL+ £1 1/

9. Draw a picture of what you ~the water cycle is on lbe back oftrus page.
~ M.Dfe. M~~ W fDl.l$l~Si +ke. ~ ~", ~ ~petl {}OM 4e. tl1W.t fer" W~
\s ().. ~t)LlS\\~M1teJ. ~c.e,e.~eA~/r.... t.eXA.-S.
Thank you for filling out this questionnaire!

1='0.- v-:.kr ~e d\~{bl..\N"l I see jif"J".d-e. tdt~lY\e.id-

 Edwards Aquifer Hydrogeology - Environmental Science Institute's Field
Workshop CUT) for K-12 Teachers, Oct. 2004
u original prepared by Nico Hauwert, City of Austin; Jay Banner, UT; Bruce Hall, RRISD, and
Dennis Ruez, UTe Excerpts by P. Steury

Over 50 million years of erosion exposed the geologic units underlying the
Edwards Group, the Glen Rose Formation ... on the west side of Austin. The
upper portion of the Glen Rose Formation consists of alternating clay-rich
limestones and more massive limestone beds. It is considerably less permeable
to water, thus creeks flowing across upper Glen Rose Formation tend to gain
flow. As a result, the watershed of Barton and Onion Creeks gain considerable
flow from this contributing zone.

The recharge zone of the Barton Springs segment of the Edwards Aquifer is
roughly five miles wide and extends roughly 20 miles long, from the Colorado
River south to the Buda and Kyle areas. Within this zone, rocks of the Edwards
Group and overlying Georgetown Limestone are exposed at the surface.
Fracturing associated with the Balcones Fault Zone and preferential dissolution
of the rocks by rainwater, produced voids that store underground water.

An aquifer is a porous rock that can produce sufficient quantities of water of

useable quality.

East if the recharge zone, the Edwards Group and the Georgetown Limestone
are buried progressively deeper underneath clays, shales and less permeable
limestone units .... In this area, known as the artesian zone, the water-levels of
the Edwards Aquifer can rise above the top of the aquifer in a well. . .. in low
elevations groundwater actually rises directly to the surface without mechanical
pumping.

Generally east of Congress Ave. and 1-35, groundwater is very slow moving and
restricted ... is highly saline pue to the long period of residence. This eastern
boundary is know as the "bad-water line" or saline-water line.

Carbonite Aquifers, such as Edwar9s Aquifer, typically develop because the

limestone is dissolved by slighfly acidic waters. The most common acid is
carbonic acid, typically forms by adding carbon dioxide to water. C02 is naturally
produced by bacteria as they consume organic debris. As a carbonic aquifer
matures, more of its surface runoff is directed underground, leaving irregular and
poorly defined surface drainages and a very efficient internal drainage system.

personal notes:
flow paths of water are similar to our street system. Water can flow 5 miles/day
on a major artery. Onion Creek to Barton Springs, about 20 miles in 3 days
Sand aquifers are different - at most 1 mile/day, usually 500 ft. in 2 weeks.
U ***Sand aquifers: water moves in feet/day. Karst aquifer: miles/day
 ..,... ~. tie·
.-~
- ...

~ .

...:.
.
,---

Circa 1910 Fun at the pool. 1929 Pool construction began.

flow the pool fills with water

. "\'{ " ..\ . "
The main spring, Parthenia, named after one of settler William Barton's
daughters, is just right of the diving board. The cave forming the spring's ! A floodWliter
I "

mouth is 2 to 3 feet wide and 5 to 7 feet deep; because of water flow

and rock formations, bypass
entering the spring NOTE: The City of Austin closed
is difficult. This Representational the pool in 1974 to build
natural spring cross-sectJon Sidewalk
a floodwater bypass. This
is the heart Qf
the pool.
redirected the water
flowing down Barton
Creek 1firough a culvert
I under the sidewalk to the
. dam at the other end of
the pool. At average
water flow no water from
Fissures are Barton Creek enters the
cracks in the pool. The springs provide
limestone where all the water needed to
water gushes keep the pool full. This
from the aquifer keeps the pool clear from
into the pool. creek mud and debris
There are two after minor flooding. The
large fissures near springs also maintain the
8edichek's rock constant 68° water
and many smaller temperature, year-round.

....,.;"
"
fissures
throughout the
WARNING: For safety
reasons, swimmers shoulo
n11j
35/ pool. stay away from the grate
'. f covering the culvert. " "
I
Linda SW3nson-Scott. Honny Bee
and Vasin Omer DJAA-S II
I
 ~
r<'?;
--
-,,..~
-~
:::::- -:. ~
-"'--

EVAPORATION

II ~

I
~ ______~______~, P~E-PENNSYLVANIAN

PENNSYLVANIAN AND PERMIAN ROCKS. CRETACEOUS AND' TERTIARY ROCKS,

IN NORTH-CENTRAL TEXAS TEXAS GULF COAST

D
. ',.o...
...
••
.,
.
. . . . e'·
~
~ 00 ~
i ...
SAND SHALE LIMESTONE SPRING DIRECTION OF WATER MOVEMENT

-)
) cJ'\Q,-, ,) fr., ~ .4rpWl \aM;cA '"f1iv.~~1
 Splash Exhibit Tour Script revised 09/05

Film.
(note: an American Eel is shown in video. Females migrate upstream, from Caribbean.)

In the corridor, just past the cave crawl-thru:

Now that you have seen how the aquifer was formed, we will now take a closer
look at what the Barton Spring segment of the aquifer means to us.

The Barton Springs segment is composed of three layers of rock. Del Rio
Shale, Edwards Limestone, and Glen Rose Limestone. Which of these three
layers is more permeable to water? (explain permeable?)
Correct, the Edward's Limestone has a very high porosity while the other two
layers are essentially impermeable. Throughout most of the Balcones
Escarpment, the Edward's Limestone is sandwiched between the impermeable
layers, resulting in a confined or artesian aquifer. This means that our
segment of the aquifer is under high pressure and water can come to the surface
without a pump wherever there is an opening - Barton Springs! That is one
reason Barton Springs is so special. It is one of the few natural occurrences
where water from the aquifer comes to the surface. (approximately 50 million
gallons per day) (film states 33 million) (which is correct???)

There are other reasons why this area is important. I'm sure you have all seen
the road signs that read uN.ow entering the Edward's Aquifer R~charge.Zone­
Environmentally Sensitive Area." What does that mean? I . •

The Recharge Zone is where the Edward's limestone is exposed at the ground
surface, and is not confined by the Glen Rose or Del Rio shale layers anymore.
Why then does the exposure of the Edward's limestone make it an
environmentally sensitive area? Edward's limestone is a karst limestone. It has
lots of holes and crevices and it is easy for water to move thru these holes. We
say it is highly permeable. In a sand, clay, or gravel type of aquifer, the water
moves much more slowly and it gets filtered as it moves along. In a karst
aquifer, like we have here in Central Texas, the water doesn't get filtered. Any
industrial waste, runoff from streets, parking lots, car w~shes, lawn chemicals,
what have you, goes directly into the aquifer, through the limestone and no
filtering occurs. As they say in the computer industry, "Garbage in, garbage out. II

By the Diorama (model of watershed with buttons)

Now that we've seen where the water is stored underground and how it come out
at Barton Springs, let's look at how the water actually gets into the aquifer.

(Allow everyone to orient themselves and practice pushing the buttons. Explain
that you will touch their shoulder when it is their tum to push their button.)
Barton Springs is just one of three segments of the Edwards Aquifer - it's the
smallest one too. The northern segment extends from Town Lake to Salado.
The southern one is under San Antonio and extends up to around Kyle.
Interestingly, water does not seem to flow between the three segments.
 Splash! Exhibit Tour Script, p. 2
button 1) Rain. This is where it aI/ begins. We often have heavy flooding rains
u in Central Texas, don't we? (read sign by button or have a student read it.)

button 2) Contributing Zone. This is the area west of the Balcones Fault line.
The surface rock is composed of Glen Rose Limestone, which is not porous.
Water cannot soak into the ground and enter the aquifer directly, so it flows over
the ground into creeks. It then flows eastward.

button 3) Recharge Zone. Water that falls as rain here, or flows into this area in
the creeks can now enter the aquifer. The Edward's limeston~, the rock with all
the holes in it is now at the surface of the ground. Remember, pollutants can
also enter the aquifer here, so the motor oil or paint that someone in the
contributing zone area dumped on the ground will be washed into the aquifer too.

button 4) Confined Zone. This is where the water in the aquifer flows and is
confined by the Del Rio Shale, which is impermeable.

button 5) Barton Springs. (small red light) Water that has recharged the
aquifer is now discharged at Barton Springs. As more and more water enters
and flows into the aquifer, it creates pressure on the water as it is trapped. This
pressure forces it back up to the surface - right into Barton Creek, into the pool
area. It then flows downstream into Town Lake/Colorado River :to the gulf.
• #

U ***Mention the bad w~ter line or saline water line which basically follows 1-35:
The saline-water line marks the boundary between good and bad drinking water.
East of the line, water is not drinkable because of the high mineral content. That
isn't really a problem. However, if too much water is removed from the aquifer,
the water line will shift to the west, eventually reaching the aquifer.

Aquariums:
Upper Barton Springs. Starting in Dripping Springs down to upper dam of pool.
Salamanders: usually 4 in tank. This salamander is an indicator of good water
quality in the aquifer and the pool. It is extremely susceptible to pollutants.
Lower Barton Springs. What happens to the water once it discharges from the
spring?
Colorado River. It then moves into the Colorado River and flows to Matagorda
Bay. The Green Water Treatment Plant is close by. It serves 15% of Austin.

Types of water conditions:

Turbidity
Algae Bloom
Non-Point Source Pollutants
Natural Stream

(Explain the various conditions, how they occur, & possible solutions.)
u
The Salamanders Austin's "Canary in a coal mine" 09/05

"Miners took canaries into the mines with them in order to detect toxic, odorless
gases. If a canary passed out or died, it was time to get out of the mine."
by John Dromgroole. contrlbuter to Barton Springs Eternal

"Take care of the salamanders and we take care of the water. II Kent Butler

The Barton Springs Salamander (Eurycea sosorum) is our "canary". It's

presence is an indicator of good water quality. The very thin skin and external
gills makes the salamander extremely susceptible to pollutants.

Listed as an Endangered Species in 1997. lithe primary threats to this species

are degradation to the quality and quantity of water that feeds Barton Springs
due to urban expansion over the Barton Springs watershed. Also of concern is
disturbance to the salamanders surface habitat in the pools where it occurs.
This action implements Federal protection provided by the Act for the Barton
Springs salamander." (USFWS,1997)

All of the known surface habitats of the BS salamander are found within Zilker
Park ... which include Barton Springs, Eliza Springs, Sunken Gardens Springs,
and Upper Barton Springs.

Source: http://www.cLaustin.tx..us/salamander/ (paraphrased); r-'l

Totally aquatic, it does' not metamorphose into -a terrestrial adult. (While most
salamanders lose their gins, the Barton Springs salamander does not.) It is
lungless and relies on it's conspicuous red gills located behind the head for
efficient gas exchange. It is found only at the four spring locations in Zilker Park.
Surveys indicate they are found primarily near the spring outlets. It is not known
to what extend their range extends into the aquifer. (It has only been found at the
four springs in Zilker Park) No eggs have been discovered in their native habitat.

Since Eliza Springs has been cleaned out, the counts have rocketed from dozens
to hundreds. Biologists (usually Laura Dries) from the city make regular counts,
but accurate population estimates at all four spring locations are not possible.

One favorite food is the scuds. Crawfish may be a predator. However, the
primary threats to the BS Salamander are the degradation of the quality of water
that feeds Barton Springs due to urbanization over the BS watershed.

Adults grow to a length of 2.5 inches (6.35 cm).

Second species of salamander was recently discovered. (at Sunken Gardens?)

It is a blind salamander, Eurycea waterlooensis and not yet listed as endangered.
More rare and limited in habitat range than the Barton Springs salamander.
 Austin Nature and Science Center
~
Splash! Into the Edwards
Aquifer
Teacher Training Manual

\J .

Prepared by Teresa McDonold

September 15, 1999
©ANSC 1998

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 Exhibit Information and Tour Directions

Introduction
The SPLASH! exhibit begins with a passage through a simulated cave opening that gives
visitors·the feelirig that they are going down into the earth to the subterranean layers of the
aquifer. The whole exhibit is designed to simulate an actual journey through the Edward's
Aquifer. "
TOUR DIRECTIONS: suggest tp the students that they imagine themselves as a drop of water
that is journeying through the aquifer. It is a fun way to start for all ~ges. This is a good
place to remind the group of appropriate behavior. Encourage touching of the walls.

Edwards AquiTheater
As you tum the comer, your path opens up into a cave chamber, where diffiaction patterns of
light shining through water play on the layers of limestone that comprise the walls around
you. The lights ~ and a large-screen video presentation begins. Using sophisticated 3D
modeled animations, as well as underwater and aerial live action scenes, the video will tell the
story of the geological origins of the Edwards Aquifer. The video animation was done by a
seventeen year old high school student. . .
TOUR DIRECTIONS: have the group sit on the aquarium benches and. watch the video. After
watching the video, children are encouraged to crawl individually through the Kids Cave into
the next room.

Stratigraphy Gallery
The stratigraphy section of the exhibit serves as a bridge between the geological history video
and the aquifer watersheds diorama. The tb(e~.main strata that fonn the Edwards Aquifer -
u thejm~!!l!~~ble Glen Rose limestone below, the porous Edwards Limestone in the middle,
and the imP~rm~able Del Rio Shale on t()p-:"_ are depicted in a cross~sectional replica of the
aquifer's geology that runs. along a 15. fOQtJOllg wall~ The features of the strata, including
varying rock types, are realistically depicted in intricate detail by artisans skilled in the
sculpting of faux rock finishes. The stratigraphy section ties into the following aquifer
watersheds diorama by explaining how the outcrops of the three major strata create the
contributing, recharge, and confined zones of the aquifer.
TOUR DIRECTIONS: point out the different types of rock. Discuss the purpose of each in the
aquifer, and encourage the group to notice the visual differences. An easy way to explain the
zones is by following the path of an imaginary drop of water which falls as rain on the hill
country.

Aquifer Watenheds Dior~ma

The aquifer watersheds diorama shows the surface and subsurface hydrology of the Barton
Springs segment of the Edwards Aquifer. The diorama is an accurate scale model cast in
fiberglass that depicts the topography of the watersheds that replenish the aquifer. Visitors
are able to highlight specific features on the model, such as the boundaries of the aquifer's
contributing, recharge, and .confined 'zones, by using controls connected to spotlights above
that individually project these features down onto the diorama.

11'14·98
1 T~I
 ..
A cross section running roughly north-south down through the middle of the aquifer's
recharge zone divides the diorama into western and eastern portions.' Under the visitor's
control, the western po~on rises approximate1ysix' inches to reveal the aquifer below. The
visitor can then see how surface water enters the aquifer through sinkholes in creekbeds and
then travels north underground until it reaches the surface at Barton Springs in Zilker Park.
TOUR DIRECTIONS: discuss how- the water travels into the aquifer, what each section means
and relate the locations to the group by using places with which they are familiar.. A good
technique at this station is to assign one child to a button, and start by pointing to the rain on
the hill country button, and continue by following the drop qfwaterthrough the different
zones. This method helps to prevent the 'push all the buttons at once' problem, and helps the
children understand what they see.

Aquatic Habitats
Habitats from the Hill Country to Matagorda Bay
The Barton Creek watershed is brought to life with a series of aquariums that trace the path
of the hydrologic cycle from central Texas to the Gulf of Mexico. In the first aquarium, rain
. falling on the upper reaches of Barton Creek flows over riftles and through pools filled with
darters, and then down into a sink hole as it reaches the recharge zone of the Edwards
Aquifer.
Species: Gr~n-throatedDarter Etheostoma lepidum
The next aquarium depicts a spring outlet similar to those in Barton Springs pool that
together discharge an average of 30-50 millions gallons of fresh water per day from the
aquifer into lower Barton Creek. In cooperation with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and
with the support of the Texas Parks and Wtldlife Department, this tank features a refuge
population of endangered Barton Springs Salamanders.
Species: BartonSprlngs _~~~a.nder Euryceq sosorum
Water from the spring outlet tank appears to flow into the next aquarium, which exhibits the
fauna and flora of lower Barton Creek. Because it receives cool, constant temperature water
from the springs year-round, this section of Barton Creek is home to a unique aquatic
ecosystem.
Species: Guadalupe Bass Micropterus dolomieui
Central Stoneroller Campostoma anomalum
Mosquito Fish Gambusia affinis
Mexican Tetra Astyanax mexicanus
In the following aquarium, lower Barton Creek appears to empty into Austin's Town Lake,
which is a dammed reservoir on the Colorado River that is home to native species of catfish,
bass, and other aquatic species. .
Species: Green Sunfish Lepomis cyanellus
Guadalupe Bass Micropterus dolomieui
Texas Cichlid Cichlasoma cyanoguttatum
Bluegill Lepomis macrochirus
A mural along the wall depicts the flow of the Colorado River from .Austin towards the Gulf
of Mexico. The exhibit culminates with a diorama of Matagorda Bay that illustrates how
moisture from the Gulf evaporates into the atmosphere and theQ. returns to central· Texas as
rain.

2
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11/14/98
TM
 TOUR DIRECTIONS: dis~ss the change in_habitat from upper Barton Creek to the Colorado
river. This isa good area tQ J~ ~bQg~J~Qw~babitats and ther~foreflora &' tau.na~ vary
even along the same creele, and rel3tethedifferent habitats to the different sections. of the
aquifer i.e.oontributin~ -rech-arge-and confining. This is also a good place to talk about the
u water cycle starting with rain in the hill country to evaporation and condensation over the
Gulf of Mexico.

" . Non-point Source Pollution T ..bes

This exhibit· focuses on the effects of non-point source pollution on tJte quality of our region's
water supply. Four large, clear tubes tilled with water convey working definitions of some of
the terms we use to describe water quality. The differences between clean, toxic, eutrophic
and turbid waters are emphasized by the presence of ponution-related artifacts within the
tubes.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION:
N:on-PQ~t sourc~. pollution istb.e term us~to ·describe many small, individual instances
of water pollution th~t caiinot b~eas~y~ced to a single point. Some examples of non-
point source pollution are I} toxicity from urban development-oil and grease from
parking lots, leaky petroleum storage-tanks, pesticides, cleaning solvents, and other toxic
chemicals can contaminate our creeks and kill natural aquatic oJ;'ganisms..
2) ieutn~~hicat!on -the process by which a water body becomes "rich in inorganic .
compounds~ These compounds, typically. n.itrogen and phosphorous, stimulate excessive
algae gro\Vth. Because plants such as algae breathe oxygen at night, a massive algae
bloom in a creek or river can consume much of the dissolved oxygen out of a body of
:water. When this b~ppens, fish and Q~be! ~~@.t!~anin.tal~ Who also need oxygen ~y die
Qifin high.numbers. A1so~--riVers-and creeks that become choked with algae create a
u haven of stagnant water for microorganisms, mosquitoes, and .other pests. 3) turbidity-
the ~ount of particulate ~~~er .SJ1spended 4t ~he water. Fast flowing runoff from
rooftops and paved surfaces can cause erosion and build-ups of silt in our creek beds.
Disturbances of the soil from construction can allow silt to wash into the creeks, making
them muddy and inhospitable to natural aquatic organisms.
TOUR DIRECTIONS: before discussing anything, encourage the group to tell you what they see
in the tub~s. This is also a good place to gather the group together, and go over the rules for
the rest of the exhibit. Since it is hands-on and interactive encourage touching and thinking.
Tty not to explain everything first. Let the group experiment, and then highlight different
activities and make suggestions.

Re8l-time Aquifer Water Quality' Data' and Weather Station

Actual real-time readi~gs of the quality of the aquifer water flowing into Barton Springs
Poo~ as wen as local weather conditions, are displayed on monitors overhead as you enter
the Water Science section of the SPLASH! exhibit. An electronic probe fitted with special
sensors transmits data from the bottom of a well beside Barton Springs up to the Barton
Springs Bathhouse. The data displayed in the exhibit includes turbidity, dissolved oxygen,
pH, specific conductance, and temperature. Weather data, such as rainfall, air temperature,

u 3
11114/98
Thl
 , .

humidity, and wind speed, is taken directly from sensors atop a pole in Barton Springs Pool,
and then displayed in the e x h i b i t . " "
TOUR DIRECTIONS: Since these monitors are small and in a busy area, it may be better to go
over them with a few stUdents at a time. Discussion about the meaning of the different
readings should be encouraged. This stop is a good place to emphasize the importance of
weather to water quality. "

Water Quality Hands On Exhibits

Spectrophotometer Water Tester "
This exhibit demonstrates how scientists use a spectrophotometer to measure the levels of
dissolved contaminants in our water. A map of the greater Austin area displays 24 lighted
button switches that represent sampling sites along many of our local creeks. By pushing any
one of the buttons on the map, the visitor can initiate a simulated testing sequence of the
water quality at that particular site. A large clear tube, representing a spectrophotometer
cuvette, will fill with water and then shine brightly as it is illuminated by dazzling light of
different wavelengths. Overhead, a computer monitor will describe various aspects of
spectrophotometric" testing, and then display actual results for that sampling site from tests
conducted "at City of Austin and LCRA water quality laboratories. In this way, the visitor
will see that we can use light to test the water for things that we can't see with our eyes
alone. By sampling the water quality at different sites around Austin we can observe how the
quality of the water in our creeks varies in urbanized and rural areas.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
A spectrophotometer measures the number of molecules of a specific chemical in a
sample of water by illuminating the water with light that is tuned to a single wavelength
that is efficiently absorbed by those molecules. By subtracting the amount of light that is
(~
absorbed from the total amount of light that the sample is illuminated "with, an estimation
is made of the number of molecules of that particular chemical in the water sample.
Water is a lot more than just H20; many different chemicals occur naturally in water,
while others are present due to human activity. Nitrogen (N) and phosphorous (P) are
important nutrients for the water plants and algae that fonn the base of aquatic food
webs. Although they are naturally found at low levels in most natural waters, excessive
levels ofN and P can cause algae 'blooms and encourage eutrophication. Minerals such
as calcium, magnesium and sodium, and metals such as copper, iron and zinc dissolve
into the water from limestone and other rocks in the aquifer and in creek beds, as well as
from the soil as rain filters through it. If elevated levels of heavy metals such as lead,
arsenic, and cadmium are found in surface or ground water, it is usually from a man-
made source, such as runoff from roadways and urban areas.
TOUR DIRECTIONS: "encourage students to sample creeks from different land u)se areas and
compare the results.

Aquifer Mini-Submarine" Activity Station

Visitors are invited to navigate a virtual submarine through the underground channels of an
aquifer to track down the source of bacterial contamination in the watershed. A vast network
of water-tilled caves typical of the karst aquifer environment are simulated in a multimedia
kiosk using high resolution computer animations. The kiosk has a joystick controller for

4 11/14198
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 steering through the animated subterranean passages, and has other controls to convey the
feeling of operating an underwater laboratory ship.. When the opera~or comes to branching
waterways, they are prompted to take a water sample to trace the bacteria W4en the Mini-
Sub operator passes under a sinkhole, he or she will be able to extend a virtual periscope to
u scan the surface for pollution-causing events that may be occurring above ground
BACKGROUND INFORMATION . ..
Bacteria are essential for the healthy functioning of our aquatic ecosystems. They
decompose the organic matter from dead animals and plants so that minerals and
nutrients can be taken up. by other organisms ma new Cycle of life. They also break
down toxic waste products, such as ammonia, from animals intQ simpler molecules, such
as nitrates, that can be safely consumed by other organisms.
Recent research has shown that bacteria play an important role in many geological
processes. They may excrete acids that accelerate the breaking up and dissolution of
rock fonnations. Some bacteria are known to concentrate minerals to create an
enonnous variety of compounds such as carbonates, sulfides, phosphates, oxides, and
sUUcates. .
One of the microbes that are carried out of our bodies and into the sewage systems is
fecal colifonn. If there are elevated levels of fecal coliform bacteria in our creeks, it
might indicate that a nearby sewer pipe may be leaking or a septic tank may be
malfunctioning. Fecal coliform also comes from other mammals. besides humans. High
concentrations of livestock in feedlots, or parks that are littered with excessive amounts
of dog feces can generate high levels of fecal colifonn as well. Fecal coliform bacteria
are harmless to humans~ but their presence can indicate the likely presence of other
bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites that can cause human diseases.
Water is tested for fecal coliform bacteria by taking a known amount of water and
u filtering it through a thin paper pad. The pad is placed into a petri dish with growth
media that provides food for the bacteria, and then the petri dish is placed into an
incubator at 44 degrees Celsius for 24 hours. During this time, any fecal coliform
bacteria present will take advantage of these ideal growth conditions and multiply in a
process called binary fission. After 24 hours, individual bacteria on the filter paper will
have multiplied into colonies that can be seen as spots on the paper with very little
magnification. If an average of more than 200 colonies from a sample of 100 ml of water
is counted, the water is considered to be unsafe for swimming.
TOUR DIRECTIONS: this area is self explanatory. Encourage the students to be gentle with
the joy stick, and complete the activity before moving on. .

Bug Inspector
Biomonitoring Activity Station
The use of small invertebrates as indicators of creeI.c water quality is explored in the
Biomonitoring Activity Station. A display case with a magnifying glass on a rolling track
houses several small animal specimens such as mayflies, dragonflies, or wonns. The students
are invited ·to examine the specimens closely and identify them by using the key on the touch
screen computer. Included in the int~ractive presentation is information on what kind of
water quality is indicated by each particular species.

--,.

s
 · BACKGROUND INFORMATION
In an urbanized watershed, there may be a wi~e Variety of contaminants that can disrupt .
natural aquatic ecosystems. Testing for each contaminant by using a spectrophotometer
or other laboratory ·equipment can be time-consuming and expensive, especially when
many sites within a watershed rc;quire regular monitoring. To address this ·concern, the ('\
City of ~stin has been .reflning a system called Rapid Biological Assessment, or simply,
biomonitoring, to detect where contaminants might be present in in aquatic ecosystem.
This method, instead of relying mainly on chemical analyses, eXamines the numbers and
kinds of organisms that are present at different points aJong a creelc. C~ types o.f
water animals, known as macroinvertebrates, as well as algae such as diatoms, are
collected regularly at designated sampling sites. Because some aquatic species are very
sensitive to pollution, while others are more tolerant, noticeable declines or increases in
of
specific aquatic species can alert a biologist to a possible source nearby pollution. The
biologist can then take a water sample from the site to the laboratory for more rigorous
analysis to identify ~ctly what specific contaminalits may be causing the shift in aquatic
species composition.
TOUR DIRECTIONS: .direct the students to follow the directions on the screen, and look
closely at the animals.

Barton Springs Interactive CD-ROM Kiosk

This station features a multimedia kiosk that provides visitors a chance to sample the new
"Barton Springs Interactive" CD-ROM. The CD-ROM provides an in-depth look at Barton
Springs from a culturaI perspective. Historical photos and anecdotes, along with interviews
with longtime swimmers and other patrons of the Springs will show how this 1000 foot-long,
spring-fed pool in the heart of the city has become one of our community's most treasured
natural resources. The CD-ROM was produced by Texas Environmental Center, and can be i~
purchased at the Splash Store Gift Shop outside the exhibit.
TOUR DIRECTIONS: encourage students to sit and explore the cd-rom. Ask them to be
careful with the computer. .

Aquifer Periscope
This station features a large copper periscope that has a viewer for the student to look into
and watch underwater footage.
TOUR DIRECTIONS: this is an individual activity. Encourage taking turns. Please don't allow
the students .to hang on the periscope.

Find Your School in the Watershed

The City of Austin lies at the confluence of many creeks that drain into the Colorado River,
which runs through the center oftown. By using the Find Your School in the Watershed
activity station, visitors to the SPLASHI exhibit are able to i4entify which watershed they
inhabit. A large 3 I-inch monitor displays a map of the greater Austin area divided by school
districts. Clicking on any of the districts will then bring up a map of that area with the school
locations marked. There is also alist of schools in that area along the side of the screen.
When the student clicks on their schoo~ another map appears that shows the boundaries of
the watershed that the school lies within.

6 11114198
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 TotJ'R DIRECTIONS: It is interesting to find your watershed then go to the spectrophotometer
and find out what the water is like where you live. '

Pollution Prevention Pond

u In the Austin area, water quality ponds are widely used for the mitigation of non-point source
pollution. Although they are becoming a common sight in our community's parking lots,
many area residents may not understand what they are and how they work. This station
features a model parking lot with toy cars and a water quality pond" shown in cross section.
Small beads running out fro~ under th~ cars will ron down"the "lot and into the pond to
demonstrate how the pond can trap particulate matter. In order to etpphasize the importance
of regularly cleaning out water quality ponds to keep them properly functioning, the student
is invited to operate a hand-controlled front-end loader to scoop out the beads from the
pond, and then drop them into the bed of a large dump truck. A hidden recirculation system
takes the beads from the truck and then puts them out again underneath the cars. The beads
then roll back down into the pond.
, BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Structural controls, generally, are of two types - ponds which hold runofffor short
periods of time in order to control peak flow rates (flood detention ponds) and those
which hold water for longer periods for water quality treatment (water quality ponds).
Often a site will have both types of ponds. A flood detention pond usually is a large.
basin into which stormwater from a parking lot, roadway, rooftops, and other areas>:of
impervious cover flows when it rains. The stormwater collects in the pond and then is
released slowly into the' stonnwater drainage system and eventually flows into the local
stream. Because the water released into the creek has been detained until the heaviest
rainfall has passed, peak flows are decreased and damage to streambanks from erosion is
reduced. A water quality pond is designed to collect and hold run-off for longer periods
u of time in order to remove pollutants. There are many different methods in use such as
sand filtration or newer "wet pond" designs which utilizes a permanent pool of water and
aquatic plants as the treatment mechanism.
TOUR DIRECTIONS: remind students to take turns.

Erosive Veiocity
Sediment Transport Activity Station
The Sediment Transport Activity Station demonstrates the relationship between the speed of
water flowing through a creek and the corresponding level of erosion and sediment transport
within a watershed. A circular raceway filled with" water serves as a creek model. The
student initiates the action by turning a lever on the front of the model that actiyates a pump
in the creek bed to accelerate the water around the raceway. Small plastic pellets resting in
the bottom of the creek, channel represent the soil bottom of the creek bed. As the water
moves faster, more and'more of the pellets are picked up and carried along with the flowing
. water, thus demonstrating erosion and sediment transport
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
As w~ter flows through a natural watershed, it may carry with it suspended particles of
dirt that have been eroded from the topsoil in the watershed, bits of leaves or twigs from
nearby trees and plants, organic debris from aquatic organisms, and dust that has fallen

u 7 11/14/98
 from the atmosphere. If the water slows down and becomes still, these tiny suspended
particles will settle to the creek bed. When the :water speeds up again, it mAy begin to
exhibit turbulent flow, which will pick up the sediment and keep ,it suspended' and
churning in the water as it flows downstream. ' -
Hill Country creeks are usually composed of a series of shallow rocky areas, or riftles,
where the water flows swiftly and turbulently, and pools where the water slows down
and flows more calmly. Water flowing in the shallow riftles tends to scour the bottom
and pick up sediment which ,keeps riftle areas clean and clear. The turbulent flow in
riftles keeps their water highly charged With oxygen. Accordingly, riftles provide· an ideal
habitat for many aquatic organisms. ,
When the water reaches a pool, it slows down and drops its sediment load to create thick
areas of silt deposits. The calmer water may allow the luxurious growth of water plants
and algae. Accordingly, riffles and pools create very different types of habitats, and the
types of aquatic organisms found in each ~e often noticeably different. Creeks that _
receive much' of their ~off from urban areas often lose their alternating pool and riftle
structure. Woody debris and larger ro'cks that partially dam up the creek to create pools
are washed away by the increase in storm flows that rapidly run off of impervious cover.
The faster-flowing water erodes the banks of the creek and widens it, especially on the
outside edges of curves. In urban areas, this erosion may cause creekside property
oWners to lose significant portions of their land, and may threaten the stability of their
buildings. A common solution to this problem is to install concrete channels in sections
of the creek that are badly eroding. Unfortunately, although this may solve the erosion
problem in that immediate area, the water velocity may actually accelerate in the newly
channeled sections, and the problem of erosion will be simply exported to unchanneled
areas downstream. If the problem of excessive water velocity is handled the same way
again and again when erosion becomes a problem, most of the creek may wind up being
channeled. Ultimately, in place of a natural creek with a diverse community of animals
and plants, there may be simply a long, concrete drainage ditch that is incapable of
supporting a native aquatic ecosystem.

Stormwater Run-ofT Simulator

The Stormwater Simulator Station demonstrates how high levels of impervious cover can
change the way rainfall run-off flows through a watershed. Two watershed models are
presented side-by-side: the one on the left is a natural landscape, while the one on the right is
an urbanized- area with many parking lots, streets, rooftops, etc. Above each watershed,
equal amounts of "rain" will be suspended in cloud-like reselVoirs. Under the student's
command, the rain falls first on the natural watershed, and then on the highly developed one.
A flow meter in each of the 'creek channels graphs the pattern of discharge as the run-off
flows through each watershed. The flow meters then send their readings to a cbmputer
equipped with National Instruments LabVIEW software. Overhead, the computer's monitor
presents a multimedia display of overlapping graphs of the speed and duration of the flow of
water through the two wate~sheds. The multimedia presentation then helps the student
interpret the graph to understand why higher levels of impervious cover can alter a creek's
natural appearance and its capacity to support native wildlife.

8 11/14/98
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 BACKGROUND INFORMATION: .
When we build our .homes, work places, and p~ay areas within ~ a watershed, we
inevitably affect the way water flows through that w.atershed. 111, ~turaI ar~as, rain water
nonnally seeps into the ground then slowly flows through soil to the nearest creek. The
flow of water that is held in the soil and slowly released is called base flow. Storm flow
occurs when· the soil is saturated and' can no longer absorb, additional·rainfall. During
stann flows, the water flows swiftly on top of the soil towards the creek instead of
through the soil. When we cover the natural landscape with roads; buildings, parking
lots, etc., the rain runs r.apidly off' of these impervious Surfaces and into stann drains that
often empty directly into· to a nearby creek, rather than soaking into the soil.
Accordingly, increases in impervious cover can increase the frequency and intensity of
storm flows in a watershed. Also, because the rain cannot reach the soil beneath the
impervious cover to seep slowly towards.the creek,.the amount of base flow is reduced.
Research by civil engineers, biologists and hydrologists has shown that when 10-15% of
a watershed is covered by impervious surfaces, the natural functioning of its aquatic
ecosystem may .begin to degrade. The faster flowing water that comes off of the
developed areas with higher impervious cover levels can increase the rate of erosion and
flooding in the creek downstream, and disrupt the habitats of animals and plants that live
there. In addition, runoff from streets and parking lots may contain levels of petroleum
hydrocarbons (oil and grease) and other toxic materials that are harmful to aquatic ~e.
In many of the urban watersheds studied so far, high impervious cover levels have leet- to
losses of the natural pool and riftle structure of the creeks, to a significant widening. and
deepening of each creek's channel, and to a dramatic decline in the diversity of native
aquatic wildlife. Community planners try to balance the man-made and natural .
environments to arrive at a level of imperviou~ cover that the watershed can handle
without compromising the quality of the water, without creating erosion and flooding
problems downstream.
TOUR DIRECTIONS: direct the students to press both buttons at the same time to get a flow
rate comparison.

Aquifer Library
Step inside and use the Internet computers to do more exploring, and to obtain more
informatiQn. about the aquifer.
TOUR DIRECTIONS: encourage use of the facility, but monitor the students.

Exhibit ends at bubble doon

ConsenratioD and Preservation of the Barton ·Springs Edwards Aquifer

pollution discussion infonruition
For thousands of years, the springs of the Edwards Aquifer have provided the peoples of Texas
with clean fresh water. The introduction of the "Aeromoter" windmill to Texas in 19th century, as
well as later improvements in water well technology and irrigation, facilitated the growth of farms,
ranches and towns up and down the Edwards Aquifer, from Belton to Uvalde.

1l.'14·98
9 TIl
 . .
In our portion of the Edwards Aquifer - the Barton Springs segment - 41,000 people live in areas
that have no o~her source but the aquifer for drinking ~ater. The ~ area's growth in the last
decade has begun to strain the region's water supplies. Since 1985, the number of peOple living
over the contributing, recharge, and artesian zones of the Barton Springs 'Edwards Aquif~r has
more than doubled. Using ground water supplies to meet demands from future groWth will require (\
careful planning ~d cooperation from all of the members of the cOmmunity who have a stake in
the continued health of the aquifer and Barton Springs. .
Barton Springs is a tremendous natural and cultural resource for the people of central Texas. It is
one of Austin's main tourist attractions, second only to the state. capitol. Each year,. over-300,OOO
people pass through its gates to enjoy the pool' s coo~ fresh water, where they can swim alongside
. fish and explore.a native aquatic ecosystem. But if too many wells are drilled into the aquifer and
more and more water is pumped out for human use, the flow· at Barton Springs could be reduced
to the point where swimming there is no longer feasible. Also, expanding areas of urban
development in the contnouting and recharge zon~ of the Barton Springs Edwards Aquifer may
threaten groundwater .supplies ~d Barton Springs Pool with non-point source poUution. .
Although the overall health of the aquifer is currendy excenent, scientists have alre8.dy begun to
detect traces and, on rare occasions, unsafe lt~vels of man-made chemicals or heavy metals in
water wens. if continued urban development in the contributing and recharge zones causes
significant deClines in water quality in the creeks that replenish the aquifer, non-point source
pollution might one day make Barton Springs unsafe for swimmers, and cause the ~oss of the
aquifer as a source of clean, safe drinking water.

10 11114198
1M
 Austin Nature and Science Center
SpIGsltI into tlte Edwards 14quifer
u
Training Manual
Table of Contents

1. Purpose of the Program

2. Program Outline
3. Training manual
4. Glossary
S. Manual attachment
"Go to the Aquifer" Station
Creek Station
Lab Station
Informal science education
6: Bibliography

Other enclosures
u • Hill Country Oasis
• Barton Springs/Edwards Aquifer Conservation District Brochure
• Barton Springs Pool Brochure

. I

u
 I •

SpICISII/lftto tile Etlwtut:ls ""Idler

Purpose of the Program n
The program is designed to answer these questions:
1- What is an a9 uifer
*How does water get into an aquifer?
*How is water withdrawn from an aquifer?
Students will answer this by
*Constructing a model of an artesian aquifer.
*Exploring and interacting with lab station activities.
*Yiewing the video" "Journey through the Edwards Aquifer". ,
2- What is the water cycle? Why is it important?
Students will ~swer this question by;
*Partlcipating in the "Go to the Aquifer" activity.
*Discussion and review the questionnaires and water cycle. .
3- Why is the Edwards AQUifer unique and important to people who
live in Austin?
Students will answer this question by;
*Yiewing the video. n
*Completing the written survey. (pre-visit activity)
*Perfonning the ffitration experiment.
*Explormg and interacting with lab station activities.
4- Why is Barton ~prln8s unique and imp~rtant to us?
Students will answer this question by;
*Perfonning biomonitoring sampling in Barton Springs and Barton Creek.
*ObseIVing live animals that live in the water both.with hand lens and
with microscope.
S- What can we do to conserve and preserve the aguifer and the
springs?
Students will answer this question by;
*Role playing in dilemmas about the creek and the springs in which they
must present different points of view and reach compromises about the future
of the Aquifer.
*Keeplng a water use journal.

Sturrock 9/96
 Splll5llllllto tile EdwClr•
u .4quifer
Program Outline

Activity: Go to the Aquifer

Length of time: 40 minutes
Location: inside pool area
Concepts: water cycle, geology of Central Texas
Skills: reading" writing, record data, observe a pattern

Procedure: 1. reveiw questionnaires with students

2. do activity
3. conclude and give instructions for writing component
for post activity

Biomonitorinl in Lower Barton Creek

Length of time: 40 minutes
Location: creek below dam
Concepts: , diversity of life, importance of clean water,
use of equipment . _
Skills: observing, collecting, recording data, cooperation
u safety

Procedure: 1. divide into teams of 3-4 students with 1 docent

2. review safety and instructions for your team
3. perform jobs, recor4 ~ata
4. return equipment
5. observe collection and conclude
6. return collections to creek

Water Lab Activities

(Set up like centers)
Length of time: 40 minutes
Location: Water Lab in Bathhouse
Concepts: communication and use of technology, importance of
water, water pollution, filtration, how the Edwards
Aquifer works
Skills: computer skills, experimenting, building a model,
mapping, math, use of equipment, technology

Procedure: 1. enter data collected at creek on internet web page, send

data or e-mail to schools, contact other kids across country
on web
u 2. how much water do you use? use gallon containers
 3. how pollution enters the aquifer, use Motorola (')
machine
4. filtration activity with plastic liter bottles, sand, gravel,
soil
5. build a model of the aquifer, with large aquarium and
soils
6. find watershed that your school is in, mark on map
7. how much usable water is on earth?
8. fecal coliform test
9. aquifer is like a sponge
10. water tasting

Group 1 Group 2

9:30-9:40 arrive, questionnaires 9:30-9:40 arrive, questionnaires

9:40-10:10 go to the aquifer 9:40-9:45 hike to creek
10:10-10:15 hike to aeek 9:45-10:20 creek survey
10:15-10:50 creek survey 10:20-10:25 hike to bathhouse
10:50-10:55 hike to bathhouse 10:25-10:55 lab room
10:55-11:25 lab room 10:55-11:25 go to the aquifer
11:25-11:30 wrapup 11:25-11:30 wrap up
 Austin Nature and Science Center
Splash! into the Edwards Aquifer
u Instructor Training Manual
Fall 1996
written by Janice Sturrock

"But besides their contribution to an o~tstanding swimming pool and to the

public water system, the springs also have major ecological and geological
values. They provide a window into a part of the earth's interior and afford
clues to the operation of geologic, hydrologic and biologic systems along
the Balcones Fault Zone and Escarpment". (Woodruff & Slade, 1984).·

What is an'aquifer?
An aquifer IS a permeable underground water bearing stratum of rock, sand or gravel
that stores, transmits and yields water in sufficient quantities for human use.
The Edwards Aquifer of South Central Texas is a reservoir of water held in a cavernous,
porous, honeycombed limestone formatio~ located underground. The a.quifer was formed
about 100 million years ago when much of Central Texas was covered by a shallow sea.
Remains of small sea dwelling creatures such as shells and corals, were deposited on the floor
u of this sea and formed layers of what is now the Edwards Limestone formation. Over. millions
of years, movements within the earth such as earthquakes and faulting, shifted the rock,
exposing sections .of the limestone south and west of what is now Austin.
About 17,OOO;000.years elga, shifting in the earth's crust caused major faulting anq
uplifting which resulted in the Balcones Escarpment of Central Texas. (Water, W~ter
C~nseryation and the Edwards Aquifer, 1994).

(See map 1, the Balcones Escarpment)

Rock fractures along fault lines allowed rainwater to infiltrate the limestone,.and dissolve rock,
creating the honeycombed appearance and high porosity of the Edwards Aquifer. (Hill
Country Foundation, 1995). Today's aquifer is a lattice work of tiny holes, cracks, caverns and
caves that serve as a holding tank for water. Over millions of years, water dissolved parts of .
the limestone above the ground and carved many channels and caverns below ground. In
Central Texas, the network of caverns and channels below ground is what is called the
Edwards Aquifer.

u 1
i . .i. ....

Water enters an aquifer as precipitation that falls in the recharge zone. It eventually
makes its way into the underground water table. Water leaves the aquifer through natural n
springs and artificial wells drilled into the aquifer.

What is B~rton Springs?

Barton Springs is an oasis of clear, cold wat~r located in Zilker Park in Austin, Texas. It
is the fourth largest spring in the state, releasing millions of gallons of fresh water from the
Edwards Aquifer each day. For many people who live in Austin, Barton Springs Pool provides
an unique, spring fed swimming hole that offers relief from the long, hot, dry summers of
Central Texas. For others, Barton Creek, whose waters feed the springs, offers a quiet, green,
natural area just minutes from the hustle and bustle of downtown Austin.
Barton Springs is like a big faucet for the Barton Springs segment of the Edwards
Aquifer. About 950/0 of water that enters the Barton Springs segment is discharges at Barton
Springs. Water that enters the Barton Springs segment, comes from the watersheds of six
creeks. The creeks are Bear, Little Bear, Slaughter, Williamson, Onion and Barton, with the
greatest amount of rec~ge coming from Barton.and Onion Creeks. Basically, whatever
enters the aquifer as recharge in these watersheds, is discharged at Barton Springs. Water
flows out of the pool, into Barton Cr~k and enters Town Lake. Austin's drinking w~ter
comes froin Town Lake. n
(See map 2, the Barton Springs segment of the Edwards Aquifer)

These creeks win~ through nfr~, sub.urb~ .~d ·.urban areas. Barton Creek provid~s ab0':1t
280/0 of the recharge to the aquifer, and water entering Barton Creek reaches the springs
quickly. Water from Onion Creek provides about 340/0 of the recharge that flows into this
seginent of the aquifer. Because water flows through the Edwards Aquifer so quickly,
disturbances that occur upstream can be measured at the springs within a matter of hours.
(Slade, et al., 1986).
The pool created by the springs provides the city with its "jewel in the crown" of unique
natural features that help define Austin's quality of life. The pool is a major recreational
attraction for Austin as well as a supplier for part of the city's municipal water supply. Water
from the springs enters Town Lake about one half mile upstream from the Green Water
Treatment Plant. This plant provides ~d and east Austin with drinking water, accounting for
about 280/0 of the total water for the city.
The Barton Springs segment of the Edwards Aquifer is the middle segment of the larger
karst, limeston~ aquifer that underlies a region known as the Balcones Escarpment of Central n
2
 Texas. "The Balcones Escarpment lies along the major line of dislocation of the Balcones fault
zone... " (Woodruff & Abbott, 1986). "The Aquifer is located where it is because of the location,
u orientation and magnitude of faults composing the Balcones Fault system." (Woodruff &
Slade, 1984).

(See map 3, the Balcones Fault Zone)

The Balcones Escarpment is a line of low hills that extends through Central Texas. It is a
surface expression of a deep-seated crustal discontinuity in which dramatic changes in
landscape occur. The Escarpment is also a major weather-maker. Although the limestone hills
are only a few hundred feet high, they offer the first topographic break inland from the Gulf of
Mexico. The Balcones Escarpment is the locus of the largest flood producing storms in the
contiguous United States. (Woodruff & Slade, 1984).
The Balcones Escarpment and fault zone provide physical divisions of east from west.
Within the big picture of North America, the Escarpment marks a break between the Great
Plains to the west and the Coastal·Plains to the east. In Texas, this division is marked by
relatively flat, clay soilS and more abundant rainfall of the Blackland Prairie anefcoastal
regions to the east, and the hilly, thin limestone soils of the Hill Country and desert regions to
the west. (Woodruff & Abbott, 1986). In the 1800s, lifestyles were determined by the fault line
u with cotton farming and urban areas developing to the east and ranching developing to the
west. (Woociruff, Marsh & ~ilding, 1993). .
The abundance of water provided by Barton Sprin~ has determined flora and fauna of
. the area as well. as the development of human settlements for the last 11,000 years. The springs
~ere·one of the main attractions for development of the city of Austin in the 1830s. The great
diversity of plants and animals in the Austin area is dictated by the fault zone.
Species of plants and animals found in Central Texas along the Balcones fault zone are
numerous because the fault creates an nedg~1t in which two ecological zones meet. Great
diversity of both plant and animal life can exist. Species from both ecological zones are found
within short distances of one another. For example, to the east there is the fox squirrel and to
the west, its counterpart, the rock squirrel. The blue jay is the eastern counterpart to the scrub
jay of the Hill Country. Some species are limited by the fault zone such as those dependent
upon plants whose distribution is determined by the fault.
Today, there is much competition fpr water in the Edwards Aquifer. Children who live
in and around Austin will determine the future of the aquifer and the springs with their choice
of lifestyles and their votes for elected officials. How much they know, understand and care

u 3
# _~ J.".

about the water will influence their decisions concerning the Barton Springs segment of the
Edwards Aquifer.- n
History of development in the Barton Creek watershed
In February of 1979, the Austin City Council and Planning Commission adopted the
Austin Tomorrow Comprehensive Plan. The plan was developed over several years with
extensive input from citizens. It became a blueprint for growth of the city with consideration
for the threat that uncontrolled growth could present to Austin's unique environment. The
plan outlined a preferred growth corridor to extend north and south along Interstate Highway.
35 and did not support construction over the sensitive Barton Springs Zone. (Ramanathan,
1994).
Despite careful planning for the future of the Barton Spr~gs Zone, there has been
exterisive construction of homes, roads and commercial ventures in the Barton Springs
contributing watershed zones. Between 1980 and 1994, the total amount of public funds that
had been spent to subsidize growth in the Barton Springs Zone was over $474,000,000.00.
These monies have gone to pay for municipal utility districts, major road construction such as
the Southwest Parkway and Mopac Highway South, new schools and suburban housing
developments. (Ram~than, 1994).
Ordinances that have been established to protect watersheds and creeks in Austin are n
being challenged. Building continues to occur directly over the environmentally sensitive
aquifer. Construction increases the possibility and probability that runoff and recharge waters
entering the aquifer within the Barton Springs watershed will become increa~ingly polluted,
transporting pollutants into th~ aquifer. About 95°fc, of w~tever ente~s the aquifer· with
recharge waters in the Barton Sprmgs segment is discharged at Barton Springs. (Hill Country
Foundation, 1995). The Edwards Aquifer is more vulnerable to pollution than some other .
aquifers because thin layers of limestone that separate ground water from surface water, offer
little or no filtration of pollutants.
The City of Austin and Travis County continue to struggle to maintain a balance
between economic growth and environmental sustainability. Prevention of water pollution is
desired because the cost in dollars to clean up environmental damage is enormous. (Hill
Country Forum, Summer 1994).
Intricately intertwined in the future of water quality in the Barton Springs segment are
components of the ecosystem of the area.. One example is the Barton Springs salamander,
Eurycea sosorum. As of the fall of 1996, federal legislation does not list the salamander as an
endangered species, despite research reports that indicate that it truly is endangered. (Cole,
Hutchison, Roesner, Schram, &; Yelderman, 1995). n
4
 The listing would have implications concerning development within the Barton Creek
watershed and coUld render as illegal any development causing destruction of habitat or
u danger to the species. In March of 1995, United States Secretary of the Interior, Bruce Babbit
said,

"The Barton Springs salamander, like other .species at risk, is

the proverbial' canary in the coal mine' for Texas residents
who depend upon or care about this priceless natural resource.
The salamander functions here as an indicator of the overall
health of the aquifer spring system and the damage
that can be done to this irreplaceable natural resource."
(Mittelstadt, 1995).

Local media has pitted those concerned about future water quality against those who
want to build over the aquifer. Citizens of Austin and outlying areas continue to be divided.
and polarized concerning no growth versus economic growth versus managed growth.

"Rapid urban development is <?Ccwring in the Austin area.

. Much of this development is occwring in the watersheds
u which contribute recharge to the Edwards Aquifer. Such
development can degrade the quality of runoff from these
areas, and thus degrade the quality of water in the aquifer.
Clearly, th~re is.a needJ?r ad~qua~e ~ormation.to plan
and assess the impacts of development on the aquifer".
(Woodruff &: Slade, 1984).

(See map 4, the Barton Springs recharge and contributing zones).

Dangers facing the Barton Creek watershed and ultimately, the discharge of waters at
Barton Springs, are depletion and pollution "Ground water originating from Barton Creek
remains in the aquifer for only a short period before discharging at Barton Springs." (Dorsey,
Slade &: Stewart, 1986). Increased turbidity, indicating high concentrations of suspended clay
and silt in the water, reduce visibility. "Changes in turbidity of Barton Springs water after a
storm show how rapidly recharge wate.r, with its relatively high turbidity, moves through the
aquifer to discharge at Barton Springs." (Dorsey, et al., 1986).

u 5
 1. The Importance of Water
. Water is tliat wonderfully unique compound that is composed of two atoms of n
hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. It has special qualities that allow it to exist in three
. different states, to change from one of these states into another and back again. It can perk up
a thirsty plant and quench a dry throat. Every living thing needs water. The problem is that
there is only so much water. It cycles through its various forms, condensing from gaseous
water vapor to a drop of water and freezing into ice. There is a finite amount of water on
earth, sometimes called the water planet, because 750/0 of it is composed of water. You can
change the state of it, you can change the quality of it, you can drink it, or swim in it, or ski on .
it, but you cannot get any more of it. The water that you drink tomorrow, may be the same
water that a dinosaur drank 70,000,000 years ago.
Even though 75% of the earth is made of water, only a small portion of that water is
available for use. About 97% of all of the water on earth is salt water.. Water frozen in'ice caps
and glaciers comprise about 2 %. That leaves only about 1% of water that is usable, fresh
water.
To have a concrete example of the percentage of usable water, imagine a 10 gallon
container filled with water. If you remove all of the salt water, all of the frozen water and all of
the polluted water, there would be 9 drops of usable fresh water available. (Barton
Springs/Edwards Aquifer Conservation District, 1995). n
Because every living thing needs water, water and the quality of it is very important. It
has always been very important, ever since life on earth began; but there has never been so
much competition for it as there is now. Human populations have multiplied, pollution of
to
water has increased and people are beginning wony if there wUI be enQugh clean w~ter for
the future.
In Central Texas, near the ci~es of San Anto~o and Austin, the fresh water supply
comes from the Edwards Aquifer. Whether or not there will continue to be enough water is of
increasing concern among residents of Central Texas. -The southern segment o~ the Edwards
Aquifer, which underlies the city of San Antonio, is located just south and west of Austin. This
segment of the aquifer supports the fresh water needs of 1.5 million people, provides for
agricultural crop irrigation in six counties and distinguishes San Antonio as the largest city in
the world that depends upon a single source for its drinking water.
Although San Antonio and Austin are both situated atop the Edwards Aquifer, within
70 miles of each other, the two cities lie in different segments. San Antonio lies in the southern
Edwards and Austin lies in the middle portion, known as the Barton Springs segment of the
Aquifer. The northern segment extends north of Austin to Salado, Texas. Because of natural .
physical features in the aquifer, water does not flow back and forth from one segment to n
6
 # ; ••: .

another. Overdraft of one segment does not directly effect water levels in the other two

u segments. In Austin, .drinking water comes from surface water in Town Lake. On average,
Barton Springs contributes approximately 32,000,000 gallons, or about 100/0 to the daily flow of
Town Lake.

(See map 5, the three 'segments of the Edwards Aquifer)

Although water does not flow between the southern and Barton Springs segments of
the ~dwards Aquifer, Austin is indirectly effected by fluctuations in water levels in the'
southern segment. Water district officials in San Antonio are looking to the Highland Lakes,
which include Town Lake, located in the middle of Austin~ for potential drinking water
sources for the future for San Antonio. '
"The water concerns of each are~ of the state are intricately tied to those of the rest of the
state". (Webb, 1954).

~'.:~ .
(Se~ map 3, the Balcones Fault Zone)

An living things need water. The availability of water on earth determines the

u abundance and distribution of life. There is a finite amount of water on earth. Water has
unique charact~ristics that distinguish it from other compounds.
1) all living things need water
2) there is a finite amount of water on earth
, '3) water is the only substan~e that Occurs naturally in three' states.of solid, liquid and
gas. Water is constantly moving from one state to another and back again.
4) water is the universal solvent, it can dissolve many materials.
Carbon dioxide gas, present in soil and air combines with water to form carbonic acid
which has the ability to dissolve limestone. Throughout millions of years in Central Texas, this
carbonic acid has dissolved the relatively soft limestone rock and created many caverns and
caves throughout the Edwards Aquifer region.
All living things need water. The human body is composed of about 65°k water. This
means that if you weigh 100 lbs., 65 pounds of you is water. Water is essential for bodily
functions of living creatures. It transports food, oxygen and waste products. It aids in
regulating body temperature. It is essential for many of the chemical reactions in the human
body. Without water, humans could only exist for a few days. (Water, Water Conservation
and the Edwards Aquifer, 1994).

u 7 .
 Plants also need water. In fact, plants need far more water than an animal of
comparable weight. The transport processes of plants that govern intake of carbon dioxide fQ~
photosynthesis are dependent upon water.

2. The Water Cycle

Water is composed of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen, H2O. The water
cycle is a series of repeating events in which water circulates naturally through surface water,
ground water and the atmosphere. In the water cycle, there is no beginning and no end.
Water evaporates (changes from a liquid to a gas), and transpires (a process in which plants
lose water to the atmosphere) to form clouds, condenses (changes from a gas to a liquid), and
falls as precipitation (discharge of water from the air ) in the form of rain, snow or sleet.

(See chart 6, the ~ater cycle).

The water cycle is much like a terrarium in which moisture is absorbed from the soil
into plants that transpire water as vapor into the air where it condenses on the top of the
terrarium and falls back onto the plants' as dew or rain. - .
Events of the water cycle that taKe place in any part of the world are affected by events
in all other parts of the world. Rainfall in Central Texas could come from the Gulf of Mexico en
it could come from distant seas. (Water, Water Conservation and the Edwards.Aquifer, 1994).

3. Ground Water'and Surface Water

A. Grouild water ,is wate~ that is s~ored under the earth's surface. Gr~undwater is the
largest single source of fresh water available to and commonly used by people. Ground .Water
supplies about 61% of the total water used in Texas. (Ground Water Protection Committee,
1988). .
Water enters the ground as precipitation and begins to fill the water table. Once in the
ground, water moves toward the lower lying places of discharge. Water can move upward if
confined under pressure. ~ater stored under pressure is under artesian conditions. A spring
is the natural discharge from a ground water reservoir. Water can discharge from a spring in
both confined and unconfined aquifers. Water can also be withdrawn by means of an artificial
well. In artesian conditions, the water may rise to the surface because of water pressure. In
water table conditions, well water may need to be pumped from the ground.
Ground water tends to move through aquifers very slowly depending on the
permeability of the rock. However; in Central Texas, ground water moves very quickly, 25-55
feet per day, because of the high permeability. (large pores in the rock) of the limestone whicn
8
 . comprises the aquifer. Water moves rapidly through many cracks and crevices in the

u limestone. Some of these openings were formed by faulting within the earth and some were
formed when the high mineral content of the water dissolved the limestone and created caves
. within the aquifer. (Woodruff & Slade, 1984, page 12).
Infiltration is the process by which water enters the ground through soil or cracks in
porous rock. The porosity. or ability to hold and yield water, determined by the size and
arrangement of the pore spaces, determines how easily water will travel through rock.

(See worksheet 7, example of porosity).

B. Surface water is the water that is on the land's surface. It is not different from ground
water, it is just located in a different place. Surface water includes water in lakes, streams,
rivers and glaciers. When surface water enters the ground, it becomes ground water. There is
a continuous interchange between surface water and ground water. Austin receives most of its
fresh water from surface water in Town Lake.
4. Types of Aquifers ..
Aquifers can be formed below sand, gravel, soil or rock. Layers of soils act as filtering
devices for water as it enters different kinds of aquifers. Sand and soil filter out impurities in .

u recharge waters as the water seeps through to the aquifer water table. Gravel soils would filter
less than sandy soils. The porous limestone of the Edwards Aquifer provides very little to no
filtering of recharge waters. In a karst aquifer, any impurities and pollutants in the water
when it enters the ground in a recharge zone, goes directly into the aquifer. That is why the
Edwards Aquifer is so vulnerable to p~llution.· -
A. Important terms
An aquifer is a permeable tu:lderground wa~er bearing stratum of rock, sand or'gravel
that stores, transmits and yields water in sufficient quantities for human use. The word
aquifer comes from two Latin words. Aqua meaning water and ferre meaning ~o bear or carry;
thus water bearing or water carrying. In Texas, about 610/0 of the fresh water used across the
state comes from water stored in aquifers. Texas has 7 major and 16 minor aquifers.

(See map 8, major aquifers in Texas).

A groyrui water divide, a natural physical feature, near Kyle, Texas separates the
southern Edwards from the Barton Springs segment.
-Aquifers may be a few or many hundreds of feet thick. They may cover several acres or
thousands of square miles. Aquifers are described as being confined and unconfined.
u· 9
 Confined or artesian aquifers store water that is confined or under pressure. Water is stored
under pressure between two impermeabl~ layers and may flow freely out of natural springs ('.,
and artificial wells.
Unconfined or water table aq.uifers store water that is not under pressure. Discharge
occurs because of gravity when water flows out of the aquifer as elevations decrease along the
water table. These aquifers have little stored water and are usually recharged directly above
where they occur, increasing their vulnerability to pollution. Parts of the southern segment of
the Edwards Aquifer, which lies under San Antonio, are unconfined and sensitive to
contamination because of little or no soil or rock to filter recharge waters. (Ground Water,
1981).
The Edwards Aquifer is a lw:5taquifer which means that the porous, water bearing
limestone that comprises it is characterized by irregular sinks, underground streams and
caverns. The high porosity, full of pores and permeable to liquids, of the limestone in this
area has created over 374 karst features which help define the Edwards Aquifer.
The aquifer lies underground in Central Texas· and spans a distance of about 200 miles,
beginning in the west near Brackettville in Kinney County and extending to the northeast near
Salado in Bell County. The average thickness of the aquifer is about SOO feet. The aquife~ is .
divided into three hydr~logiC segments. ~e southern ~dwards lie~ under San Antonio: to thh
south and west of Austin. The Barton Spnngs segment IS southwest of downtown AUstin,
with the main discharge occurring at Barton Springs. The northern Edwards extends from
Austin northeastward to Salado.
The Edwards Aquifer is unique in its geolgiic ma~ up in which limestone provid~s
. little to no filtr~tion of recharge waters, and in its· hydrolggic importance .because unfiltered,
t:echarge water from precipitation enters the aquifer and travels through it quickly, as much as
25-55 feet per day, allowing for little to no filtering of sediments and contaminants from the
recharge waters. (Charbeneau, 1988).
Impervious coyer, or coverings on the land such as asphalt, are impenetrable to water
and increase the speed of water flowing through the contributing zone and the amount of
pollutants that are picked up by the water. The relatively high speed at which water can flow
through the aquifer makes it difficult to pinpoint sources of pollution. (Slade; et ale 1986).
Impervious cover also can reduce the amount of recharge that replenishes the aquifer because
less land surface is available for water to soak into the ground and make its way to the aquifer.
Overdraft of an aquifer occurs when mor~ water is withdrawn than recharge can replenish.
When overdraft occurs, an aquifer must draw water from all of its sources. As water is
discharged and the water table lowers, water pressure within the drinkable water area

10
 decreases, makin~ it possible for water from the bad water zone to seep into and contaminate
U the fresh water.

(See map 9, the bad water zone)

B. What makes the Edwards Aqyifer uniqye?

1. Water bearing rock
The Edwards Aquifer is really a formation of water-bearing r~ck that holds water much
like a sponge. Over millions of years, water has dissolved limestone to form honeycombed
cracks and caverns. Water lies in the cracks, channels and caverns of the rock. The average
thickness of the aquifer is about 500 feet enclosed by two impermeable layers; Del Rio clay
above and Glen Rose limestone underneath. (Wight, 1981).
Because of faulting within the recharge zone, the Barton Springs segment'~ recharge
waters enter at fault lines in the limestone and clay which provide little to no filtration of
pollutants. This lack of filtration contributes to the unique vulnerability of waters in the
Edwards Aquifer. -.;

(See map 10, cross-section of the Edwards Aquifer).

u 2. Three hydrologic segments
The Edwards Aquifer is divided into three hydrologic segments divided by natural,
physical features that prevent water frc;>m flowing back and forth between them. Water flows
from the southwest, .where elevations ar~ slightly higher,-to the northe"ast as ~levations become
lower.

(See map 5, the three segments of the Edwards Aquifer)

1) The southern sepent of the Edwards Aquifer or San Antonio segment, begins near
Brackettville in Kinney C01:Ulty and flows northeastward through San Marcos to southern
Hays County. This segment underlies the city of San Antonio, supports fresh water needs of
1.S million people, provides for agricultural crop irrigation in six counties and distinguishes
San Antonio as the largest city in the world that depends' upon a single source for its drinking .
water. (Todd, 1995).
2) The middle segment known as the Barton 5.prinp segment. begins at a ground water divide
near Kyle in Hays County and extends to the Colorado River in Austin. This segment is 100
u times smaller than the southern segment and has only one main discharge site at Barton
11
·. . «.~ ..~.

Springs Pool in A~tin. Barton Springs is the fourth largest spring in Texas and discharges
32,000,000 gallons of water per day. This segment is also a federally-designated sole source ("',
aquifer which means that for 35,000 Texans, it is the only readily available and practical source
of drinking water. (Barton Springs/Edwards Aquifer Conservation District, 1994).
3) The northern segment of the Edwards picks up at the Colorado River in Austin and
continues northeastward to Salado in Bell County. and supplies Round Rock and Georgetown
with some of their drinking water. (Hill Country Oasis, 1992).
The Edwards formation of limestone that covers much of the Hill Country west of
Austin and San Antonio, provides both a recharge zone and a holding tank for the water of the·
Edwards Aquifer. Because of geologic formations and differences in elevations of discharge
sites along the aquifer from west to northeast, springs on the northeast end are the first to go .
dry in periods of drought or overdraft. Within the southern segment, these springs are the
ones that feed the San Antonio River, the Comal River and the San Marcos River and
ultimately supply San Antonio with its fresh water. (Water, Water Conservation and the
Edwards Aquifer, 1994).
3. Shared characteristics
Some characteristics of aquifers that the three segments of the Edwards Aquifer share:
*The coin?buting zone. which is a zone where ~atersh~ds of cr~ and rivers catch rainfall n
and provide water for recharge. The contributing zone for the Barton Springs segment drains _---
about 264 square miles.
*Ihe rechat:ge zone is where water enters the aquifer through caves, sinkholes, cracks and
fractures in the Edwards lime~tone. Large springs in this feature provide natural release
points for the aquifer at Comal Springs and.San··Marcos··Springs in the southern segment and
Barton Springs in the Barton Springs segment. The recharge zone for the Barton Springs
seg~ent covers about 90 square miles.

(See map 4, the Barton Springs recharge and contributing zones).

*The artesian zone is where water stored under pressure rises above the water line at artificial
wells and natural springs. Most of the Barton Springs segment is an artesian aquifer.
*The bad water line is the imaginary line where drinkable water is bordered by water that is
considered unsuitable for drlnking, the quantity of dissolved minerals exceeds 1,000
milligrams per liter. In the Edwards, below the bad water line, water flows more slowly
through the limestone and stays in contact with it longer. This results in a higher dissolved
mineral content of calcium, sulfate and iron. Water in this area may be low in dissolved n
12
 oxygen, high in sulfates and have a higher temperature. (Water, Water Conservation and the
U Edwards Aquifer, 1994).
Overdraft of one segment does not directly effect water levels in the other two
segments. However; water shortages in one area of the state may require redistribution of
water for future needs. For example, when the southern segment has a low water level in
times of inadequate rainfall, the water level in the Barton Springs segment may not be low.
However, because low aquifer levels in the southern segment mean less available fresh water
for San Antonio, water district officials in San Antonio are looking at the possibility of
pumping water from the Highland Lakes to San Antonio. (Todd, 1995). Town Lake is one of .
the seven Highland Lakes and is the source of Austin's drinking water. The amount of
available drinking water for Austin is indirectly effected by low aquifer levels in San Antonio.
In Austin, drinking water comes from Town Lake. Barton Springs contributes 32,000,000
gallons, or about 100/0 to the daily flow of Town Lake. (Charbeneau, 1988). In times of low
water levels, the contribution of water from Barton Springs, both improves the quality, by
adding oxygen, and contributes significantly to the amount of water available in Town Lake.

(See map 11, the Lower Colorado River).

U 4. Unique karst features

The Edwards Aquifer is unique geologically in that the pOres, or spaces and cracks
between soil particles, that define the EdwSfds Formation of limestone are large, giving the
aquifer unusually high porosity. Porosity is the proporti~n of cracks and pores in rock which
. effect the transport of water through it. This meaJ\S that once recharge waters have entered the
~dwards Aquifer through sink holes, caves and shallow limestone, it is able to move quickly
through large cracks and crevices to where it is discharged. In the Barton Springs segment,
950/0 of recharge waters that 'enter the aquifer through the watersheds of Barton and Onion
Creeks is discharged at Barton Springs in a .relatively short amount of time. (Slade, et al. 1986).
The western edge of the southern sesment, located west of San Antonio, is particularly
vulnerable to pollution during recharge because the protective layer of clay that covers much
of the stored water is thin in some areas or missing altogether in others. In these areas,
limestone has been shifted by movements within the earth. Instead of entering above the
filtering layer of clay, recharge waters enter the aquifer at the porous limestone layer ·and move
more directly, without much filtering, to- $e water table area for storage and discharge.

5. EcolQIJ of Barton Creek and Barton Sprinp

u A. ECQlogical overview
13
. : ....--

The clean, clear, cool waters of Barton Creek have sustained an oasis of plant and
animal life on the edg~ of the Texas Hill Country throughout hundreds of years. Water that n
recharges the Edwards Aquifer in the Barton Creek watershed is discharged at Barton Springs
and provides life-giving water to the area. Contributing to the overall green lushness of the
creek valley, are trees including elms, ashe juniper, hackberry, cottonwood, pecan, willow and
redbud. The canopy of trees along with species of native shrubs, provide habitat for birds,
mammals and insects. Plants in the creekbed include ferns, water primrose, wild celery and
cattail. These plants provide food and shelter for white-tailed deer, rabbits, bobcats, foxes,
racc~ns, frogs and turtles.
Both the Black-capped Vireo, Vireo Atricapilla, and the Golden-cheeked Warbler,
Dendroica chrysoparia, breed nowhere else in the world but the woodlands of Central Texas.
The Golden-cheeked Warbler is listed with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the State of
Texas' as an endangered species because its habitat is in danger of disappearing. Steep canyons
found along parts of Barton Creek provide the right combination of shelter and food required
for the warbler's survival.
The Barton Springs salamander, Eurycea sosorum , first discovered in the 1940s, lives in
the water filled cracks and crevices of the Barton Springs segment. It lives its entire life
underWater and maintains aquatic characteristics such as external gills. The salamander is
found only in Barton Springs and adjacent ~pring outlets. Monthly salamander surveys
performed by ~eld biologists in the Environmental and Conservation Services Department of
the City of Austin reveal that numbers of salamanders fluctuate with an average number
found being twenty.
. B. Rapid transmission of wa~er . .
Contaminants and pollutants can reach the springs almost immediately.
A report issued in the fall of 1995 by the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department stated, "Over .
development in the Barton Creek watershed or improper developmental plans could result in
significant degradation of the quality of ground water in a relatively short time frame". (Cole,
et al., 1995). Roadway construction and urbanization contribute to pollution of these
waterways. Basically, whatever enters the aquifer as recharge in these watersheds, is
discharged at Barton Springs. This water flows out of the pool, into Barton Creek and enters
Town Lake. Austin's drinking water comes from Town Lake.
C. Historical background
Archeological finds along Barton Greek show evidence that native peoples inhabited the
area in and around Barton Springs and Barton Creek as early as 11,000 years ago. Scientists
have identified over 274 archeological sites in the Barton Creek valley. Flint spearpoints and
knife remains suggest that hunters and gatherers were the first people to inhabit the area. n
14
 Additional artifacts document continued use of about 120 square miles of the creek area
through present times. These remains of past civilizations tell us that this small part of
u Central Texas that we know to be so beautiful and vital to life today, has been an important
life-sustaining resource throughout the last 11,000 years. (Hill Country Oasis, 1992).
Remains of campsites along the creek, show that early Europeans who settled in the
area in the 1800s had frequent contact with native Indians such as the Commanche and
Tonkawa. In 1837, William Barton settled on the land around Barton Springs and named the
springs after his two daughters, Parthenia and Eliza. The springs today still bear his name.
After Austin became the capitol of the Republic of Texas in 1839, numbers of inhabitants
in the area increased dramatically. By the end of the nineteenth century, Barton Springs had
become a popular swimming hole and spring water· powered an ice-making plant and mill.
(Hill Country Oasis, 1992).
In the twentieth century; with increased population and competition for the high
quality, clean, clear water from the springs, natural disasters like drought underscores the
realization of water problems in Texas. In 1954, Walter Prescott Webb wrote,

"What is happening now is but a repetition of what has happened

over and over in Texas, and throughout the western portio~ of the
Uruted States. It has happened several times in memory, and it
u will happen many more times in the future .. Drought is the 'certain
recurring weather phenomenon of more than half of the state and
of about half of the nation. .. Unfortunately a good rain washes away
more than. the drought;· ~t was~es ~~ay much of ·man's interest in providing for .the.
next one, and it washes the supports from under
those who know that another dry cycle is coming and those who
urge their fellows to make read)" for it". (Webb,1954).

p. Unique location
The Edwards Aquifer contains water under both artesian and water table conditions.
The recharge areas of aquifers are the areas where water enters the ground to eventually refill
water that is taken out of the aquifer. In the Edwards Aquifer, under both artesian and water
table conditions, recharge occurs directly over the aquifer or within a short distance from
where the water is discharged. When ~echarge occurs close to the points of discharge, aquifers
are very vulnerable to pollution.
Severe flooding occurs in the Hill Country with great frequency. There were 15 major

u floods between 1843 and 1938. C.M. Woodruff reported in 1992 that, "The Hill Country is
. 15'
 especially prone to flooding, owing to the coincidence of extreme rates of rainfall, steep slopes,
and a large number of small, high gradient streams". (Woodruff, et al., 1992, page 2-4). Hea-n
rains, rapid run off and unfiltered recharge all contribute to the unique vulnerability of the
- quality of water in the aquifer.

(See chart 12, mean annual precipitation in Texas)

6. The Future of the Edwards Aquifer

A. Varied Interests
As of the spring of 1996, use of water from the Edwards Aquifer is governed by several
districts throughout approximately 200 miles that the. aquifer transects. Ranchers, farmers,
environmentalists and land developers all have their interests and opinions about how the
water from the aquifer should· be used. Increased population and demand for drinking water,
irrigation, recreation and needs of endemic plant and animal species all compete for a
vulnerable and limited water resource.
B. Problems
Problems facing the watersheds of creeks and streams in the contributing zone of the
Barton Springs segment and ultinlately the discharge of waters at Barton Springs, are
overdraft, in which more water is pumped from the aquifer than is replenished with rechargE(~
and pollution of water, which renders water unusable by humans without cleaning.
Recent research shows that there is a need to continue studying the effects of continued
urbanization within the Barton Springs recharge zone. The report issued in 1995 by the Texas
Parks and Wildlife Department states,

"Knowle~ge of ground wat~r flow in the ar~as adjacent to

sensitive spring habitats would prove invaluable for proper
planning and urban developments to insure that ground water
flow to the springs is not altered. Ground water sources should
be viewed as' extremely sensitive with regard to the potential
for contamination. Extreme care should be taken in the
developmentl alteration of surface environments near major
recharge zones. Water quality and quantity, both surface
and ground water, in the Travis county area has declined
over the past decade and a half'. (Cole et al.,1995).

16
 c. Governing Organizations
u The Barton Springs/Edwards Aquifer Conservation District was created in 1987 by the
Texas Legislature to conserve, protect and enhance ground water resources of the Barton
Springs segment of the aquifer. The District registers and issues permits for water wells;
monitors the aquifer; manages effective pollution, sedimentation and erosion controls at
roadway construction sites and provides educational materials to the public.
The Edwards Aquifer Authority was established by the Texas Legislature in 1993. It is a
special regional management district to regulate the aquifer. It's purpose was to prevent the
fed~ral government from taking control of a state resource. As of the fall of 1996, the .
Authority has not set pumping limits for the Edwards Aquifer.
Withdrawals are currently (March 1996) governed by an ancient common-law doctrine
called the ttrule of capturett, which says anyone has the right to ~ a well and pump whatever
water can be captured.
p. Ecological Needs of the Aquifer
Besides the importance of water for drinking and recreation, there are agricultural,
hydroelectric and biological needs that the water provides for. Biological needs include the
maintenance of ecosystems both along the rivers and creeks that funnel water into the aquifer
and ecosystems underground within the aquifer. There are plants and animals living in"the
u aquifer that both depend on the quantity of water available for their existence and contribute
to the quality o.f water.
About 40 known species of organisms live within the aquifer including bacteria,
copepods, isopods, flat worms, crustaceans, snails, beetles, catfish and salamanders. Some of
these creatures eat organic matter ~t enters the aquifer with recharge, ~us contributing to
the quality of the water. (Water, Water Conservation and the Edwards Aquifer, 1994).

u 17 .
 Eo Conservation
Conservation of the Edwards Aquifer involves managing the water so that it will last (',
longer while teaching each water user how to reuse and reduce waste and loss.
Awareness of water use and wise use of water will determine the future for each person
and the future of the Edwards Aquifer area.
Suggestions:
Conserve water and teach others how to do the same.
Use native plants in landscaping.
Follow water guidelines as set by the City of Austin .
Use mulch around yard plants and trees.
Don't use water to clean sidewalks.
Install low use showers heads and toilets.
Repair leaky faucets.
Insulate water pipes.
Wash only full loads of laundry.
Do not let water run while brushing your teeth.
Be informed about water resources where you live.
Urge officials to have a wetter plan for the future.
Teach others about the aquifer and how to use water wisely.

18
u Spl.sh! into the Eelw.rds 19.quifer

Creek Station

Much of the following information is borrowed from the Biomonitoring Guide of Lower
Colorado River Authority.

Background Information

1. Collecting and observing macroinvertebrates (macro=able to be seen

without a microscope, invertebrate=without backbone) from a stream can
provide information about the health of an ecosystem.

2. Examples of macroinvertebrates are:

- immature and larval forms of insects
black fly larva
stonefly nymph
mayfly nymph
-snails
-clams
-leeches
-crayfish
u -water penny

3. Benthic macroinvertebrates (macroinvertebrates that feed on the bottom)

can be classified according to their food gathering techniques. For example:
increased numbers of scrapers may indicate nutrient runoff, but increased
numbers of collectors may indicate orgaruc enrichment.

4. As aquatic organisms, macroinvertebrates are dependent upon oxyg~n­

rich, pollution free water. Th~ir presence or lack of presence in a particular
body of water indicates water quatIity.

Safety
1. Wash hands after monitoring
2. Be careful of slick surfaces such as algae covered rock.
3. Poison ivy, snakes and fire ants are common along creek bank. Be careful
where you stan~ or sit.

Procedure
1. Arrive at creek bank, establish an area to put equipment.
2. Assign 3-5 students to work together in a group.
3. Distribute equipment to work groups.
4. Students survey and record information about the creek.
u 5. Bring everyone back together. Collect equipment. Observe critters.
6. Return to lab room.
.. : .~

Information to record at Creek Station

1. Turbidity of water
Students use a cle~ plastic bottle, fill the bottle with water and
allow it to settle. Measure the volume of settleable solids.
Students use acseechi disk to observe the clarity of the water.
2. What do you see?
Students use water viewers (PVC pipe with clear plexiglass)
hold in water and view underneath.
Could also use gallon tin can and plastic baggies.
3. Human impact aspect
Shidents record the # of people present (feeding birds, fishing,
canoeing, swimming etc.)
4. Air temperature/humidityweather of the day
Students use a thermometer and hygrometer and records
readings.
Students record cloudy, rainy, clear, sunny, etc.
5. Erosion of creek bank-steep bank.
Students record the condition of the creek bank-little vegetation,
exposed roots, etc.
6. Domesticated/wild birds present
Students record what domestic and wild animals are present.
7. pH of water
Students use paper pH strips and record data.
example of why this matters
8. Stream flow . .
. Studentsmark 2 spots on the side of the creek. They drop a stick
into water and time how long it takes it to go from the first mark
to the second, repeat 3 times and take the average time. Students
can calculate the speed of the water by dividing the
distance (say 10 feet) traveled by the averaged time. This is the
velocity in feet per second. (Go with the Flow-AIMS)
9. What lives in the mud? .
Students use'trowels to dig in the mud by the bank of the creek
to discover what critters may live there.
10. Collect aqJIatic magoinYertebrates
Students use paper cups and small zip lock baggies while
working in pairs to collect organisms. Observation is good
through the baggies. Some critters can be put into the white
obs~rvation pans and soine critters can be taken back to the lab
room. Most samples should be observed and returned to the
creek.
 11. Water temperature
Students hold thermometers about 15cm beneath the surface of
the water. Water temperature should be taken in the shade and
at the same location each time.
Start downstream and move upstream to avoid disturbing the
area.
12. Take pictures weekly of creek and banks
Students can use a poloroid camera to take pictures of the creek
area weekly.

"'take water sample and some critters to lab room for viewing

Diversity is the presence of several different kinds of organisms in the stream

community. Healthy streams can support a more diverse community of
macroinvertebrates that includes organisms from all tolerance ~oups.

Pollution -Intolerant Organisms

Stoneflies
Dobsonflies
Snipe Flies
..
Moderately Pollution-Intolerant Organisms
Alderflies
u Caddisflies
Mayflies
Riffle Beetles
Water Pennies
Damselflies
Dragonflies
Crane Flies
Aquatic Moth L~ae
Scuds

Fairly Pollution- Extremely Pollution-

Tolerant Organisms Tollerant Organisms
Black Flies Aquatic worms
Deer Flies Leeches
Midges Pouch snails
Biting Midges
Soldier Flies
Sowbugs
Clams, Mussels
Gilled Snails
Planaria
u Crayfish
Sturrock 9/96
• ..a .....

*'ifsIIl into the edwards t4qulfer

Water Lab Station

Stations (centers) will be set up in the 2 adjo4Ung rooms. Students will rotate
from station to station and engage in activities.

1. How pollution enters the aquifer

Students manipulate and observe the Motorola Rain Machine.

2. Filtration activity .
Students use litre bottles with construction sand; small pea gravel and potting
soil to predict and observe which soil type allows water to flow through it the
fastest. .
Students use stop watches to time filtration.
Students compare the gravel to the limestone of the Edwards Aquifer.

3. Build a model of the aquifer

Students use large aquarium, gravel, karst, plastic tubes, hand pump for well,
labels to construct a model of the Edwards Aquifer.

4.. Find your watershed

Students use watershed map, locate their school on the map,' mark with a
push pen. .
Students identify the watershed where their school is located.

5. Computer /microscqpe/camera.
Students enter data from the creek station, send to web address,' e-mail to
their school.
Students contact other students across the country.
Students use microscope to examiJ:te critters found in the creek.
Still images can be taken and sent to the web address or printed out to take
back to school.

6. How much usable water is on earth?

Students use bucket of water and eyedropper to demonstrate the amount of
usable water on earth. .
7. How much water do you use?
Students use gallon containers to ~timate (math) how much water they use
for different activities
toilet flushing
shower
. washing clothes
drinking
u 8. Fecal coliform test with water sample
Students use water samples from the creek station to start fecal coliform tests.
Tests require 48 hour incubation, the next weeks' students will record the
results.

9. Water as the univeral solvent

Students pour water over a sponge that has been soaked in plaster ( and
hardened). Water dissolves the plaster much- like the minerals in water
dissolve the limestone of the aquifer.

10. Water tasting

Students taste and compare several different kinds of water.
Distilled water, spring water, drinking water.

Janice Sturrock
u 9-96
# : ••:.

Glossary

1. aqyifer - a permeable, underground water bearing stratum of rock, sand or gravel that
stores, transmits and yields water in sufficient quantities for human use. The Edwards Aquifer
is a karst, limestone aquifer.
2. artesian aquifer - a type of aquifer in which two impermeable layers surround one water-
bearing layer. It is the same as a confined aquifer or an aquifer in which water is stored or
confined under pressure. Water will flow out of the aquifer if it is pierced by an artificial well .
or natural spring. The Edwards Aquifer is made up of both confined and unconfined weiter.
3. bad-water zone - an imaginary line in the freshwater supply characterized by having more
than 1000 mg/l of dissolved solids. It may be low in dissolved ~xygen, high in sulfates and
have 4 higher temperature. The bad-water line is the southern boundary of good water in the
Edwards Aquifer.
4. Balcones E§Catpment - a line of low hills extending through Central Texas marking the
break between eastern Blacldand Prairie and coastal plains, and western Hill Country and
desert areas. It lies along the major line ~f dislocation of the Balcones Fault zone.
5. Balcopes Fault zone - The area bounding the Edwards Plateau having extensive cracks and
faults caused by the force of crustal movement . n
6. Barton Springs segtent of the Edwards Aqyifer - the middle segment of the Edwards
Aquifer which has its main discharge at Barton Springs Pool in Austin.
7. conbibuting zone - a zone where watersheds of creeks and rivers catch rainfall and provide
water for recharge.
8. ~e - water which leaves an aquifer by way of sPrings, floWing artesian wells, or
p~ping.
9. dissolved o¥YSen - the oxygen freely available in water. Traditionally the level of dissolved
oxygen has been accepted as the single most important indicator of a water body's ability to
support desirable aquatic life.
10. ecosystem - the natural unit that includes a community of organisms and all of the
environmental factors eHecting the community.
11. Edwards Aqyifer - a karst aquifer in Central Texas located where it is because of the
location, orientation and magnitude of faults composing the Balcones Fault system. It spans a .
distance of about 200 miles extending from Brackettville to Salado.
12. endan&ered species - a species that is threatened with extinction.
13. geolopst - a scientist who studies the history of the earth, especially as it is recorded in the
rocks. n
14. ground water - water that is stored under..the earth's surface.
 15. ground water divide - a natural physical feature which prevents water from flowing back
and forth between-two regions. In the Edwards Aquifer, a ground water divide separates the
u southern and Barton Springs segments of the Aquifer.
16. hydrologic c;ycle - (also the water cycle) the natural cycle of water in which water is
constantly moving as it condenses into water droplets, falls as precipitation, evaporates and
transpires into water vapor, forms clouds and falls again as precipitation. Water comes from
and returns to, either directly or indirectly to the ocean.
17. hydrology - a science dealing with the properties, distribution and circulation of water on
the surface of the land, in the soil and underlying rocks, and in the abnosphere.
18. imPermeable - material such as dense rock or clay that will not permit liquids such as
water to flow through it
19. infiltration - the process by which water enters the ground through soil or cracks in porous
rock.
20. limestone - a rock that is formed chiefly by accumulation of organic remains, consisting
mainly of calcium carbonate.
21. overdraft- when more water is taken from an aquifer than can be replenished by recharge.
22. permeable - having a- texture that permits liqUid to move through the pores.-'<-
23. pollutant - any substance which restricts or eliminates the use ~f a natural resource.

u 24. porosfty - any property of geologic formations which has the ability to hold and yield
water due to the spaces between particles.
25. potable- suitable for drinking
26. precipitation - discharge of water from the air in the form of rain, snow or ice.
27. recllarze - process Py which.water is added -to an aquifer.
28. recllarze zone - where water froID riverS and streams enter an aquifer.
29. reservoir - an artificially devised body of water contained behind a dam.
30.. spring - a place where water flows from rock or soil upon the land or into a body of surface
water.
31. turbidity - the condition of a liquid that is clouded with sediment
32. unconfined aqyifer - an aquifer in which the water is not stored under pressure, water is
said to be under water table conditions. Water flows out of this type of aquifer due to gravity.
33. water £Ycle - see hydrologic cycle
34. watershed - an area of land that feeds rainwater into specific creeks or waterways.
35. water table - the part of the aquifer nearest the surface or the upper surface of the zone of
saturation.

I
 ~anualaHachJnenl

I. "Go to the Aquifer Station"

Students will role play being a drop of water as it travels through the
water cycle in Central Texas.

II. The Creek Station

Biomonitoring
See Creek Station description

III. The water Lab Station "

Use of technology in the Water Lab Station
Students will use a computer to record data that has been colle~ed at the Creek Station.
Students will enter data that will be posted on the Austin Nature and Science Center's Web
page. Information can be e-mailed to schools or across country to other students involved in
similar water related studies. .
A teaching micr.oscope and attached video camera will be used to view microscopic life
collected at the creek. Images magnified through the microscope can be displayed on the .
computer monitor and still images can be captured and· sent to the home page. These images n
could be used in publications or e-mailed to particular schools or other sites.
In addition to the use of equipment, students will engage in participatory activities that
stress the importance and unique qualities of water. These activities will cover concepts such
as: how pollution enters the.aquifer, w~ch kinas of soil filter out pollutan~,.how the ~dwards
Aquifer works, how muCh water do you use, how water dissolves limestone.
Also see Lab Station description.

IV. Philosophy of the Austin Nature ~d Science Center

The purpose of the Austin Nature and Science Center is to offer educatioriaI and
recreational opportUnities that increase each person's awareness of and appreciation for the
natural world in Central Texas and its relationship to o"ther world ecosystems.
The education programs of the Austin Nature and Science Center strive to provide .
unique hands-on opportUnities for visiting school groups which enhance and extend nature
and science learning beyond the classroom. A participatory approach is used to involve
students as much as possible in discovery of information through hands on activities and/or
questioning techniques.

\
 IV, Literature supporting informal science education
u Infor~al science education is a term used to describe the kind of science learning that
takes place outside of the classroom. Nature centers and science museums often offer field
trips for students which enhance and extend the classroom science lesson. These programs
tycpically offer hands on opportunities that are not available in the classroom. This type of
experience is often successful in capturing student attention and stimulating interest. Research
supports this kind of learning and suggests some definitions for the term.
"Informal science education resources also can provide a strong
foundation for learning science. Like many of you, I have
always enjoyed visiting zoos. As a youngster, I didn't visit
zoos to learn about the animals. I went simply to see ~als
and to have fun, but I learned a~out animals in spite of my
nonacademic motives". (Druger,1988).

In Druger 's book, Science for the Fun of It. written in 1988, the author discussed the
advantages of informal science experiences in which learning takes place without an external
motivation to learn. .
U In 1991, the International Journal of ~ience Education published a volume entirely
devoted to inf<:>rmal science learning. One article in particular discussed the contribution and
effectiveness of informal science programs that take place at museums. The article also
supports the idea of obtaining input from teachers and students in the design phase of science
programs.

"The importance of informal science education opportunities is

increasingly recognized...Teachers should have a role in
program design from the beginning. Student curiosity is
directly proportional to teacher interest. Interactive
learning experiences are much more effective than
lectures or demonstrations. Students' questions are
important indicators of interest. There is a social
component to learning in which students learn in
exploratory behavior. More successful programs offer
opportunities for first hand experience and observation
followed by introduction of concepts and vocabulary.
u This order encourages divergent thinking, questioning
 and the development of observational skills. Benefits of
informal 'sdence programs are enhancement of school
science where students learn more and better science".
(Hein & Price, 1991, page 508).

The National Science ·Foundation has long recognized the positive outcomes of informal
science learning. The foundation defines informal science education as,
", ..learning which is voluntary and self-directed, life-long, an~
motivated by intrinsic interests like curiosity, exploration,
manipulation, fantasy, task completion, and social interaction.
Informal learning can be linear or non-linear and often
self-paced and visual- or object-related. Informal education
is also characterized as learning that provides an experiential
base and motivation for future activity and le~g. The
outcomes of an informal learning experience in science include
a better understanding of the process of science and scientific
thinking, as well as increased knowledge about spedfic topics,
what scientists do, and careers in~the sciences",
(National Science Foundation, 1995, page 11).

In 1984, a study entitled, 'The impact of a class visit to a participatory science museum
exhibit and a classroom science lesson,'" conducted by M. Borun and B.K. Flexer concluded
that, "... the presentatipn ~f scien~e inform~tion in an exciting way can stimul~te interest and
enthusiasm for the topic among students." Visiting school groups of fifth and sixth grade
studentf! in Philadelphia to the Franklin Institute Science Museum were studied. The authors
were interested in knowing if, "students would perceive their visit "to be more enjoyable,
interesting and motivating than a lecture" .. (Borun & Flexer, 1984, page 864).

In a book published ~ 1994, entitled, Informal Science Learning. the authors report,

"The reasoning, apparently supported by the studies, is that

children are interested in science and mathematics; they are
turned off by the tiresome pedagogy of science and mathematics
that occurs in most schools most of the time...These informal
programs are not merely supplementing what happens
in school; they are competing with school for the opportunity
 • : • "!

to define science in order to retain enthusiasm for engaging in it".

u (Crane, NiCholson, Chen & Bitgood, 1994).

Research shows that informal science programs th~t take place in museums similar to
the Austin Nature and Science Center, can have a positive impact on science learning. The
following excerpt outlines informalleaming opportunities in museums:

"There are several other general aspects of what the learner does in an
informal setting that are particularly appropriate to museums; in fact,
museums may have the most creative opportunities for their expression.
These activities include: 1) making quick connections between what is
personally known and something new, resulting in new associations and
relationships; 2) having an authentic experience: seeing the real stuff,
or experiencing the actual phenomenon, or having access to the accurate,
simulated device; 3) having experiences that involve naming, identifica~c;>n,
observation, imagination, fantasy, imitation and role playing, cooperation,
demonstrations and discovery; and 4) having no limits, tests or lectures". (Crane, et al.,
1994, page 63). .

u
"Learning science helps develop critical thinking skills and gives practice in
use of evidence in decision making. An increasing number of jobs require
understanding scientific proces~es and principles; and mos~ jobs ca.!l Jor
problem solvirig and decision making skills that may be acquired through
the study of science. Equally important is the ability for all citizens to
make good decisions using a basic understanding of the science and
technology behind the vanous social issues affetting their lives".
(Sivertsen, 1993, page 3).

"Quality science instruction at the upper elementary grades is also important,

for at present these grades are the last time that science is part of the regular
curriculum for students...The elementary grades are a critical time for capturing
children's interesf'. (Sivertsen, 1993, page 3).

u
itA number-of science centers are developing exhibits, auxiliary
learning stations on the museum floor and integrated libraries
to address the desire of many visitors to learn more about a
particular subject or to develop a theoretical understanding
of a general concept. These activities support in-depth, extended
learning experiences that are somewhere in between a
casual museum visit and a class setting.
It

(RobertJ. Semper, Executive Associate Director of the Exploratorium in San

Francisco. November 1990).
u Bihlioaraphy

Austin Parks and Recreation Department, Barton Springs/Edwards Aquifer

Conservation District & Save Barton Creek Association. Hill...
Countt:y Oasis. 1992.

Barton Springs/Edwards Aquifer Conservation District. The Edwards

Aquifer: the Barton Sprinas Segment. 1994.

Charbenea~, N. J. The Edwards Aquifer-The Balcones Fault Zone-Austin

Region. An educational unit. Travis Audubon Society, 1988.

Cole, R. A., HutchisoI\. V. H., Roesner, L. A., Schram, M. D. & Yelderman, J.

C. A Reyiew of the Status of Current Critical Biological and Ecological
Information on the Eur,ycea Salamanders Located in Travis County,
Texas. Austin, Texas.: Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, 1995.

Crane, V., Nicholson, H., Chen, M. & Bitgood, S. Informal Science Learning.
Washington D.C.: National Science Foundation. 1994.

Edwards Underground Water Distdct, Edwards Aquifer Research and Data

Center. Water, Water Conservation and the Edwards Aquifer. Student
u Workbook. 1994.

Edwards UndergroUnd Water District, P.O. Box 15830, San Antonio, Texas.
Water Wizards, Grades 4-6 Curriculum Supplement. 1992.

Edwards Underground Water District, P.O. Box 15830, San Antonio, Texas~
District Brochure. 1992. ' .

Ground Water Protection Committee. Texas Ground Water Protection

Stratesy. Austin~ 'Texas. :Texas Water Commission, 1988.

Haurwitz, R. I<.M. Salamanders may

go to zoo for breeding. The Austin
American Statesman. 1995 Mar. 24:B (col. 1).
Haurwitz, R. I<.M. Study lists measures to preserve rare salamanders. The
Austin American Statesman. 1995 Sept 24:0 (col. 1).

Haurwitz, R. I<.M. Inaction imperils species, suit says. The Austin American
Statesman. 1995 Oct. 21:B (col. 1).

Hill Country Foundation. Eco Location Map. m.n Country Foundation, 1995.
U Lower Colorado River Authority. The State of the River. Austin, Texas. :
Lower Colorado River Autho~ty, 1993.
Mittelstadt, M. U.S. delays rule on protection of salamander. The Austin
American Statesman. 1995 Mar. 8:B (col.1).

Project Learning Tree. Water Wonders Activity. Washington D.C.:

American Forest Foundation, 1993.

Ramana~ S. Paying for Urban Sprawl Hill Country Forum. 1994

Summer, ~ (1), 1-4.

Slade, R. M. Jr., Dorsey, M. E. & Stewart, S. l. Water-Resource Investigations

(Report No. 86-4036). Austin, Texas. :US Geological Survey, 1986.

Todd, M. Judge strikes down aquifer authority. The Austin American

Statesman. 1995 Oct.' 28:B (col.2).

Todd, M. Court orders end to Edwards Aquifer suit The Austin American
Statesman. 1996 Feb.28:B (col. 1).

U. S. Geological Survey. Ground Water. Washington D.C.: U.s. Government

, Printing Office, 1981.
, "

Webb, W. P. More Water for Texas. The University of Texas Press, Austin,
Texas. 1954.

Wight, M. G. The Edwards Aquifer; Its Waters and Where They Go. The New
Braunfels Conservation Society and Coalition of Rivers Environment
Protect~rs. 1981: ," "-,

Woodruff, C.M. Jr. & Abbott, P.l. The Balcones Escat:Pment San Antonio,
Texas.: Geological Sodety of America, 1986.

Woodruff, C.M. Jr., Marsh, W.M. ~ Wilding, l.P. Soils, Land forms,
Hydrolosic Processes, and Land-Use Issues-Glen Rose Tlimestone
Terrains, Barton Creek Watershed, Travis CounQ:, Texas. Field
Report and Guidebook. Austin, Texas.: Society of Independent
Professional Earth Scientists, 1993.

Woodruff, C.M. Jr. &£ Slade, R. M. Jr. H~eoIOQ of the Edwards

Aqyi£er-Barton Sprinp Segment. Guidebook 6. Austin, Texas.: Austin
Geological Society, 1984. .
· ,

EDWARDS
PLATEAU

u
u

Downtown
Austin

oI 1
' • I2, I 3, 4,MILES
i
o1 2 3 4 KilOMETERS

B. . fromTua~oI
Highways and Pubic Transport""
O...s HipAy mill

FIGURE 3. Extent of the. Barton Springs Aquifer (after Slade et al.

1986, Fig. 27).

u
 ------------~c >

...
r.

EDWARDS (Balcones Fault Zone) AQUIFER REGION

..------_ .. .,- .~;-,

. _-:;...,.... '\.,,", ..... \ .

\
L '<\\
~ ."
(' ,...~ ~\,
"'c' \
'",-.- \
('
- -- - .'?!!....
(:J
t, i
.,'

t..,.) I
( ........ . .;
"....., ""L~/,
~ CQ\.
~.') \
\ \
i.-I "\ \
fi'- "\
i' -cO.-·-4· ... ·_I·_· . . ~/ ~

I
i
i ~,/ ~'-q"
",
i
i I /
i /
./
/

~~
/
...
'/
//

-
/

i
j
i
ike.." cO. ...........
. "e" -
t r ••

..-..,.._,-
-.~
i
i
--------- =,.. .~"~LUI!U.

(."..i
,.i I •
iI
i
i
RESERVOIR

--!.. ____,t.--
I
i
i
I
L.
.~
_-1
i
i
.......
"- ;'
;'
,/
/'
/
i
/

---,- ---- -"._,

------ _.
lDWAItOS AQUIfER ItEKAIICIt AltO MYA CENtER IUROCI
WIll_Sf ilIA' Sfall . .'YfRSlII 5......_ . 'f'"

1114
__ ...
..............
.,---
_tpu..._

I/)/\ .... ~ f\ - ~
 ()
I

I
,I

i
Explanation
EI Recharge Zone
o Contributing Zone
county Line

o
,
1 2 3 4 5 6 miles
, , , , t •

FIGURE 4. The recharge and contributing zones of the Barton Springs Aquifer (after Slade et al. 1986, Fig. 27;
Veenhuis ana Slade 1990, Fig. 2).
(I c-' ()
-:.

~
~~ -,..~
-~ :::::::- -::. ~

EVAPORATION

~~1

I
PRE - PENNSYLVANIAN

PENNSYLVANIAN AND PERMIAN ROCKS. CRETACEOUS AND TERTIARY ROCKS,

..
IN NORTH- CENTRAL TE XAS TEXAS GULF COAST

........ ..
[;J
.....
SAND
,.
•• ' •• 0. ~
~

SHALE
.~

LIMESTONE
~

SPRING
?
DIRECTION OF WATER MOVEMENT

c...hQ,-t- ~
.-- . .... " ....,..;.. , ....
C" Name

r---------~--~----~~~--------~----------~"
Purpose Modal 1 ';:,
I

There is an old saying that .,he shortest surface water seconds

.distance between two points Is a straight line.· &:'''!.!.'
• :.:,' • ':':':''!.!.!.•...u,u.u..a.a.u.a-a
• :.:.' B.
A. 'AoAoW...............
• 'IJ..I'.....................,........_ -.........

In this activity you will Imagine that you MocIel2

are a drop of water traveling under different seconds
" ground water 1 large particles
conditions.

stopwatch or clock with a second hand. pencil

or pen

Procedure

1. Using a stopwatch. time how long It takes

to draw a straight line from point A to point
B. In Model 1 you represent surface water.

2. Then time how long it takes to draw

a line from point A to point B In Model 2. Modal 3
In this model you represent a drop of ground water I small particles seconds
ground water.

3. Time how long It takes you to represent a

drop of ground water Model 3 by CkJwlng
a line from point A to point B•

.'.
.•..•'.:~.1t.'."
:' .:t..;
::. ..~
••• , Fl." ......
......
'K" :(:}"~'" \1C
:V'
. "'&;'.
.~ . ': '".
.- .

Water. water everywhere... Activity 5 - Amazing - Page 1 e 1990 Optical Data Corporation

7-.
"
 (\
c'

Artesian well Water-pressure level

(potenliomelric surface,
of artesian aquifer
Water-table well
,Flowing
, artesian well

(Af~er Ground Waler and Wells, UOP Johnson Div., 1966)

West
c .......- - - Recharge area - - -..... £,on-'
fined
Confined
zone
East

zone \. .

«
m

NOT TO SCALE
EXPLANAT ION
EDWARDS AQU IF ER

FA U L T - - A rr 0 W 5 in die ate rei a t i ve ve r tic 0.1

movement
.;

• •
 Bug Picking... Is Your Creek Clean or Dirty?
Many types of small animals live on the rocks and roots at the bottom of creeks and rivers.
Some types of aquatic animals need very clean water to live in a creek. Other aquatic
animals can live in dirty, or polluted water. By recognizing the different types of aquatic
animals on the stream bottom, we can learn if the water in the stream is clean or dirty.

Directions: Circle the picture of each type of animals you find from your creek. Add
the points for all the animals you have circled. The creek water is clean if all the points
added are 19 or more. The creek water is okay if all the points added give a total
between or including to to 18. The creek water might be polluted if all the points
added give a total of 9 or less.
Fair Water Animals
Clean Water Animals Polluted Water Animals
(somewhat pollution
(pollution sensitive) (pollution tolerant)
tolerant)

, AtpaicWam

u
Leech

Scud
Clan
PouchSncil

Multiply total circled by 3 Multiply total circled by 2 Multiply total circled 1;>y 1

TOTAL TOTAL TOTAL

POINTS= POINTS= POINTS=
My creek is: c1eao_ _ _ OK_ _ _ or may be polluted_ __
 ·.
GROUP TWO TAXA canUnued
10 Scutt 0nJer Amphipoda.l/4: white 10 gey.!:cc"/
higher than His wide. swims sicEways. Im"!!.~ :
u legs. resembles small shrimp.
11 A/delf/y /6va.' Family SiaOdae. 1- lOIlJ.locks :~
smaJl hellgrammite but has 1 long, thin. tx'2rcc~:
tail at md< end (no tmks). No gill tufts l!ra.~
12 AshOy IatV4 Family CotydaJictJe. Up to 11(Z
long. looks like small hellgrammite txJt cf.en a
lighter reddIsh-tan color. or with ~lIowist1 5trEa~
No gilllufts uroerreath.
13 Damselfly: Suborder ZYUJptera. 1/2: - l-,lar;;
e~s. 6 thin hooked legs. 3broad oar-shacec ~~.
positioned like atripod. Smooth (no gills) en s~
of lower half of body. (See arrow.)
14 Watersnipe Ry LaIVd: Family AlJ1ericidae (AJte:fx':_
1/4- -1-, pale to green, tapered body, man"/
caterpillar-like legs, coniml hpad. feathery -mr.s'
at back end.
15 Crane Fly: Suborder NemaJorera. 1/3- -'Z. miliiy.
green. or light broMl. pltmp caterpillar-li~
segmented body. 4finger-like lobes at tacK em
1& Beetle lNVd: Or[JerColeoptera 1/4-1·, figtit-
colored. Slags on upper tBH of body, feelers,
antennae.
17 Dragon Fly: Suborder Anisoptera. 1/2.- -~, Ia";;
eyes. 6hooked legs. Wide oval to round at:Cci.~:"~
18 Clam: Class Bivalvia.

GROUP THREE TAXA

Pollution tolerant organisms can be in any QLBlity cf
Kater.
19 AQuatiC Worm: Class Oli(;od1aela 1/4- - ~, can De
VPJY tiny; thin worm-like body.
20 Midge Fly I.Nva: Suborder Nematocera Up to 1/4-.
dark head. worm-like segmented body. 2 tiny le~
20 I I on ea:h side.
21 8Ja:ld1y Lav;r Family SimuOf2. Up to 1/4-, one
eoo of body wider. Black head. suction pad on enc.
/ ..... 22 Leech: Order Hirudif1P4. 1/4- - 2-, brown, slimy
21 OOdy, ends wilh suction pads.
23 Pouch Snail arrJ Pond Snai/~ Class Gastropoda.
No operculum. Breathe air. Shell ustally opens en
23 lefL
I .

~:s;;.
~.-.-.~
24 OIJ1er snails: Class GastrOprxB. No operculum.
Breathe air. Snail shell coils in one plane.

I
 · .
Relevant Vocabulary
aguifer-a penneable, confined, underground geological fonnation that stores, transmits and yields water
for consumption.
biomonitoring-use the small animals in a body of water to check the health of the area
u confined or anesian zone- where water is stored under pressure and will ~se above the water line at
artificial wells and natural springs
contributing zone-the watershed upstream of an aqUifer recharge zone from which nm-off and stream
flow are directed towards the recharge zone .
dissolved oxvgen-oxygen freely available in water. The most important indicator for the capability of a
body of water to suppon life. .
ecosvstem-the. natural unit that includes a community of organisms and all of the environmental factors
eff~gilieoommunity .
erosion-wearing away of rock and soil and removal of that debris
eutrophication-process by which a body of water becomes rich in inorganic minerals usually causing
excessive algae growth, and the dying of higher life fonns

fecal coliform-a type of bacteria found in animal (including human) waste

!!!I!i!!t-place where all the requirements for an organism to live are met

bumiditv-measure of the amount of water vapor in the air

bvdrology-the study of water; in particular the properties, distribution, and circulation of water on the
surface of ilie land, in the ground, and in the atmosphere

impermeable-material that does not pennit liquids to flow through it

impenious cover-SUlfaces that do not allow water to soak through them.

u Don-point source pollution-any pollution which can not be traced to one individual source

I!H-a numeric scale that indicates the acidity or alkalinity of a solution.

It measures the concentration of
hydrogen ioDS. The scale runs from 0-14 with 7 being neutral, lower is acid and higher is basic.

pollution-any substance which restricts or eliminates the use of a natural resource

porous-has l.ots of openings and is penneable to water

recharge zone-land surface with fractures caves or small openings in rock through which rainfall, run-
off: and streamflow drain underground into an aquifer, thereby replenishing the water stored there.

turbiditv-amount of panicu1ate matter in suspension

11.14·98
TI.r
u EPA ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION
BUILD YOUR OWN AQUIFER

BACKGROUND:

Many communities obtain their drinking water from underground sources called aquifers.
Water suppliers or utility officials drill wells through soil and rock into aquifers to supply the
public with drinking water. Homeowners who cannot obtain drinking water from a public water
supply have private wells that tap the groundwater supply. Unfortunately, groundwater can
become contaminated by improper use or disposal of harmful chemicals such as lawn care
products and household cleaners. These chemicals can percolate down through the soil and
rock into an aquifer-and eventually into the wells. Such contamination can pose a significant
threat to human health. The measures that must be taken by well owners and operators to
either protect or clean up contaminated aquifers are quite costly.

NOTE: This demonstration should follow a class discussion on potential sources of pollution
to drinking water supplies.

OBJECTIVE: To illustrate how water is stored in an aquifer, how groundwater can become
contaminated, and how this contamination ends up in the drinking water well. Ultimately,
students should get a clear understanding that what happens above the ground can potentially
end up in the drinking water supply below the ground.
u MATERIALS NEEDED:

1 6" X 8" clear plastic container that is at least 6-8" deep (shoebox or small aquarium)
1 lb. of modeling clay or floral clay
2 Ibs. of white play sand
2 Ibs. of aquarium gravel (natural color if possible) or small pebbles
(Hint: As many small rocks may have a powdery residue on them, you may wish to rinse
and dry them on a clean towel prior to use. It is best if they do not make the water cloudy.)

1 drinking water straw

1 plastic spray bottle (be sure the stem that extends into the bottle is clear)
1 small piece (3" x 5") of green felt
1/4 cup of powdered cocoa
Red food coloring
1 bucket of clean water and a small cup to dip water from bucket
Scotch tape

PROCEDURE:

1. To one side of the container, place the drinking water straw, allowing approximately 1/8"
clearance with the bottom of the container. Fasten the straw directly against the long side of
the container with a piece of tape. Explain to the class that this will represent two separate
well functions later in the presentation (if not placed at this time, sand will clog the opening).
2. Pour a layer of white sand completely covering the bottom of the clear plastic container,
making it approximately 1%" deep. Pour water into the sand, wetting it completely, but there
should be no standing water on top of the sand. Let students see how the water is absorbed
in the sand, but remains arpund the sand particles as it is stored in the ground and ultimately in
the aquifer.

3. Flatten the modeling clay (like a pancake) and cover half of the sand with the clay (try to
press the clay into the three sides of the container in the area covered). The clay represents a
"confining layer" that keeps water from passing through it. Pour a sma" amount of water
onto the clay. Let the students see how the water remains on top of the clay, only flowing into
the sand below in areas that the clay does not cover.

4. Use the aquarium rocks to form the next layer of earth. Place the rocks over the sand and
clay, covering the entire container. To one side of the container, slope the rocks, forming a
high hill and valley (see illustration below). Now pour water into your aquifer until the water in
the valley is even with your hill. Let students see the water around the rocks that is stored in
the aquifer. They will also notice a "surface" supply of water (a sma" lake) has formed. This
will give students a view of the ground and surface water supplies, both of which can be used
for drinking water purposes.

5. Next, place the small piece of green felt on top of the hill. If possible, use a little clay to
securely fasten it to the sides of the container it reaches.

6. Sprinkle some of the cocoa on top of the hill, explaining to students that the cocoa
represents improper use of things like lawn chemicals or fertilizers.

7. Put a few drops of the food coloring into the straw, explaining to students that people often
use old wells to dispose of farm chemicals, trash, and used motor oils. Students will see that it
colors the sand in the bottom of the container. This is one way that pollution can spread
through the aquifer over time.

8. Fill the spray bottle with water. Make it rain on top of the hill and over the aquifer. Quickly
students will see the cocoa (pesticide/fertilizer) seep down through the felt and also wash into
the surface water supply.

9. Take another look at the well you contaminated. The pollution has probably spread farther.
Remove the top of the spray bottle and insert the stem into the straw. Depress the trigger to
pull up the water from the well. (Water will be colored and "polluted.") Explain that this is the
same water that a drinking water well would draw for them to drink.

SIDE VIEW OF
OONTAINDER
u

EVAPORATION, CONDENSATION,
PRECIPITATION, GROUNDWATER

There are five steps involved in the water cycle:

1. The rays of the sun heat the water in oceans,

rivers, lakes, soil, groundwater and living and
nonliving things. (Evaporation)
2. Tiny droplets of water called water vapor form
and are carried up by rising warm air.
(Evaporation)
3. When the water vapor reaches the high, cool air,
it turns into water drops that form clouds.
(Condensation)

~~~~~ii~
.or ..... r - ~ ~.~r~~· .

Evaporation ~ Condensation I

it

Groundwater ¢::::::J Precipitation

u
Training materials 1 12/05/02
by JwriorLeague of Austin
 Now that we have played the game .. .let's go visit Barton Springs Pool and
learn a little bit about why the pool is so important to us ...

Training materials 2 12/05/02

by Junior League of Austin
 Barton Springs Pool
u Austin's Prize Possession

Barton Springs has been an Austin treasure since before the turn of the century.
The springs bring relief on the hot "Texas· summer days, and the pool harbors treasured
memories for families and friends.

It came about_.
In the late 1800's, there was a mill and a stone dam where the pool is located today.
In 1909, there was a walking path along Barton Springs and in 1929, the construction of the
pool began.

Did you know...

• An average 30-50 million gallons of water flows into the pool each day
• It takes approximately 2 hours for the pool to fill (every 2-4 hours there is new
water in the pool)
• Record high being .. .107 million in 1940
u • Record low being ...6.2 million in 1956 after 6 years of drought
• The pool is the fourth largest natural spring in Texas
• The pool is deepest at 16 feet at the diving board which marks Parthenia Springs
• The year round water temperature is 68 degrees
• There are 944 feet from dam to dam
• There is 145 feet at the widest point in the pool
• The pool is cleaned by high pressure spraying and manual scrubbing every Thursday
• In 1922, adults were charged 10 cents and in 1997, it jumped to $2.75 per adult
• In 19n-78, 421,000 people visited Barton Springs which was a record high
attendance

How the pool fills with water

• The water enters the Edwards Aquifer recharge zone
• Then the water exits at the lowest point into Barton Springs pool
• The water gushes from the aquifer into the pool through fissures
» Fissures are cracks in the limestone
» Barton Springs has two fissures located near Bedichek's rock

Pool Closures:
u Training materials 3 12/05/02
by Junior League of Austin
• The pool closes when fecal coliform bacteria (found in the digestive tracts of humans
and animals), pesticides, nitrogens, and other pollutants are washed into the recharge
zone. This happens frequently after heavy rains.
• In 1974, the city closed the pool to build Q floodwater bypass. This would redirect the
water flowing down Barton Creek through a culvert, under the sidewalk and to the dam
at the other end of the pool.
» This keeps the pool free from mud and debris
~ It keeps the temperature at 68 degrees year round

Training materials 4 12/05/02

by Junior League of Austin
u Lower Barton Creek Specimen Collecting

-~.-. -:;: --.~

--..,~~:f!5'1;;'". _ . ,.~"

Stopping at the dam before heading to collect .

)':·!j~f~~V~(F:;, .
,

• Point out the overflow from Barton Springs pool into the creek
• Reiterate the floodwater bypass that was built in 1974, that runs under the
sidewalk of the pool
• Discuss where the water flows from here-from the pool, into lower Barton Creek,
out into Town Lake, down to the Colorado River, and then out into the ocean at
Matagorda Bay
u •
•
Ask the children if they know the source of their drinking water-Town Lakel
Ask them if the aquifer water adding to the Town Lake water makes it more clean
and pure-It doesl
• About 20% of the water in Town Lake is Barton Springs water

Heading to the creek for specimen collection . . .

• Ensure everyone has on the water shoes and assure those that don't have water
shoes that there will be plenty to do
• Discuss with the children observations they have about the area (animals, people,
etc.)
• Define the practice of biD-mDnift»eing=life mDnittJringor using the life in the creek
to help monitor the cleanliness of the water
• Distinguish that we will find organisms in the creek that can only exist and live in
very clean water and we will find others that can exist in less clean water and are
more pollution tolerant
u
Training materials 5 12/05/02
byJwriorl£agueof~
 • The primary focus is on collecting macro-invertebrates which are small organisms
that CAN be seen with the human eye and are enhanced under the microscope unlike
organisms that may also exist in the creek which we cannot see with our naked eye
but ONLY under a microscope
• Encourage exploration

Training materials 6 12/05/02

by Junior League of Austin
u The Edwards Aquifer Region

The Edwards Aquifer is the porous, honeycombed formation of the Edwards and associated
limestones. There are three parts: the Contributing Zone, the Recharge Zone and the
Confined Zone, which is the Artesian Reservoir Area.

How the Aquifer works:

• Rainfall in the Contributing Zone infiltrate the cavernous water table aquifer and it
forms spring fed streams that flow downhill.
• Once the water reaches the Recharge Zone (which is the cracked and broken boundary
between the Edwards Plateau and the Artesian AqUifer) then it runs directly down in
the ArtesianlReservoir Area of the Aquifer. Recharge dams slow storm runoff over the
Recharge Zone so more of it runs into the Aquifer.
• Flowing Artesian wells and springs exist where hydraulic pressure is sufficient to force
the water up through wells and faults to the surface.

Facts about the Aquifer:

U · The recharge zone is at the base of the Balcones Escarpment, separating two
physiographic regions - the Edwards Plateau to the north and the Gulf Coastal Plain to
the south
• The Plateau ranges in altitude from about 1,000 to 2,300 feet above sea level.
• The topography is rough and rolling and is commonly referred to as the Texas "Hill
Country.-
• Vegetation is primarily woodland comprised of oak, mesquite and cedar.
• The recharge zone is 1,500 sq. mi Ie area of fractured and cavernous limestone called a
Karst Formation. (Edwards Limestone)
• The Edwards Aquifer (southern segment) in the San Antonio area is one of the most
productive aquifers in the southwestern United States.
• The Aquifer is about 180 miles long extending from Bracketville to Kyle, Texas and
varies from 5-30 miles in width.
• The San Antonio Aquifer supplies nearly all of the water for municipal, domestic and
agricultural needs.
• In 1959, the Edwards Underground Water District was created to protect, preserve &
conserve that resource in San Antonio.
• The Edwards Aquifer is one of the largest sale source aquifers in the country and the
first to be designated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
• About 85'D of precipitation falling on the area is lost back to the atmosphere by
evaporation due to warm temperatures or transpiration of water vapor from vegetation.

u
Training materials 7 12/05102
by Junior League of Austin
 Other Interesting Things Around the Pool

• "Bedichek's rock-: this rock was named after Texas writers Roy Bedichek, a naturalist,
J. Frank Dobie, a folklorist and chronicler, and historian Walter Prescott Webb (the
non-swimmer in the trio) who enjoyed contemplating life on this rock's ledge. There is a
statue dedicated to these "rock sitters- at the entrance of the bathhouse.
• "Eliza Spring-: A.J. Zi Iker bui It the structure around Eliza Spring in 1903, as a meeting
place for the Elks' club. YetJrS ago when Barton Springs pool was lowered for cleaning,
the salamander would get trapped in Eliza Spring and die. This is one of the reasons
why Barton Springs pool is not lowered any longer for cleaning and other methods have
been employed for the removal of the algae from the pool's sides and bottom. (There
are plans to renovate the spring for public use again.)
• "Parthenia Spring-: named after one of settler William Barton's daughters, and is the
largest and main spring at the pool. This spring is known as the heart of the pool. The
Barton Springs salamander is found frequently at the mouth of this spring.
• Sunken Gardens is the 3rd spring in this area and is down past the pool and similar in size
to Eliza spring. The Sunken Gardens is also known as Zenobia - who is Barton's daughter.

Training materials 8 12/05/02

by JuruorLeague of Austin
.Our Aquifers
.We are all familiar with Barton SQrings and its cool refreshing wat(!rs, but
most peo~ledQn't realize that the springs are the fourth largest in Te~as!
'Barton Springs discharges w~ter fro~ a large reservoir of gr~undwater
called the Edwards Aquifer. There are tWo segments of the EdwardS ,
Aquifer iri the' Austin aJ;ea, the Barton Sptillgs and the Northern. The
Bartc;>n Springs segm~n~, south of the Colorado River, supplies water to
approximately 35,00b~people who rely on it for their drinking,_cooking,
bathing, and other needs. 'W~ter from the Northern Segment discharges
as'springs inihe he.adwa~er canyons of the Bull Creek Watershed 1n
northwest Austin. Thjs ~egment also supplies w~ter to several
surrounding communities such as Round Rock and Georgetown.
. . ..
• Other, shallow(!r groundwater can be found in small isolated pocketS.
While not large enough to be designated" as aqu'ifers, these 'perched water
tables can feed some of the springs: found in the Austin area. Many of" '
these sPrings, Jound ~ong creek banks or bubbling up within gravel b~
in the creek bed, provide our streams with baseflow.. or'steady flow that is.
present ' ~~en during rainleSs periods. Many urban creeks are 'often dry due
'to an ~buncfance of impervio~ cover (streets, buildings, parking lots, e'tc.)
which preven~.rain, froril..$Qaking into the soil and replenishing the
groun~water and',baseflow.,

• W~ter ~t rep!enishes our aqqifers i,s' called r~charge. A recharge zone ,

refers to an .atea where rainwater or, surface water filters down into the soil'
,or flows' into openings such as caves, fa~lts, fractures, 'sinkholes, and ,open
holes_ iti. the rock. In the Edwards Aquifer, recharge enters the ground '"
quickly through,'opening~ in ~ porous layer of limeston~. Any poliu'tants in
this water can quickly move thro~gh the aquifer, and may contaminate
water wells or springs. Some common so~rces of.pollutants ~~e: leaking
underground storage tanks, septic systems, landfillS, hazardous waste sites, ,
feedlo~, automobiles, and residenti~llandscapes. ,

• You can help protect our aquift:rs by appiying lawn chemicals tn

appropriat-e amounts; repairing leaking septic systems; fixing or reporting
leaking undergr<9und storage tanks; promptly repairing auto leaks; and '
properly disposing of trash and used motor oil. You can also report any
~hemical Spills t<? the City's Environmental Hotline (499.. 2550). Please do
your part to keep our aquifers and springs healthy! '

~rinted on recycled paper.

, !
OurWat~rsh~ds· .. _ . . '. .. .~.
• 'Situated on the' bo~dary .between the Texas Hill. eo"untty to the west and prairi~ri :
, . lands to the east, Austin is at the crossroads of two distinct and dive~ ecosystems: /
Native:Americans were attracted tb this area because of the abundance Qf water
. "and the diversity of natural resources, as were early European settlers. Austin's .,
creeks p~ovided these settlers with water, food,' energy, and relief from our Ce~tral
Texas heat~ Today, our creeks still serve some of the same jmpOrtant. functions. . .
They contribute water ~o Austin's drinking water supply,' provide Atistinites With '
" recreational opportunities, serve as wildlife habitat, and drain floodwaters from our
". neighborhoods. These-creeks 3l'~ ~ integral part of our natural environment arid
a cOntrihutor to oUr uniql:le 'A~tin life..style. . -i·
I' r r,
'. Right now,.if you'looked: out' your window, you might see lots of concrete: your.
o ,driveway, sidewalks, the street and curbs. This' is what's called impervious cover.
•

Ii: came gradually, with urbanization, and ies made quite 'a difference in the'health
, of your creek. That's right, You have a creek! Your home is located in one of the .'
ar~a's 45 creek wa~ersheds. A watershed is the entire 3l'ea of land that drains .to
a creek, river or lake. You can use the enclosed map to find out~where your
. watershed is. .

• Many years ago, your property was natural and und~veloped. IWnfalllanding' ~n ..)
. your property· ran off slowly over the native vegetationana ,was ab$orbed into the,r.~
, earth. Today's rainfall lands on hard surfac~ like your'driveway, sidewalk, roof,' ( )
. '. street and curb (your property'~ imperVious cover) and '1UIlS directli into a~storm
-sewer and into a creek. This increased stormwater now drains much more quickly
....' than it .used to, 'altering your creek's natural ecosystem and increasing the likeli..
hood that pollutants will enter your creek. These pollutants, not easily traced to
one particular sOurce, are called nonpoint source pollution: Some common types
of nonpoint source pollutants .that homeowners generate are fert~lizer, pesticides,' ,
. motor oil and car waSh soap. •

.• ' I~ some newer 'areas' of Aust~, builders are required to install water quality c6ntr~1
structures. These strucq.rres cari limit the degree to which a creek is' polluted by
developJllent. Since many of Austin's residential neighborhoods were built before
_ ,the City required' dl~e structures, it's very important fo~ you to take small mea.. ~
. :sures at home to reduce the.am.ount of pollution you contribute to our waterways.
· Please read the. enclosed brocliures to learn more about reducing the amount of
.nonpoint source pOllution that you and your family produce. Thank you .for your
intereSt ~ keeping Austin a great place to live.

.Printed on recycled paper. -

 ANDREW JACKSON ZILKER Board. It was actually the peculiar convergence of th", ...
civic interests that led to ZUker's generous gift (0 the
18511-1934 citizens of Austin.
In 1901, Zilker purchased Barton Springs and some
ilker Park was named for Colonel Andrew Jackson 350 acres around it. For years the Springs had been a
Zilker, who was born'in 1858 in the town of New popular SpOt for picnicking. swimming, and fishing. Its
Albany, Indiana. New Albany lies along.the Ohio waters were also the sale source of drinking water for
R.iver, and much of Zilker's formative years were many local families.
spent on the waterfront, wqrking among the In 1910 and 1917, great droughts senled into Cenrral
riverboats as a cabin boy, then later as a stevedore. Texas, and the practical need for drinking water rose [0
It was there that Zilker developed a great respect the attention of the city's leaders. A military camp,
for the merits of hard work and skilled labor. He was proposed for Austin at the sam~ rime, also stipulared a
also a great lover of histOry, and his chance reading of a guaranteed water supply. Naturally, the civic-minded
book entided The History of Texas compelled him to Zilker considered it his duty to help the community [har
leave his native Indiana and seek his fortune in the Texas had been so good to him. But his skills as a dealmaker
fronrier_ At the age of 18. Zilker bid his family good- took one additional concern into account. For all his
bye and stepped onto a riverboat heading to New adult life, Zilker had actributed his success to the lessons
A. J. ZUker 111 ,902 (Q91 44) os 0
Orleans, where he found passage to San Antonio as an of his formative years, making him a staunch advocate of
Yolunteer fbeman with Austin's
ox-team driver for a frontier caravan. manual-skills education for children in Austin High
Colorado Fire DCPQrtmont 112. ZUker's
late on a Saturday night in 1876, the weary ZUker School.
life story Is Q classic rags-to-riches
arrived in Austin with SO cents in his pocket. He spent ZUker then engineered the following deal. He gave
tole. His generous philanthropy
the money on a meal and a place to sleep. On Sunday, the tract of land containing Barton Springs to the Austin
sGCUr'Cld tho ownership of Bolton
Zilker secured his fOod by washing dishes jn a small School District on the condition that the city of Austin
Springs and tho 36o.acre Zilker Park
restaurant on Congress Avenue. He slept in the would buy the Springs from the district for $100,000.
for the city of Austin.
storeroom that night. By nightfall on Monday, he had The money was to be earmarked for a trust fund for
found a job with the construction crew for the Congress manual training at Austin High School. The deal was
Avenue bridge. In the weeks that followed •. the outgoing done, and the city assumed ownership of the Springs.
Zilker was befriended by an engineer at the ice plant on Before his ci~ath in 1934, Zilker granted two
the nearby riverbank. Through this mao's association additional' parcels for a total of nearly 360 acres (what is
Zilkec became interested in the manufacture of ice and now ZUker Park). The money-an additjonal $200,000,
soon obtained employment at the plant. He • sraned as a or '300,000 in total-was again intended for the
fireman at $1.25 per day. In six weeks he was working manual-training fund, of which mote than half still
as an engineer. and three months later A. J. ZUker was remains in Austin's school-system coffers.
in charge of operating the ice plant and had leased it Some of the money was used to purchase three
from its owner. That bright statt typified Zilker's career; buildings in downtown Austin, among them the Von
hard work and his remarkable personality led him to Boeckman-Jones building, which houses the Austin
great prosperity in the ice~makjng business and later as Club, a private club frequented by Austin's business
the director of the First National Bank of Austin. But it elite.
was more than deep pockets tbat fueled ZUker's A.J. Zilker was famous for his friendly advice: "Work
philanthropy. He also enjoyed a diverse public life, hard and save a little bjt of what you have." It is now up
holding such positions as Austin's water and light co the citizens of Austin to work hard and save all of
commissioner and t~e head of the Travis County School what ZUker entrusted to our care.
)
D ... r ")5 P R I H G 5 E T £ Il N ... L
 ( WILLIAM "UNCLE BILL' (lRTON (r-
Ona month after brothers WiUlam and Elisha Barton each rueJved
1782-1840 headright grants from the MoxJcan govemment and purduasad 4,421
acral for $155, an exultant Elisha wrote af hll purchas. to family back
n 1837. when William Barmn and his family settled In South Carollno:
~t the Jarge freshwater spring that would later bear
his name, his nearest neighbor witS Reuben Hornsby, Brother, sitch land as it is yolt never saw. It is
eleven miles away at Hornsby's Bend. The Barton
party had moved to Texas nearly ten years earlier wirh
a high, dry, healthy country and much healthier
Srephen F. Austin and had "taken·' their league" near than any part of Alabama. ...
Bastrop. But later. when another family moved There are a great many deer in this colony. 1
within earshot, old man Barton decided toputl out and
moved upriver to a more private spot. So, when William
can see at one sight sometimfJI more than 300.
Barton's eldest son, Wayne, returned victorious from the There are (aho) many good buffalo, and wild
Baule of San Jacinto. Texas was a free republic, the cows run at this time witbin ten miles of where I
Mexican general Santa Anna was a prisoner. and the
Barron family was on the move.
litle. There is an enormolls sight of wild horses
All £old. there were three springs grouped within a within four miles of where I live.
shorr distance of the cabin Banan built overlooking the Brother William and his family are here and
main hole of Spring Creek (as it was known then). Old
man Banon named these springs after his three
he has gOI him jllst as milch land as I have.
daughters, Parthenia, Eliza. and Zenobia. The names Brother, 1 never expect to see any ofyou again,
never stuck, however, and the place has been called still 1 will write to you al milch as once a y84t',
Barton Springs ever since. These three springs remain
today as Barton Springs pool, the nearby Elks Pit (fenced if I should live. I can, at almosl any time, send
off near the current concession stand), and the Sunken a letter from here 10 the United States by
Garden (downsrream from the pool on the south bank). someone thai is passing. 1 am living 15 miles
If Barton had any designs on solitude at his new
home. they were' to be dashed by greater designs on the ab01le where William litles, five miles below
sleepy settlement of Waterloo. which Jay just across where the St. Antone Road crosses it. ...
the river. Waterloo, Texas, wasn't so much a town in So no more bill remains your brother till
those days as a frontier outpost, with a few small cabins
and a single large one surrounded by a split-log stockade death.
for Indian protection. Indian raids were a real chreat to
the Texas settlers in those days, just as the settlers' . Farewell,'
encroachment was a real threat to the continued existence
of the Indians. Uncle Billy Bacron came to be known as a Elisha Barlon
great Indian fighter 86 .he fallewift8 seo19 \Oas Fussed . May 2nd, 1831
gB~'A dUQuf)k 8181'ltieR' +1.. "el8islI' here js adapted

18 8ARTON SPRINGS ETERNAL

 )
Spring Creek is a strUl7n 0/
When stories of Barron's dan8~rous
outptJ.... kade their
way to the Texas government at Washington on the
eighleen miles in length, Brazos J soldiers were posted at the Springs for the family's
whirb enJers tbe Colorado protection. "In no time." wrote Brown. "Uncle Bjity
from the u'esl, one mile wrote President Houston to come get his blasted soldiers
aho"e the City 0/Auslin. II or he would sic the Indians on them. (It was more trouble
rises in the mountains, and to keep the soldiers away from his daughters than it was
after r/~'ming a few III;/es, co fight the redskins.)"'
almosl disappears: 'bul about On April 13. 1839. the Republic of Texas began the
one mile from the ri"er, al a search for a new capital city, and a survey committee Tragedy at Barton Springs
place failed BartOli's springs, selected [he town of Waterloo. In a letter to Miraheau B.
il is again supplied by lamar. the selection comminee cited Waterloo's central n the first day of August 1842. George M. Dobon
waler, by four large springs,
wbub supply a dream of
location in the new republic plus its abundanc~ of fine
water. fertile land. building stone, and other
O and John R. Black. cwo young men tben residing at
Austin, concluded to 80 to B~on creek to bath in the
sixty feet in widlb and four ..desideratims of health.·· Included in their praise was cool water. Friends warned rhcm. before leavin,. of the
foel deep, and rUllS wilb a nearby Spring Creek (at Banon Springs), which afforded danger attendins the trip, as Indians were numerous in
brisk currenllo Ibe river. A "the greatest and most convenient flow of water to be the country about Austin and made frequent incursions in
company lire about ereeling found in the Republic." to the village and its vicinity in queat of booty and scalps.
a mill III Ibis pl",e. A Indeed. William Barron's spring was soon to furnish They expressed rhemselves as feeling safc, remarking Ihal
por,;on o/Ibe land towards chac convenient flow to the city of Austin, whose records they were mounted on fleet horses and could easily out
Ibe bead of Ibis ,reek is
reveal thac in December 1839, Barton agreed to "give run the ponies of any Indian mal'a~ders that miaht be
broken and hilly, bUI of ri,b
possession of stream of water from my Big Spring" to encountered•... Dolson and Black crossed the river at the
qualily, and weJI supplied
furnish power for a sawmill. It was the first of various ford neal' tbe mouth of Shoal creek .•. and proceeded to
wilb limber. It bas
mills to take advantage of the dependable flow. so the aeek. near the spring. about half a mile above its
extensive, rich, and marking the dawn of.the industrial era in the new mouth. About two hours after leaving town tbeir horses
beautiful valleys, and some republic. But before the pulsing spring was ever came back riderless. ~wimminB the river above tbe ford.
exee/lent table land upon tbe
harnessed. Uncle Billy Barton died on Aprilll, 1840. One of them had an arrow sricking in the rear of the
bills. Towards Ihe moulh il His body was buried near his springs and later moved by saddle. The worst was feared. The few men tben in me
runs througb II &ounlry
his family to a less pubUc spot in nearby Round Rock. vill8Jc ol'pnized a 5C8I'Ching party and wen I: to tbe creek.
beautifully undulaling, rkb
There diey found tho 4ead bodies of the two men, not far
and 4greeably interspersed
ap~ showing they )lad been tunbushed, killed otudshr,
with woodland and prairie. sQllped and stripped of their clochiog.••• These two
. George W. Bonnell young men were noble specimell$ of manhood, beloved by
Topographical Description of all, and their unamely and trasic end was. rhe Bource of
Texas. 1840 sincere sorrow to the Unle community, who could not
Bonnell come to Texas in 1836 well afford to spare ,bem.
to fight in the revolution. He PcankBl'oWR
begon this report os the Aflll4h o/Tr""is Cou,,'y
commissionpr of Indian "ad Iho City 0/Atnll"
Affairs under Sam Houston. 1875

18 GARTON SPftlNGS ETERNAL

-).
.... . . ~'::'
\ ' . .. .
- ). . . . . . 9' ...... '1:"'-~~!.""'.:t::Mi:C.~.F.'~~~l!;li~"I!a:1;'I!!IIII'IiII~_IIiI!
•.••. - . ..\. . ., . .... . .... • •IIIJ5_1L
)
 The Edwards Aquifer and the Great Springs of Texas
The Edwards Aquifer is an irreplaceable natural resource. This natural underground reservoir is the sole source of
dri~iD~ water for over I.~ million Central Texans, including the ~ity of San Antonio, and is the source of the largest 0
sprIngs m Texas. The aqUIfer and the flows from these Great Spnngs also provide necessary habitat for over fifty specie!,
of plants and animals that live in Central Texas and nowhere else in the world. In turn, spring flows provide essential fresh
water for river and estuary ecosystems downstream. The first step in protecting these invaluable water resources is
knowledge. Use this map as a handy reference.
The Edwards Aquifer is a karst limestone aquifer, characterized by a system of fractures. faults, open channels, sinkholes,
and caves through wh ich water flows rapidly, and by a thin to nonexistent soil cover. These characteristics allow for only
minimal filtration of contaminants; thus the aquifer is particularly vulnerable to contamination from human activities on
the surface. The aquifer has three segments. These segments-the Northern, Barton Springs (shown in purple), and
Southern or San Antonio Segments-are hydrologically distinct; water is not exchanged between them under Donnal
flow conditions. Each segment has three zones. In the Recharge Zones, shown in dark green and dark purple, the porous
Edwards limestone is exposed to the surface, allowing rainfall and streamflows (and any pollutants they carry) fO plunge
directly into the subsurface system of caves and channels that makes up the aquifer. The Contributing Zones, shown in
lighter green and purple, consist of the upstream watershed areas of all the streams that drain to and flow across the
Recharge Zones. The Artesian Zones, shown in blue, make up the aquifer's underground reservoirs. In the Artesian
Zones, overlaying geologic fonnations separate the aquifer from the land surface. The Contributing and Recharge Zones
together compose the aquifer's watershed; the Recharge and Artesian Zones compose the aquifer itself.
Seven of the twelve largest springs in Texas flow from the Edwards Aquifer. Ranked by historic rates of flow, they are:
Cornal (largest), San Marcos (2nd), Barton (5th), San Antonio (6th), Hueco (7th), Las Moras (lIth), and Salado (12th).
The third.. and fourth ..largest springs, Goodenough and San Felipe, issue from the related Georgetown limestone in Val
Verde county. Goodenough Springs was covered by the waters of Lake Amistad in 1968; San Felipe Springs is the sole
source of water for the city of Del Rio.
I

Archeological evidence indicares that f!1ese large springs hfl':e been the focus of human .activiti since man first came to ~
this area; cities and towns have now grown up around all of them.. Proximity to Barton Springs was a major factor in the '
decision to locate the new capital of the Republic ofTexas at Austin in 1839. Spanish missionaries settled at what is now
San Antonio in the early 1700s because of the abundant water supplied by San Antonio and San Pedro Springs.
Unfortunately, excessive pumping from the Southern Edwards has severely reduced spring flows. Since the drought of the
1950s, flows from San Antonio and San Pedro Springs have been declining and erratic due to increased pumping; at times,
they cease flowing altogether. The recreational value ofBrackemidge Park and the San Antonio Riverwalk is now
maintained by well water pumped into the San Antonio River downstream from San Antonio Springs. And in the fall of
1996, after several years of withdrawals from the aquifer exceeding its recharge, the two largest springs in Texas, Comal
and San Marcos, came perilously close to drying up.
While pmnping is currently the most seriouS threat to the So~em Segment of the aquifer, contamination is the greatest
threat to the Barton Springs and Northern Segments. The Barton Springs Segment has been identified by state water .
officials as the Texas aquifer most vulnerable to pollution due to its relatively smalJ size and high porosity and the high
development activity in its Recharge and Contributing Zones in southwestern Travis and northern Hays Counties. The
Northern Segment is also experiencing heavy development activity in northern Travis and southern Williamson Counties.
Increased impervious cover-the total area of roads, parking lots, sidewalks, rooftops, and other impermeable surfaces-
leads to increased contaminant loads in rainfall runoff from developed areas; scientists have shown that a relatively low
percentage of impervious cover (10% to 15%) can bring about irreversible damage to ~e quality of streams. Since
streams flowing across the Contributing and Recharge Zones resupply the Edwards Aquifer, preservation of high water
quality in these streams is critical to maintaining the quality of water in the aquifer.
For more information, or to join in efforts to protect the aquifer, please contact the organizations listed below.
HiD Country Foundation . Save Our Springs Alliance San Marcos River FouDdatioD
P.O. Box 685075 P.O. Box 684881 . P.O. Box 1393
Austin, Texas 78768 Austin, Texas 78768 San Marcos, Texas 78666 - .-"

•
512-478-5743 512-477-2320 512-357-6897
www.sosaIliaDce.org
 Nolan Taylor Callaha n

San Saba

~ EDWARDS AQUIFER • ARTESIAN ZONES

K BARTON SPRINGS SEGMENT OF EDWARDS AQUIFER

Schleicher Menard
Mason Llano

Sulton
Gillespie

Kerr

Val Edwards
Verde
Bandera

• Kinney Medina
Uvalde

Maverick Zavala

Dimmit McMullen

RECHARGE lDNES ARTESIAN ZONES ---ROADS

N.fI I inch 1:'1.111;11. ,lprl'OlI. 32J mile,.
CONTRIBUTING ZONES BARTON SPRINGS
CONTRIBUTING ZONE 01020104060

Thl' map rcprc~cnh a ~lightlr rC\'j'cd n.~r'>ion u( the Ed\\',mb Aquifer Zone mal' (ollnd lin the All~tl!l. Tt'xa::., Eco-Loc.ul0n ~ 1.11'. Fnr a copy of the Eco·Lncauoll /'.\al'.
wuh dct,HleJ IIl(OnlUU('O ,1hoUI the ecology u( tht' AU'lIn ;!rca, ,,[Crt'll' CUIl(,\C t Ihe Ilill GIUnll') F(lUndarion. 1800 GU:llLl1u1X', All-1m. Tl'xa~ 78701. (511) H8.57.n.
{ l~'i. 11111l:' .. unlj h>nn,l.ull'll
 The Edwards Aquifer
in the Texas Hill Country

Description of the Hill Country: "That imprecisely defined crescent of deep-carved, layered
limestone covering all or parts of several counties west and north of the Escarpment as it curves
from Austin down through San Antonio and beyond." (John Graves, in ~ Heartland: A Hill
Countty Year). The Hill Country's geographic location in central Texas, as well as its charm and
varied beauty, make it, to many, the heartland of Texas. Blessed with a unique and abundant
water supply, wildlife species found nowhere else in the world, beautiful limestone hills, crystal
clear creeks and springs, and a rich and diverse human culture, the Texas Hill Country has been
recognized as one of the "Last Great Places on Earth." Ecological regions converging with the Hill
Country include the Blackland Prairie to the east and the South Texas Plains to the south.

A Truncated Geologic History of the Edwards Aquifer: Shallow inland sea; formation
of Hill Country limestones from carbonate shells of ancient marine organisms; geologic uplift
along crescent-shaped Balcones Fault to form Balcones Escarpment. and Edwards Plateau; carving
of canyons along Escarpment [eastern and southern edge of Edwards Plateau] to form ''Balcones
Canyonlands," or "Texas Hill Country"; continuous dissolution of fractured Edwards Limestone
along Balcones Escarpment [Fault Zone] to form porous "honeycombed" Edwards Aquifer.

Water Resources: The Edwards Aquifer consists of a system of fractures, faults, open
channels, sinkholes and caves through which rainwater recharges from the surface to a voluminous
underground reservoir, the sole source of water for 1.5 million people. Other shallower limestone
aquifers in the region serve as the water source for some rural communities in the upper
watersheds of the Edwards Aquifer. The Edwards Aquifer feeds three of the four largest springs
in Texas, springs that occur along the Balcones Escarpment and emerge in the heart of three Texas
cities: Comal Springs in New Braunfels, San Marcos Springs in San Marcos, and Barton Springs
in Austin. These springs, creeks and rivers eventually flow south and east out of the Hill Country
across the Coastal Plains providing fresh water to the bays and estuaries of the Gulf of Mexico.

Wildlife Resources: The Hill Country is home to a wide array of nonnative (exotic) and native
wildlife species, including some that are federally listed as endangered species: the Golden-
cheeked Warbler, Black-capped Vireo, San Marcos Gambusia, Fountain Darter, San Marcos
Salamander, Texas Wild Rice, and several cave invertebrates, to name just a few.

Resource Issues of National Significance include groundwater depletion; groundwater

contamination; nonpoint source pollution; endangered species and habitat conservation planning;
environmental and economic equity; open space protection; the public trust vs. private property
rights; and growth management in an increasingly populous region. Major federal laws that come
into play include the Clean Water Act, Safe Drinking Water Act (including the sole source
provision), Endangered Species Act, and National Environmental Policy Act, among others.

Population Growth Concerns: The vast majority of about 2 million Texans over the age of
55 hope to retire to the Hill Country in the next ten years, according to the marketing survey of a
national company that builds resort/retirement communities. The Austin area is now widely
recognized as a major high tech hub (known as "Silicon Hills"), a distinction that has helped spur a
14% increase in Austin's population since 1990. The whole San Antonio-Austin corridor is
growing and developing very rapidly, including the encroachment of urban sprawl onto the
aquifer, and into water supply watersheds and endangered species habitat areas. Very few land
use planning tools are available to the many fragmented political jurisdictions (e.g., counties have
no zoning authority). Traditional regulatory approaches are politically and otherwise problematic.
Also, many of the Hill Country's largest family landholdings are at risk of being subdivided as a
result of the estate tax hammer, and to accomodate more people in search of Hill Country living.

Hill Country Foundation's Major Program Components: Public education, regional

coalition building, information gathering and dissemination, business community and landowner
outreach, land trust services, promotion of regional identity and Hill Country land ethic .

•
 Geologic map of Texas.
r: ., -;-:- -::-=-:t
,................... ...........
1" -;-;-:- -:-:-
I. • • • • ••• •• ••• .,
I ••••• •••• ••• • •

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.......--..."'"
u

..
• •
... .
.. .
• o· •

• .. • •

u
N o~==-_-====-__
A

~:j!:~i;: Holocene
~. Permian
~ [2J.
.....',-
:.
P/elstocefJe
.', of,

~ IlJJJJI1JIJ1I
~ rtffm1/ow
up Penn$ylvanian
~ ....
D upper Tertiary
PHocene,AlidCene;OHgocene
·0
~~ MIssissippian
[lJ
~~:.~~.:
lower Tertiary
Eocene,
.....
~ lower PIiI80zolc:
Tertiary & Cretaceous Devonian, Silurian,

U
S:2
~
am upper Cretaceous
volcanic rocks Ordovician, Cambrian

Precambrian ..
~
~
9 loweiCr.etaceous

Jurassic l~'a.SSt ~
 GEOLOGIC COLUMN FOR CENTRAL TEXAS AND AUSTIN
- --
·~_.IUN GROUP I SERIES- AGE n
TERRACE DEPOSITS ~
~
IN AUSTIN AND POINTS

~
EAST OF THE BACLONES 200 feel omitted
ESCARPMENT KEMP

NAVARRO
Some of Ute younger rocks are
exposed because the faulting dropped CORSICANA
-
the younger rocks east of the fault

1300
,

wbile it raised the rocks to the west of

BERGSTROM
the fault, and so the younger rocks fee' emitted
were ,therefore eroded away.
PECAN GAP TAYLOR

250 feet omitt.d SPRINKLE u.

.J
:;)
C!)
II:'
F-~
" ' 111':1:0\111 1

f )
BURDITT
r
DESSAU
.JONAH.
.
:J I' I
AUSTIN
,. ~ )

I
VINSON

ATCO

..
I
.1 I I

.,. EAGLE FORD

AT BAMBERGER RANCH
PRESERVE ~

We have up to 125 feet of Edwards

DEL RIO
~~TgWN
WASHITA
n
• limestone. Some of the layers contain :J
-, "T 1
..., [. (I)
::::l
~ and one of the lower Edwards
, - 0

, ,- LU
layers at Bamberger Ranch contain
7 I / ~
I-
numerous therapod dinosaurfoolprints. 7 I EDWARDS LU
7 7 L a::
1 1 _' u
7 I 1 FREDERICKSBURG
We have around 30 feet of Comanche .... T
T f
.-
Peak Limestone, and the lower section
contains a bed of caprinjds.
~.
"T~~

::r:::I::;[~
) .. - PEAK
-r II
~..,o-9 WAlNUT
We have only 13 feet of Walnut Clay ~
UJ
" J:
U
7 / l ) Z
which is a yellowish clay with lots of ::c:'

~
40,;

77. Z.i.
Oysters, Exogyra lexana, :rill
-rIll
.~

7 '7 /
;

7, L

At the Bamberger Ranch Preserve we GLEN ROSE TRINITY

;L -~J
have around 400 feet of Glen Rose J , r
:::IJ 'I 1
Limestone represented from the lowest
point where we enter the ranch, to the I:::J I )
bottom of the Walnut Oay. ISO feet omitted

~ (

This illustration was taken from a Bureau of Economic Geology publication and is a general geologic column for the
Cretaceous Rocks of Central Texas, and those exposed in the Austin Area.
 Major Aquifers of Texas

Explanation
Ogallala
Gulf Coast N

*~ Edwards (BFZ)
*~ Carrizo-Wilcox t
*~ Trinity
*
..
..
I.r I Edwards-Trinity (Plateau)
Seymour
Hueco-Mesilla Bolson
Cenozoic Pecos Alluviwn
o 20 .so 60 80 100 Miles
OUTCROP (That part of a water-bearing rock layer
which appears at the land surface)
• DOWNDIP (That part of a water-bearing rock layer
July 13, 2000
which dips below other rock layers)
 Minor Aquifers of Texas

Explanation
Bone Spri ng - Victorio Peak * ~ Nacatoch

* ~ Dockum ~ Lipan
_ Brazos River Alluvium _ Igneous N

* ~ Hickory
t
_ Rita Blanca

_ West Texas Bolsons * Ellenburger-San Saba

* ~. Queen City * ~ Bl ossom

*' , i Woodbine _ Marble Falls

Edwards-Trinity (High Plains) * ,- , Rustler

* ~ Blaine Capitan Reef Complex

* Sparta I888l Marathon

Yegua - Jackson

OUTCROP (That part of a wate r-bearing rock layer which appears at the land surface)
--
o 20 40 60 80 100 Mil=:!

July 16, 2001

• DOWNDIP (That part of a ater-bearing rock layer which dips bel ow other rock layers)
 !---
<fu>J
-~-~-_
----

! . ......
-~
PHYSIOGRAPHIC MAP OF TEXAS
1996
BUREAU OF ECONOMIC GEOL OGY
TI·IE NIVERS ITY OF TE XAS AT AUSTI N
University Station. 130x X
Austin. Texas 787 J 3·8924
(5 12) 471-15 34

o 50 100 150 200 miles

I
o 100 200 300 kilometers

I .

IIi
ill

; .
" I
i ;

1 :1
 Physiography of Texas
Geologists study the natural scenery of erosion have left thin rocky soils. North and red or gray where gypsum dominates, whereas
Texas and sort its variations into distinctive west of Fort Worth. the plateaulike surface is eastern rocks and soils weather tan to buff.
physiographic provinces. Each province or well exposed, and numerous streams dissect Live oak-ashe juniper parks grade westward
landscape reflects a unified geological history land that is mostly flat or that gently slopes into mesquite-Iotebush brush.
of depositional and erosional processes. Each southeastward. There, silver bluestem-Texas Hieh Plains. The High Plains of Texas
physiographic province is distinguished by wintergrass grassland is the flora. Primarily form a nearly flat plateau with an aver~
characteristic geologic structure, rock and soil sandstones underlie the western margin of the elevation approximating 3,000 feet. Extens.
types, vegetation, and climate. The elevations Grand Prairie, where post oak woods form the stream-laid sand and gravel deposits, which
and shapes of its landforms contrast signifi- Western Cross Timbers. contain the Ogallala aquifer, underlie the plains.
cantly with those of landforms in adjacent Edwards Plateau. The Balcones Escarp- Windblown sands and silts form thick. rich soils
regions. The Physiographic Map of Texas displays ment. superposed on a curved band of major and caliche locally. Havard shin oak-mesquite
seven physiographic provinces and their prin- normal faults, bounds the eastern and southern brush dominates the silty soils, whereas
cipal subdivisions; the accompanying table Edwards Plateau. Its principal area includes the sandsage-Havard shin oak brush occupies the
describes their major physical differences. The Hill Country and a broad plateau. Stream ero- sand sheets. Numerous playa lakes scatter ran-
following descriptions selectively emphasize sion of the fault escarpment sculpts the Hill domly over the treeless plains. The eastern
those characteristics that distinguish provinces Country from Waco to Del Rio. The Edwards boundary is a westward-retreating escarpment
and their subdivisions. Plateau is capped by hard Cretaceous lime- capped by a hard caliche. Headwaters of ma-
Gulf Coastal Plains. The Gulf Coastal stones. Local streams entrench the plateau as jor rivers deeply notch the caprock, as exem-
Plains include three subprovinces named the much as 1,800 feet in 15 miles. The upper drain- plified by Palo Duro Canyon and Caprock
Coastal Prairies, the Interior Coastal Plains, and ages of streams are waterless draws that open Canyons State Parks.
the Blackland Prairies. The Coastal Prairies into box canyons where springs provide per- On the High Plains, widespread small.
begin at the Gulf of Mexico shoreline. Young manently flowing water. Sinkholes commonly intermittent streams dominate the drainage.
deltaic sands, silts, and clays erode to nearly dot the limestone terrane and connect with a The Canadian River cuts across the province,
flat grasslands that form almost imperceptible network of caverns. Alternating hard and soft creating the Canadian Breaks and separating
slopes to the southeast. Trees are uncommon marly limestones form a stairstep topography the Central High Plains from the Southern
except locally along streams and in oak mottes, in the central interior of the province. High Plains. Pecos River drainage erodes the
growing on coarser underlying sediments of The Edwards Plateau includes the west-facing escarpment of the Southern High
ancient streams. Minor steeper slopes, from Stockton Plateau. mesal ike land that is the high- Plains, which terminates against the Edwards
I foot to as much as 9 feet high, result from est part of this subdivision. With westward- Plateau on the south.
subsidence of deltaic sediments along faults. decreasing rainfall, the vegetation grades from Basin and Ranee. The Basin and Range
Between Corpus Christi and Brownsville, mesquite-juniper brush westward into creosote province contains eight mountain peaks that are
broad sand sheets pocked by low dunes and bush-tarbush shrubs. higher than 8,000 feet At 8,749 feet, Guadalupe
blowouts forming ponds dominate the land- The Pecos River erodes a canyon as deep Peak is the highest point in Texas. Mountain
scape. as 1,000 feet between the Edwards and ranges generally trend nearly north-south and
The Interior Coastal Plains comprise alter- Stockton Plateaus. Its side streams become rise abruptly from barren rocky plains.
nating belts of resistant uncemented sands draws forming narrow blind canyons with Plateaus in which the rocks are nea~
among weaker shales that erode into long, nearly vertical walls. The Pecos Canyons horizontal and less deformed commonly fll ,
sandy ridges. At least two major down-to-the- include the major river and its side streams. the mountains. Cores of strongly folded anu
coast fault systems trend nearly parallel to the Vegetation is sparse, even near springs and faulted sedimentary and volcanic rocks or of
coastline. Clusters of faults also concentrate streams. granite rocks compose the interiors of mountain
over salt domes in East Texas. That region is Central Texas Uplift. The most character- ranges. Volcanic rocks form many peaks. Large
characterized by pine and hardwood forests istic feature of this province is a central basin flows of volcanic ash and thick deposits of
and numerous permanent streams. West and having a rolling floor studded with rounded volcanic debris flank the slopes of most former
south, tree density continuously declines, pines granite hills 400 to 600 feet high. Enchanted volcanoes. Ancient volcanic activity of the
disappear in Central Texas, and chaparral brush Rock State Park is typical of this terrain. Rocks Texas Basin and Range province was mostly
and sparse grasses dominate between San forming both basin floor and hills are among explosive in nature, like Mount Saint Helens.
Antonio and Laredo. the oldest in Texas. A rim of resistant lower Volcanoes that poured successive lava flows
On the Blackland Prairies of the innermost Paleozoic formations (see the Geology ofTexas are uncommon. Eroded craters, where the
Gulf Coastal Plains, chalks and marls weather map) surrounds the basin. Beyond the Paleo- cores of volcanoes collapsed and subsided,
to deep, black, fertile clay soils, in contrast zoic rim is a second ridge formed of limestones are abundant.
with the thin red and tan sandy and clay soils like those of the Edwards Plateau. Central live Gray oak-pinyon pine-alligator juniper
of the Interior Gulf Coastal Plains. The black- oak-mesquite parks are surrounded by live parks drape the highest elevations. Creosote
lands have a gentle undulating surface, cleared oak-ashe juniper parks. bush and lechuguilla shrubs sparsely populate
of most natural vegetation and cultivated North-Central Plains. An erosional sur- plateaus and intermediate elevations. Tobosa-
for crops. face that developed on upper Paleozoic forma- black grama grassland occupies the low basins.
From sea level at the Gulf of Mexico, the tions forms the North-Central Plains. Where The Physiographic Map of Texas is a
elevation of the Gulf Coastal Plains increases shale bedrock prevails, meandering rivers useful guide to appreciate statewide travel.
northward and westward. In the Austin- traverse stretches of local prairie. In areas of Texas abounds with vistas of mountains,
San Antonio area, the average elevation is harder bedrock, hills and rolling plains domi- plateaus, plains, hills, and valleys in which
about 800 feet. South of Del Rio, the western nate. Local areas of hard sandstones and lime- many rock types and geologic structures are
end of the Gulf Coastal Plains has an elevation stones cap steep slopes severely dissected near exposed. A variety of vegetation grows,
of about 1,000 feet. rivers. Lengthy dip slopes of strongly fractured depending on local climate.
Grand Prairie. The eastern Grand Prairie limestones display extensive rectangular
developed on limestones; weathering and patterns. Western rocks and soils are oxidized -Text by E. G. Wermund

Bureau of Economic Geology

The Bureau of Economic Geology, established in 1909, is a research entity of The University of Texas at Austin and also
functions as the State Geological Survey. The Bureau conducts basic and applied research projects in energy and mineral resources,
coastal and environmental studies, land resources, and geologic mapping. Reports and maps published by the Bureau are available
for a nominal price. A list of publications is available on request.
The University of Texas at Austin • University Station, Box X • Austin, Texas 78713-8924 • (512) 471-1534
Web: http://www.utexas.edulresearchlbeg! • Publication Sales: (512) 471-7144, 1-888-839-4365 (toll-free USA)
 c) c c
c.
m§i -.--------------I~O ,,!'LES
llANO~IVER VALLEY . RELATIVE POSITION Of RELATIVE POSITION Of
KERRVILLE & fREDERICKSBURG AUSTIN & SAN ANTONIO

.ij RELATIVE POSITIONS Of

6
COMAL, AQUARENA & BARTON SPRINGS

Sprl~
AI_ .tr.... fl_in8
eo,twa,eI .. lOu.hwof4
ij
011 EeI. ._ PIo. . .

~
~-~-~,
.1. .
. .r., ...... eOltwo,d
& .,.he••" " ,"'"
," Ed. . .
Aquile,.
,.,..Z-
,
I

I EDWARDS PLATEAU AQUIFER

"atl'

I
GlEN
8ALCONES fAULT ZONE lAD 'M.
WATERUNE
fiGURE 6: IECHAIGE ARTESIAN ZONE
SCHEMADC CROSS SECTION SHOWING ZONE .
RELATIONS OF THE EOWARDS AQUifERS, HILL COUNTRY EDWARDS FAULT-ZONE
CENTRAL TEXAS GULf COASTAL
DRAINAGE AREA AQUIFER PLAIN
mll~IOSf AUGUST. 19M

c..
1
 c· j . (\ c
EDWARDS AQUIFER REGIONAL MAP
-<
v ......
/
././'

:"';

'·tJ

~'\.·I

I
Travi~/

I\ Kn.-tnn Spri.;,gs.Seg".ent~
.\.... ' •.....

"\.

San AntonIo
I-(f~
---....
'.., "
'""-; ,.,'
\

Y Kinney
.'/

t
<;"
\
\
.....---- \'"
'.'l.....r.-\ "
~( 1\
\

l, /~:
1. --1..----
..--
_/'

'-
 Austin Nature and Science Center
.Splash! into the Edwards 74.quifer
.. ~
H20 Going On! Worksheet

A B C D

How We Use H2O How Much H2O How Often Daily H2O Use
Is Used

BXC=D

Flushing a toilet 5-7 gallons

Taking a bath 30 gallons

with tub full

Taking a shower, 20 gallons

with H20 running

Brushing teeth 5 gallons

with H20 running

Drinking tap H2O

running water to cool 1 gallon

Dishwasher
full cycle 16 gallons

Washing clothes on
full cycle / top H2O level 60 gallons

For total H20 use, add all numbers in solumn D

Borrowed from US Department of Agriculture.

·U Natural Resources Conservation Service

--
 ~I
(

•
!

f l

/
 WILD ANiMALS AS PETS
u (Taken from the Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum Docent Information sheet "I
Want One for a Pet", edited and adapted to Austin by Nancy Charbeneau)

We often hear children and adults asking about obtaining a wild animal as a pet.
Here are a few facts and figures about the wild animal pet business to use when
dealing with questions about this sort of thing. . -

1. 90% of the exotic animals bought in this country are not in their original homes
., wi thin six months after their purchase. They have either died or their owners
have gotten rid of them in one way or another.
2. Keeping a wild anjmal "pet" at home creates many unforseen ·problems. The
owner will never be able to domesticate the anjmal's wild instinct. ·Sudden noises,
strange persons, accidently stepping on the an;mals' tail, etc. may cause it to lash
out and severely injure someone.

3. Many wild animals are difficult or impossible to house train. Many wild
animal s are nocturnal. While the owner is trying to sleep, the "pet" is in the
midst or its active time. Many wild animals are quick to learn about opening
drawers and cupboards and appear to -take great delight in scattering the contents
everywhere.
4. The expense of owning a wild animal is often much more than th~ owner
u expected as he must build special cages and replace household items that have
been broken, chewed or defecated upon. Vet bills and maybe lawyers fees (if the
animal has bitten someone) add to the costs. :
5. When the owner has bad enough and wants to get rid olthe anjmal , what
happens? A "domesticated" wild animal cannot be returned to the wild and still
survive. Zoos are hesitant about taking them, for these anjmals are often. in poor
health, spoiled, and often incapable of mating after being away from others for a
long time. Euthanasia is usually the only answer.

6. The care and feeding or aoue anjmals is often a great deal more involved than
that of the conventional household pet. The exotic anjmal owner, in many cases,
is completely unaware of how to feed or manage his new "pet". Wild anjmals are
susceptible to rickets from lack of vitamins and minerals. Exotic animals
exchange diseases sometimes with humans.
7. Keeping a wild anjmal may be illegal! In Texas most wild mammals, birds,
and some reptiles are protected by state and/or federal laws and you must have a
permit to keep most of them. European ferrets can be legally sold in pet stores but
skunks and raccoons may no longer be purchased due to the diseases they can
carry (rabies and distemper).

u
8. Then there is the moral aspect of keeping wild animal pets. In order for an
animal to be brought to the U.S., an untold amount of slaughter and·suffering has
taken place between the animals' native home and here. The mother animal is
usually killed so the young may be taken. By the time the young animals arrive in
America, many have died from improper handling (as much as 80% in some
cases). In other words, by purchasing a wild animal, you are ordering the death
of a number of the same species.

9 . Not all wild animals are purchased. Often a YOWlg animal IS foUnd in the wild
and brought home. By removing that animal from the wild, the natural cycle of
events is in some small way being disturbed. Each animal has a niche to fill, and
it is important that the animal is there to do that job.

10. It is also important to remember that animal parents rarely abandon their
healthy offspring; they may be nearby waiting for you to leave, or out foraging for
food. Also, baby birds will not be neglected if touched by a human, as birds have
only a minimal sense of smell. Mammals can also be returned to the nest if they
have not been handled too much. Don't rescue an;mals unless you are sure the
parent has been killed, the animal appears to be cold, weak or injured, or in
obvious danger. Then call Wildlife Rescue Inc (472·wn..D) for information on how
to help the animal.

.~ .

f JI;.
 Wildlife Enemies (add to your Urban Wildlife description, laminated sheets in boxes)

u
,

Problem:
• Yogurt CUpS: Animals will jam their head inside to get food, but are not able
to pull their head back due to design of cup.
Solutioll:
• Crush the cup

Problem:
• Mylar: Does not biodegrade. Floats on top of water and marine animals think
it is food. When they ingest it, their intestines get blocked.
Solution:
• Use wildlife-friendly decorations

Problem:
• Plastic bags: Do not biodegrade quickly. Sea turtles and other aquatic
animals see them floating and think they are food.
Solutio,,:
• Make sure your grocer uses b~egradable bags. If not, ask for paper.

Problem:
• Oil: Hard to get off fur and feathers once it is OD. Can inhibit flight of birds;
kill aquatic animals that are a food source for wildlife.
Solution:
• Recycle oil

Problem:
• 6-pack holder: Animals get the plastic caught around their mouth and can't
get it off. They die of starvation. Some smaller birds and mammals get it caught
around their necks and are strangled.
Solution: .
• Ask your parents to cut the rings.

Problem:
• Styrofoam: Is not recyclable, rills up landiills, does not decompose
Solution: .
• Buy paper cups and plates. Use biodegradable packing peanuts.

Problem:
• Batteries: Chemicals (mercury, zinc, silver, lithium, cadmium) can leak out
and contaminate soil and water.
Solution:
• Dispose of at Hazardous Waste Recycling Center
 What Can I Do For Wildlife?
/"
START A LITTER CL~~ CAMPAIGN. Trash scat-
l ired along roadways and trails leads rats
~to the wilds where they destroy bird nests
and eat food needed by ~ther wildlife. Deer
die from eating discarded photo·negatives.
Large fish have been killed by swallowing
the. pull.tabs of pop-top beverage cans.

\ri"'a4, ' , Small fish have been trapped in the same ~iD
of can when it was dropped into river. a
l,'..w~·~1II·r Geese and other birds hav~ drowned or starve
.,~ after becoming caught in the loops of the
plastic form made to hold six such cans to-
gether. Birds alre also found dangling from
l.. :.- ~.
l . " . .. tree limbs hopelessly entangled in old fish
.,.. , L· ....•.....C line.
REMIND SMOKERS TO USE THE ASH TRAY. Grass,
weeds, and shrubs are important hiding and
nesting places for small animals and birds.
The seeds and ber~ies of the low-growing
plants provide vital winter food. All too
I
often such habitat is destroyed by fire.
In fact, 9 out of 10 fires are caused by
\.
.,-human carelessness •

u WARN OTHERS--AND SET A GOOD ~'E V"Y'm~'~ F,

TO ,STAY }J~AY FROM ALL BIRD NESTS FOUND.
Raccoons and o~her predators have long known
that they can alway, find food by following
human scent. Touching a nest is like saying
DON'T LET ANYONE PICK UP AN· "ORPHAN FAWtl. "
...
to a raccoon, "Come and get it!"
J. .........e~1It1
A fawn hidden in the woods im r t abandoned.
It was hidden there by its mother, and that's
where she will expect to find it when 'she .~
returns to give it milk. \ \ ! .~ ~ ~: ~."\;::
._ ....•. ...-
~.,

\ l'lt~~y~/
~r-a. .,.~ '.'t::
-

DON t T LET ANYONE ABANDON, A PET IN THE WILDS.

AL.. ~\' ';.' • "Dogs or cats turned loose to live- off the
~ ., I~ ;. ~t-..IIIIi~:-.
'''..~ - ".'; =' ,.
'j
country usually starve. Frequently they re-
turn again and again to the place where
faithless masters left them.

Sometimes, however, the desperate animals

become adept killers and are very hard on
wildlife.

L iL EVERYONE THAT ALL RAPTORS ARE PROTECTED

BY LAW. There is no such bird as a "chicken
hawk. tt
TELL OTHERS tolHY IT IS A MISTAKE TO FEED OR
MAKE PETS OF MOST WILD ANIMALS. Tae food
given such animals is usually poorly suited
to their needs. And not only do the animals
become dependent on humans that are kind
but trustful of those that are not. Also,
as some wild·pets mature, they became ugly-
tempered, even dangerous.

Below are several more ways you can belp

wUdlife:
Nesting baskets for owls can be made of
heavy-gauge hardware cl~th or poultry Nail kegs make
wire. excellent dens
for raccoons or __ n_.~
squirrels. Also
they make good
places for some
cut to hawks and owls
to nest.

Overlap edges and fas-

ten to form a shallow
Nail in crot ch
Load ~th

..---
.U
Adaptation - a physical or behavioral characteristic of an organism that improves
its chance of survival in the environment it inhabits
Aerial - spending most of the time in the air
Air Sacs - openings in the bones and muscles of birds which are fille2- with part of
the respiratory system .
Aguatic - living in the water
Arboreal - living in the trees
Camouflage - a type of adaptation where the organism's outer covering blends in
with its natural surroundings
Carapace - top shell of a turtle
Carnivore - a meat eating animal
Cold Blooded - see Ectothermic
Diurnal - active during the day
Ecology - the study of relationships between living organisms and their
environments
Ectothermic - having a body temperature near to that of the environment not
internally regulated (cold-blooded) dependent on external heat sources (sun) for
u raising body temperature
Endangered - an organism in danger of becoming extinct
Endothermic - able to maintain a relatively high and constant body temperature
independent of the surrounding (warm-blooded)
Environment - the collective term for the conditions in which an organism lives,
e.g., temperature, light, water, and other organisms
Estivate - becoming inactive due to extreme heat
Extinct - gone forever, none left
Habitat - the natural home of an animal where it is normally found
Herbivore - a plant eating animal
Hibernate - becoming inactive due to extreme cold
Jacobson's Organ - smelling organ in the roof of the mouth of some reptiles
Mammary glands - glands in mammals which produce milk
Migration - the periodic movements of animals to new areas or habitats
Metabolism - a process whereby food is converted into energy, stored or used to
build new cells
Molt - to shed an outer cover periodically
Musk - a scent produced by mammals of the Mustelidae family (skunks, weasels,
ferrets), used to attract mates mark territory, or in some cases, for defense
Niche - an animal's job in its environment
 Nocturnal - active at night
Omnivore - an animal that eats both meat and plants
Plastron - bottom shell of a turtle
Predator - an animal that hunts or traps other animals for food
Preen gland - an oil containing organ located at the base of the tail of most birds
Prey - an animal eaten by another animal
Scavenger - an animal that eats dead animals
Scutes - the scales covering a turtle's shell
Species - a group of closely related organisms potentially able to breed with one
another
Terrestrial - living 011 land or on the ground
Territory - any area defended by an animal
Threatened - refers to organisms that have been so depleted in number that
becoming endangered is likely
Venom - poison produced by some biting and stinging animals, such as snakes,
bees, and spiders
Warm-Blooded - see Endothermic

u
1. These vertebrates have hollow bones. (birds)

2. These vertebrates are warm-blooded, (birds, mammals)

3. A turtle is an example of this group of vertebrates. (reptiles)

4. The largest animal ever to live is a member of this group. (mammals -- blue
whale)

5. These vertebrates are cold-blooded. (fish, reptiles, amphibians)

6. Only these vertebrates have hair. (mammals)

7. All of the vertebrates in this group nurse their young. (mammals)

B. This is the only group of vertebrates that has feathers. (birds)

9. These vertebrates have scales and lay eggs that usually have a leathery skin.
(reptiles)

10. A few lay eggs, but almost all give birth to live young. (mammals)

11. Sweating helps keep many of the vertebrates in this group cool. (mammals)

12. These vertebrates have air sacs attached to their lungs. (birds)

13. These vertebrates have a muscular diaphragm that helps them fill their lungs
with air. (mammals)

14. These vertebrates have the most fully developed brains. (mammals)

15. These vertebrates have different kinds of teeth for eating different kinds of
food. (mammals)

16. Many of these vertebrates have oil, milk, sweat, and scent glands in their
skin. (mammals)

17. These vertebrates do not have teeth. (birds)

 IMPORTANT POINTS

ANlMAIJBIRD TOUR

All grades

Characteristics - reinforce basic characteristics of mammals, reptiles and birds.

Observation - have children observe differences between animals from enclosure

to enclosure.

Habitat - ask children where they think this animal would live in the wild.

Food - observe what food the animals have in their dishes or ask what children

think they would eat.

28 minutes total time. Next station -- Mammals.

 M{JM!JLL !JI!l)!Jl!PTJlLq'JCY.J{S
BACKGROUND INFORMATION

I. Definitions "
An adaptation is a physical or behavioral characteristic of an organism that improves its
chance of surviving and reproducing ~ the environment it inhabits.
Adaptations can be:
1. an bnmediate response or
2. A response over time which is seen as the evolution of an organism's physical or
behavioral traits.
An example of an immediate response: shivering in response to cold or sweating in
response to heat Not all organisms can make that immediate response. A turtle can't
shiver. The ability to easily adapt to weather changes has been very important to humans
and has made humans adaptable to many different climates. When we shiver our body is
responding to the cold and causing the muscles to work, therefore wanning the body up.
When we sweat our body is working to cool itself off, to regulate it's temperature of 98.6
degrees.
An example of a response over time:
A) Physical
Fox ears have made physical adaptations depending on the type of environment a
I
fox lives in. A kit fox that lives in the desert has large ears to radiate excess heat
and help them to hear at night. An arctic fox has small ears so that they don't lose
U heat.
B) Behavioral _
White-tailed deer have made behavioral changes in their feeding ha.bi1s..~ecause of
humans. They used to feed during the day, but now they feed at nigh~" to avoid
human contact (hunters, etc.). -"
 III. Predator/Prey Relationships
u Every animal on this earth shares a common problem. It must get enough nourishment to
keep its body going or else face death. Herbivores, the hunted or prey, are animals that
depend on plants for their food. Carnivores, the hunters or predators, largely depend on
herbivores to supply their food, and omnivores eat both plant and anima! matter..
Predators and prey are constantly adapting to each other as much as to their physical
environment. As the prey gets better at hiding, the predator gets better at rmding them. As
the prey develops better defenses, the predator finds ways of getting around those
defenses. For example, a porcupine's quills can keep away wolves and coyotes, but
mountain lions and pine martens have learned to reach under the porcupine to it's belly
where there are no quills and rip it open.

If you look at a ferret and a rabbit you can see general characteristics of predators and prey
animals. .
PREDATORS tend to bel have:
* curious rather than timid. They must investigate every possible channel lhat
might yield food;
* quick, restless, energetic and alert movements;
* well developed sense of smell;
* binocular vision (depth perception);
* strong jaws and sharp teeth.
PREY animals tend to bel havel do:
* well developed sense of hearing with large ears;
u * eyes on the sides of the head;
* unaware of an object until it moves;
* good sense of smell;
* travel in numbers for safety;
* dive for cover or stand motionless (freeze);
* protective devices such as quills, armor, spray.
IV. Defense Mechanisms
Hair or skin modifications:
quills (evolved from hair, soft to thick)
coloration for camouflage (also found in predators)
ann or
Tooth modifications:
tusks (elephant, walrus, narwhal)
canines
HQrns and Antlers
Poisonl Deterrents:
(skunks, venomous snakes- specialized saliva)

u
 Warning: . \\ ~
coloration- monarch butterfly, coral snake ..
behavior- rattlesnake rattle (evolved from build up of unshed skin), skunk
u taps paws on ground
Deception:
(owls- puff themselves up to look bigger- spread either one or two wings;
opossum- play dead; moth with eyespots; alligator lizard- makes tail seem
alive after fleeing to safety)
Mimicry:
(Mexican Milksnake, Viceroy butterfly)

V. Finding Food
Beaks
Teeth
Feet

IV. Feathers have been adapted for many different functions.

A. Physical types
1. Flight
2. Contour
3. Downy
4. Specialized
u a. Woodpecker tail spines (to prop against tree to assist in balance)
b. Owl primary feathers ( zippered to aid in silent flight)
c. Peacock taiYfan (for males to attract a mate)
d. Owl "whisker" feathers (to help feel food)
B. Coloration
1. Camouflage
2. Deception (peacocks and "eyespot" feathers)
3. Mate attraction

u
u
\0-
Introduction (15 minutes)

Define Adaptation: A CHANGE TIlAT ALLOWS A PLANT OR AN

ANIMAL TO SURVIVE AND REPRODUCE.

Discuss Immediate vs. Long-term Responses & Physical vs. Behavioral:

-What would" your bodies do if I sent you to run around the playground 10
times on a hot <;lay (SWEAT!) What would your bodies do if you went
camping in the Arctic and forgot to bring a coat? (SHIVER)
THESE ARE EXAMPLES OF AN IMMEDIATE RESPONSE

-show pictures of elephant trunk or giraffe neck

THESE ARE EXAMPLES OF PHYSICAL ADAPTATIONS
-A physical adaptation is something you can see/ measure. An elephant's
trunk is a physical adaptation that occurred over time. The length of the
trunk is a physical change that we can measure. It's also a change that took
a very long time to happen. Probably one elephant was born with an
u unusually long trunk- which turned out to be a very good thing, because
that elephant could reach higher plants to eat than any of the other
elephants. So that one elephant with the long trunk got to eat more, be
healthier and have more babies than the other elephants. The long trunked
elephant passed along that long trunk to all of its babies. And since they
could reach higher plants, they were healthy, had lots of babies and passed
along their long trunks. The elephants with the shorter trunks sometimes
had to go hungry because they couldn't reach the plants. So those elephants
didn't have enough energy to make babies and their short trunks didn't get
passed along to the next generation. Pretty soon all of the elephants had
long trunks. Then one was born with and even longer trunk and it all
started again. After many thousands of years a regular nose became a long
trunk. "
THIS IS AN EXAMPLE OF A LONG-TERM RESPONSE

u
 *ACTIVITY: Can you think of any way that humans have pbysjcally
adapted to surviving? Hint- think about our hands and different fingers
Ask for a couple of volunteers. (Wear animal puppet on your hand) Shake
their hand with the puppet, have them introduce themselves to the puppet
and the group. Yank or joke about their thumb, what a funny finger," what
good is it, why does it stick off the side of their hand like"that? Ask them
to extend their hand and tape each child's thumb to the inside of their palm.
Then ask them if they would be willing to be your helper. Tell them to
pick up various objects both big and small. Ask the group what the
problem is- why is the helper having trouble? Talk about thumbs as a
physical adaptation and the importance of thumbs for everyday life.

NOW AN EXAMPLE OF BEHAVIORAL ADAPTATION:

Does anyone kno,v when deer eat? Show picture of deer At night. Well
they haven't always eaten at night. Deer used to eat in the daytime. Who
has an idea about why they might have changed their behavior? -Because
people shoot them in the day time. It's against the law for people to go out
at night with spotlights to find deer an kill them. So deer started going out
at night to feed. In the daytime, they lie quietly in the woods and try not to
be noticed. This is a behavioral adaptation- you can't measure the
differences like with an elephant's trunk.
Reiterate that an adaptation is something that helps an animal to survive and
it can be a physical or a behavioral response .

u
 Reasons for High Adaptability (10 minutes)

Go through the reasons for high adaptability by showing pictures.

u
Four thing~make animalsmore able to adapt and survive:
1) Short life cyclesl rapid reproduction- insects vs.~ea turtle
Do you think a sea' turtle has lots of babies each year? NO, that is
one reason that sea turtles are endangered species (they are in danger
of becoming extinct). '
Do you think this insect does? ____ ' .'
2) Using Intelligence oyer instinct- American crow vs. GQJ.~en CheekeCl- C:~,",l..... ~~ '- .
... warbler)
Crow uses intelligence to help find alternative nest building materials
People use intelligence too. We make blankets, coats, heaters, ice,
air-conditioners, etc.
3) Diet- ('.~c \,\)~.s,-\.,v .... ,~?i~\..b-"l~V'
An animal that can eat plants or meat or scavenge for just about
anything can survive better than an animal that only eats one type of
food.

4) Mobility- batlbirdlinsects
Birds, bats, and insects are very successful because they can go from
one habitat to another. If a habitat is destroyed or polluted, these
u animals are able to move to a more suitable habitat. Other animals
that can't fly may be stuck in that bad environment.

OTHER ADAPTATIONS (15 minutes)

,/f/.t ~,~ cV\atJ~ .
Show· various specimens and explainllet children explain how they help the
animal to survive: encourage discussion- DEFENSE, FEEDING

Hair/skin
quills defense
turtle shell defense
armadillo shell defense
,:,ari~~s ~el:!flage/wamiftg fur ~ defense ((~v",.;)-~\,(;.\·-!\i:\"~'.Iv:''''''·''
\(f~~.l\i\(,'- +V'( , Wc.~).~'Y\\.,,~ l ((. ~ \I..,: . __
Teethl skulls ' lI .t~ " ... .(t'"'. 'l, 1.0 'f".:· ,,- '.:
J.""
.. ,'

pictures, of tusks (elephant, walrus, narwhal) defense

herbi vore skull feeding
carni vore skull \.\

omnivore skull \,\

u
 • L.,).\-€;~ f V: ~ ~ c~ .
------
...---.

Horns/ Antlers
pictures

u Poison/Deterrents
skunk defense
snake de.fense

Warning
white-tailed deer defense
coral snake defense
tv~{\./i,D"<rv\ \ ~~_~/l. \ (.,~
·-Bi Sl.• &R--bS\ 0 c..-L.{.G. c{,"- ' ...
,~(f.",,~
.(L~ 'J"v<pL~1f'(l~":: '}) ~
Feet ~\J.~)-." \ tA.~' . " /
bird feet feeding
fll·v.;..- - t'/-· I boct-, '~iL ~~_i-t- .----- oU(;~''1 "-.l.c.._
Feathers
downy warmth
flight flying
flight & contour defense (camouflage)
peacock attracting a 1nate (large eyespot may deter predators)

Another kind of adaptation is mimicrJ. Who knows what it means to

u mimic something? To copy or pretend to be...

Mimicry
Mexican milk snake mimics coral snake
Viceroy Butterfly mimics Monarch

-The Coral snake is a venomous snake that has red, yellow and black bands
all around it's body. But not all snakes with red, yellow and black bands
are poisonous. There is another snake that looks a lot like the coral snake
and is not venomous, does anyone know the name of that snake? Does
anyone know the jingle/ rhyme we use to help us remember which one is
dangerous? (Red and yellow kill afellow; red and black poison lack) The
snake with the red band touching the yellow band IS poisonous the snake
with the red touc~ng the black IS NOT poisonous. Do you think that
animals learn this rhyme? No, animals just learn that those colors signal
danger .. So most animals stay away from all snakes that are red, yellow,
and black... and many of the snakes they are avoiding aren't venomous.
Those non-venomous snakes are adapted to look like the venomous ones.
This is an example of mimicry. .
u
 -The monarch butterfly is a butterfly that birds don't eat because it tastes
bad. The monarch eats nectar from milkweed plants which taste really
bi ner and make the butterflies taste bad to the birds. Have you ~ver eaten a
u monarch butterfly? Well, there's another butterfly called the viceroy that
does not eat milkweed and it doesn't taste bad. But the viceroy does look
almost exactly like the monarch-so birds don't eat it. If a bird catches a
butterfly that looks like this, it might taste good or very bad. However, if
it catches a different looking butterfly, then it will definitely taste good. So
the viceroy is adapted to look like the monarch and that is another example
of mimicry.

Animal Show (15 minutes)

LET'S SEE ADAPTATIONS OF A FEW PARTICULAR ANJ1vIALS:

MADAGASC·AR HISSING COCKROACH

*omnivore! scavenger
*live birth! ovoviviparous
*exoskeleton
*sticky feet
*spikes on legs
*hissing

MEXICAN' MILK SNAKE

u *mimicry
*
legless
*
scales! shedding
*
smelling with tongue
*
jawbone detachment

ALLIGA TOR LIZARD

* scales/ shedding of whole skin
**ears
tail breaks off
*tail is deceptive when broken off- seems alive
*camouflage
...,.,.- .
,~ \' /.(-t ".1
i \I _"-'

u
 ANIMAL ADAPTATIONS pROGRAM SCRIPT

>Introductory questions (see more detailed script attached)

u
Adaptations may be... * Immediate or take a long period of time
(shivers or sweat) (elephant's trunk)
* physical or behavioral
(bat's wing) .: •(feeding habits of deer)

Things that usually aid in survival or make an animal more adaptable:

- short life span and high. reproduction rate
ex: Insects, such as mosquito developing a better stinger
- use of Intelligence over Insflnct 1
ex: vireo nest building vi. crows building from scavenged
Items ~...
- dietary generalists
ex: opposums and raccopns succeeding In urban areas
- highly mobile, especially abiOty to fly
ex: bats, birds qnqJnsects 'colonizing many habitats.
:' ~ .!.

Predator vs. Prey type of beh'aviors

discuss porcupine, show .-tit.quills and lead Into defenses
, ',~

Defense:
Behavior»>kllldeer with fake wing injury, deer flashing white tails,
elks butting antlers
u
!

Structural»>mountaln lion c~aws, turtle shells, bird of prey talons

.
Food Finding»>feet and beak posters, snake skull, mammal herbivore
and carnivore skulls

Feathers»>downy feathers for warmth

, flight feathers for flight and water repellence and camoflage
peacock feather for attraction of mate and possibly to deter
predators

Mimics:
butterflies»>monarchs taste bitter because they eat milkweed;
viceroys taste fine, but look like monarchs so don't get eaten
snakes»>coral snakes are venomous; milk and king snakes are not,
but look similar to coral snakes so don't get bothered

Roach ••• omnivore, live birth, exoskeleton, stiCky feet, spiked legs
Owl··· nocturnal, predatoL superior eyesight and hearing, talons, beak
Skunk .** stripes, stamps, spray, nocturnal, omnivore, sense of smell
Opossum *.* nocturnal, omnivore, marsupial, tall and feet for climbing,

Milk Snake .*.

·playlng 'possumD
legless, earless, no eyelids, jaw detachment, constriction,
color pattern
u
 ANIMAL ADAPTATIONS SCRIPT
These are Introductory questions. Just to make sure everyone Is at the same leveL.
u What Is an adaptation?
A change that allows a plant or an animal to survive and reproduce.
What Is a reptile? a bird? a mammal?
What does It mean to be an ectotherm? an endotherm?
What Is a predator? prey? "

Adaptations - those changes that allow the organism to survive

and reproduce - may be Immediate or they may occur over a long
period of time. .
An example of an Immediate [esponse would be If we sent you
outside on a hot day to run around ltie.~lock three times ... what would
your body do? Sweat. Sweat is your body's response to cool Itself. You
don't think about it, It just happens as an Immediate response to cool you
off.
Or If you went outside on a verY cold day naked ... what would your
body do? It would get goose bumps €Jnd shiver. Those muscle
movements produce heat tp tty to warm you up. This is also an
immediate response of your bddy to Its environment.
Adaptations may also be physical or behaylorgl.
A physical adaptation hr.$omethlng you can see/measure. An
elephanfs trunk Is a physical· adaptation < elephant picture> that
occurred over time. The length of the trunk is a physical change that we
can measure. It's also a change that took a very long time to happen.
u Probably one elephant was born with an unusually long trunk - which
turned out to be a very good thlng~ because that elephant could reach
higher plants to eat than any of the other elephants. So that one
elephant with the long trunk got to eat more, be healthier and have more
babies than the other elephants. The long trunked elephant passed
along that long trunk to all of its babies. And since they could reach
higher plants, they were healthy, had lots of babies and passed along
their long trunks. The elephants with the shorter trunks sometimes had to
go hungry because they couldn't reach the plants. So those elephants
didn't have enough energy to make babies and their short trunks didn't
get passed along to the next generation. Pretty soon all of the elephants
had long trunks. Then one was bom with even longer trunk and it all
started again. After many thousands of years a regular nose became a
long trunk.
Deer have a behavioral adaptation. Does anyone know when
deer eat? < deer picture> At night. Well they haven't always eaten at
night. Deer used to eat in the daytime. Who has an Idea about why they
might have changed their behavior. Because people shoot them in the
daytime. It's against the law for people to go out at night with spotlights
to find deer and kill them. So deer started going out at night to feed. In
the day time, they lie quietly In the woods and try not to be noticed. This is
a behavioral adaptation - you can't measure the differences like with an
elephanfs trunk, but it Is definitely an adaptation to living In a well-armed
u society.

1
 Four things make animals more .able to adapt and survive:
(1) • Living a short life and reproducing quickly
- do you think an elephant <elephant picture> has lots of
u babies every year?
- do you think a mosquito does? So how much faster could a
mosquito pass along an extra large stinger than the
elephant passed along Its trunk?
(2) • Using Intelligence over Instfnct qlone
- black-capped vireo uses Instinct only In nest building (and Is
endangered) < vireo picture>
- crow uses Intelligence to help find alternate nest building
materials. < crow picture>
- people use Intelligence, top. To help us survive In all
climates, we make blankets, coats, heaters, Ice and air-
conditioners. . ,....
(3) • Being a dietary generalist r

- an animal that can eat plants or meat or scavenge for Just

about anything can survive better than an animal that
only eat~.o~e type of food.
(4) • Being highly mol?ile,~especlally fliers
- birds, bats < bat pictures> and Insects are very successful
because they can go from one habitat to another. If a
habitat is ,d§stroyed or polluted, those animals are able
a
to move to more suitable habitat. Other animals that
can't fly may be stuck In that bad environment.
So a (1) short life (2) Intelligence (3) being able to eat lots of things
u
I I

and (4) being able to fly are .thlngs that help animals to survive.

Let's look at some defensive adaptations:

Behavioral:
• Killdeer dragging wing to divert < killdeer picture> predators
away from eggs/nest.
, • Deer flashing white toils as a warning signal to others. <deer
tail p.ctur~>
• Elk butting heads to defend territory or mates. < elk picture>
Structural:
• Quills of a porcupine to protect it from predators. <quills>
• Talons of birds of prey for catching food, perching and
defense. < owl talon>
• Turtle shell ... same defense for many millions of years
because Irs such a successful adaptation, no need for
a new and Improved version of the turtle. -< shell >

Some adaptations are for getting food:

• Look at examples on feet and beak posters
• Look at mammals with carnivore, omnivore and herbivore teeth
< skulls of deer and bobcat and opossum >
• Look at snake skull and point out ability to detach at joints and
eat large prey.
u
2
 •. ·f

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fJ\A tGl ~~ (JJ'r nkr (J.~. ~ ~UD ."P ~ U(J ~ ocelot V\t{~ ~
 Feathers are highly adapted Items also:
• Downy feathers are for warmth
• Flight feathers are for flying
• Flight and contour feathers are for camouflage
• Peacock feathers are used In attracting a mate (also the large
eyespot may deter predators)

Another kind of adaptation Is mimicry: Who knows what It means to

mimic something? To copy or pretend to be ...
• The monarch buHerfly < picture> is a butterfly that birds don't eat
because It tastes bad. The monarch eats milkweeds which taste really
bitter and make the butterflies taste bad to the birds. Have you ever
eaten a monarch butterfly? Welf t.her~'s another butterfly called the
viceroy that does not eat milkweed ·CJn~ It doesn't taste bad. But the
viceroy does look almost exactly like tHe monarch - so birds don't eat it.
If a bird catches a butterfly that looks like these, it might taste good or
very bad. However If it catches a' dlff~rent looking butterfly, then it will
definitely taste good. So the vlcer6y Is adapted to look like the
monarch and that Is an examQle of mimicry.
• Another kind of mll'l1Jcr{ Is the snakes that are these colors < rubber
coral snake>. One kind of red, yellow and black snake Is venomous. All
of the other kinds of red, yellow and black snakes are not venomous.
Does anyone know the rhymewe use to help us remember which one is
dangerous? (Red and yellow kill a fellow; red and black poison lack) Do
you think animals learn that rhyme? No. Animals just learn that those.
colors signal danger. So most anlm'als stay away from all snakes that are
red, yellow and black ... and many' of th~ snakes they are avoiding aren't
venomous. Those non-venomous snakes are adapted to look like the.
venomous ones. That is mimicry.

Now let's look at the adaptations of a few particular animals:

(It's probably best to use just one Insect, bird, mammal and reptile)
• Cockroach • Skunk
> omnivore / scavenger > nocturnal
> live birth -/ OVoviviparous > omnivore
> exoskeleton > senses: smell and touch
> sticky feet > striped for visibility
> spikes on legs > (behavioral) stamping front feet
> hissing > spray (adapted from scent marker)

• Screech Owl • Opossum • Milk Snake

> nocturnal > nocturnal > mimicry
> predator / carnivore > omnivore > legless
> vision / head rotation > marsupial > scales/
> sense of hearing > tail and feet for grasping shedding
> talons > Iplaylng 'possuma > smelling
> beak w/tongue
> camouflage > Jawbone
> small size detachmnt
u
3
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 , N Y~lte West Side - Earthworm Page 1 of2
.- .'"

u
The City Naturalist - Earthworms
NYsYTE
Article by Leslie Day, Drawing by Jonah Nishiura

EARTHWORMS: Lumbricus terrestris

"It may be doubted whether there are many other creatures

which have played so important a part in the history of the
world" Charles Darwin, 1881

Some scientists estimate that there are approximately 50,000

earthworms per acre of moist soil. Earthworms live in deep, dark, long,
and narrow tunnels or burrows under the ground, They cannot tolerate
heat and sun and so during the summer they come up to the surface
only at night. They also leave their burrows when it rains because it is
easier for them to move on the wet surface. After a rain you will notice
multitudes of earthworms on the surface. The wet ground allows them to mo:ve without drying out.

BENEFITS OF EARTHWORMS: Gardeners, fanners, foresters and soil scientists all love the
earthworm because of the good they do for flowers, crops, and plants and animals of the forest.
Earthworms are active animals and feed by bringing organic debris into their burrows from the surface
and by eating their way through the soil. The leaf litter (dead leaves and animals) they digest' contains
u nutrients made by plants during photosynthesis and includes calcium, nitrogen, potassium and
phosphorus, and organic minerals and nutrients from dead animals. Their excrement, called castings, is
deposited on the surface and is rich in nutrients, providing food for other animals and microorganisms.
This organic material is then further broken down by microorganisms of the soil, releasing nutrients in a
form available for absorption by plants.

In this way, earthworms have helped produce the fertile humus that covers the land. As a result the
layers of soil are thoroughly mixed, seeds are covered and enabled to germinate, and over long periods
of time stones and other objects on the surface are buried. This process has even buried and preserved
ancient buildings. Each year earthworm castings cover each acre with as as much as 18 tons of rich
soil.When earthworms die, usually in the dry summer, the organic material making up their bodies is
gradually released providing additional nutrients for plants. These minerals are essential to healthy plant
growth.

EARTHWORM BURROWS: the tunnels earthworms make beneath the topsoil do a tremendous
service to the trees and plants above. Their burrowing aerates the soil, which is why earthworms are
called "nature's plough". They not only help bring oxygen down into the soil, but their tunnels allow
rainwater carrying organic and inorganic nutrients down deep into the soil where the roots lie. The roots
then take up the water and the minerals and recycle them back to the herbaceous plants and woody trees.

DESCRIPTION: If you watch an earthworm move, you will most likely see it move forward, with its
pointy end in the front. This is its mouth and prostomium (area in front of the mouth). There is a
concentration of sensory cells at this anterior end around the prostomium. And though it has no eyes, it
u possesses light sensitive cells and can "sense" light. As mentioned above, it cannot hear, but feels
vibrations of animals moving nearby.

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N Y:SIte West SIde - .Earthworm Page 2 of~

The worm's body is divided into 100 or more body segments. As the worm works its way·forward,
successive peristaltic or contracting waves of thickening and thinning (7-10 per minute) pass down the
body. At each place where the body bulges out at a given moment, the bristles, or setae, are extended 0
and grip the burrow walls. Setae, which are not true legs but pairs of bristles attached to each segment,
push against the ground with each contraction and help the animal move.

When a Robin tries to pull an earthworm out of the ground, the worm uses these bristles to hold on tight
to the wall of its home. Sometimes the worm holds on so tight and the Robin pulls so hard that the worm
comes apart. The Robin keeps the front end and the hind end wriggles back into its burrow. If a bird
pulls off the first 7 or 8 rings of the worm's body, new segments will grow. If a worm is pulled in half,
the head end will grow back.

The earthworm has no lungs and takes in oxygen through its moist skin - it is a skin breather. If it dries
out it will suffocate. Its skin is covered by mucus-secreting cells. The mucus serves not only in
respiratory exchange, but it also lubricates the worm's body and eases passage through the burrow. The
mucus covered skin helps bind soil particles together and prevents the walls of the burrow from
collapsing. .

LIFE CYCLE: Earthworms are hermaphrodites with both male and female reproductive organs. On
warm, moist spring and summer nights, you can often seen hundreds of mating worms coming up out of
their burrows. Once they have mated, the girdle like ring around the front of an earthworm, called the
clitellum slides along the worm's body, picking up fertilized eggs. When it finally falls off the worm into
the soil, it forms a well protected nest or egg case within which the embryo worms develop.

PREDATORS: Because the body of the earthworm is 70% protein, they are a sought after prey by 0
birds, especially Robins, and by burrowing animals like moles. If you watch a Robin hunting, it pauses,
cocks its head, then strikes with its bill, pulling a worm from the ground. The Robin, with its keen
eyesight, detects the earthworm's movement in the grass. The earthworm, both sightless and ear-less,
can feel the vibrations of the bird on the surface of the ground.

mSTORY: Earthworms were brought to North America by the early European settlers in the 17th and
18th centuries. If earthworms existed in North America prior to this, they were probably wiped out
during the last ice age, 10,000 to 50,000 years ago

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

Earthworms, Dorothy Childs Hogner, 1953, Thomas Y. Crowell, New York

Earthworms, John Mertus, 1993

Living Invertebrates, Editors Pearse and Buchsbaum, 1986, Boxwood Press, Pacific Grove, Ca.

NYSite Home I Nature Home I Animal Guide I Sprine Guide I Summer Guide I Fall Guide I Winter Guide

This article has been prepared by the 79th Street Boat Basin Flora and Fauna Society. If you are interested in the plants and
animals of the river and Riverside Park, you can write to us at Box 9, 79th Street Boat Basin, NY, NY 10024.
Copyright © 1996 The 79th Street Boat Basin Flora and Fauna Society

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 · Kea Harvester Ants Page 1 of6

u Texas Agricultural Extension Service L-

The Texas A&MUniversity System 5314

Red harvester
!1,ouse 81\.d
Ants L8'1,dScape PeSIS

Bastiaan M. Drees
Professor and Extension Entomologist
The Texas A&M University System
Red harvester ants are one of the more noticeable and larger ants in open areas in Texas. However,
harvester ants are not near-Iy as common today as they were during the earlier 1900s. The decline,
particularly in the eastern part of the state, has caused some alarm because these ants serve as a major
source of food for the rapidly disappearing and threatened Texas homed lizard.

Description
Worker ants are 1/4 to 1/2 inch long and red to dark brown. They have squarish heads and no spines
on the body. There are 22 species of harvester ants in the United States, 10 of which are found in Texas.
Seven of these species are found only in far west Texas.

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Ked Harvester Ants Page 2 of6 . . ~

Red :batYeSter·ants

Life cycle
Winged males and females swarm, couple and mate, especially following rains. Winged forms are
larger than worker ants. Males soon die and females seek a suitable nesting site. After dropping her
wings, the queen ant digs a burrow and produces a few eggs. Larvae hatch from eggs and develop
through several stages (instars). Larvae. are white and legless, shaped like a croolmeck squash with a
small distinct head. Pupation occurs within a cocoon. Worker ants produced by the queen ant begin
caring for other developing ants, enlarge the nest and forage for food.

Pest status
Worker ants can give a painful, stinging bite, but are generally reluctant to attack. Effects of the bite
can spread along lymph channels and can be medically serious. Harvester ant workers commonly are
sold for ant farms.

Habitat
Worker ants remove vegetation in circular areas or craters around nests. Colonies occur in open areas
and usually have a single central opening. The area around the opening usually has small pebbles
deposited on the soil surface by the worker ants. Often there is no vegetation within a 3- to 6-foot circle
around the central opening of the colony, and along foraging trails radiating from the colony. Colonies
usually are widely separated; however, heavy infestations in pasture and rangeland can reduce yield.
Red harvester ants also colonize in ornamental turf areas where their presence may be undesirable. They
do not invade homes or structures.

Food sources
Red harvester ant foragers collect seeds and dead insects and store them in the nests as food for the
colony. The ants' mouthparts are designed for chewing.

Management
Red harvester ants are native species and are generally not considered to be serious pests. Consider

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 • Ked Harvester Ants
".: Page 3 of6
..
-.
the option of not controlling these ants, especially in areas inhabited by the few remaining homed lizards
(see box).

u However, in certain cases, elimination of red harvester ants may be necessary. Destruction of their
nests and habitat through regular discing and mowing may eliminate them without resorting to use of
insecticides. If pesticides are selected, use registered products selectively and carefully follow
instructions provided on the label.

Although any insecticide registered to control "ants" can be used to control harvester ants, few are
registered specifically to control these species. Harvester ant colonies can be quickly eliminated using
Amdro® Pro Fire Ant Bait containing 0.73 percent hydramethylnon. Individual colonies can be treated
using 2 to 5 tablespoons of product scattered around the colony's central opening. In larger areas, the
product can be broadcast at a rate of 1 to 1 1/2 pounds product per acre (2 to 3 ounces per 5,000 square
feet) using a suitable application device such as a hand-cranked seeder or the electric-driven mountable
Herd GT Model 77 Seeder. Amdro® can be used in lawns, landscaped areas, golf courses, other
noncropped areas, grounds surrounding poultry houses, corrals, other animal holding areas, nonbearing
ornamental nursery stock, pasture and rangeland. Do not cut and bale hay from treated cattle pastures
and rangeland until 7 days after bait application.

In noncrop areas, acephate dust products such as Orthene® Turf, Tree & Ornamental Spray (75
percent acephate) can be applied as a dry application of 1 to 2 teaspoons product per nest. It also can be
applied as a liquid drench, using 1 ounce of the product mixed in 5 gallons of water. Apply the mixture
at a rate of 1 gallon per mound plus a 4-foot diameter circle around the nest.

Help Save the Texas Horned Lizard

u
The Texas homed lizard is a protected threatened species. It is commonly called "horny toad."

http://insects.tamu.edulextensionlbulletinsll-5314.html 10/10/2005
u T'U!E: ··N"J:G·.·T .·45 tE:.RS
.v ~I~V ftYYIIJi·

As
primarily sight oriented creatures, we utilize hearing as a secondary sense.
But for nC?cturnal creatures, hearing serves many important primary functions
such as detecting prey, escaping from predators, finding a mate, or even
navigating!

Remember the riddle, if a tree falls in the forest and their is no one
there to hear it, does it make a sound? The answer is yes. Sound is a physical
phenomena produced by rapid minute changes in the surrounding medium
which originate from a vibrating source and propagate outward in waves.
According to that definition the answer to the riddle would be yes.

Sound is measured in decibels, which is the loudness of the sound and

in cps, (cycles per second) which is the frequency of the sound. The range of
U human hearing is from 16 cps to 30,000 cps, with 20,000 cps being the upper
limit for most adults and 23,000 the upper limit for children. For comparison,
Middle C on the piano is 256 cps. A bat hears 100,000 cps, with a top limit of
300,000. Most birds probably do not hear above 10,000 cps.

An example of a simple ear is found in the moth. The moth has one
two- celled ear on each side of the head for directional hearing. Yet, even with
this s~ple system, the moth can derive meaning from environmental
sounds and respond accordingly. They can discriminate between faint and
intense sounds but appear to be tone deaf. Using its sense of hearing, a moth
can avoid predation by bats by detecting and responding to the high frequency
pulses emitted by bats. The moth can determine the distance and direction of
. the sound, i.e. if the sound is far away, the moth will fly up, if it is close, the
moth will drop to the ground. Some moths can even jam a bat's frequencies
It appears that mo~ only use their hearing to avoid bats.

u
s.ps comingfrom Uu18ide IIU UuJ JI
umr on tIUJt dd8lHtfore th8y AU UuJ JI
ftmIf on UuJ opposite BId&. n. moth
turM GtD01Ifrom tluI bet.
 Crickets not only also use their hearing to escape from bats, but also to
communicate with other crickets. Crickets produce sound by rubbing their
u wings together to produce song." Different songs are produced to lure a
potential mate, communicate aggression and as advertisement of territory.
The cricket listens to the songs with its legs! Two tympanic membranes on
each front leg can analyze frequency and intensity of sound.

A more complicated ear is found in mammals. The outer ear consists

of a flap, or pinna and the ear canal leading to the ear drum or membrane
itself. Beyond the ear drum is the middle ear, which is a small chamber
containing three tiny bones linked together in such a way that they amplify
the vibrations of the eardrum. The innermost bone, the stapes, transmits the
vibrations to the inner ear which is a small coiled structure that resembles a
snail shell. Inside the cochlea are membranes bearing receptor cells.
Movement of the stapes agitates the fluid in the cochlea, which in tum sets off
the receptor cells to send nerve impulses to the brain. The bird ear is very
much like the mammalian ear except there is no pinna and the middle ear
arrangement is a little different.

u Nocturnal mammals often have a very large pinna or outer ear to help
amplify sound and judge direction. Often the pinna will be quite mobile.
Sometimes it may be naked like in the opossum. Mice and rabbits have large
pinna to detect predators. On the flip side of the coin, cats use their ears to
detect the sounds of prey. They can rotate their pinna almost 180 degrees to
help pinpoint the location of the sound. Because they rely so much on their
hearing to hunt, they have heavily padded and furred paws to muffle their
own sounds. In Africa, the oversized pinna of two nocturnal animals, the Bat-
eared fox and the Aardvark, allow both to listen to the sounds made by their
favorite prey underground ... termites!

Owls use their hearing for both hunting and courtship. It is thought
that the feather tufts or "horns" of some owls may help them distinguish the
direction of the sound. The facial disks of owls also may serve to funnel the
sound to their ears". Some, such ~s the Barred, Spotted and Bam owls, have
asymmetrically placed ears to help them pinpoint the location of sounds. The
U ~eft ear is placed lower than the right ear. By comparing the intensity of the
 sound in each ear the owl can triangulate the prey's position. Experiments
performed with barn owls show that they can actually capture prey in a totally
u darkened room with an accuracy of 1.5 degrees. To aid them in detecting prey,
owls have soft primary feathers that allow them· to fly without a sound. The
mice with their sharp hearing can't detect them, and the owl does not have to
listen through the sound of its own flapping. OWls and cats probably have the
same level of hearing acuity which is about ten times better than ours.

The most extraordinary sense of hearing is found in the bat. Bats use
hearing for orientation and the capture of prey through echolocation (note:
not all of the nearly 1,000 bat species use echolocation, it is mostly used by
insectivorous bats). Echolocation allows them to fly as fast as if they were
using vision and to detect animals as small as fruitflies. They can also judge
an object's speed, size, distance and even texture. They emit a high pitched
sound in the range of 100,000 to 300,000 cps which bounces off the object and is
picked up by the bats' sensitive ears.

Some bats, such as the Spotted bat, have incredibly huge ears. They are
U as long as its body! The weird looking faces of bats all have something to do
with echolocation. The sounds are sometimes emitted through the nose and
the odd shapes alter the sound and its direction.

Bats have other uses for hearing. Mother bats that raise their babies in
large nursery colonies recognize the sound of their baby. A newly discovered
way bats use sound involves courtship. The author, while on a research
project with Dr. Merlin Tuttle, founder and Director of Bat Conservation
International, witnessed male Gray Bats that appeared to be singing in a
Tennessee breeding cave.. It is not known if the singing is to announce
territory to other males or to attract females.

Listening to Wildlife and trying to understand the sounds they make can
help humans to gain a much better appreciation and awareness of nature.
Concentrating on listening skills isn't a bad idea. We can use it to be better
communicators among ourselves!
 ..':U·I'• •_U·U·I' OPU••·"_
u BY V~Y SN.Yl1b:·

"Head.of a swine, tail of a rat, fur of a cat". So spoke Captain John

Smith of Jamestown Virginia back in 1607 to describe the opossum the
Algonquin Indian word for "white beast". It has also been described as
having the "ears and eyes of a bat". All of these are amazingly descriptive.
All in all, only the most empathetic call the opossum a "cute" creature.

The opossum, North America's only marsupial (pouched mammal),

used to only range as far north as Virginia (hence its scientific name
Delphinus virginianus ), but with the expansion of human populations, the
opossum has found its way either purposely or accidentally to California and
all but the most northern states, where its naked ears, tails and toes create
major survival problems.

People have many misconceptions about opossums. Perhaps the most

prevalent is that the opossum hangs upside down by their tails to sleep. This
u is not true. While the opossum's tail is prehensile, it is not strong enough to
support the animal's body weight. It does, however, use it for balance and
support while climbing. In this effort it is also aided by having an opposable
thumb on each of its back feet. The tail is also used to gather and transport
leaves to be used for a bed. A folktale tells of the mother carrying her tail
curled over her back and the young clinging to it with their tails. This is
probably an exaggerated observation. The young do cling to their mother's
fur and may also grab onto the tail.

Because most people find opossums flattened in the road, they think
that the creatures must be incredibly stupid. Actually, as nocturnal
scavengers, they are· out in the roads feasting on the road kills of the day and
are blinded by the headlights. Truly, opossums are not the brightest creatures.
For their size, the brain case is quite small, about the size of a pea. But
laboratory tests have shown that opossums do have a remarkable smell
memory. Testing well above dogs; cats, and turtles. It has an acute sense of
U hearing but is very nearsighted.
 Like other marsupials, opossums are born as underdeveloped embryos.
The eyes, ears, rear legs are merely buds. Twenty to forty honey bee sized
u young are born after a gestation period of only 13 days. With only a pair of
slightly developed front limbs and deciduous claws, the embryos drag
themselves the two inch length from birth canal to pouch. In the pouch are
only 13 pinhead sized nipples .. The first 13 latch· onto a nipple which then
swells and elongates and literally becomes lodged in the embryo's mouth.
The others perish. Such is survival of the fittest. Inside the protection of the
pouch, the young develop and grow until they are about 70 days old,
whereupon they are too big for the pouch and venture out, sticking only
their heads in for a drink. After 100 days, they are weaned and on their own.
Only about 50/0 of opossums live into their 3rd year. Even in captivity, an
opossum has a short life span. Unlike other mammals, but similar to
snapping turtles and alligators, an opossum grows throughout life, with no
upper limit. Perhaps it is a good thing they have short lives!

Opossums have been around for about the last 100 million years,
making them real relics. They adapted to their nocturnal life as other

u mammals did at the time, to escape the dinosaurs. They have myopic
eyesight, but do have good a good sense of hearing and as previously
mentioned, an excellent sense of smell. Opossums are slow however, and
they evolved some interesting defensive strategies. When an opossum feels
threatened, it may first open its mouth wide, show all of its teeth and snarl. If
that doesn't work, an opossum plays dead (hence the term "playing
'possum"). It rolls over, its tongue hangs out, it drools, defecates and its
breathing becomes shallow. This is not a conscious act, but thought to be
triggered by a shock type of reaction. H the opossum is lucky, the predator
loses interest and leaves .. The opossum can remain in this state for minutes
or hours.

Another amaZing ability of the opossum, is that it is immune to the

venom of the Crotalid snakes, that is Rattlesnake~, Copperheads and
Cottonmouths. This has evolved over time having to dwell with .these
snakes, as they are not immune to Cobra venom. An opossum will kill and
eat a Rattler if given the chance, so much for being slow! Its omnivorous
~iet also includes bird's eggs, young mice, grubs, earthworms and other
invertebrates, fruits, vegetables, carrion, and of course, human garbage.
j Like most humans you understand your world mainly through what you Your pupils are round so they can absorb as
. much light as possible. But cats, crocodiles,
see. Certainly you can hear, feei', and smell, but for most people, to see is geckos, lizards, and snakes all have vertical
.. say, "See what I mean?" Many noc-
to understand. That's why we often slits in their eyes. Scientists aren't sure why,
tumal creatures understand the world just as well-if not better-than we but certain species, like some frogs and
toads, have horizontal (sideways) pupils.
do. They get around at night using various highly developed senses. So if
they could talk, night ~als might say, "Feel what I mean?" or ·'Smell
Night Vision Tests
rotA what I mean?" On a moonless night you may not be able to see anything
When you go outside at night. you don't
~t when you go outside, but for many creatures that same night is full of see very well at first. Why not? 1ry this:
light. What is the difference between your eyes and theirs? when you venture out, find a comfortable
~t place to stand or sit and close your eyes for
a couple of minutes. When you open them,
t Night Eyes Eyeshine you'll be able to see better.
Except for insects and their unique com- When light from your flashlight or car head- Go outside at night with a buddy (let's call
pound eyes, all animal eyes are lined with light shines in the eyes of an animal with ta- him or her Sam), and bring a flashlight. Face
rods and cones. Cones examine detail; rods peta, the color of light reflected back varies Sam and stand about a foot away. Thm the
absorb light. Because you are diurnal (active according to the species. How many night flashlight on and hold it down by your side so
in daylight), your eyes have more cones than creatures can you identify by their eyeshine? the light hits the ground. Look directly into
na rods. Diurnal eyes are able to distinguish white Fox Sam's eyes, then slowly bring the light close
small details very clearly, but only if there is yellow Raccoon to Sam's eyes but don't shine it straight at
1exico, plenty of light. amber Skunk them. Move it away, then repeat. What hap-
dull orange Opossum pens to Sam's pupils?
The eyes of nocturnal animals are packed
l!stem red-orange Flying Squirrel While you and Sam are out checking your
with rods and have only a few cones. Noctur- red Black-tailed Jackrabbit night vision, here is something else to try.
Istem nal eyes do not distinguish small details, but deep red Porcupine Ask Sam to stand about 50 feet away from
they are able to detect shapes and movement yellow Deer you. Looking directly at Sam. ask him/her
d in dim light. Also, some animals can see green-gold CoyotelMountain Lion to wave at you. Now, look away slightly and
fonns of light that you can't. Birds that mi- green Domestic Cat and Dog •
ask Sam to wave again. Is there a
st
grate at night can see polarized light, and noc- Snake Eyes difference?
turnal insects see ultraviolet light. To protect their light-sensitive eyes, many
There should be. You are able to detect
Many night creatures have dual purpose movement in the dark much better out of
night creatures have eyes equipped with ver- the comers of your eyes because you have
eyes; they are able to see during the day and tical (up and down) pupils that can close to
night. To see well at night these animals have more rods at the edge of your field of vision
small slits during the day. This is how they and fewer cones. So if you think you see
shiny membranes called tapeta behind their prevent too much light from coming into their something straight ahead, look to the right
rods and cones. At night the tapeta reflect eyes and "blinding" them (especially if they or left. If whatever it is moves, you'll proba-
weak light back through the eye. By using are disturbed during the day and have to bly see it.
light twice, the animal can see better. move about).
17
 FL Feathers, and Whiskers
Fur on mammals and feathers on birds help
smelling organ on (
and interpret them.
.'OOfs of their mouths; --'
Smell and Feel Test
C
protect them, but they also help them feel
their way in the dark. Each hair, and every Smell and Taste Smell
feather, is attached to a network of nerves. Your nose and mouth'are lined with cells Set up a smell experiment with some
When the hairs and feathers move, a mes- Called chemoreceptors that are sensitive to the friends. One person-the tester-goes into
sage is sent to the nervous system, which microscopic chemical molecules in smells and the kitchen, while everyone else stays out of
translates and interprets that movement. fQod. Your senses of smell and taste are very sight in another room. Tester: take three
In mammals and some birds, whiskers similar, but the receptors in your nose are common foods or substances, 'such as
called vibrissae are sensitive feeling organs. 3,000 times more sensitive than the ones in ketchup, a bar of soap, and jam (nothing too
'. 1 •• in~-:'tt1eY'~I~Jess} ..... ~9jlx: .Q1out~.! Food has to be in yo~r m?u~h for strong and nothing toxic!), and place them in
. and, especiany, the face. Cat' whiskers~' vi- "'you'to taste it. Your nose can detect fain,t three small bowls or cups ,on the counter. A
brissae. Owls and goat suckers also have vi- smells from far away. fourth bowl should have nothing in it.
brissae on their faces. Goatsuckers use their When your nose detects airborne mole- Label the bowls one through four with
slips of paper. Now blindfold the partici-
vibrissae to detect and scoop up insects. cules, it sends a message to your brain. Your
pants, one at a time, and bring them into the
They might also help protect the birds' eyes. brain then translates that message: '~a! kitchen. Let each one smell the numbered
Vibrissae are highly sensitive to air move- ,. Apple pie!" bowls, then write down what they think they
ment and may tell mammals when other ani- Most insects and animals have far better smelled on a pad of paper. What did they
mals are nearby. senses of smell and taste than you do. A smell in the empty bowl?
salmon can return to the freshwater stream
Antennae where it hatched by following the "smells" Feel
The antennae of insects are similar to vi- found only in that stream. Many nocturnal Close your eyes and have a friend gently
brissae. They, too, are highly sensitive touch- mammals, such as deer, bears, rabbits, and blow the hairs on your ann or the back of
ing organs. Not all antennae are located on badgers, not only have more powerful noses your neck. Can you tell which way your
heads. Some insects and spiders have long than you do, but they leave scent trails to friend is blowing?
legs that act like antennae. Earthworms have mark their territories and to help them find With a friend or two, take turns being
small antennae all over their bodies. Cock- their way. blindfolded. Crawl around on your hands and
roaches have two short spikes on the rear of Some animals produce scents from their knees outside and try to identify what you
their bellies that feel air movements. When glands, and to mark their territory, they rub pick up, just by feel. (Your friends have to
make sure you don't crawl somewhere
the spikes detect motion, the cockroach be- their scent onto branches and rocks or leave unsafe.)
gins to run away within 1/20 of a second! their scent on the ground when they urinate Now, move indoors. Crawl around on a
Many species, like crickets and spiders, or defecate. Male moths have enormous an- carpeted area. Take turns being blindfolded
feel and smell with their antennae. Snails tennae that they use to detect the scent pro- while your friend places objects on the car-
smell with their antennae and the edges of duced by the female of their species. These pet for you to find and describe. (Try objects
their feet. Snakes don't have antennae, but antennae may have up to 1,700 tiny hairs that such as an orange, a grapefruit, a small box,
they flick out their tongues, scoop up chemi- capture scent molecules, allowing the male to a dry sponge, a rock, a pen, or a sock.)
cal particles (smells), flick them into a special follow a female from a mile away.

n-........'" ,.,. ,
.
. ., ..