2 and 3 Wheelers in India

!
"#$ %&&'
!"#$% &'()&*

lnnovaLlve 1ransporL SoluLlons (l1rans)
vL. LLd., 18lu, ll1 uelhl, new uelhl.

!+,-
"./0,.1/2+.13 4+5.623 7+, 4301.
*,1.89+,/1/2+. :"44*;
< *=0 ".8/2/5/0 7+, *,1.89+,/ 1.>
?0@03+9A0./ (+326B :"*?(;

*C+1.>*=,00D=0030,8 2. ".>21
F i n a l R e p o r t P a g e | 2

I nnovat i ve Tr anspor t Sol ut i ons Pvt . Lt d.
*1E30 +7 4+./0./8

1 8ackground ................................................................................................................... 7
2 An lndusLry Cvervlew ................................................................................................. 12
!"# $%&'&() *+%,-. +/ 01+2(304%--54--6-% 7(38.9%&-. """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" #:
3 CovernmenL ollcles 1owards 1woand1hreeWheelers .......................................... 16
;"# <+'-%(=-(9 7(,-(9&'- >+6&,? """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" #@
;"! 02A >+6&,&-. 9+12%3. 01+2(304%--54--6-%. """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" #B
4 8egulaLory lramework aL ollcy and lndlvldual Levels .............................................. 19
:"# C-)8629&+(. C-629-3 9+ D.-%. """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" #E
:"! C-)8629&+(. C-629-3 9+ F=&..&+(. """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" !!
:"; G-94+3. 9+ F(/+%,- 94- F=&..&+( C-)8629&+(. """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" !H
:": I8%%-(9 *8-6 D.2)- 2(3 F=&..&+(. """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" !B
:"H J69-%(29&'- *8-6 0-,4(+6+)&-. J'2&62K6- """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" ;L
3 1rafflc llows and CongesLlon uaLa. ............................... ',,+,F G++HA1,H .+/ >072.0>I
H"# 0%2//&, *6+1. """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" ;#
H"! I+()-.9&+( $292 """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" ;!
H"; G-2.8%&() 0%2//&, *6+1. """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" ;;
H": C+23 MN2,- C-O8&%-=-(9. 2(3 0%2'-6 0&=- /+% $&//-%-(9 G+3-. +/ 0%2//&, &(
$&//-%-(9 0?N-. +/ P+,29&+(. """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" ;E
6 1rafflc uemand Modellng MeLhods Speclflc Lo 1woand1hreeWheelers and
PeLerogeneous 1rafflc ........................................................................................................ 46
Q"# I8%%-(9 G+3-66&() >%2,9&,-. *+66+1-3 &( 7(3&2 """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" :Q
Q"! F%%+%. &( I8%%-(9 G+3-66&()R JNN6&,2K6- /+% 01+2(304%--54--6-% 0%2//&, """" :@
7 8oad/ lnLersecLlon ueslgn Culdellnes ........................................................................ 49
8 ConfllcLs wlLh CLher vehlcles, 8lcycles and edesLrlans ............................................ 33
9 SafeLy uaLa and revenLlon Measures ....................................................................... 36
E"# 7(3&2 &( I+=N2%&.+( 1&94 $-'-6+N-3 I+8(9%&-. """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" HQ
E"! M&9829&+( &( 7(3&2 """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" H@
9.3 laLallLy lndex for varlous ClLles """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" HB
E": >%-'-(9&+( G-2.8%-. """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" QL
10 Mode Share and Mode reference ............................................................................ 63

#L"# G+3- M42%-. +/ $&//-%-(9 I29-)+%? I&9&-. """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" Q;
#L"! 0%&N P-()94. +/ S2%&+8. I&9&-. """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" Q:
#L"; J3'2(92)-. >%+'&3-3 K? 94- 01+54--6-%. """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" Q:
#L": 04%--14--6-% G+3- M42%- 2(3 04%--14--6-% 7(3-A &( S2%&+8. I&9&-. """""""""""" QH
#L"H 0&=- M-%&-. $292 +( 01+54--6-% 2(3 04%--54--6-% G+3- M42%- """"""""""""""""" QB
#L"Q >8%N+.- 5&.- 0%&N. /+% S2%&+8. G+3-. """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" @;
11 arklng ........................................................................................................................ 73
##"# >2%T&() >+6&,? UVD0>W """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" @H
##"! I&9? >2%T&() >+6&,? """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" @H
##"; V-1 S-4&,6- >2%T&() M,4-=-. """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" @Q
##": FA&.9&() >%2,9&,-. 2(3 $%21K2,T. """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" @E
##"H C-,+==-(329&+(. /+% *898%- >2%T&() M983&-. """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" BL
12 nolse olluLlon and ConLrol 1echnologles .................................................................. 81
#!"# P-)&.629&+(. +( V+&.- I+(9%+6 &( 7(3&2 """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" B#
#!"! J=K&-(9 V+&.- M92(32%3. UV+&.- C86-.R !LLL 2(3 &9. J=-(3=-(9.W """"""""""""""""" B#
#!"; V+&.- I+(9%+6 2(3 C-)8629&+( >%+,-38%-. """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" B;
13 ollcy 8ecommendaLlons ............................................................................................ 83
#;"# M2/- 2(3 F//&,&-(9 D.- +/ 01+54--6-%. """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" BH
#;"! M2/- 2(3 F//&,&-(9 8.- +/ 04%--54--6-%. """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" EL
14 8eferences .................................................................................................................. 91


%28/ +7 !2J5,08

llgure 1 ercenL ulsLrlbuLlon of urban 1rlps by Means of 1ravel for SelecLed lndlan
ClLles, 2006. .......................................................................................................................... 9
llgure 2 CrowLh of lndla's MoLor vehlcle lleeL by 1ype of vehlcle, 1981-2002 (ln
Mllllons). ............................................................................................................................... 9
llgure 3 Sales 1rends of ulfferenL vehlcle 1ypes .............................................................. 13
llgure 4 vehlcle CaLegory Wlse MarkeL Share (200708) .................................................. 14
llgure 3 8egulaLory lramework for AuLomoblles ln lndla ................................................. 20
llgure 6 1yplcal CerLlflcaLe lssued afLer olluLlon Check ................................................... 28
llgure 7 Pomogeneous 1rafflc ........................................................................................... 41
llgure 8 nonPomogeneous 1rafflc (uelhl, lndla) ............................................................. 42
llgure 9 roporLlon of 8oad users kllled and lmpacLlng vehlcles on Sampled naLlonal
Plghways ............................................................................................................................ 33
llgure 10 roporLlon of vehlcles 8eglsLered ln lndla, Cermany, !apan and uSA .............. 36
llgure 11 roporLlon of ulfferenL 1ypes of 8oad users kllled ln uelhl, Mumbal, naLlonal
Plghways ln lndla and ln Plghly MoLorlsed CounLrles ....................................................... 37
llgure 12 Comparlson of 1hreeWheeler lndex of varlous ClLles ...................................... 67
llgure 13 eakPour, 1woWheeler volumes aL llve lnLersecLlons SelecLed ln uelhl ..69
llgure 14 eakPour, 1hreeWheeler volumes aL llve lnLersecLlons SelecLed ln uelhl .... 70
llgure 13 1woWheeler Modal Shares aL llve lnLersecLlons for llve ?ears ln uelhl ......... 71
llgure 16 1hreeWheeler Modal Shares aL llve lnLersecLlons for llve ?ears ln uelhl ....... 72


%28/ +7 *1E308

1able 1 AuLomoblle roducLlon 1rends ............................................................................ 12
1able 2 AuLomoblle uomesLlc Sales 1rends ....................................................................... 12
1able 3 uomesLlc MarkeL Share for 200708 for varlous vehlcles .................................... 13
1able 4 8oad user 1ax ln ulfferenL SLaLes (As a ercenLage of vehlcle CosL) ................... 19
1able 3 Lmlsslon norms for 1woand1hreeWheelers ln lndla (luel-eLrol) ................ 23
1able 6 Lmlsslon norms for 1woand1hreeWheelers ln lndla (luel-ulesel) ................ 23
1able 7 Lmlsslon SLandards for ln use eLrol/CnC/LC urlven vehlcles ........................... 24
1able 8 Lmlsslon SLandards for lnuse ulesel vehlcles ...................................................... 24
1able 9 CaLegory Wlse luel ConsumpLlon/ uay (ln kllo LlLres).......................................... 29
1able 10 CaLegory Wlse Lmlsslons/uay (ln 1ons) .............................................................. 29
1able 11 1rafflc llows and vehlcular Modal SpllLs of SelecLed ClLles ................................ 31
1able 12 LxpecLed Average eakhour volumeCapaclLy 8aLlo for ClLles by CaLegory
under uo noLhlng Scenarlo ............................................................................................... 32
1able 13 Cu values aL lnLersecLlons (l8C S 41:1994) ..................................................... 34
1able 14 Cu values for Mld 8locks (l8C 106: 1990) ......................................................... 34
1able 13 Modal Share of 1rafflc (Chennal, 2006) .............................................................. 33
1able 16 Cu values Cbserved aL varlous volume Levels ................................................. 33
1able 17 Cu values ueveloped for 1woand1hreeWheelers under varlous 8oad
CondlLlons .......................................................................................................................... 36
1able 18 Cu values of 1woWheelers aL ulfferenL Area Cccupancy values ................... 38
1able 19 Cu values from l8C 106: 1990 ........................................................................... 39
1able 20 CapaclLles of 8oads of varlous WldLhs ................................................................ 40
1able 21 CapaclLy vs llow Cbserved ln uelhl .................................................................... 42
1able 22 Cu values from l8C 86: 1983 ............................................................................. 30
1able 23 Cu values (l8C S 41: 1994) .............................................................................. 31
1able 24 ConfllcLs of 1woand1hreeWheelers wlLh CLher vehlcles ls uelhl ................... 33
1able 23 Share of MoLorlsed 1woWheelers (M1W) and 1hreeWheeled ScooLer
8lckshaw(1S8) ln lndlan ClLles (14). ................................................................................... 38
1able 26 roporLlon of 8oad users kllled aL ulfferenL LocaLlons ln lndla ......................... 38
1able 27 Average laLallLles er Mllllon opulaLlon er ?ear ln varlous ClLles ln lndla ... 39

1able 28 Mode Share () 2007 (WlLh Walk) ................................................................... 63
1able 29 Mode Share ()2007 (WlLhouL Walk) ................................................................ 63
1able 30 Average 1rlp LengLhs of ulfferenL CaLegory ClLles .............................................. 64
1able 31 number of AuLo 8lckshaws ln Lhe SelecLed ClLles .............................................. 66
1able 32 Average Modal Share of 1woand1hreeWheelers aL Lhe llve lnLersecLlons
0bserved ............................................................................................................................. 72
1able 33 Mode SpllL for Lhe Work 1rlps of varlous ClLles .................................................. 73
1able 34 Mode SpllL for Lhe LducaLlon 1rlps of varlous ClLles .......................................... 73
1able 33 Mode SpllL for Lhe Soclal and 8ecreaLlon 1rlps of varlous ClLles ........................ 74
1able 36 LqulvalenL Car Space (LCS) by 1ype of vehlcle ................................................... 76
1able 37 nolse LlmlLs for varlous Landuse aLLerns ........................................................ 82
1able 38 nolse LlmlLs for 1woand1hreeWheelers of ulfferenL Lnglne 1ypes ............... 82
1able 39 nolse Levels near PosplLals ln uelhl ................................................................... 83


K G16HJ,+5.>
lndla, llke oLher developlng counLrles, ls characLerlzed by lLs rlslng populaLlon, mounLlng
urbanlzaLlon and moLorlzaLlon, and low percaplLa lncome. lLs LoLal urban populaLlon
burgeoned over Lhe pasL Lhree decades, rlslng from 109 mllllon ln 1971 Lo 160 mllllon ln
1981 (+47), 217 mllllon ln 1991 (+36), and 283 mllllon ln 2001 (+31) (Census, 2001).
1he largesL clLles have grown especlally fasL. 8y 2001, lndla had Lhree mega clLles:
Mumbal (8ombay) wlLh 16.4 mllllon lnhablLanLs, kolkaLa (CalcuLLa) wlLh 13.2 mllllon, and
uelhl wlLh 12.8 mllllon. Chennal (Madras), Pyderabad, and 8angalore each had more
Lhan 3 mllllon resldenLs. And Lhe populaLlons of 33 meLropollLan areas exceeded one
mllllon resldenLs each, almosL Lwlce as many as ln 1991 (Census 2001). 1he rapld growLh
of lndla's clLles has generaLed a correspondlng growLh ln Lravel demand and lncreased
levels of moLor vehlcle ownershlp and use.
As lndlan clLles have grown ln populaLlon, Lhey have also spread ouLward. A lack
of effecLlve plannlng and landuse conLrols has resulLed ln rapld, rampanL sprawl
exLendlng beyond old clLy boundarles and lnLo Lhe dlsLanL counLryslde. 1hls greaLly
lncreased Lhe number and lengLh of Lrlps for mosL lndlans, forclng furLher rellance on
moLorlzed LransporL. Longer Lrlps make walklng and cycllng less feaslble, whlle lncreased
moLor vehlcle Lrafflc makes walklng and cycllng less safe. MosL publlc pollcles ln lndla
encourage sprawl and new commerclal developmenL ofLen Lakes place ln dlsLanL
suburbs. lor example, 1ldal ark ls a sofLware cenLer on Lhe ouLsklrLs of Chennal,
Curgaon ls a large new lndusLrlal area ouLslde uelhl, and lmprlChlnchwad ls a cenLer
ouLslde une (8erLraud, 2002). Slmllarly, 8angalore ls plannlng several Lechnology parks
on lLs frlnge as well as several clrcumferenLlal hlghways ln Lhe suburbs, boLh of whlch wlll
lnduce furLher decenLrallzaLlon. ln mosL cases, Lhere ls lnadequaLe LransporL
lnfrasLrucLure Lo serve Lhese new suburban developmenLs and Lhe resldences locaLed
around Lhem. 8amachandran (1989) characLerlzes lndlan suburbs as an unconLrolled
mlx of lndusLrlal developmenL, dumps and obnoxlous uses, wlLh Lhe "exLenslon of urban
seLLlemenL causlng condlLlons ln Lhe overLaken vlllages Lo deLerloraLe, boLh physlcally
and soclally. 1hls leapfrog developmenL, Lyplcal of suburban sprawl, Lends Lo follow
ma[or hlghways ouL of lndlan clLles Lo Lhe dlsLanL counLryslde.
LowdenslLy decenLrallzaLlon causes enormous problems for publlc LransporL. lL
generaLes less focused Lrlps along wellLraveled corrldors and, Lhus, ls more dlfflculL for
LransporL Lo serve. ln lndla, lL has led Lo rapld growLh ln car and moLorcycle ownershlp
and use and resulLanL congesLed roadways LhaL slow buses, lncrease bus operaLlng cosLs,
and furLher dlscourage publlc LransporL use. As clLles grow and Lrlp dlsLances become

longer, walklng and cycllng
accounL for abouL half of all
Lrlps ln medlumslzed clLles
and abouL a Lhlrd ln Lhe
largesL clLles. 1here ls
conslderable varlaLlon,
however, even wlLhln clLy
slze caLegorles. Among mega
clLles, for example, walklng
and cycllng are much less
common ln Mumbal Lhan ln
uelhl, perhaps due Lo
Mumbal's superlor publlc
LransporL sysLem. Among
smaller clLles, kanpur and
Lucknow have much hlgher
proporLlons of walklng and
cycllng Lhan une, whlch has
a very hlgh level of
moLorcycle ownershlp and
0%2//&, I+()-.9&+( &( 2( 7(3&2( I&9?

use due Lo lLs large mlddle class, as well as an exLenslve charLer bus servlces organlzed by
une's lndusLrlal flrms for Lhelr employees. 8y comparlson, resldenLs of kanpur and
Lucknow have lower lncomes and a resulLanL much lower level of moLorcycle use and
mlnlmal bus servlce. lnsLead, Lhey rely on a mlx of paraLranslL modes such as auLo
rlckshaws, cycle rlckshaws, [eep Laxls, and Lempos (large auLo rlckshaws). ( !. ucher eL
al., 2003).
As of 2006, prlvaLe moLorlzed LransporL (malnly cars and moLorcycles) accounLed
for a small buL rapldly growlng percenLage of Lravel, abouL 10-20 of all Lrlps (see llgure
1). llgure 2 dramaLlzes Lhe rapld 16fold growLh of moLorcycle ownershlp beLween 1981
and 2002. rlvaLe car ownershlp lncreased almosL sevenfold durlng Lhe same perlod.
1he sprawllng, lowdenslLy developmenL around lndlan clLles makes cars and
moLorcycles lncreaslngly necessary, especlally glven Lhe unsaLlsfacLory alLernaLlve of
slow, overcrowded, undependable, and dangerous publlc LransporL servlces. AL Lhe same


!2J5,0 K (0,60./ ?28/,2E5/2+. +7 L,E1. *,298 EB M01.8 +7 *,1@03 7+, N0306/0> ".>21. 42/208O PQQRI

Source: varlous CuS from hLLp://www.[nnurm.nlc.ln/nurmudweb/mlsslonclLles.hLm

Llme, rlslng lncomes among lndla's mlddle and upper classes make car and moLorcycle
ownershlp lncreaslngly affordable. Cars whlch cosL upward of $6,000 and moLorcycles
whlch requlre an ouLlay of around $1,000 are Lhe Lwo ma[or cholces for prlvaLe vehlcle
ownershlp and serve Lwo dlfferenL secLlons of Lhe markeL. Level of servlce (comforL) and
Lravel Llme are Lhe prlnclpal prlorlLles for Lhose ln Lhe hlgh lncome populaLlon group,
whlle lnlLlal caplLal lnvesLmenL and operaLlng cosLs are Lhe ma[or decldlng facLors for
Lhose ln Lhe mlddle lncome class. 8ecause of Lhls, cars and Lwowheelers have separaLe
nlche markeLs and, ln general, Lhey are noL compeLlLors. 1he 1aLa nano, Lhe new $2,300
car launched by 1aLa, alms Lo capLure some of Lhe Lwowheel markeL. Powever, lLs
success wlll hlnge on wheLher consumers are wllllng Lo pay lLs operaLlonal and
malnLenance cosLs LhaL are greaLer Lhan Lhose of a Lwowheeler.
1he Lhreewheelers on Lhe oLher hand provlde for Lhe moblllLy needs of people
noL ownlng a prlvaLe LransporL mode and lnadequaLely served by Lhe publlc LransporL
sysLem. 1hey are dlscussed ln deLall ln Lhe followlng secLlon.
1hreewheeled scooLer rlckshaws (1S8) play an lmporLanL role as paraLranslL
modes ln mosL clLles ln lndla. Accordlng Lo offlclal sLaLlsLlcs, 86,183 were reglsLered ln
uelhl ln 2001. 1he number reglsLered ln 1996 was 80,208 and 87,783 ln 1999

Modal Split of various cities
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
D
e
l
h
i

(
1
2
.
9
)
K
o
l
k
a
t
a

(
1
3
.
2
)
M
u
m
b
a
i

(
1
6
.
4
)
A
h
m
e
d
a
b
a
d

(
5
.
4
1
)
B
a
n
g
a
l
o
r
e

(
5
.
7
0
)
C
h
e
n
n
a
i

(
6
.
5
6
)
H
y
d
e
r
a
b
a
d

(
6
.
3
8
)
P
u
n
e

(
3
.
7
6
)
K
a
n
p
u
r

(
2
.
7
2
)
L
u
c
k
n
o
w

(
2
.
2
4
)
IPT
Car
Public transport
2-Wheeler
NMT
Walk

!2J5,0 P S,+C/= +7 ".>21T8 M+/+, U0=2630 !300/ EB *B90 +7 U0=2630O KVWKXPQQP :". M2332+.8;I

(Source: !. ucher eL al., 1ransporL ollcy 12 (2003) 183-198)
noLe: CLher MoLorlzed" lncludes LracLors, Lrallers, moLorlzed Lhreewheelers (passenger
vehlcles) such as auLo rlckshaws and oLher mlscellaneous vehlcles LhaL are noL separaLely
classlfled.

(Mohan eL. al. 2003). lL ls esLlmaLed LhaL Lhe populaLlon of uelhl lncreased by 20
beLween 1996 and 2001, buL Lhe above sLaLlsLlcs show LhaL Lhe avallablllLy of 1S8s
lncreased by only 7 ln Lhe same perlod. Also, Lhey have unlque safeLy and polluLlon
problems. 1hey have hlgh emlsslon levels buL cannoL be subsLlLuLed easlly by modern
vans or buses because of economlc and flnanclal consLralnLs. Powever, Lhe Lhree
wheeled scooLer Laxls are now comlng equlpped wlLh foursLroke peLrol englnes or CnC
englnes whlch make emlsslons per passenger less Lhan Lhose of cars. ?eL, research lnLo
safeLy, efflclency and envlronmenL frlendly Lechnologles for Lhese vehlcles ls noL a
prlorlLy ln lndla or any oLher counLry.
Accordlng Lo Mohan and 8oy (2003), 1S8s should be Lhe preferred personal
LransporLaLlon mode and should be encouraged ln urban areas provlded Lhey run on
LC/CnC or foursLroke peLrol englnes equlpped wlLh caLalyLlc converLers. Ample
avallablllLy of 1S8s (and Laxls):
Lncourages publlc LransporL use whlch can easlly geL passengers from polnLLopolnL
ln a hurry
Lncourages nonownershlp of prlvaLe vehlcles because polnLLopolnL LransporLaLlon
ls easlly avallable for speclal occaslons.


J 04%--54--6 C&,T.421 &( V-1 $-64&

1S8/Laxl drlvers do noL cheaL when supply ls abundanL and fare sLrucLure ls
reasonable, so passengers are noL scared of hassles and argumenLs.
CreaLer use of 1S8s reduces Lhe need for parklng places. A prlvaLe car needs a mlnlmum
of Lwo parklng places - one aL home and one aL lLs desLlnaLlon. Whereas, a 1S8 [usL
needs one parklng place ln Lhe clLy and lf lL does 10 Lrlps a day, lL reduces Lhe need for
nlne parklng places aL home and Lhe desLlnaLlon.
A 1S8 ls preferable Lo a car, can carry Lhe same number of people on average,
Lakes oneLhlrd Lhe parklng area and one half of Lhe space on Lhe roadway. Slnce lLs
welghL ls oneLhlrd of LhaL of a car, lL ls responslble for less deLerloraLlon Lo Lhe road,
requlres less Llre/rubber use, and Lakes oneLhlrd Lhe naLlonal resources Lo produce. All
Lhls reduces lndlrecL polluLlon. Slnce 1S8s have a small englne (173 cc vs. 800 cc for
MaruLl), Lhey polluLe much less per passenger Lhan mosL cars. 1helr small englne slze
holds speeds Lo roughly 30 km/h, ln keeplng wlLh urban speed llmlLs. 1hls also helps
conLrol Lhe speeds of oLhers. 8ecause of lower speeds and llghLer welghLs, Lhey can'L
easlly produce faLal accldenLs among pedesLrlans and blcycllsLs. 1herefore, 1S8 use
should be encouraged as much as posslble ln urban areas of lndla.

P $. ".>58/,B )@0,@20C
1he moLor vehlcle lndusLry ln lndla underwenL a sea of change durlng 19831991
when economlc reforms almed aL encouraglng compeLlLlon were lnLroduced. uurlng Lhls
perlod, Lhe Lwowheeler lndusLry saw Lhe largesL prollferaLlon of brands ln Lhe consumer
durables lndusLry. lrom Lhen on Lhe raLe of growLh of Lwowheelers lncreased rapldly
over Lhe nexL Lwo decades. (ucher eL al, 2003).
1he followlng Lables show Lhe producLlon and sales Lrends of varlous auLomoblles
ln lndla.

*1E30 K $5/+A+E230 (,+>56/2+. *,0.>8
?ear of CbservaLlon, (number of vehlcles)
41/0J+,B PQQPQY PQQYQZ PQQZQ[ PQQ[QR PQQRQ\ PQQ\QW
assenger
vehlcles
723,330 989,360 1,209,876 1,309,300 1,343,223 1,762,131
Commerclal
vehlcles
203,697 273,040 333,703 391,083 319,982 343,176
1hree
wheelers
276,719 336,223 374,443 434,423 336,126 300,392
1wo
wheelers
3,076,221 3,622,741 6,329,829 7,608,697 8,466,666 8,026,049
Crand 1oLal 6,279,967 7,243,364 8,467,833 9,743,303 11,087,997 10,833,948
Source: hLLp://www.slamlndla.com/

*1E30 P $5/+A+E230 ?+A08/26 N1308 *,0.>8
?ear of CbservaLlon, (number of vehlcles)
41/0J+,B PQQPQY PQQYQZ PQQZQ[ PQQ[QR PQQRQ\ PQQ\QW
assenger vehlcles 707,198 902,096 1,061,372 1,143,076 1,379,979 1,347,983
Commerclal vehlcles 190,682 260,114 318,430 331,041 467,763 486,817
1hreewheelers 231,329 284,078 307,862 339,920 403,910 364,703
1wowheelers 4,812,126 3,364,249 6,209,763 7,032,391 7,872,334 7,248,389
Crand 1oLal 3,941,333 6,810,337 7,897,629 8,906,428 10,123,988 9,648,094

1he sales Lrends shown above have been represenLed ln Lhe followlng flgure.


!2J5,0 Y N1308 *,0.>8 +7 ?2770,0./ U0=2630 *B908

lrom Lhe LoLal numbers, Lhe percenLage share of each vehlcle Lype ls calculaLed and
presenLed ln Lhe followlng Lable.

*1E30 Y ?+A08/26 M1,H0/ N=1,0 7+, PQQ\QW 7+, U1,2+58 U0=26308
U0=2630 *B90 M1,H0/ N=1,0
Cvs 3.03
1oLal assenger vehlcles 16.4
1oLal 1wowheelers 73.13
1hreewheelers 3.78
1he followlng flgure glves Lhe above daLa as a ple charL.



!2J5,0 Z U0=2630 41/0J+,B D280 M1,H0/ N=1,0 :PQQ\QW;

?+A08/26 N1308
1he cumulaLlve growLh of Lhe passenger vehlcle segmenL beLween March and Aprll 2007
was 20.70. assenger cars grew by 22.01, uLlllLy vehlcles by 13.21 and mulLl
purpose vehlcles by 23.20 ln flscal year 200607.
1he commerclal vehlcles segmenL grew by 33.28. CrowLh of medlum and heavy
commerclal vehlcles was 32.84 and llghL commerclal vehlcles recorded a growLh of
33.93.
1hreewheelers sales grew by 12.22 wlLh sales of goods carrlers lncreaslng by
13.32 and passenger carrlers by 11.33 durlng March and Aprll 2007 compared Lo Lhe
correspondlng perlod Lhe prevlous year.
1he Lwowheeler markeL grew by 11.42 durlng March and Aprll 2007 over Lhe
same perlod lasL year. MoLorcycles grew by 12.79, scooLers by 3.48, and mopeds
reglsLered a growLh of 6.93.
(Source: www.slamlndla.com)
PIK ?,2@2.J 7+,608 +7 *C+1.>*=,00D=0030, ".>58/,208
1he markeL facLors LhaL drlve demand and lnfluence cusLomer preferences for Lwoand
Lhreewheelers are dlscussed below.


*C+D=0030,8
1hree ma[or forces have bearlng on Lhls lndusLry: Lhe manufacLurers, flnanclal
lnsLlLuLlons and Lhe regulaLors (MlnlsLry of LnvlronmenLal 8egulaLlons and clvll socleLy
groups).

!"#$%"&'$()(*+ roducers launch varlous models and lobby governmenL Lo provlde
beLLer faclllLles for Lwowheelers.

,-#"#&-". /#*'-'$'-0#*+ 1hese flrms drlve Lhe markeL by creaLlng low lnLeresL loans whlch
ln Lurn allow more people Lo purchase Lwowheelers.

!-#-*'(1 0% 2#3-(0#4)#' 5)6$."'-0#* "#7 8-3-. 90&-)'1 :(0$;*+ 1here are no regulaLlons
on Lwowheeler ownershlp/sales ln a clLy wlLh Lhe excepLlon of rules governlng
emlsslons. lndla's emlsslon norms are among Lhe mosL sLrlngenL ln Lhe world (lyer, 8AC,
2008). 1herefore, Lhe MlnlsLry of LnvlronmenLal 8egulaLlons, whlch seLs emlsslon norms,
and clvll groups llke CenLre for Sclence and LnvlronmenL and oLher such nCCs LhaL lobby
for sLrlcLer norms also add up Lo Lhe drlvlng forces of Lhe lndusLry.

*=,00D=0030,8
1he Lhreewheelers caLer Lo Lhe moblllLy needs of Lhose noL uslng prlvaLe LransporL and
noL belng served by Lhe exlsLlng publlc LransporL sysLem. ln Lhls way, Lhey serve Lhe
needs of a secLlon of Lhe socleLy by acLlng as cheap Laxls. 1hey have smaller englne
capaclLles and hlgher mlleage raLes Lhan Lhe regular car Laxls.
1he ma[or drlvlng force behlnd Lhe Lhreewheelers ls Lhe pollcy makers who declde
varlous lssues, such as Lhe LoLal number allowable ln Lhe clLles and fare pollcles, eLc.
1here ls a general Lendency among pollcy makers ln varlous lndlan clLles Lo phase ouL
Lhreewheelers whlch Lhey see as compeLlLlon Lo publlc LransporL, alr polluLers, slow and
unsafe. 1hls lnformal LransporL alLernaLlve ls noL always backed by sufflclenL daLa Lo
counLer Lhese clalms. Also, Lhe facL LhaL Lhreewheelers caLer Lowards moblllLy of a
parLlcular secLlon of Lhe populaLlon (l.e., Lhose noL uslng prlvaLe LransporL or Lhe exlsLlng
publlc LransporL sysLem) ls also lgnored whlle formlng Lhe pollcles.


Y S+@0,.A0./ (+326208 *+C1,>8 *C+1.>*=,00
D=0030,8
lndla ls a federal sLaLe, whlch means LhaL Lhe LoLal powers on varlous pollcy maLLers are
shared beLween Lhe cenLral or naLlonal governmenL and Lhe sLaLes. Cenerally, pollcles on
varlous lssues are developed by Lhe cenLral governmenL, buL lmplemenLed by Lhe sLaLes.
8egulaLlng a parLlcular mode of LransporL by speclfylng llmlLs ln a clLy, such as
lmplemenLlng helmeL laws or regulaLlng emlsslons, are ln Lhe hands of Lhe sLaLe
governmenL, resulLlng ln varylng pollcles from sLaLe Lo sLaLe.
1he LransporL secLor pollcles ln lndla are made by Lwo mlnlsLrles of Lhe
governmenL:
1. MlnlsLry of Shlpplng, 8oad 1ransporL & Plghways (MoS81&P)
2. MlnlsLry of urban uevelopmenL and overLy AllevlaLlon (under whlch urban
LransporL ls a subdlvlslon)
ln Lhe varlous pollcles of Lhese mlnlsLrles, no speclflc guldellnes for LwoandLhree
wheelers are menLloned. 8aLher, Lhe pollcy measures are almed aL lncreaslng moblllLy by
encouraglng publlc LransporL and noL encouraglng Lhe use of prlvaLe modes of LransporL
(nu1, 2003). Slnce Lwowheelers come under Lhe caLegory of prlvaLely owned vehlcles,
Lhe pollcles are lndlrecLly deslgned Lo dlscourage Lwowheeler usage. Among prlvaLe
LransporL rules, no speclflc preference for a Lwowheeler over a car or a car over a Lwo
wheeler ls menLloned. 1wowheelers have beneflLs ln Lerms of road space, cosL, moblllLy
and release of green house gases. Powever, safeLy, emlsslons and equallLy of Lhe
problems assoclaLed wlLh LwoandLhreewheelers need Lo be addressed.
1hreewheelers ln lndla acL as lnLermedlaLe publlc LransporL (l1), a feeder
sysLem Lo publlc LransporL ln large clLles. 1hey are Lhe only avallable LransporL for people
noL ownlng vehlcles ln places where publlc LransporL ls unavallable. A successful publlc
LransporL sysLem wlLh hlgh rldershlp requlres a good neLwork of Lhreewheelers.
Powever, Lhe pollcy guldellnes of Lhe mlnlsLry of urban developmenL (as glven ln Lhe
naLlonal urban 1ransporL ollcy (nu1), 2003) encourage publlc LransporL whlle lgnorlng
any menLlon of Lhreewheelers. 1he pollcles of oLher mlnlsLrles such as lssulng low
lnLeresL loans Lo Lhe poor are encouraglng people Lo buy more Lhreewheelers as
employmenL opporLunlLles. 1he followlng secLlons dlscuss Lhe varlous governmenL
lncenLlves and Lhe Lax pollcles Loward LwoandLhreewheelers.

YIK S+@0,.A0./ ".60./2@0 (+326B
lncenLlves are provlded ln Lhe form of low lnLeresL loans Lo buy new vehlcles. 1he
governmenL, Lhrough varlous publlc secLor banks, glves loans Lo people aL lnLeresL raLes
abouL half Lo oneLhlrd less Lhan LhaL of prlvaLe flnanclers. 1he varlous pollcles of Lhe
governmenL Loward Lhe vehlcle loans are explalned below.

*C+C=0030, %+1.8
A loan of up Lo 90 of Lhe onroad prlce of Lhe vehlcle or 8s. 60,000, whlchever ls
less, can be recelved aL an lnLeresL raLe of 13.23 Lo 16.23. 1he repaymenL perlod varles
from 1 Lo 3 years, based on Lhe lnLeresL raLe. 1he ellglblllLy crlLerlon for Lhls ls LhaL Lhe
gross annual lncome of Lhe person geLLlng Lhe loan should noL be less Lhan 8s. 60,000 /.

!+5,C=0030, %+1.8
A loan of up Lo 90 of Lhe onroad prlce of Lhe vehlcle or Lhree years gross
lncome of Lhe loan seeker, whlchever ls less, can be borrowed from banks aL lnLeresL
raLes of 11.73 Lo 13.3, dependlng upon Lhe bank. 1he llfe of Lhe loan varlous from 1 Lo
6 years based on Lhe lnLeresL raLe. 1he ellglblllLy crlLerlon ls a gross annual lncome noL
less Lhan 8s. 1,00,000/ and also, Lhe person clalmlng Lhe loan should have a resldenLlal
Lelephone ln Lhelr name.
ln Lhe case of secondhand fourwheelers, loans are glven only for vehlcles less
Lhan Lhree years old. 1he maxlmum amounL of Lhe loan ls 8s. 3.00 lakhs. 1he maxlmum
repaymenL perlod ls flve years.

*=,00C=0030, %+1.8
1he loan pollcles for Lhreewheelers are slmllar Lo Lhe ones for Lwo and four
wheelers. Powever, as a measure of poverLy allevlaLlon and employmenL generaLlon, Lhe
governmenL has walved Lhe requlremenL of securlLy deposlLs for Lhe unemployed poor, lf
Lhey provlde Lhe approprlaLe lncome cerLlflcaLe. 1hls has lead Lo an lncrease ln Lhe Lhree
wheeler ownershlp of people wlLh low lncomes.

".60./2@08 /+ D+A0.
1o lmprove Lhe sLandard of llfe for women, Lhe governmenL provldes loans aL a
speclal lnLeresL raLe 1 less Lhan LhaL charged men. 1he resL of Lhe requlremenLs are
ldenLlcal.



J *+8%54--6 C&,T.421

(,2@1/0 !2.1.620,8 1.> S,20@1.608 +7 *=,00D=0030, )C.0,8
1he lnLeresL raLes on loans recelved from prlvaLe flnanclers ls ln Lhe range of 30
Lo 40, buL Lhe requlremenLs for obLalnlng a loan are less sLrlngenL Lhan LhaL offered by
publlc secLor banks. Also, publlc secLor banks do noL loan money for secondhand Lhree
wheelers. 1herefore, anyone wanLlng Lo buy a new Lhreewheeler should flrsL buy an old
one and exchange lL for a new one. ln general Lhe second hand or Lhe old vehlcle cosLs
around 8s. 100,000/ and a new one cosLs around 8s. 300,000/. Also, Lhls LransacLlon ls
done Lhrough prlvaLe dealers who charge around 8s.23,000 Lo 8s. 30,000. Pence Lhe
LoLal cosL Lo buy a new Lhreewheeler adds up Lo abouL 8s. 430,000. CuL of Lhls, loans
from Lhe publlc secLor banks are glven only for Lhe new vehlcle, l.e., 8s. 100,000/. 1hls
pracLlce forces people buylng Lhreewheelers Lo obLaln loans from prlvaLe flnanclers aL
hlgh lnLeresL raLes. As a resulL, operaLors who own a fleeL of Lhreewheelers and renL
Lhem everyday flnd lL easler Lo buy new Lhreewheelers Lhan lndlvlduals wanLlng Lo buy
Lhelr own.
YIP *1] (+326208 *+C1,>8 *C+1.>*=,00D=0030,8
1he road userLax on LwoandLhreewheelers ls conLrolled by sLaLe governmenLs whlch
each have dlfferenL raLes. SLaLes collecL Lhe road user Lax for Lwowheelers as a lump
sum for a perlod of 13 years aL Lhe Llme a new vehlcle ls reglsLered. Some sLaLes collecL


*1E30 Z &+1> L80, *1] 2. ?2770,0./ N/1/08 :$8 1 (0,60./1J0 +7 /=0 U0=2630 4+8/;
N/1/0 PD=0030, *1] YD=0030, *1]
Andhra radesh 9 9
uelhl 2 2
karnaLaka 9 9
Madhya radesh 3 6
Crlssa 3 3
un[ab
<30 cc 1.30
8s 130/ ?r
>30cc 3
uLLar radesh 8s 1600 (around 4) 8s 380/ ?r
1amll nadu 6 8s 280/ ?r
8lhar 8s 9001300* 8s 9901920*
* LxacL amounL depends on Lhe welghL of Lhe vehlcle
Source: hLLp://www.morLh.nlc.ln/relaLed_caLmaln.asp?relllnkld=27&langld=2

Lax on Lhreewheelers on a yearly or quarLerly basls. 1he followlng Lable glves Lhe Lax ln
some selecLed sLaLes, Lo geL an ldea of Lhe varlaLlons ln Lax collecLed ln dlfferenL sLaLes.
A vehlcle reglsLered ln one sLaLe whlch laLer needs Lo operaLe ln a dlfferenL sLaLe ls
sub[ecL Lo LhaL sLaLe's reglsLraLlon and road user Lax.
Z &0J531/+,B !,1A0C+,H 1/ (+326B 1.> ".>2@2>513 %0@038
1he regulaLory pollcles developed by Lhe cenLral governmenL wlll be dlscussed ln
secLlon 4.1. 1he remalnlng secLlons dlscuss Lhelr effecL on lndlvldual users.
ZIK &0J531/2+.8 &031/0> /+ L80,8
ln lndla, Lhe rules and regulaLlons relaLed Lo drlvlng llcenses, moLor vehlcle reglsLraLlon,
Lrafflc conLrol, consLrucLlon and malnLenance of moLor vehlcles, eLc., are governed by
Lhe MoLor vehlcles AcL 1988 (MvA) and Lhe CenLral MoLor vehlcles 8ules 1989 (CMv8).
1he MlnlsLry of Shlpplng, 8oad 1ransporL and Plghways (MoS81&P) acLs as a nodal
agency Lo devlse and lmplemenL provlslons of Lhe MoLor vehlcle AcL and CMv8.


!2J5,0 [ &0J531/+,B !,1A0C+,H 7+, $5/+A+E2308 2. ".>21

Source: hLLp://www.slamlndla.com/scrlpLs/regulaLoryframework.aspx

ln order Lo lnvolve all sLake holders, MoS81&P has esLabllshed Lwo commlLLees Lo advlse
on lssues of safeLy and emlsslons, namely:

CMv8 1echnlcal SLandlng CommlLLee (CMv81SC)
SLandlng CommlLLee on lmplemenLaLlon of Lmlsslon LeglslaLlon (SCCL)
4MU& *06=.2613 N/1.>2.J 4+AA2//00 :4MU&*N4;
1hls commlLLee advlses MoS81&P on Lechnlcal aspecLs relaLed Lo CMv8. lL ls comprlsed
of represenLaLlves from varlous organlzaLlons, lncludlng Lhe MlnlsLry of Peavy lndusLrles
and ubllc LnLerprlses (MoPl&L), MoS81&P, 8ureau lndlan SLandards (8lS), LesLlng
agencles such as AuLomoLlve 8esearch of lndla (A8Al), vehlcle 8esearch uevelopmenL
and LsLabllshmenL (v8uL), CenLral lnsLlLuLe of 8oad 1ransporL (Cl81), lndusLry
represenLaLlves from SocleLy of lndlan AuLomoblle ManufacLurers (SlAM), AuLomoLlve
ComponenL ManufacLurers AssoclaLlon (ACMA) and 1racLor ManufacLurers AssoclaLlon
(1MA), and represenLaLlves from sLaLe LransporL deparLmenLs. Ma[or funcLlons of Lhe
commlLLee are:

1o provlde clarlLy and lnLerpreL Lhe cenLral moLor vehlcle rules whlch have
Lechnlcal bearlng on Mo81&P.

1o recommend lnLernaLlonal/forelgn sLandards LhaL Lhe governmenL can use ln
lleu of Lhose seL ouL under Lhe CMv8 permlL use guldellnes for
componenLs/parLs/assemblles.
1o make recommendaLlons on any oLher Lechnlcal lssues havlng dlrecL relevance
Lo Lhe lmplemenLaLlon of Lhe CenLral MoLor vehlcle 8ules.
1o recommend new safeLy sLandards for componenLs for noLlflcaLlon and
lmplemenLaLlon under CenLral MoLor vehlcles 8ules.
1o make recommendaLlons on lead Llme for lmplemenLlng safeLy sLandards.
1o recommend changes ln CenLral MoLor vehlcle 8ules ln vlew of modlflcaLlons ln
auLomoblle Lechnologles.

CMv81SC ls asslsLed by anoLher commlLLee called Lhe AuLomoblle lndusLry SLandards
CommlLLee (AlSC), comprlsed of members from varlous sLakeholders, ln drafLlng
Lechnlcal sLandards relaLed Lo safeLy. 1he commlLLee's ma[or funcLlons are:
repare new safeLy sLandards for auLomoLlve lLems
8evlew and recommend amendmenLs Lo exlsLlng sLandards
8ecommend adopLlon of such sLandards Lo CMv8 1echnlcal SLandlng CommlLLee
8ecommend commlsslonlng of LesLlng faclllLles aL approprlaLe sLages
8ecommend Lhe necessary fundlng of such faclllLles Lo Lhe CMv8 1echnlcal
SLandlng CommlLLee, and
Advlse CMv8 1echnlcal SLandlng CommlLLee on any oLher referred lssues

1he naLlonal SLandards for AuLomoLlve lndusLry are prepared by 8ureau of lndlan
SLandards (8lS). 1he sLandards formulaLed by AlSC are also converLed lnLo lndlan
SLandards by 8lS. 1he sLandards formulaLed by boLh 8lS and AlSC are consldered by
CMv81SC for lmplemenLaLlon.
(hLLp://www.morLh.nlc.ln/lndex2.asp?langld=2&subllnkld=204)
N/1.>2.J 4+AA2//00 +. "A930A0./1/2+. +7 'A2882+. %0J2831/2+. :N4)';
1hls commlLLee conslders lssues relaLed Lo emlsslon regulaLlons. lLs ma[or funcLlons are:
1o dlscuss fuLure emlsslon norms
1o recommend norms for lnuse vehlcles Lo MoS81&P
1o flnallze Lhe LesL procedures and Lhe execuLlon sLraLegy for emlsslon norms
Advlse MoS81&P on any lssue relaLlng Lo lmplemenLlng emlsslon regulaLlons.
8ased on Lhe recommendaLlons from CMv81SC and SCCL, MoS81&P lssues noLlflcaLlon
for necessary amendmenLs / modlflcaLlons ln Lhe CenLral MoLor vehlcle 8ules.


ln addlLlon, oLher mlnlsLrles, lncludlng MlnlsLry of LnvlronmenL & loresL (MoLl), MlnlsLry
of eLroleum & naLural Cas (MonC) and MlnlsLry of nonconvenLlonal Lnergy Sources,
are also lnvolved ln shaplng regulaLlons governlng emlsslons, nolse, fuels and alLernaLlve
fuel vehlcles.
1hese are pollcles of Lhe governmenL and hence affecL users aL aggregaLe levels.
8egulaLlons relaLed Lo lndlvldual users are explalned ln followlng secLlons. Lmlsslon
regulaLlons on new and ln use vehlcles are deLalled lnlLlally, followed by meLhods of
enforcemenL. 1he acLual emlsslons are explalned ln secLlon 4.4. AfLer Lhe regulaLlons are
ln place and lf Lhe emlsslons cannoL be adequaLely conLrolled, alLernaLlve Lechnologles
musL be explalned. 1hose avallable Lechnologles are dlscussed ln secLlon 4.3.
ZIP &0J531/2+.8 &031/0> /+ 'A2882+.8
Slnce Lhe Lwowheelers (73 ln 200708) and Lhreewheelers (4 ln 200708)
consLlLuLe abouL 80 of Lhe LoLal number of vehlcles ln lndla, Lhelr emlsslons also form a
slgnlflcanL proporLlon of LoLal vehlcle polluLlon. 1he prlmary polluLanLs are parLlculaLe
maLLer, hydrocarbons and nlLrogen oxlde. LefL unchecked, Lhese polluLanLs can produce
serlous healLh consequences.
'A2882+. N/1.>1,>8 EB /=0 S+@0,.A0./
1he emlsslon sLandards were flrsL adopLed ln 1991 and have been conLlnuously
upgraded slnce Lhen. 1he flrsL ma[or revlslon occurred ln 1996, Lhe second ln 2000, Lhe
Lhlrd ln 2003 and Lhe nexL ln 2010.
1he followlng Lable provldes Lhe chronologlcal order of emlsslon sLandards and
also varlous polluLanLs. 1hese norms are for new vehlcles.



*1E30 [ 'A2882+. #+,A8 7+, *C+1.>*=,00D=0030,8 2. ".>21 :!503^(0/,+3;
?LA8 L18CL 2W L18CL 3W
CC PC+nox CC PC+nox
1991 12 Lo 13 8 Lo 9 30 12
1996 4.3 3.6 6.73 3.4
2000 2 2 4 2
2003* 1.3 1.3 2.23 2
2010* 1 1 1.23 1.23
*ul 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
ul*: ueLerloraLlon lacLor, noLe: All unlLs are ln gm/ km
(Source: n.v. lyer, Managlng 1wo and 1hreeWheeler LmlsslonsnaLlonal Workshop on Lhe lmprovemenL
of urban Alr CuallLy of aklsLan, 13 13 uecember, 2004, Lahore, aklsLan)

*1E30 R 'A2882+. #+,A8 7+, *C+1.>*=,00D=0030,8 2. ".>21 :!503^?20803;
?LA8 ulLSLL 2 and 3 Wheelers
CC PC+nox M
1991 14.3 20
1996 3 2
2000 2.73 0.97 0.14
2003* 1 0.83 0.1
2010* 0.3 0.3 0.03
*ul 1.1 1 1.2
ul*: ueLerloraLlon lacLor
(Source: n.v. lyer, Managlng 1woandLhreewheeler LmlsslonsnaLlonal Workshop on Lhe lmprovemenL
of urban Alr CuallLy of aklsLan, 13 13 uecember, 2004, Lahore, aklsLan)


1he followlng Lables glve Lhe sLandards Lo be followed by vehlcles already ln use.

*1E30 \ 'A2882+. N/1.>1,>8 7+, ".L80 (0/,+3_4#S_%(S ?,2@0. U0=26308
vLPlCLL 1?L CC, vol PC, ppm
2&3 wheelers (2/4sLroke),
pre2000
4.3 9000
2&3 wheelers (2sLroke),
posL2000
3.3 6000
2&3 wheelers (4sLroke),
posL2000
3.3 4300
8haraL SLage ll compllanL 4
wheelers
0.3 730
4wheelers oLher Lhan
8haraL SLage ll compllanL
3 1300
(Source: n. v. lyer, LnvlronmenL lrlendly vehlcles - Lhe lndlan Lxperlence, naLlonal Workshop on urban
Alr CuallLy ManagemenL and lnLegraLed 1rafflc ManagemenL for karachl, SepLember 13 14, 2006,
karachl.)

*1E30 W 'A2882+. N/1.>1,>8 7+, ".L80 ?20803 U0=26308
MeLhod of LesL Maxlmum smoke denslLy

LlghL absorpLlon coefflclenL,
(1/m)
ParLrldge unlLs
lree acceleraLlon LesL for
Lurbo charged englne and
naLurally asplraLed englne
2.43 63
(Source: n. v. lyer, LnvlronmenL lrlendly vehlcles - Lhe lndlan Lxperlence, naLlonal Workshop on urban
Alr CuallLy ManagemenL and lnLegraLed 1rafflc ManagemenL for karachl, SepLember 13 14, 2006,
karachl.)

Maxlmum llmlLs for crlLlcal lngredlenLs llke benzene ln peLrol have been speclfled aL 3
m/m ln Lhe counLry and 3 ln Lhe meLropollLan areas. 1o address Lhe excesslve polluLlon
ln Lhe four meLro clLles of uelhl, Mumbal, kolkaLa and Chennal, 0.03 sulfur conLenL ln
peLrol and dlesel has been seL slnce 20002001. 1he benzene conLenL has been furLher
reduced Lo 1 ln uelhl and Mumbal.

1hese progresslvely rlgld sLandards resulLed ln slgnlflcanL Lechnologlcal advances and Lhe
lnLroducLlon of exceedlngly low emlsslon vehlcles. 1hls arresLed furLher deLerloraLlon of

alr quallLy, buL resulLed ln lnslgnlflcanL reducLlons ln amblenL polluLlon levels of M10
and CC. (noLe: SlgnlflcanL conLrlbuLlons of M10 come from dlesel vehlcles and CC from
passenger cars)
Also, Lhe beneflLs obLalned from cleaner, new vehlcles are negaLed by Lhe polluLlon
conLrlbuLed by large numbers of older vehlcles LhaL are poorly malnLalned and have no
emlsslon conLrols (Source: n.v. l?L8, 2001).

ZIY M0/=+>8 /+ 0.7+,60 /=0 0A2882+. ,0J531/2+.8
1wo levels of checks are needed Lo ensure LhaL Lhe above menLloned sLandards are meL:
1. verlfy LhaL vehlcle manufacLurers are complylng wlLh emlsslon sLandards
2. Conflrm LhaL owners are malnLalnlng Lhelr vehlcles up Lo Lhe requlred sLandards
1he enforcemenL meLhodology ls explalned ln Lhls secLlon.

1. 4=06H +. /=0 A1.5716/5,0,8:
1hls ls generally done ln Lhe followlng ways:

<1;) =;;(03". "#7 80#%0(4-'1 0% >(07$&'-0# ?8@>A <)*'*
1hese LesLs are done on each vehlcle comlng ouL of Lhe manufacLurlng planL Lo ensure
Lall plpe emlsslon sLandards are belng meL. Cnce new vehlcles are sold, emlsslon LesLs
are noL requlred for Lhe flrsL year.

<1;) =;;(03". <)*'*
All new vehlcles need a Lype approval cerLlflcaLe sLaLlng LhaL Lhe model ls among Lhose
llsLed ln 8ule 126(A) of Lhe CenLral MoLor vehlcle 8ules (CMv8), 1993. 1hls LesL needs Lo
be carrled ouL by a governmenLrecognlzed LesLlng agency (eg lCA1 ln Manesar,
Paryana).

80#%0(4-'1 0% >(07$&'-0# ?8@>A <)*'
1he same agency LhaL does Lhe Lype approval generally does Lhe CC LesL. Powever, Lhe
manufacLurer can go Lo anoLher agency lf deslred. 1he CC perlod for a vehlcle/englne
model ls every slx monLhs from Aprll Lo SepLember and CcLober Lo March, or producLlon
of 23,000 vehlcles/englnes lf Lhe vehlcles are anyLhlng oLher Lhan LwoandLhree
wheelers. Powever, lf producLlon of a model lncludlng lLs varlanLs ln a year (l.e. Lwo
consecuLlve CC perlods of slx monLhs each) ls less Lhan 3,000 ln Lhe case of oLher
vehlcles (oLher Lhan Lwo or Lhreewheelers) Lhe CC lnLerval shall be one year.

1he sampllng slze ls one day's average producLlon, sub[ecL Lo a mlnlmum of 10 and
maxlmum of 100. lor lowvolume producLlon vehlcles (<230 numbers ln slx monLhs)
sampllng slze shall be mlnlmum 3 numbers for 8haraL SLage ll/ 8haraL SLage lll
vehlcles/englnes. ln case of C8u 8haraL SLage ll/ 8haraL SLage lll vehlcles, where lmporL
ls less Lhan 3 numbers aL a Llme, Lhe sample slze may be llmlLed Lo Lhree.
lf Lhe vehlcle/englne meeLs Lhe requlremenLs of CC, Lhe LesL agency lssues a
CC cerLlflcaLe Lo Lhe manufacLurer. 1he cerLlflcaLe wlll cover Lhe vehlcle/englne model
and lLs varlanLs planned or produced durlng Lhe CC lnLerval. 1he LesL agency wlll also
send Lhe coples of Lhe cerLlflcaLe Lo oLher LesLlng and nodal agencles.
lf Lhe vehlcle/englne falls Lo meeL Lhe requlremenLs, Lhe LesLlng agency sends
coples of Lhe LesL reporL Lo Lhe nodal agency and Lhe manufacLurer. 1he nodal agency
makes a declslon and conveys lL Lo Lhe manufacLurer and LesL agencles wlLhln four weeks
of lLs reporL and afLer calllng for a sLandlng commlLLee meeLlng Lo advlse Lhe nodal
agency. 1he vehlcle/englne manufacLurer geLs an opporLunlLy Lo appeal hls case before
Lhe commlLLee. 8ased on commlLLee recommendaLlons, Lhe nodal agency may wlLhdraw
Lhe Lype approval cerLlflcaLe and lssue a sLopwork order on Lhe vehlcles/englnes.

,$). 2&0#041 B"C).-#6 0% D)E-&.)*
luel economy labels are afflxed Lo manufacLured producLs Lo descrlbe energy
performance (usually ln Lhe form of energy use, efflclency, or energy cosLs). 1hese labels
glve consumers Lhe lnformaLlon necessary Lo make lnformed energy efflclenL purchases.
ln lndla Lhls ls only mandaLory for a few lLems llke alr condlLloners and refrlgeraLors buL
noL for vehlcles. ln Lhe case of vehlcles a volunLary dlsclosure of fuel economy" meLhod
ls followed. 1he vehlcle manufacLurer dlsplays Lhe fuel economy label along wlLh Lhe
vehlcle's model name, fuel used (eLrol/ ulesel/ CnC) and Lhe mlleage (cerLlfled km per
llLre).

N/1.>1,> *08/ 4+.>2/2+.8
Approved agencles conducL LesLs on all Lhe vehlcles under "sLandard LesL condlLlons".
Among many parameLers, sLandard LesL condlLlons lnclude: Lwo persons ln Lhe car/Lwo
wheeler, alr condlLlonlng swlLchedoff (for cars), sLandard (nonadulLeraLed) fuel, gear
changes ln a predeLermlned paLLern and aL predeLermlned acceleraLlon levels, sLandard
alr pressure ln Lhe Llres, wlnd speed, eLc. 1esL condlLlons aL Lhe cerLlflcaLlon agency are
ldenLlcal for all vehlcles, lrrespecLlve of manufacLurer, so Lhe cusLomer can make correcL
comparlsons of fuel efflclency, across car models. Some LesL cenLers llke lCA1 are

auLhorlzed Lo carry ouL Lhese LesLs and only labellng done Lhere ls valld (MaruLl Suzukl
lndla LlmlLed, 2008).

PI 4=06H +. /=0 L80,8
1he followlng measures have been adopLed for Lhe lnuse vehlcles. (Source: n. v.
lyer, 2006, karachl)

90$#7 /#*;)&'-0# F !"-#')#"#&) >(06("4
1o check LhaL Lhe vehlcles are observlng Lhe prescrlbed norms Lhe uC (olluLlon under
ConLrol) cerLlflcaLe ls mandaLory for all Lhe vehlcles. All vehlcles are requlred Lo pass an
emlsslon lnspecLlon every year and obLaln a cerLlflcaLe LhaL sLaLes all emlsslon sLandards
are belng meL.

1he uC cerLlflcaLe ls lssued afLer Lhe followlng procedure:
SLaLe LransporL deparLmenLs auLhorlze some emlsslons checklng cenLers ln varlous clLles.
1hese are generally placed ln fuel fllllng sLaLlons or moblle vans LhaL conLaln Lhe requlred
equlpmenL for LesLlng. 1he prlce charged for Lhls ls nomlnal aL 8s. 33/ (less Lhan $1 u.S.).
llgure 6 shows an example of a Lyplcal uC cerLlflcaLe lssued ln uelhl. Lven Lhough Lhe
cerLlflcaLe ls for 2004, Lhe same procedure ls sLlll followed even wlLh excepLlons for
changes ln Lhe prescrlbed sLandards.
1hls cerLlflcaLe ls valld for one year. A daLed phoLograph of Lhe vehlcles number plaLe
ls placed on Lhe cerLlflcaLe as a benchmark for calculaLlng Lhe mandaLory oneyear
perlod. lf Lhe measured level of polluLlon from Lhe vehlcle ls greaLer Lhan Lhe prescrlbed
llmlL, Lhe owner ls supposed Lo geL Lhe vehlcle repalred and apply for a new uC
cerLlflcaLe.
Powever, Lhe presenL sysLem has Lhe followlng falllngs and hence needs Lo be
lmproved:
o no governmenL supervlslon of Lhe large number of prlvaLely owned
cenLers
o no quallLy assurance Lo verlfy correcLness of cerLlflcaLes, LesL equlpmenL
noL callbraLed perlodlcally
o CerLlflcaLe lssulng sysLem noL foolproof
o lraudulenL pracLlces followed by many cenLers, cerLlflcaLes lssued wlLhouL
LesLlng
o 1esL cenLers are allowed Lo carry ouL repalrs, Lhls creaLes vesLed lnLeresLs
o nolse polluLlon caused by Lhe vehlcles ls unchecked durlng Lhe LesL.

!2J5,0 R *B92613 60,/27261/0 "8850> $7/0, (+335/2+. 4=06H

/#'(07$&'-0# 0% >()!-G)7 <H09'(0I) ?J<A @-.
AL presenL only Lhe clLy of uelhl has made Lhls mandaLory. CLher clLles need Lo
follow Lhe example Lo achleve lesser emlsslons.
>E"*-#6 @$' @.7 D)E-&.)*
8eplaclng Lhese wlLh new ones meeLlng laLesL emlsslon sLandards or
8eplaclng by Lhose runnlng on alLernaLe fuels
K;6("7-#6 0.7 3)E-&.)*
8eLroflL wlLh caLalyLlc converLers (effecLlve only on posL1996 vehlcles)
ZIZ 45,,0./ !503 L81J0 1.> 'A2882+.8
1he followlng Lables glve Lhe LoLal fuel belng consumed ln varlous clLles ln lndla. 1he
clLles are caLegorlzed accordlng Lo Lhelr populaLlon.

*1E30 V 41/0J+,B D280 !503 4+.85A9/2+._ ?1B :". `23+ %2/,08;
42/B
41/0J+,B
(+9531/2+.
:2. 31H=8;
41, PD YD G58 *+/13
1 <3 36 8 3 6 33
2 310 603 414 362 280 1,639
3 1020 1,003 1,038 602 376 3,039
4 2040 436 393 393 140 1,362
3 4080 921 901 333 833 3,208
6 >80 4,782 1,603 2,869 7,442 16,697
Source: Mouu reporL, 2008
*1E30 KQ 41/0J+,B D280 'A2882+.8_?1B :2. *+.8;
42/B
41/0J+,B
(+9531/2+.
:2. 31H=8;
41, PD YD G58 *+/13
1 <3 6 3 0 0 10
2 310 90 133 24 21 268
3 1020 138 342 123 27 632
4 2040 64 127 37 9 238
3 4080 143 300 143 60 647
6 >80 336 363 431 373 1747
(Mouu reporL, 2008)

Cars and Lwowheelers consume Lhe ma[orlLy of Lhe fuel for all clLles ln CaLegory 1 Lo 3
and accounL for approxlmaLely 63 Lo 90 of Lhe LoLal emlsslons produced by all modes of
LransporL. ln CaLegory 6 clLles, whlle cars and Lwowheelers accounL for less Lhan 30 of
Lhe LoLal fuel consumpLlon by all modes, Lhe LoLal emlsslon produced by Lhese Lwo
modes ls more Lhan 60. 1hls ls due Lo hlgh levels of congesLlon resulLlng ln slow speeds
and Lhus hlgher emlsslons.
ln CaLegory 3 and 6 clLles, lnLermedlaLe publlc LransporL vehlcles accounL for 18 Lo 23
of Lhe fuel consumpLlon, respecLlvely, whlle Lhey conLrlbuLe Lo approxlmaLely one
quarLer of Lhe LoLal emlsslons by all vehlcles.
lL ls expecLed LhaL mandaLory fuel economy sLandards and an offlclal fuel economy
labellng program wlll help ln reduclng Lhese emlsslons (CenLre for Sclence and
LnvlronmenL, 2008).

ZI[ $3/0,.1/2@0 7503 /06=.+3+J208 1@1231E30
AdopLlng sLrong emlsslon sLandards and enforclng Lhem ls one way of conLrolllng alr
quallLy. AnoLher way ls Lo explore Lhe posslblllLy of alLernaLlve fuels and Lechnologles.
1hls secLlon dlscusses Lhe varlous opLlons avallable ln Lerms of fuel Lechnologles.
1wowheelers are noL aLLracLlve candldaLes for fuel changes. Powever, Lhe Lhree
wheelers can be successfully converLed Lo CnC (lndla) and LC (lndla and 1halland). 1he
followlng are Lhe feaLures of Lhese converslons:

IV< J89+C&,T.421X
uses a foursLroke, alr cooled, sparklgnlLed englne
Pas a CnC cyllnder (22llLer waLer capaclLy) able Lo hold ~ 3.3 kg of CnC aL 200 bar
pressure
uellvers a fuel efflclency of ~ 43 km per kg of CnC
Complles wlLh all noLlfled safeLy sLandards
ls provlded wlLh a LhreellLer llmphome" peLrol Lank
rlced aL uS $2,000, abouL 23 hlgher Lhan Lhe correspondlng peLrol verslon ( 12,3
hlgher wlLh uelhl lncenLlves)

P>< 289+%&,T.421X
Cplnlon ls dlvlded on wheLher LC ls a Lruly envlronmenL frlendly alLernaLlve Lo
advanced englne Lechnology and clean fuels. 1hls ls because Lhe LoLal hydrocarbon (1PC)
emlsslon of an LC vehlcle ls hlgher (~13 Lo 30) Lhan LhaL of correspondlng peLrol
vehlcle and also Lhe carbon monoxlde, nlLrogen dloxlde and nlLrlc oxlde emlsslon levels
are comparable Lo Lhose of correspondlng peLrol verslons. users also may noL be
aLLracLed Lo LC lf Lhe fuel economy beneflL ls Loo small. 1he oLher danger of promoLlng
LC ln lndla ls LhaL LC for klLchen use aLLracLs a subsldy (prlce ~8s. 24/kguS$ 0.60,
subsldy ~ 8s. 17/kguS $0.42 /kg). Slnce Lhe auLo LC prlce would be based on markeL
forces, lLs prlce ls llkely Lo be hlgher and varlable.

1he oLher alLernaLlves avallable ln Lerms of Lhe fuel Lechnology are
F6-,9%&, 94%--14--6-% 289+%&,T.421 N%+)%2=
F6-,9%&, 91+14--6-% .,++9-% N%+)%2=

Powever, largescale commerclal producLlon and usage ls yeL Lo be achleved ln Lhls
segmenL and hence no concluslons can be drawn.
(l?L8, 2001, Ceorge eL al.,2002)

ZIR *,17726 !3+C8 1.> 4+.J08/2+. ?1/1 *,17726 !3+C8
vehlcular Lrafflc flows and Lhelr modal spllLs observed ln Lhe C8u areas of some selecLed
clLles are presenLed ln Lhls secLlon. 1he ranges glven here are collecLed from Lrafflc
volume counL surveys done ln Lhese clLles as a parL of varlous comprehenslve moblllLy
plans, 881 feaslblllLy plans and oLher sLudles. Slnce a varleLy of vehlcle Lypes make up Lhe
LoLal Lrafflc, Lhe modal spllL ls also presenLed Lo geL an ldea of whlch vehlcles are acLually
conLrlbuLlng Lo Lhe flows menLloned. Slnce Lhls sLudy ls speclflc Lo LwoandLhree
wheelers, only Lhelr modal spllLs and LhaL of cars, Lhe oLher ma[or personallzed mode,
are presenLed separaLely. All oLher vehlcles are puL LogeLher ln Lhe oLhers column.

*1E30 KK *,17726 !3+C8 1.> U0=26531, M+>13 N932/8 +7 N0306/0> 42/208
42/B (+9531/2+.
:2. A2332+.8;
4G?M2> E3+6H
!3+C :965_ >1B;
PD YD 41, )/=0,8a *+/13
?03=2 >10 30,00060,000 6 8 18 86 100
bB>0,1E1> 310 30,00060,000 24 9 12 67 100
(5.0 23 40,00030,000 43 9 13 46 100
c1E1395, 12 30,00040,000 37 2 2 39 100
&1dH+/ 12 30,00040,000 33 1 16 64 100
(1/.1 12 30,00040,000 20 10 12 70 100
U2d1B1C1>1 12 30,00040,000 29 23 7 46 100
* CLhers lnclude publlc LransporL, nonmoLorlzed LransporL, and oLher modes llke
LracLors, goods vehlcles, eLc.
Sources: 18l 8eporL, 2008

As a clLy's populaLlon lncreases, Lhe Lrafflc ln Lhe C8u also swells because a large
populaLlon means a larger clLy and more buslness acLlvlLy, leadlng Lo more Lrlps. Also, for
Lhe four clLles ln Lhe same populaLlon range of one Lo Lwo mllllon, Lhe flows are also ln
Lhe same range, l.e. 30,000 Lo 40,000 Cu/day. 1hls suggesLs LhaL Lhe Lrafflc paLLern ln
clLles wlLh slmllar populaLlons ls comparable. Also, aparL from 8a[koL, wlLh a Lhree
wheeler use of 1, and vl[ayawada, havlng a hlgh Lhreewheeler usage of 23, all Lhe
oLher clLles have a slmllar Lhreewheeler modal share beLween 810, whlch ls also
observed ln Lhe modal share secLlon 10.1.

*C+D=0030, M+>13 N=1,0 *,0.>8
ln Lhe case of Lwowheelers, even Lhough Lhere ls no exacL Lrend, Lhe general lncllnaLlon
ls LhaL Lwowheeler modal shares grow wlLh clLy slze buL afLer a cerLaln polnL decrease as

clLy slze lncreases. 1hls can be aLLrlbuLed Lo shorL Lrlp lengLhs (ulscussed ln SecLlon 10.2)
ln smaller clLles LhaL grow as Lhe clLyslze lncreases, resulLlng ln longer Lrlps LhaL
encourage people Lo shlfL Lo moLorlzed LransporL. Slnce Lwowheelers are more
affordable Lo mlddle lncome lndlans (whlch consLlLuLe a hlgh proporLlon of Lhe
populaLlon) people shlfL from nM1 Lo Lwowheelers. As Lhe clLy slze and, hence, Lhe Lrlp
lengLhs lncrease more people prefer Lhe comforL cars provlde ln Lhe Lroplcal lndlan
condlLlons and hlgher speeds LhaL lead Lo lesser Lravel Llmes. SecLlon 10.3 presenLs some
oLher aspecLs regardlng Lhe Lwowheeler modal shares.
ZI\ *,17726 !3+C8 1.> 4+.J08/2+. ?1/1 4+.J08/2+. ?1/1
1he volume/capaclLy (v/C) raLlo measures congesLlon ln varlous clLles. lor 2007, lL ls
calculaLed by Laklng peakhour volume counLs (four hours ln Lhe mornlng peak and four
hours ln Lhe evenlng peak) aL screen llne (lmaglnary llnes cuLLlng across Lhe ma[or
arLerlals connecLlng Lhe C8u) polnLs of varlous clLles.
1he followlng Lable glves Lhe average v/C raLlos ln Lhe arLerlals of clLles
caLegorlzed accordlng Lo Lhelr populaLlon. 1he fuLure v/C raLlos of Lhese clLles have also
been esLlmaLed for a donoLhlng scenarlo, l.e. assumlng LhaL Lhe vehlcles grow aL Lhe
same raLe and Lhe road lnfrasLrucLure remalns Lhe same.

*1E30 KP ']906/0> $@0,1J0 (01H b+5, U+35A0419162/B &1/2+ 7+, 42/208 EB 41/0J+,B L.>0, ?+
#+/=2.J N60.1,2+
42/B
41/0J+,B
(+9531/2+.
:2. A2332+.8; PQQ\ PQKK PQPK PQYK
41/0J+,BK <0.3 0.24 0.33 0.69 1.48
41/0J+,BP 0.31 0.73 0.78 1.2 1.64
41/0J+,BY 12 0.81 1.24 1.8 1.97
41/0J+,BZ 24 0.97 1.03 1.16 1.32
41/0J+,B[ 48 1.12 1.31 2.01 2.34
41/0J+,BR >8 1.21 1.79 2.4 2.9

lL can be observed LhaL ln some clLles Lhe v/C raLlos are greaLer Lhan 1, whlch means
vehlcles exceed Lhe road capaclLy. 1hls may be due Lo Lwo reasons.
l) C+23. +N-%29&() 29 6-'-6 +/ .-%'&,- UPYMW *: l8C 106 deflnes Lhls as Lhe sLaLe of
forced or breakdown flow. 1hls sLaLe occurs when Lhe amounL of Lrafflc
approachlng a polnL exceeds Lhe amounL LhaL can pass Lhrough lL. Cueues,

whlch operaLe ln exLremely unsLable, sLopandgo waves, form ln such
locaLlons. vehlcles may progress aL a reasonable speed for several hundred
meLers and may Lhen be requlred Lo sLop ln a cycllc fashlon. uue Lo hlgh
volumes, breakdowns occur and long queues and delays resulL. 1he average
Lravel speeds are beLween 23 and 33 of free flow speed.
ll) D.- +/ &(,+%%-,9 ,2N2,&9? '268-.X 1he capaclLles of varlous roads are speclfled
ln Lerms of pcus/hr/lane. Powever, Lhe Cu values adopLed are sLaLlc
LhroughouL Lhe neLwork and Lherefore mlghL noL be represenLlng Lhe arLerlal
Lrafflc compleLely. lf Lhe Cu values are lncorrecL, Lhe capaclLy values wlll be
wrongly esLlmaLed and Lhls leads Lo lncorrecL v/C values lncreaslng more Lhan
1 ln large clLles and v/C's ln small clLles ln Lhe range of 1.24. 1hls LranslaLes
lnLo a calculaLlon LhaL 76 percenL of road space ls unused
ZIW M0185,2.J *,17726 !3+C8
ApproprlaLe meLhodologles musL be adopLed before accuraLe measures of Lrafflc volume
can be obLalned when plannlng, deslgnlng and operaLlng a road sysLem. Lxpresslng
Lrafflc volume as Lhe number of vehlcles passlng a glven secLlon of road per unlL of Llme
ls lnapproprlaLe when several Lypes of vehlcles wlLh wldely varylng sLaLlc and dynamlc
characLerlsLlcs are presenL ln Lhe Lrafflc sLream. 1hls problem can be addressed by
converLlng Lhe dlfferenL Lypes of vehlcles lnLo equlvalenL passenger cars and expresslng
Lhe volume as passenger car unlL (Cu) per hour.
(4L @13508-
1he Cu has been deflned by Lhe unlLed klngdom 1ransporL and 8oad 8esearch
LaboraLory as follows:
Y( 2(? N2%9&,862% .-,9&+( +/ %+23 8(3-% N2%9&,862% 9%2//&, ,+(3&9&+(.R &/ 94- 233&9&+(
+/ +(- '-4&,6- +/ 2 N2%9&,862% 9?N- N-% 4+8% 1&66 %-38,- 94- 2'-%2)- .N--3 +/ 94-
%-=2&(&() '-4&,6-. K? 94- .2=- 2=+8(9 2. 94- 233&9&+( +/R .2? A ,2%. +/ 2'-%2)-
.&Z- N-% 4+8% R[ 94-( +(- '-4&,6- +/ 94&. 9?N- &. -O8&'26-(9 9+ A >ID" (Arasan eL al.,
2008)

1he lndlan 8oad Congress (l8C) seLs Lhe parameLers relaLed Lo roads and publlshes Lhem
as codes of pracLlce ln Lwo of lLs code books l8CS 41 and l8C 106. l8C S 41 glves Lhe
Cu values of aLgrade lnLersecLlons and l8C 106 glves Lhe Cu values aL mldblock
secLlons. ln boLh cases, Lhe recommended Cu values are LenLaLlve. 1he followlng Lables
glve Lhe values ln Lhese codes.


*1E30 KY (4L U13508 1/ "./0,806/2+.8 :"&4 N( ZK-KVVZ;
U0=2630 *B90 (4L @1350
1wowheelers 0.3
1hreewheelers 1

*1E30 KZ (4L U13508 7+, M2>G3+6H8 :"&4 KQR- KVVQ;
Mode share %088 /=1. [e KQe 1.> 1E+@0
1wowheelers 0.3 0.73
1hreewheelers 1.2 2.0
04- '268-. /+% N-%,-(92)- 9%2//&, ,+=N+.&9&+( K-91--( H\ 2(3 #L\ 1&66 K- &(9-%N+629-3 94- 2K+'- '268-."

Also, Lhese code books sLaLe LhaL Lhe Cu value varles as a funcLlon of Lhe physlcal
dlmenslons and operaLlonal speeds of LhaL parLlcular vehlcle classes. Speed dlfferenLlals
ln urban areas are generally low and hence Cu values are predomlnanLly funcLlons of
Lhe physlcal dlmenslons of vehlcles. Powever, emplrlcal evldence shows LhaL Lhere are
oLher facLors lnfluenclng Lhe Cu value of a vehlcle. 8esearch done ln lndla on Cu
values and exLracLs from Lhe papers publlshed ln peer revlewed [ournals are dlscussed ln
Lhe followlng secLlon.
!16/+,8 ".7350.62.J (4L U1350
2I '7706/ +7 &+1> D2>/=
Slkdar eL al.(2000) found LhaL road wldLh lnfluences Lhe Cu values. lf Lrafflc
volume and lLs composlLlon remaln unalLered, an lncrease ln road wldLh wlll provlde
more freedom for vehlcles Lo choose Lhelr speed. 8y Lhe same loglc, Lhe Cu for
lndlvldual vehlcles wlll lncrease wlLh road wldLh.
Also, Cu for a vehlcle decreases wlLh an lncrease ln lLs proporLlon ln Lhe Lrafflc
sLream. lor a glven road wldLh, lncrease ln volume wlll cause more denslLy. uue Lo Lhls,
vehlcles wlll move aL reduced buL unlform speed resulLlng ln lower speed dlfferences
beLween a car and a vehlcle Lype. lL wlll resulL ln a smaller Cu value for Lhe vehlcle Lype.

22I '7706/ +7 *,17726 U+35A0
Arasan eL al. (2008) found LhaL Lhe Cu value of a vehlcle Lype varles slgnlflcanLly
wlLh varlaLlon ln Lrafflc volume. 1helr paper proposes LhaL Lhe Cu value of any mode
lncreases wlLh a rlse ln Lhe LoLal Lrafflc volume and afLer a cerLaln level, reduces wlLh
furLher lncrease ln volume. Pence, lL ls approprlaLe Lo LreaL Lhe Cu value of a vehlcle
Lype as a dynamlc quanLlLy lnsLead of conslderlng lL as a flxed one.

1he auLhors also found LhaL Cu values can be accuraLely esLlmaLed Lhrough
comprehenslve sLudy of Lhe lnLeracLlon beLween vehlcles ln Lrafflc. SLudy of vehlcular
lnLeracLlon under heLerogeneous Lrafflc condlLlons lnvolves modelllng Lhe Lrafflc flow aL
Lhe mlcrolevel, over a wlde range of roadway and Lrafflc condlLlons, as well as Lhe
collecLlon of exLenslve Lrafflc daLa ln Lhe fleld. A sLudy was carrled ouL ln Lhe clLy of
Chennal and Lhe resulLs obLalned are explalned below.

*1E30 K[ M+>13 N=1,0 +7 *,17726 :4=0..12O PQQR;
M+>0 e U+35A0
8uses and 1rucks 3
8lcycles 10
MoLorlzed 1wowheelers 41
MoLorlzed 1hreewheelers 16
Cars 28
LlghL Commerclal vehlcles 3
Source: Arasan eL al., 8oad and 1ransporL 8esearch, March 2008.

*1E30 KR (4L U13508 )E80,@0> 1/ U1,2+58 U+35A0 %0@038
volume
(veh/ hr)
Cu value
M3W M2W
300 1.1 0.29
1000 1.4 0.43
1300 2.07 0.33
2000 1.33 0.33
2300 1.07 0.32
3000 0.79 0.42
3300 0.7 0.38
4000 0.38 0.36
Source: Arasan eL al., 8oad and 1ransporL 8esearch, March 2008.

1he sLudy shows LhaL Lhe Cu values lncrease wlLh an lncrease ln Lrafflc volume
and, afLer a cerLaln level ls reached, reduces wlLh Lhe lncrease ln volume. AL low volume,
spaclng (boLh longlLudlnal and laLeral) beLween vehlcles ls greaLer, cars (Lhe reference
vehlcles) are able Lo maneuver Lhrough Lhe gaps easlly faclllLaLlng fasL movemenL. An
lncrease ln Lrafflc volume aL Lhls sLage slgnlflcanLly reduces spaclng resulLlng ln a sLeep
reducLlon ln speed. 1hls Lrend conLlnues up Lo a cerLaln volume aL whlch Lhe speed of

Lhe Lrafflc as a whole drops and, consequenLly, Lhe speed dlfference beLween cars and
oLher vehlcle Lypes narrows. AL Lhls sLage, a furLher lncrease ln volume resulLs ln a
relaLlvely lower raLe of change (decreases) ln Lhe speed of cars and ln a relaLlvely lesser
lmpacL, due Lo Lhe lnLroducLlon of Lhe sub[ecL vehlcle. 1hls resulLs ln Lhe decreaslng
Lrend of Lhe Cu value of Lhe sub[ecL vehlcle aL hlgher volume levels.

222I '7706/ +7 *,17726 ?0.82/BO M+>13 N932/ 1.> %1.0 D2>/=
ln a separaLe sLudy carrled ouL ln uelhl by 1lwarl eL al. (2008), Lrafflc denslLy,
modal spllL and lane wldLh were found ouL Lo be affecLlng Lhe Cu value and Cu values
for lndlan hlghways based on emplrlcal daLa are developed. 1rafflc daLa ls collecLed and
analyzed for varlous locaLlons, Lrafflc denslLles and lane wldLhs and Cu values for
modes are derlved. 1he Cu values for Lwowheelers and Lhreewheelers developed ln
Lhls sLudy, along wlLh Lhe average percenLage composlLlon of Lhese modes, are
presenLed ln Lhe followlng Lable:

*1E30 K\ (4L U13508 ?0@03+90> 7+, *C+D=0030,8 1.> *=,00D=0030,8 2. U1,2+58 &+1>
4+.>2/2+.8
&+1> *B90
ePD
4+A9+82/2+.
PD
(4L
eYD
4+A9+82/2+.
YD
(4L
Slngle lane 43 023 6 134
lnLermedlaLe lane 23 031 7 131
1wo lanes wlLhouL paved
shoulders
18 091 2 916
1wo lanes wlLh 13m shoulders 10 281 13 213
1wo lanes wlLh 23m shoulders 24 229 3 1866
lourlanes dlvlded 20 199 4 1144
Source: 1lwarl eL al., 2008.

1he sLudy's auLhors found LhaL Cu values of moLorlzed Lhreewheelers have very hlgh
values when Lhe modal share of Lhreewheelers becomes less Lhan 3. 1hls shows LhaL
vehlcles havlng much lower average speeds Lhan Lhe oLher vehlcles ln Lhe Lrafflc sLream,
affecL Lhe capaclLy of Lhe road even aL low denslLles. Also, observers found LhaL Lhe 83
Lh

percenLlle road wldLh occupled by each mode varles based on Lhe wldLh of Lhe road and,
hence, Lhe Cu value ls dlfferenL for dlfferenL road wldLhs, l.e. lesser road wldLhs force
vehlcles Lo form LlghLer 83
Lh
percenLlle wldLhs and hence occupy less space and vehlcles

occupy more area on wlder hlghways as ls evldenL from Lhe hlgher Cu value on wlder
hlghways as compared Lo slngle lane hlghways.
1he above values are derlved from Lhe daLa aL rural and suburban hlghways, where
free flow hlgh speed Lrafflc exlsLs. 1herefore ln a Lyplcal urban scenarlo, where Lhe Lrafflc
ls of Lhe forcedflow, lowspeed Lype, Lhese values may noL be appllcable dlrecLly and
some correcLlons are Lo be made Lo geL Lhe correcL values.

2@I '7706/ +7 $,01 )66591.6B
Malllkar[una eL al. (2006) sLudled Lrafflc behavlor as a Lhreedlmenslonal
phenomenon, lncludlng Lwodlmenslonal for Lhe roadway (longlLudlnal and Lransverse)
and one dlmenslon for Lhe Llme and found LhaL Lhe area occupancy of a vehlcle has an
effecL on Lhe Cu value. J%-2 +,,8N2(,? expresses how long a parLlcular slze of Lhe
vehlcle ls movlng on a secLlon of Lhe road. lL ls measured over Llme and over space
(lengLh and wldLh of Lhe road). ln Lhls sLudy Lhe enLlre road wldLh, lrrespecLlve of Lhe
number of lanes ls consldered as well as dlfferenL slzes of vehlcles. 1he followlng
equaLlon has been used Lo calculaLe Lhe area occupancy of a vehlcle.

Where,
A
ls area occupancy measured over space and Llme across Lhe enLlre road wldLh
P ls Lhe lengLh of Lhe road secLlon under conslderaLlon
A
&
denoLes Lhe dlsLance beLween Lhe vehlcle and any of Lhe Lwo reference llnes,
measured along Lhe road lengLh
P ] A
&
denoLes Lhe acLual dlsLance Lraveled by Lhe &
94
vehlcle over Lhe observed road
secLlon
1
&
ls Lhe wldLh of Lhe &
94
vehlcle
5 ls Lhe wldLh of Lhe road and lL ls assumed Lo be consLanL for Lhe enLlre road
secLlon
1 ls Lhe Llme perlod of observaLlon

Cellular AuLomaLa models have been developed for modellng Lrafflc because Lhey are
more represenLaLlve of mlxed Lrafflc Lhan regular car followlng and lane changlng
models. ln Lhls model Lhe gap accepLance parameLers and speed varlaLlon parameLers
are Laken ln such a way LhaL Lhey represenL mlxed Lrafflc condlLlons. lrom Lhese models,
Lhe Cu values for Lrucks, buses and Lwowheelers aL dlfferenL area occupancy values

have been developed. 1he Cu values for Lwowheelers aL varlous modal shares are
presenLed ln Lhe followlng Lable.

*1E30 KW (4L U13508 +7 *C+D=0030,8 1/ ?2770,0./ $,01 )66591.6B U13508
e #+I +7
PD
$,01
)66591.6B
(4':A1]; (4':M2.;
10
0.036 0.1 0.1
0.038 0.44 0.1
0.03 1 0.32
20
0.029 0.1 0.1
0.038 0.76 0.1
0.03 0.79 0.33
40
0.028 0.1 0.1
0.038 0.46 0.1
0.03 0.46 0.34
60
0.023 0.1 0.1
0.038 0.48 0.12
0.03 0.88 0.12
80
0.021 0.22 0.22
0.038 0.6 0.23
0.03 0.87 0.23
100
0.021 0.26 0.26
0.038 0.43 0.36
0.03 0.6 0.36
Source: Malllkar[una eL al.

Cbservers reporL LhaL, dependlng upon Lhe Lrafflc condlLlons, Lhe Lwowheeler Cu value
ranges from 0.36 Lo even 1 ln some lnsLances and hence a sLandard value, as adopLed ln
Lhe currenL code books, wlll noL be correcL. Also, Lhe Cu value decreases wlLh Lhe
lncrease ln proporLlon of Lwowheelers ln Lhe Lrafflc sLream.
lrom all Lhe above sLudles lL can be concluded LhaL Lhe currenLly adopLed Cu values
do noL represenL Lhe acLual slLuaLlon ln Lhe fleld and, hence, a more robusL way of
esLlmaLlng Lhe Cu values need Lo be developed. Powever, Lhe facLors llsLed above may
noL be all lncluslve and Lhere may be oLher facLors affecLlng Lhe Cu value. 1hls requlres
exLenslve sLudles Lo flnd Lhe exacL facLors lnfluenclng Lhe Cu values and based on Lhe

flndlngs of Lhe sLudy, Cu values of varlous vehlcles under varlous clrcumsLances need Lo
be developed.
ZIV &+1> N9160 &0f52,0A0./8 1.> *,1@03 *2A0 7+, ?2770,0./
M+>08 +7 *,17726 2. ?2770,0./ *B908 +7 %+61/2+.8
1he road space requlremenLs are calculaLed ln Lerms of Lhe passenger car unlLs (Cu) of
vehlcles. l8C 106 sLaLes Lhe Culdellnes for Lhe CapaclLy of urban 8oads ln laln Areas.
1hls dlscusses Lhe basls of Lhe Cu values adopLed Lo flnd Lhe capaclLles of urban roads.
lL sLaLes LhaL Lhe Cu value ls a funcLlon of physlcal dlmenslons and operaLlonal speeds
of respecLlve vehlcle classes. ln urban slLuaLlons Lhe speed dlfferenLlal among varlous
classes ls generally low, and as such Lhe Cu facLors are predomlnanLly a funcLlon of Lhe
physlcal dlmenslons of Lhe varlous vehlcles. noneLheless, Lhe relaLlve Cu of a parLlcular
vehlcle Lype wlll be affecLed Lo a cerLaln exLenL by lncrease ln lLs proporLlon ln Lhe LoLal
Lrafflc" and lL recommends Lhe followlng Cu values be adopLed.

*1E30 KV Cu values lrom l8C 106: 1990
U0=2630 /B90
(0,60./1J0 6+A9+82/2+. +7
@0=2630 /B90 2. /,17726 8/,01A
%088 /=1. [e KQe 1.> 1E+@0
1wowheelers
(MoLor cycle or scooLer eLc.)
0.3 0.73
1hreewheeler
(AuLorlckshaw)
1.2 2.0
assenger Car

1.0 1.0
LlghL Commerclal vehlcle

1.4 2
1ruck or 8us

2.2 3.7
Cycle

0.4 0.3
Cycle 8lckshaw

1.3 2
Pand CarL

2 3
04- '268-. /+% N-%,-(92)- 9%2//&, ,+=N+.&9&+( K-91--( H\ 2(3 #L\ 1&66 K- &(9-%N+629-3 94- 2K+'- '268-."


Powever Lhls may noL be Lrue all Lhe Llme. 1he assumpLlon LhaL speed dlfferenLlals ln
urban areas are mlnlmal ls quesLlonable. Also, varlous researchers have shown LhaL Lhe
Cu value depends on many oLher facLors aparL from Lhe physlcal dlmenslons and
proporLlon of varlous vehlcle classes. 1herefore Lhe road space requlremenLs vary from
one locaLlon Lo anoLher. LxLenslve emplrlcal daLa needs Lo be collecLed and modeled Lo
know Lhe road space requlremenLs.
419162/208 +7 &+1>8 C2/= N/1.>1,> %1.0 D2>/=8
l8C 106 guldellnes, 1able 33, sLaLes Lhe capaclLles of varlous Lypes of roads speclfled
here. All Lhe capaclLles glven are ln Lerms of Lhe number of lanes ln a parLlcular road. 1he
sLandard lane wldLhs followed are 3.73m for slngle lane roads and 3.3m per lane for
roads wlLh Lwo or more lanes.

*1E30 PQ 419162/208 +7 &+1>8 +7 U1,2+58 D2>/=8
&+1> *B90
:G+/= >2,06/2+.8 4+AE2.0>;
419162/B
:(4L_ =,_ >2,06/2+.;
1Lane 330
2Lanes undlvlded 730
2Lanes ulvlded 730
3lanes 1000
4Lanes ulvlded 1800
6Lanes ulvlded 2700
(Source: l8C 106)

Powever, Lhe acLual capaclLles ln Lhe fleld can be dlfferenL, malnly for Lwo reasons. llrsL,
aL many locaLlons ln lndla, Lhe lane wldLh speclflcaLlons are noL followed and many roads
wlLh wldLhs noL conformlng Lo Lhe 3.3m per lane sLandard are consLrucLed. Second, Lhe
capaclLles llsLed above assume LhaL vehlcles observe Lhe lane dlsclpllnes. uue Lo mlxed/
nonhomogeneous Lrafflc condlLlons, as explalned ln Lhe followlng flgures, lane dlsclpllne
ls rarely followed ln lndla and so Lhe acLual capaclLles can be dlfferenL Lo Lhose
menLloned ln 1able 33.


b+A+J0.0+58 1.> #+.b+A+J0.0+58 *,17726
Pomogeneous Lrafflc has sLrlcL lane dlsclpllne and Lrafflc Lypes whose physlcal
dlmenslons do noL vary much. 1hls ls lllusLraLed ln llgure 7.

!2J5,0 \ b+A+J0.0+58 *,17726

Source: 1lwarl eL al., 2007

nonhomogeneous Lrafflc ls usually represenLed by passenger cars and heavy vehlcles. as
well as moLorlzed Lwowheelers, moLorlzed Lhreewheelers, mlnl Lrucks, mlnlbuses,
blcycles, pedesLrlans, anlmals, anlmaldrawn carLs, and vendor pushpull carLs. 1here
physlcal dlmenslons, operaLlonal, and acceleraLlon and deceleraLlon characLerlsLlcs vary
greaLly because nonmoLorlzed Lrafflc enLlLles share Lhe road wlLh moLorlzed vehlcles.
lurLher, ln Lhls Lrafflc soup moLorlzed Lwowheelers LhaL Lyplcally have 100 cc englnes
operaLlng slde by slde wlLh passenger cars LhaL Lyplcally have 1,200 cc englnes. A faclllLy
has nonhomogeneous Lrafflc when lLs peak hour volume has less Lhan 83 passenger
cars and has less Lhan 90 passenger cars and heavy vehlcles (1lwarl eL al. 2008). llgure
8 shows a Lyplcal non homogeneous Lrafflc condlLlon observed ln uelhl, lndla.


!2J5,0 W #+.b+A+J0.0+58 *,17726 :?03=2O ".>21;

Source: 1lwarl eL al., 2007.
$6/513 419162/208 )E80,@0> +. ".>21. &+1>8 C2/= #+.N/1.>1,> %1.0 D2>/=8
1o compare Lhe acLual flow and Lhe capaclLy values glven ln l8C 106, observaLlons from a
sLudy done on Lwo lnLersecLlons on Lhe arLerlals of uelhl are selecLed and Lhe peak hour
volume counLs on Lhe four approaches of each of Lhese Lwo lnLersecLlons. 1he followlng
Lable glves Lhe road wldLhs, acLual flow and Lhe capaclLles of each of Lhe roads accordlng
Lo l8C 106.

*1E30 PK 419162/B U8I !3+C )E80,@0> 2. ?03=2
#1A0 +7 /=0
"./0,806/2+.
$99,+16=
#+8I
$99,+16= ,+1>
C2>/= :A;
#+I +7 %1.08
A1,H0>
419162/B
:965_=,;
*+/13 2.6+A2.J
73+C :965_=,;
ll1
lnLersecLlon
1 7 2 1800 1430
2 10 2 1800 2393
3 14 3 2700 4200
4 14.3 3 2700 4018
nehru lace
lnLersecLlon
1 9.3 2 1800 1361
2 11 2 1800 2121
3 11.3 3 2700 4049
4 11 3 2700 2398
Source: 18l, ll1 uelhl.

CuL of Lhe elghL approaches, only one has lane wldLhs marked accordlng Lo Lhe l8C
guldellne of 3.3m per lane. AL all Lhe oLher locaLlons Lhe marked lane wldLhs do noL
conform Lo sLandard speclflcaLlons. Also, converLlng Lhe Lrafflc lnLo Cus and comparlng
Lhe acLual Lrafflc wlLh Lhe road capaclLles, accordlng Lo l8C 106, shows LhaL ln seven of
Lhe elghL approaches, Lhe volume of Lrafflc ls exceedlng capaclLy. 1hls clearly
demonsLraLes Lhe facL Lhe wlLhln Lhe 2/3 lanes provlded more Lhan 2/3 vehlcles are
passlng because vehlcles are falllng Lo followlng lane dlsclpllnes whlch leads Lo , beLLer
use of avallable road space.
1he problem of unmarked sLandard lane wldLhs ls noL a serlous one because
people are noL golng ln Lhe marked lanes anyway. Powever, lncorrecL capaclLy
sLandards, lf any, need Lo be correcLed because people may over esLlmaLe Lhe requlred
road space because of Lhe lesser capaclLles glven ln Lhe code books.

SuggesLlons for correcL predlcLlon of capaclLles:
1he conLlnulLy equaLlon of Lrafflc flow for homogeneous Lrafflc ls
H g f_ 5
8

where q =Lrafflc flow across a lane or lanes (vehlcles/h)
u
s
=space mean speed (km/h)
k=Lrafflc denslLy ln a lane or lanes (vehlcles/km)
1he above equaLlon assumes consLanL spaclng and consLanL speed, l.e., under
uncongesLed condlLlons wlLh moderaLe Lo sllghLly hlgh Lrafflc volume.

Slnce maxlmum flow ln any secLlon glves Lhe capaclLy of LhaL parLlcular secLlon, lf Lhe
above equaLlon ls valldaLed for nonhomogeneous condlLlons, by varylng k and u
s
based
on Lhe acLual road condlLlons, capaclLy of a parLlcular road can be ascerLalned. Powever,
Lhe equaLlon ls for homogeneous Lrafflc and Lhe capaclLy ls Lo be found for non
homogeneous Lrafflc. 1hls needs Lo be done by flndlng commonallLles exlsLlng beLween
Lheorles of homogeneous and nonhomogeneous Lrafflc and derlvlng Lhe requlred
parameLers from Lhose commonallLles.
1lwarl eL al. (2008) presenL one such sLudy done on Lhe valldaLlon of conLlnulLy equaLlon
for nonhomogeneous Lrafflc. ln Lhls sLudy, Lhe valldaLlon ls done Laklng Lrafflc denslLy (k)
as Lhe parameLer. A modlfled conLlnulLy equaLlon ls used ln Lhls sLudy Lo reflecL non
homogeneous Lrafflc ln such a way LhaL Lhe parameLers are ad[usLed buL Lhe Lrafflc
characLerlsLlcs malnLaln Lhe baslc relaLlonshlp as ln Lhe orlglnal equaLlon.
Pere Lhe LoLal denslLy ls Laken ln Lerms of sum of lndlvldual denslLles, where lndlvldual
denslLles are vehlcles of a parLlcular Lype (mode) per unlL area. llow ls Laken ln Lerms of

number of vehlcles of Lhe mode consldered for denslLy and speed as Lhe space mean
speed of Lhe same mode of vehlcles, whlch cross Lhe LoLal lengLh of Lhe area consldered
ln denslLy.
1he equaLlons used here are:
*+% 7(3&'&3826 G+3- $-(.&9&-.:
^
_
= (O
_
/5W` 8
., _

Where,
_=Lrafflc enLlLy Lype, e.g., 2=heavy vehlcle, 3=moLorlzed Lhreewheeler
T
_
=average number of Lrafflc enLlLles of Lype _ per unlL area of hlghway, e.g., moLorlzed
Lwowheelers/(km m)
5=crosssecLlonal wldLh for measurlng flow, e.g., m
llow O
_
=number of Lrafflc enLlLles of Lype _ crosslng Lhe crosssecLlonal llne of wldLh 5
durlng a Llme lnLerval, e.g., non moLorlzed Lwowheelers/h, and
Speed 8
.,_
=space mean speed of Lrafflc enLlLles of Lype _ LhaL compleLely Lraverse Lhe
lengLh of Lhe hlghway area (km/h)( Lhe space mean speed of nonhomogeneous Lrafflc ls
Lhe welghLed harmonlc speed of each Lrafflc Lype's space mean speed)
An assumpLlon here ls LhaL 5 ls consLanL LhroughouL Lhe hlghway segmenL for all Lrafflc
enLlLy Lypes.
0+926 $-(.&9? +/ 266 =+3-.R l.e. sum of denslLles of lndlvldual modes, slnce all Lhe modes
use Lhe same avallable road space.
1
N
nt j
j
k k

Where,
T
nL
=average number of nonhomogeneous Lrafflc enLlLles per unlL area of hlghway, e.g.,
enLlLles/(km m)
and V= LoLal number of enLlLy Lypes ln Lhe non homogeneous Lrafflc sLream.

1he average denslLy from acLual denslLles observed on a mldblock secLlon ln Lhe fleld ls
compared Lo Lhe denslLy derlved from flows and space mean speeds. lL was found LhaL
Lhese Lwo maLch each oLher for Lhe above equaLlons. 1herefore, by uslng Lhe above
modlfled equaLlons, conLlnulLy equaLlon ls also valld under nonhomogeneous
condlLlons.


1he acLual concern here ls Lo flnd ouL Lhe capaclLy, whlch ls Lhe maxlmum LoLal flow ln a
secLlon. 1he flow equaLlon Lo be used ls:
1
N
nt j
j
q q
W W

Where, O
nL
= 1oLal non homogeneous Lrafflc flow.
O
nL
/ W = flow per unlL wldLh
1he maxlmum LoLal flow ls Lhe sum of maxlmum flows of each mode derlved by
maxlmlzlng Lhe flow equaLlon. ln Lhls way maxlmum flow per unlL wldLh ls derlved whlch
glves Lhe capaclLy per unlL wldLh.
1hls glves one meLhod of flndlng Lhe capaclLles of lanes wlLh nonsLandard lane wldLhs ln
nonhomogeneous Lrafflc condlLlons.


[ *,17726 ?0A1.> M+>032.J M0/=+>8 N9062726 /+ *C+ 1.>
/=,00C=0030,8 1.> b0/0,+J0.0+58 *,17726
[IK 45,,0./ M+>032.J (,16/2608 !+33+C0> 2. ".>21
1he modellng meLhod currenLly adopLed ln lndla ls largely Lhe foursLep process,
excepL ln some research lnsLlLuLlons where dlscreLe cholce modellng and acLlvlLy based
modellng are adopLed. 1he general pracLlce Lo be followed currenLly ls Lo model Lhe peak
hour Lrafflc uslng sofLware llke 1ransCAu, Cu8L voyager, 18lS, eLc.
1he procedure for Lhls ls as follows:
l. 1rlp CeneraLlon: uerlvlng Lhe Lrlp generaLlon equaLlons (Lrlp producLlon and Lrlp
aLLracLlon) from household lnLervlews (PPl) and preparlng Lhe producLlon and
aLLracLlon Lable for all Lhe zones of Lhe clLy from Lhose equaLlons.
ll. 1rlp ulsLrlbuLlon: ulsLrlbuLlng Lhe Lrlps among zones uslng Lhe gravlLy meLhod for
Lrlp dlsLrlbuLlon and callbraLlng lL based on observed Lrlp lengLhs ln Lhe clLy.
lll. Mode Cholce: Mode cholce modellng by Lechnlques llke revealed/sLaLed
preference surveys ls noL carrled ouL ln deLall ln mosL of Lhe referred sLudles.
(Comprehenslve MoblllLy lans of !abalpur, 8a[koL, 881 leaslblllLy sLudles of
vlshakhapaLnam, vl[ayawada). 1he mode share derlved from Lhe PPl daLa ls
applled for Lhe whole clLy. (ln some cases, lL ls Laken zone by zone and ln oLhers
aL Lhe aggregaLe level for Lhe whole clLy).
lv. 1rlp AsslgnmenL: 1rlp asslgnmenL Lechnlques llke user equlllbrlum generally are
used Lo asslgn Lhe Lrlps on Lhe neLwork uslng Lhe shorLesL paLh algorlLhm. 1he
shorLesL paLh ls declded elLher on dlsLance or Llme as crlLerlon (as speclfled by
Lhe user). 1he sofLware lnlLlally asslgns Lrlps Lo a parLlcular paLh and based on Lhe
capaclLy of Lhe roads, delays are calculaLed and alLernaLlve paLhs are explored
lLeraLlvely before converglng on Lo a slngle paLh for each Lrlp.
Powever, Lhls sofLware has some lnherenL feaLures whlch do noL exacLly reflecL Lhe
mlxed Lrafflc condlLlons. 1hereby lmplylng LhaL, Lhe Lwowheelers and Lhree
wheelers are noL properly accounLed for ln Lhe modellng process. 1hese aspecLs have
been llsLed below. no speclflc meLhodology for Lwo and Lhreewheelers ls adopLed.
Cu value ls assumed Lo be Laklng care of Lhem (l8C106).


[IP ',,+,8 2. 45,,0./ M+>032.JO $993261E30 7+, *C+ 1.> *=,00
D=0030, *,17726
1. >8K D".$) 80#*'"#' %0( 'E) 2#'-() L)'H0(I: lor Lrafflc asslgnmenL, orlgln
desLlnaLlon (Cu) maLrlces of varlous modes accordlng Lo Lhelr modal shares are
prepared and whlle asslgnlng Lhe maLrlx Lo Lhe neLwork, Lhe Cu values of Lhe
modes are speclfled. 1herefore, Lhe Cu values glven here are sLaLlc LhroughouL
Lhe neLwork. As speclfled ln secLlon 3.2.2, Lhe Cu values need Lo be dynamlc for
Lhem Lo be represenLaLlve of Lhe acLual condlLlons. 1hls lmplles LhaL Lhe correcL
Cu values cannoL be lncorporaLed ln Lhe presenL modellng procedures.
>(0C"C.) 90.$'-0#: lf modellng sofLware accepLs a program whlch Lakes dynamlc
Cu values as a funcLlon of Lhe dlfferenL varlables on whlch lL depends, Lhls
problem can be overcome. Powever, Lhe currenL modellng packages llke Lmme3,
1ransCAu (whlch are among Lhe mosL used sofLwares ln lndla) do noL have such
feaLures and hence more research needs Lo be done before a soluLlon can be
found.

2. !07". 9E"() 80#*'"#' %0( 'E) 2#'-() L)'H0(I: 1he modal share speclfled ln Lhe
Cu maLrlx ls generally calculaLed aL Lhe aggregaLe level for Lhe enLlre neLwork.
Powever, Lhls mlghL noL be Lrue under acLual condlLlons where Lhere ls an
elevaLed chance LhaL Lhe modal spllL ls dlfferenL ln dlfferenL locaLlons. ln some
areas, Lhe proporLlon of cars may be more and ln some oLher areas, Lhe
proporLlon of Lwowheelers and Lhreewheelers may be more.
>(0C"C.) 90.$'-0#: 1o counLer Lhls, from Lhe daLa collecLed Lhrough household
lnLervlews, separaLe mode shares for all Lhe zones should be calculaLed and mode
cholce modellng carrled ouL. 1hls musL be used whlle formlng Lhe Cu maLrlx.
Powever, Lhere ls no reporL of such work done ln lndla as per Lhe daLa avallable
for Lhe currenL sLudy.

3. B-#I 9;))7* C$' #0' D)E-&.) 9;))7* "() 80#*-7)()7: 1he speed of Lhe vehlcles ls
Laken ln Lerms of llnk speeds. 1hls assumes LhaL Lhe speed dlfferenLlal among
varlous vehlcles ls negllglble and hence Lhe llnk speed wlll be Lhe speed of all Lhe
vehlcles. 1hls may be Lrue for homogeneous Lrafflc condlLlons where Lhe number
of modes ln Lhe Lrafflc ls few. 8uL ln mlxed Lrafflc condlLlons, wlLh Lhe presence of
Lwowheelers, Lhreewheelers and cars whlch have dlfferenL englne capaclLles
and also wlLh Lhe presence of nonmoLorlzed LransporL on Lhe road, Lhls may noL

be Lrue all Lhe Llme and, hence, glvlng llnk speeds lnsLead of vehlcle speeds leads
Lo errors ln Lhe modellng resulLs.

>(0C"C.) 90.$'-0#*:
l. lf segregaLed lanes for dlfferenL vehlcles are provlded (eg: 881 sysLems), Lhe
error ls mlnlmlzed Lo some exLenL because heavy vehlcles use Lhe bus lanes,
nM1 uses Lhe blcycle lanes and so on. ln Lhls case, Lhe speeds of cars, Lwo
wheelers, Lhreewheelers and oLher moLorlzed modes, lf any are sharlng Lhe
road mlghL noL be hlghly dlfferenL Lo each oLher.
ll. Lven Lhough macroscoplc modellng sofLware does noL have Lhe opLlon of
modewlse speeds, mlcroscoplc slmulaLlon sofLware llke vlSSlM, AlMSun
have Lhls opLlon. 1herefore macroscoplc modellng can be used for Lhe enLlre
neLwork Lo geL a general ldea of Lrafflc loads aL varlous polnLs and aL Lhe
crlLlcal locaLlons, mlcroscoplc slmulaLlon can be carrled ouL Lo geL accuraLe
resulLs.

4. >)0;.) M0 L0' K*) 'E) 9E0(')*' >"'E =3"-."C.): 1he algorlLhms used ln varlous
modellng sofLware asslgn Lhe Cu maLrlx Lo Lhe neLwork based on Lhe
assumpLlon LhaL people use Lhe shorLesL paLh Lo reach Lhelr desLlnaLlons.
Powever, research shows LhaL people do noL always use Lhe shorLesL paLh
avallable and Lhey are llkely Lo use some ma[or corrldors along Lhelr rouLe even lf
Lhls lncreases Lhelr Lrlp lengLhs. 1hls may be due Lo reasons such as lack of
knowledge of famlllarlLy wlLh shorLer rouLes whlch may pass Lhrough unpopular
areas, superlor Level of Servlce (LCS) on Lhe ma[or corrldor, presence of gaLed
communlLles whlch do noL allow exLernal Lrafflc Lo pass Lhrough. ldeally, Lo solve
Lhls problem, Lhe llnks of Lhe neLwork need Lo be glven prlorlLy.
>(0C"C.) 90.$'-0#: 1here are no concluslve meLhod for nulllfylng Lhls error and
furLher research needs Lo be done ouL Lo dlscover a soluLlon.

Lven Lhough Lhe problems menLloned are faced ln some oLher counLrles where
soluLlons have been found, Lhose soluLlons need Lo be adapLed Lo lndlan condlLlons
and lncorporaLed ln Lhe deslgn sLandards so LhaL Lhey are avallable Lo people dolng
macroscoplc modellng for clLles.


R &+1>_ "./0,806/2+. ?082J. S52>032.08

1he deslgn guldellnes for roads ln lndla are formulaLed by Lhe lndlan 8oads Congress
(l8C). 1he followlng four codes are found Lo be glvlng Lhe road/lnLersecLlon deslgn
guldellnes speclflc Lo LwoandLhreewheelers.
l. "&4 YKVWY glves Lhe hdlmenslons and welghLs of road deslgn vehlcles"
ll. "&4 WR- KVWY glves Lhe geomeLrlc deslgn sLandards for mldblocks or Lhrough
secLlons
lll. "&4 N(ZK- KVVZ g-3)* 'E) N7)*-6# guldellnes for aLgrade lnLersecLlons"
lv. "&4 VP KVW[ glves Lhe "guldellnes for Lhe deslgn of lnLerchanges ln urban areas"
1he sallenL feaLures ln Lhese guldellnes, whlch are appllcable Lo LwoandLhree
wheelers are dlscussed below.

l. /58 OPQRO, glves Lhe dlmenslons and welghLs of road deslgn vehlcles'.
1hree vehlcles Laken as a sLandard for deslgn are:
l) Slngle unlL (meanlng one passenger car unlL)
ll) SemlLraller
lll) 1ruckLraller comblnaLlon
1woandLhreewheelers are noL menLloned among Lhe deslgn vehlcles. 1he Cu value ls
assumed Lo be Laklng Lhem lnLo accounL. Powever, as explalned ln Lhe Cu secLlon Lhese
values can be wrong ln some clrcumsLances Lhereby lmplylng LhaL Lhe guldellnes mlghL
noL be accuraLe ln all Lhe cases.

ll. /58 RS+ PQRO 6-3)* 'E) 6)04)'(-& 7)*-6# *'"#7"(7* %0( 4-7C.0&I* 0( 'E(0$6E
*)&'-0#*+
lor Lhls purpose all Lhe urban roads have been dlvlded lnLo four caLegorles:
1. ArLerlal: A general Lerm denoLlng a sLreeL prlmarlly for Lhrough Lrafflc, usually on
a conLlnuous rouLe.
2. SubarLerlal: A general Lerm denoLlng a sLreeL prlmarlly for Lhrough Lrafflc, usually
on a conLlnuous rouLe buL offerlng somewhaL lower level of Lrafflc moblllLy Lhan
Lhe arLerlal.
3. CollecLor sLreeL: A sLreeL for collecLlng and dlsLrlbuLlng Lhe Lrafflc from and Lo Lhe
local sLreeL and provldlng access Lo Lhe arLerlal sLreeLs.
4. Local sLreeL: A sLreeL prlmarlly for access Lo resldence, buslness or oLher abuLLlng
properLy.


8ased on Lhese road classlflcaLlons, parameLers llke Lhe deslgn speed, rlghL of way
(8CW), slghL dlsLance, and horlzonLal and verLlcal allgnmenL parameLers are
recommended. Also, Lhe cross secLlonal elemenLs of roads llke Lhe road wldLhs, deslgn
Lrafflc volume, carrlage wldLh, fooLpaLh and blcycle Lrack provlslons are speclfled. 1he
deslgn Lrafflc volume ls menLloned ln Lerms of Cu and Lhe Cu values for Lwowheelers
and Lhreewheelers are as menLloned below. As explalned ln Lhe Cu secLlon 3.2.2, Lhese
values mlghL noL be correcL under all clrcumsLances and hence need Lo be revlsed.

*1E30 PP Cu values lrom l8C 86: 1983
1hreewheeler (AuLorlckshaw ) 1.00
1wowheeler (MoLor/ScooLer) 0.30

1he deslgn speed ls Lhe prlmary crlLerlon for all Lhe sLandards developed and Lhe deslgns
wlll comprlse all vehlcle Lypes, Lhereby lmplylng LhaL Lhe Lwowheelers and Lhree
wheelers are also Laken lnLo accounL. Also, whenever Lhe lengLh of wheel base of a
vehlcle ls requlred, lL ls normally Laken as 6.1m or 6.0m for commerclal vehlcles. Slnce
Lhe lengLhs ln case of LwoandLhreewheelers are less Lhan Lhls, Lhey are belng
accommodaLed ln Lhe deslgn.
ln all Lhe cases, no separaLe deslgn sLandards for LwoandLhreewheelers' speclflc
envlronmenLs are developed. A LenLaLlve passenger car unlL (Cu) value ls developed for
varlous vehlcles (ln all Lhe cases and Lhey use Lhe same Cu values) and Lhe Lrafflc from
all Lhe modes ls converLed Lo Lhese unlLs. 1he resL of Lhe deslgn ls developed assumlng
LhaL a cerLaln number of cars use Lhe road and a cerLaln level of servlce (LCS) and
dlmenslons are avallable. Slnce Lhe Cu value lLself can be wrong (explalned ln secLlon
3.2.2), Lhe whole deslgn process ls llkely Lo be lnaccuraLe.

lll. /58 9>TP+ PQQT Lakes Lhe followlng as deslgn parameLers:
- ueslgn speed
- ueslgn Lrafflc volume
- ueslgn vehlcle
- ueslgn radlus of curves aL lnLersecLlon
- WldLh of Lurnlng lanes aL lnLersecLlon
- AcceleraLlon/ deceleraLlon lanes
- Super elevaLlon and cross slope
- vlslblllLy aL lnLersecLlons
- Channellzlng lsland

- Curb
- 1rafflc roLary

Among all Lhe parameLers, Lhe deslgn vehlcle, deslgn speed and Lhe Lrafflc volume are
Lhe cenLral parameLers and, based on Lhelr values, Lhe oLher parameLers' values are
speclfled. 1hese parameLers are dlscussed ln deLall ln Lhls secLlon.

M)*-6# D)E-&.)
1he code speclfles LhaL Lhe lnLersecLlons along Lhe arLerlals and subarLerlals ln Lhe urban
areas and Lhose ln Lhe CenLral 8uslness ulsLrlcL (C8u) need Lo be deslgned for a slngle
unlL Lruck (wlLh allowance for Lurnlng vehlcles encroachlng on Lhe oLher lanes ln Lhe
C8u). A slngle unlL Lruck has Lhe dlmenslons of 2.38m wldLh and 9m lengLh. Slnce Lhe
Lwowheelers and Lhreewheelers have lesser dlmenslons compared Lo a slngle unlL
Lruck, an lnLersecLlon deslgned for such a vehlcle ls assumed Lo be able Lo accomodaLe
Lhe LwoandLhreewheelers

M)*-6# 9;))7
A deslgn speed of 80kmph for arLerlals, 60kmph for subarLerlals, 30 kmph for collecLor
sLreeLs and 30 kmph for local sLreeLs are recommended. Slnce Lhe deslred speeds of Lwo
wheelers and Lhreewheelers are less Lhan 60 kmph even ln arLerlals, Lhe deslgn speed
speclfled ln Lhe codes caLer Lo Lhem also.

<("%%-& D0.$4)
As explalned ln Lhe 1rafflc llows and CongesLlon uaLa SecLlon, Lhe Lrafflc volume should
noL be Lallled as Lhe LoLal number of vehlcles passlng a polnL, buL should be counLed as
LoLal Cus passlng Lhrough a polnL. 1hls makes Lhe Cu values very lmporLanL and Lhe
accuracy of Lhe Cu values deLermlnes Lhe accuracy of Lhe lnLersecLlon deslgn. 1he Cu
values recommended ln Lhe code are glven ln Lhe Lable below.

*1E30 PY (4L U13508 :"&4 N( ZK- KVVZ;
1hreewheeler (AuLorlckshaw ) 1.00
1wowheeler (MoLor/ScooLer) 0.30

lv. /58 QJ PQRU 6-3)* 'E) :$-7).-#)* %0( 'E) M)*-6# 0% /#')(&E"#6)* -# K(C"# =()"*
ln Lhls book, varlous guldellnes on when Lo consLrucL an lnLerchange and whaL
facLors Lo conslder Lerraln, Lrafflc comlng ln, lmporLance of Lhe lnLersecLlon, eLc. are

dlscussed. Also, Lhe Lypes of lnLerchanges for varlous slLuaLlons and Lhelr geomeLrlc
deLalls are speclfled. Powever, all Lhe vehlcles are dlvlded lnLo Lwo caLegorles
moLorlzed and nonmoLorlzed and deslgns are developed for Lhem. 8uL, ln mlxed Lrafflc
condlLlons Lwowheelers and Lhreewheelers form a hlgh proporLlon of moLorlzed Lrafflc
and based on Lhelr vehlcle capablllLles, speeds, eLc. Lhe lnLerchanges deslgned for cars
and Lrucks can become nonnegoLlable. lor example, lf Lhe verLlcal curves are banked
very hlgh, cars wlLh englne capaclLles of 800cc and above may be able Lo negoLlaLe lL, buL
Lwowheelers wlLh a 100cc englne can flnd lL dlfflculL.


\ 4+.7326/8 C2/= )/=0, U0=26308O G26B6308 1.> (0>08/,21.8

A '("%%-& &0#%.-&' ls deflned as a slLuaLlon ln whlch Lwo road users approach each
oLher ln such dlrecLlons and wlLh such speeds as Lo produce a colllslon unless one of
Lhem performs an emergency evaslve maneuver. More rarely, a Lrafflc confllcL may
lnvolve a slngle road user on a ,+66&.&+( ,+8%.- wlLh a flxed obsLacle or an anlmal. (1he
Way lorward, 2003)
1he normal lane wldLhs are 3.3m per lane and Lhe maxlmum wldLh of any vehlcle ls
2.4m. Also Lyplcal urban Lrafflc ls dlsLlngulshed by mlxeduse, lncluslve of LwoandLhree
wheelers wlLh wldLhs less Lhan or equal Lo 1.3 m. 1hls leads Lo more vehlcles uslng Lhe
road Lhan Lhere are avallable lanes durlng perlods of heavy Lrafflc. 8ecause of Lhls
phenomenon, vehlcles Lry Lo ouL maneuver each oLher.
A large share of nonmoLorlzed vehlcles (nMvs) and moLorlzed Lwowheelers (M1W)
make up Lhe LransporL sysLem of lndlan clLles. ln such clLles, 43 Lo 80 of Lhe
reglsLered vehlcles are M1Ws. Cars accounL for 3 Lo 20 of Lhe LoLal vehlcle fleeL ln
mosL LMC large clLles. 1he road neLwork ls used by aL leasL seven caLegorles of moLorlzed
vehlcles and nMvs. ubllc LransporL and paraLranslL are Lhe predomlnanL modes of
moLorlzed Lravel ln mega clLles and carry 20 Lo 63 of Lhe LoLal Lrlps excludlng walklng
Lrlps. CLher modes make up for Lhe resL of Lhe Lrafflc and seL Lhe sLage for confllcL.
A sLudy done ln uelhl observed Lhe confllcLs beLween varlous vehlcles under mlxed
Lrafflc condlLlons and reporLed Lhe relaLlonshlp beLween faLal crashes and confllcL raLes
aL mldblock ln 14 locaLlons ln uelhl. 1he daLa revealed LhaL Lhe presence of only a few
nonmoLorlzed vehlcles ls enough Lo cause confllcLs wlLh moLorlzed. Whlle Lhe sLudy dld
noL provlde a concluslve relaLlonshlp beLween mldblock confllcLs and faLal crash slLes,
an lmporLanL concluslon ls LhaL Lrafflcplannlng emphasls on confllcL raLes may noL resulL
ln reduclng faLallLles on urban roads along mldblock segmenLs.
lrom Lhe LoLal confllcL daLa, Lhe confllcLs lnvolvlng LwoandLhreewheelers are
separaLed and are presenLed ln Lhe Lable below.

*1E30 PZ 4+.7326/8 +7 *C+1.>*=,00D=0030,8 C2/= )/=0, U0=26308 2. ?03=2
41, G58 PD YD G26B630 *+/13
YD 24 17 17 23 17 100
PD 22 27 18 13 20 100
Source: 1lwarl eL al, Accld. Anal. and rev., vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 207213, 1998


1he resulLs show LhaL mosL confllcLs lnvolve Lhreewheelers engaged wlLh oLher
Lhreewheelers, followed by Lhreewheelers ln confllcL wlLh cars. 1wowheelers are mosL
ofLen lnvolved ln sklrmlshes wlLh buses followed by cars, blcycles and oLher Lwo
wheelers. 1hls can be explalned by Lhe speeds of Lwowheelers, buses and cars LhaL calls
for segregaLlon of Lhls heavy Lrafflc by meLhods llke excluslve bus lanes. 1he
phenomenon of vehlcles collldlng mosL wlLh llke vehlcles ls LhoughL Lo be due Lhe
process of naLural segregaLlon. Lven wlLhouL segregaLed lanes for dlfferenL modes,
vehlcles are allgnlng Lhemselves lnLo clusLers of Lhelr own. lor example, all nM1s
operaLe ln Lhe lefL mosL lanes, buses ln Lhe rlghL mosL lanes and cars and LwoandLhree
wheelers ln Lhe mlddle ls a common phenomenon.
llgure 9 shows Lhe consolldaLed resulLs of a deLalled sLudy done ln 14 locaLlons
on naLlonal hlghways around Lhe counLry (8eference). 1hls demonsLraLes LhaL even on
naLlonal hlghways Lwowheelers consLlLuLe over 20 of Lhe faLallLles and all vulnerable
road users puL LogeLher, whlch lncludes Lhe Lhreewheelers, consLlLuLe more Lhan 63.
llgure 9 also lndlcaLes LhaL Lrucks are lnvolved ln Lhe vasL ma[orlLy of faLal
crashes. ln Lhe absence of deLalled mulLldlsclpllnary crash lnvesLlgaLlon daLa, we can
only surmlse LhaL Lhls dlsproporLlonaLe lnvolvemenL musL have Lo do wlLh a hlgher
presence of Lrucks on naLlonal hlghways and Lhe greaLer mass of Lrucks compared wlLh
oLher road users. ln Lhe evenL of a crash, Lhe road user wlLh a lower mass usually suffers
more severe ln[urles.



!2J5,0 V (,+9+,/2+. +7 &+1> L80,8 `2330> 7,+A "A916/2.J U0=26308 +. N1A930> #1/2+.13
b2J=C1B8

(Source: 1he 8oad Ahead, ulnesh Mohan)


W N170/B ?1/1 1.> (,0@0./2+. M0185,08
WIK ".>21 2. 4+A91,28+. C2/= ?0@03+90> 4+5./,208
8oad Lrafflc crashes are chlefly caused by a hlghenergy Lransfer beLween Lwo vehlcles or
by a hlghspeed vehlcle hlLLlng a low speed vehlcle or a pedesLrlan. 1herefore, Lhe Lype
of vehlcles on Lhe road ls lmporLanL ln deLermlnlng Lhe crashes caused and Lhe
prevenLlve measures needed. 1he followlng flgure compares Lhe Lype of vehlcles
reglsLered ln lndla as compared Lo some developed counLrles.

!2J5,0 KQ (,+9+,/2+. +7 U0=26308 &0J28/0,0> 2. ".>21O S0,A1.BO c191. 1.> LN$

(Source: Mohan u., 2004)

1he above daLa shows LhaL Lhe car populaLlon as a proporLlon of LoLal moLor vehlcles ls
much less ln lndla Lhan ln Lhe hlghly moLorlzed counLrles (PMCs) (13 vs. 36 Lo 80) and
LhaL Lhe proporLlon of moLorlzed Lwowheelers (M1W) ls much hlgher (70 vs. 3 Lo
18). ln llgure 8, Lhe faLallLles ln lndla are compared Lo Lhese counLrles Lo see wheLher
Lhe dlfference ln Lhe number of vehlcles ls causlng any change ln Lhe number of faLallLles.


!2J5,0 KK (,+9+,/2+. +7 ?2770,0./ *B908 +7 &+1> L80,8 `2330> 2. ?03=2O M5AE12O #1/2+.13
b2J=C1B8 2. ".>21 1.> 2. b2J=3B M+/+,280> 4+5./,208

a $@0,1J0 7+, KZ 3+61/2+.8O M*D X A+/+,280> /C+C=0030,8
(Source: World reporL on road Lrafflc ln[ury prevenLlon, 2004)

1hls flgure shows LhaL pedesLrlans, blcycllsLs and M1W rlders, who consLlLuLe Lhe
vulnerable road users (v8us), consLlLuLe 60 Lo 80 per cenL of all Lrafflc faLallLles ln lndla.
1hls flows loglcally from Lhe facL LhaL Lhls class of road users forms Lhe ma[orlLy of Lhose
on Lhe road. ln addlLlon, because meLalllc or energy absorblng maLerlals do noL proLecL
v8us, Lhey susLaln relaLlvely serlous ln[urles even aL low veloclLy crashes.
Powever, Lhe facL LhaL Lhe dlfferences ln fleeL composlLlons are affecLlng Lhe Lrafflc and
crash paLLerns enormously cannoL be denled. 1herefore, Lhe prevenLlve measures whlch
are appllcable ln Lhe PMCs mlghL noL be of Lhe same use ln lndla and Lhe slLuaLlon ln
lndla needs Lo be looked aL separaLely Lo undersLand Lhe prevenLlve measures requlred
here.
WIP N2/51/2+. 2. ".>21
1able 18 shows Lhe number of Lwowheelers and Lhreewheelers as a proporLlon of all
vehlcles reglsLered ln lndlan clLles. SLudles from dlfferenL clLles also show LhaL blcycles
consLlLuLe 10 Lo 33 of all Lrlps ln mosL clLles of lndla. 1hls shows LhaL Lhe vulnerable
road users consLlLuLe Lhe vasL ma[orlLy of Lrafflc on Lhe roads ln lndlan clLles.


*1E30 P[ N=1,0 +7 M+/+,280> *C+D=0030,8 1.> *=,00D=0030> N6++/0, &26H8=1C8 :KZ;I

(Source: Mohan u., 2004)

1able 26 shows Lhe proporLlon of dlfferenL road users kllled ln uelhl and Mumbal. ln boLh
clLles, Lhe car occupanLs consLlLuLe less Lhan 3 of all Lhe faLallLles and vulnerable road
users more Lhan 80. Slmllar daLa for all clLles are noL avallable, buL conslderlng LhaL
road user proporLlons are slmllar ln mosL clLles, we can safely assume LhaL faLallLy
paLLerns wlll also be slmllar.

*1E30 PR (,+9+,/2+. +7 &+1> L80,8 `2330> 1/ ?2770,0./ %+61/2+.8 2. ".>21
e !1/132/208 +7 @1,2+58 A+>08
%+61/2+. *,56H G58 41, YD PD &26H8=1C G26B630 (0>08/,21. *+/13
M5AE12 2 1 2 Z \ 0 6 78 100
#0C ?03=2 2 3 3 Y PK 3 10 33 100
b2J=C1B8a 14 3 13 Q PZ 1 11 32 100
(* Average of 14 locaLlons, LracLor faLallLles noL lncluded)
(Source: World reporL on road Lrafflc ln[ury prevenLlon, 2004)
WIY !1/132/B ".>0] 7+, U1,2+58 42/208
A faLallLy lndex has been developed for varlous clLles Lo compare Lhe slLuaLlon across
dlfferenL clLles. 1he average number of faLallLles per one mllllon people per year ls Laken
as Lhe lndlcaLor. 1able 27 glves Lhe values for varlous clLles ln lndla. All Lhe clLles are
segregaLed ln Lo flve caLegorles based on populaLlon. 1he faLallLles are collecLed and Lhe
average of all Lhe clLles ls Laken Lo geL a general plcLure of Lhe faLallLles ln varlous Lypes
of clLles.


*1E30 P\ $@0,1J0 !1/132/208 (0, ).0 M2332+. (+9531/2+. (0, i01, 2. U1,2+58 42/208 2. ".>21
42/B 41/0J+,B
41/0J+,B
K
41/0J+,B
P
41/0J+,B
Y
41/0J+,B
Z
41/0J+,B
[
(+9531/2+. :2. A2332+.8; jK KP P[ [KQ kKQ
$662>0./
>1/1-
!1/132/208
90,
KOQQOQQQ
9+9531/2+.
:*2A0
*,0.>8;
PQQP
PD 260 110 140 80 80
YD 70 20 40 20 10
*+/13 10 10 10 10 0
PQQY
PD 270 120 140 90 80
YD 110 20 30 20 10
*+/13 0 10 10 10 0
PQQZ
PD 270 110 160 90 80
YD 90 30 30 30 20
*+/13 10 0 0 10 0
PQQR
PD 310 320 30 30 80
YD 90 80 30 10 20
*+/13 20 20 0 0 0
Source: MlnlsLry of urban uevelopmenL (Mouu) reporL, 2008

1he daLa here shows a conLlnuous lncrease ln Lhe number of faLallLles ln clLles wlLh a
populaLlon of less Lhan Lwo mllllon. Powever, ln clLles wlLh a populaLlon greaLer Lhan Lwo
mllllon, Lhe number of faLallLles ls reduced beLween 2004 Lo 2006. 1hls can be aLLrlbuLed
Lo lncrease ln Lrafflc and hlgher v/C raLlos, leadlng Lo reducLlon ln average speeds and
hence reducLlon ln Lhe number of faLallLles. no daLa on Llme Lrends of modal spllL are
avallable and hence no correlaLlon beLween modal spllL and modewlse faLallLles could
be obLalned.
lL ls also observed LhaL, Lhe Lwowheelers conLrlbuLe Lo beLween 17 and 31 of
LoLal faLallLles whlle Lhe Lhreewheelers conLrlbuLe Lo roughly 3 Lo 8. Pence, Lhree
wheelers are relaLlvely safer and lmmedlaLe concenLraLlon on Lhe prevenLlve measures
should be puL on Lwowheelers. 1hese are dlscussed ln Lhe followlng secLlon.

415808 +7 $662>0./8
Lmplrlcal research shows LhaL Lhe followlng are some of Lhe ma[or conLrlbuLors Loward
accldenLs ln lndla:
MoLorlzed vehlcles collldlng wlLh pedesLrlans and nonmoLorlzed vehlcles ln urban
areas

Speed dlfferenLlals beLween dlverse vehlcles operaLlng on Lhe roads under mlxed
Lrafflc condlLlons
nlghL Llme drlvlng
Wrongway drlvers on dlvlded hlghways
unsafe vehlcle fronL deslgns
(Source: 8oad SafeLy ln lndla: challenges and opporLunlLles, ulnesh Mohan, Cmer
1slmhonl, Mlchael Shlvak, Mlchael !. llannagan, 8eporL no. uM18l20091, !anuary
2009)
1hese aspecLs need Lo be Laken lnLo conslderaLlon whlle plannlng Lhe safeLy measures or
Lhe accldenL prevenLlon measures. 1he followlng secLlon dlscusses Lhe prevenLlon
measures whlch are currenLly belng dlscussed and Lhe ones whlch are recommended for
fuLure dlscusslon.

WIZ (,0@0./2+. M0185,08
1he road safeLy measures Lo be Laken up by Lhe cenLral governmenL come under Lhe
ueparLmenL of 8oad 1ransporL and Plghways. 1he deparLmenL has seL up a 8oad SafeLy
Cell, Lo Lake care of maLLers relaLlng Lo Lhe naLlonal 8oad SafeLy lan. lL prepares and
lmplemenLs Lhe Annual 8oad SafeLy lan. lL also complles road accldenL daLa and
lnLeracLs wlLh sLaLes on lssues of road safeLy.

N6=0A08 L.>0, /=0 &+1> N170/B 4033
1he followlng lmporLanL acLlon plans are admlnlsLered by 8oad SafeLy Cell:
ubllclLy program
CranLslnald Lo volunLeer organlzaLlons for road safeLy program
naLlonal Plghway AccldenL 8ellef Servlce Scheme
8efresher Lralnlng for heavy vehlcle drlvers ln unorganlzed secLor
SeLLlng up model drlver Lralnlng schools
(Source: MC81P, 2008 (hLLp://morLh.nlc.ln/lndex1.asp?llnkld=77&langld=2))

$6/2@2/208 "A930A0./0> EB /=0 &+1> N170/B 4033
As a parL of Lhe above plans, Lhe followlng acLlvlLles have been Laken up by Lhe 8oad
SafeLy Cell (Annual 8eporL, 2008):
A publlc awareness campalgn was carrled ouL ln Lhe elecLronlc/prlnL medla. 1he
campalgn lncluded calendars deplcLlng road safeLy messages, broadcasLs of radlo
[lngles, compuLerlzed anlmaLlon dlsplays, eLc. 1elevlslon spoLs on road safeLy are

LelecasL on Lhe naLlonal neLwork of uoordarshan. 1he [lngles ln dlfferenL languages
are broadcasL on varlous channels of All lndla 8adlo ln order Lo creaLe awareness on
varlous aspecLs of road safeLy. ubllclLy maLerlals llke calendars, pamphleLs, posLers,
eLc. are supplled Lo nCCs and Lo LransporL and pollce auLhorlLles ln sLaLes/unlon
LerrlLorles for dlsLrlbuLlon.
CranLslnald were sancLloned Lo 120 nCCs for underLaklng road safeLy programs .
1he nlneLeenLh 8oad SafeLy Week, wlLh Lhe Lheme urlve Lo Care! noL Lo uare!" was
observed LhroughouL Lhe counLry lnvolvlng sLaLe governmenLs, volunLary
organlzaLlons, vehlcle manufacLurers, sLaLe road LransporL corporaLlons, eLc.
More Lhan 39,000 drlvers were Lralned durlng 20082009 under Lhe scheme of
refresher Lralnlng Lo heavy vehlcle drlvers ln Lhe unorganlzed secLor.
AsslsLance for seLLlng up model drlvers' Lralnlng schools ls belng provlded Lo sLaLe
governmenLs/nCCs. A new school has been sancLloned for nagaland durlng Lhe
perlod under reporL. AnoLher new drlvlng Lralnlng school for Madhya radesh ls also
under process.
Cranes and ambulances are provlded under Lhe naLlonal Plghways AccldenL 8ellef
Servlce Scheme (nPA8SS) Lo sLaLes/unlon LerrlLorles as well as nCCs for clearlng Lhe
accldenL slLes and Lo Lake accldenL vlcLlms Lo Lhe nearesL medlcal cenLers. uurlng
200708, 31 cranes were provlded Lo varlous sLaLes / u1s. lL ls expecLed LhaL 71
ambulances wlll be provlded Lo Lhe sLaLes/u1s/nCCs durlng Lhe currenL year.
A naLlonal award on road safeLy ls glven every year Lo nCCs as well as lndlvlduals for
commendable work ln Lhe fleld of road safeLy. 1he award amounL for wlnners ls 8s.1
lakh for nCC caLegory and 8s.30,000 for Lhe lndlvldual caLegory. lor Lhe runners up
Lhe amounL ls 8s. 30,000 under Lhe nCC and 8s. 13,000 under Lhe lndlvldual
caLegory.

&0@20C +7 /=0 $E+@0 $6/2@2/208 *1H0. L9 1.> N5JJ08/2+.8 7+, !5/5,0 $6/2@2/208
Whlle acLlvlLles llke granLs Lo nCC and, cash awards Lo people dolng good work ls
appreclaLed, lnvesLmenLs ln acLlvlLles llke publlc awareness, safeLy weeks, and drlver
educaLlon need Lo be revlewed. Lmplrlcal evldence shows LhaL Lhese acLlvlLles are
noL llkely Lo be effecLlve ln lmprovlng safeLy. (Sources: 1he Way lorward, 2003)
1herefore, dlverLlng Lhese funds Lo acLlvlLles recommended by experLs on road safeLy
and ln[ury prevenLlon Lechnlques seems Lhe mosL loglcal way Lo approach lmprovlng
wellbelng.
1he safeLy measures speclflc Lo LwoandLhreewheelers menLloned ln Lhls secLlon
are:

o 1rafflc calmlng durlng off peak hours, when Lhe speeds are llkely Lo be hlgher and
crash probablllLy lncreases
o laclng roundabouLs aL lnLersecLlons
o 8esLrlcLl free lefL Lurns aL lnLersecLlons
o Lnforce of helmeL laws
o edesLrlan frlendly fronL ends of vehlcles
o lmprovlng Lhe crashworLhlness of vehlcles
o Make vehlcles more noLlceable Lo reduce nlghL Llme crashes
o 8andom alcohol breaLh LesLlng
o 8esL regulaLlons for Lruck drlvers
o MandaLory use of headllghLs durlng day Llme.
(Mohan eL al, 2009)


V M+>0 N=1,0 1.> M+>0 (,070,0.60
VIK M+>0 N=1,08 +7 ?2770,0./ 41/0J+,B 42/208
1he followlng Lable glves Lhe modal spllL of Lhe Lrlps made ln varlous clLles, caLegorlzed
accordlng Lo populaLlon.

*1E30 PW M+>0 N=1,0 :e; PQQ\ :D2/= D13H;
42/B 41/0J+,B
(+9531/2+.
:2. A2332+.8;
D13H 4B630 PD YD (* 41,
41/0J+,BK1
<0.3 wlLh plaln
Lerraln
34 3 PR [ 3 27
41/0J+,BKE
<0.3 wlLh hllly
Lerraln
37 1 R Q 8 28
41/0J+,BP 0.31 32 20 PZ Y 9 12
41/0J+,BY 12 24 19 PZ W 13 12
41/0J+,BZ 24 23 18 PV R 10 12
41/0J+,B[ 48 23 11 PR \ 21 10
41/0J+,BR >8 22 8 V \ 44 10
#1/2+.13
$@0,1J0
PW KK KR R P\ KY
*1E30 PV M+>0 N=1,0 :e;PQQ\ :D2/=+5/ D13H;
42/B
41/0J+,B
(+9531/2+.
:2. A2332+.8; G58a
M2.2
G58
41,_ c009_
U1. PD YD
4+AAI
@0=26308 #M*
41/0J+,BK1
<0.3 wlLh
plaln Lerraln 9 4 17 YQ KZ 9 17
41/0J+,BKE
<0.3 wlLh hllly
Lerraln 6 13 40 YY Q 3 0
41/0J+,BP 0.31 7 2 17 YP PQ 6 16
41/0J+,BY 12 6 4 19 YY PQ 3 14
41/0J+,BZ 24 6 2 23 YR KR 4 13
41/0J+,B[ 48 9 2 20 Y\ PK 4 7
41/0J+,BR >8 12 3 31 PY PY 3 4
(* lncludlng and LourlsL and educaLlon purpose buses)
(Mouu reporL, 2008)

VIP *,29 %0.J/=8 +7 U1,2+58 42/208
1rlp lengLh plays an lmporLanL role ln mode cholce. 1he average Lrlp lengLhs of Lhe above
caLegorles of clLles are glven ln 1able 30. As Lhe populaLlon of Lhe clLy lncreases, Lhe
average Lrlp lengLhs geL longer. Slnce Lhe average Lrlp lengLhs ln clLles wlLh populaLlons
greaLer Lhan 2 mllllon ls greaLer Lhan 3kms, uslng nonmoLorlzed LransporL llke blcycles
leads Lo long Lravel Llmes and lncreased use of moLorlzed LransporL llke Lwowheelers
and cars (1ables 11, 24, 23).

*1E30 YQ $@0,1J0 *,29 %0.J/=8 +7 ?2770,0./ 41/0J+,B 42/208
42/B 41/0J+,B
(+9531/2+.
:2. A2332+.8; $@0,1J0 *,29 30.J/= :HA;
41/0J+,BK1
<0.3 mllllon wlLh
plaln Lerraln 2.4
41/0J+,BKE
<0.3 mllllon wlLh
hllly Lerraln 2.3
41/0J+,BP 0.31 3.3
41/0J+,BY 12 4.7
41/0J+,BZ 24 3.7
41/0J+,B[ 48 7.2
41/0J+,BR >8 10.4
(Mouu reporL, 2008)
VIY $>@1./1J08 (,+@2>0> EB /=0 *C+D=0030,8
1he Lwowheeler modal shares ln vehlcular Lrafflc were brlefly dlscussed ln SecLlon 3.1
where lL was observed LhaL, for all Lhe clLles wlLh populaLlon less Lhan 8,000,000, Lwo
wheelers caLer Lo beLween 30 and 37 of Lhe LoLal modes. 1he average Lrlp lengLhs ln
clLles wlLh populaLlon less Lhan 8,000,000 are less Lhan or equal Lo 7.2 kms. lor Lrlp
lengLhs of Lhls range, Lwowheelers provlde users wlLh Lhe followlng advanLages when
compared Lo publlc LransporL:
l. uoor Lo door servlce,
ll. Lesser or comparable cosL compared Lo publlc LransporL for shorL Lrlps
lll. Lasy maneuverablllLy ln hlgh Lrafflc condlLlons,
lv. Lasler Lrlp changlng compared Lo publlc LransporL (eg. home, work, shopplng,
home)
1he reducLlon ln Lhe number of Lwowheeler Lrlps for clLles wlLh populaLlon greaLer Lhan
8,000,000 can be explalned by Lhelr average Lrlp lengLh of 10.4 kms. lor such long Lrlp

lengLhs, people are llkely Lo choose a mode whlch ls elLher more comforLable or less
expenslve or more Llme savlng. 1he people opLlng for hlgher comforL shlfL Lo cars and
people opLlng for cheaper modes shlfL Lo publlc LransporL.
VIZ *=,00D=0030, M+>0 N=1,0 1.> *=,00D=003 ".>0] 2. 42/208
lrom Lhe mode share (wlLhouL walklng) (1able 30), lL can be observed LhaL for all clLles
wlLh populaLlon greaLer Lhan 300,000 Lhe Lhreewheeler mode share ls conslsLenLly ln
Lhe range of 16 Lo 23, around Lwlce Lhe mode share for publlc LransporL. ln clLles wlLh
populaLlon less Lhan 300,000 and ln plaln Lerraln, Lhe Lhreewheeler mode share ls 14,
whlch can be explalned by shorL Lrlp lengLhs and Lhe lesser requlremenL of paraLranslL.
ln hllly areas wlLh populaLlon less Lhan 300,000, Lhreewheeler modeshare ls zero, whlch
can be explalned by Lhe dlfflculLy ln operaLlng Lhe Lhreewheelers ln hllly Lerraln.

*=,00D=0030, $@1231E232/B ".>0] +7 42/208
1he avallablllLy of Lhreewheelers or Lhe fleeL slze of Lhreewheelers plays an lmporLanL
role ln deLermlnlng Lhe number of people opLlng Lo use Lhem. 1herefore, an lndex
lndlcaLlng Lhe number of Lhreewheelers avallable ln a clLy as a funcLlon of Lhelr
populaLlon has been developed and ls explalned below (Lable 31).

<E())HE)).)( "3"-."C-.-'1 /#7)G V #$4C)( 0% 'E())HE)).)(* ()6-*')()7 ;)(
P ."IE ;0;$."'-0#


*1E30 YK #5AE0, +7 $5/+ &26H8=1C8 2. /=0 N0306/0> 42/208
NI#+ 42/B #+I +7 YD8 :PQQ[; #+I +7 YD_ 31H= 9+9531/2+.
1 CangLok nll 0
2 ana[l 293 302
3 Shlmla nll 0
4 ondlcherry 2017 397
3 8lkaner 4123 643
6 8alpur 7478 1040
7 8huvaneshwar 3421 403
8 Chandlgarh 7236 731
9 Publluharwad 8407 868
10 CuwahaLl 3367 323
11 AmrlLsar 9903 913
12 1rlvandrum 7132 637
13 Madural 6361 337
14 Agra 4884 337
13 8hopal 11620 797
16 kochl 12742 701
17 aLna 16302 888
18 varanasl 12221 643
19 nagpur 10666 303
20 !alpur 12313 467
21 kanpur 3232 193
22 SuraL 19312 631
23 une 44390 1062
24 Ahmedabad 43863 739
23 Pyderabad 48898 766
26 Chennal 43016 642
27 8angalore 77373 897
28 uelhl 104747 736
29 kolkaLa 41946 283
30 Mumbal 136261 883
(Mouu reporL, 2008)


!2J5,0 KP 4+A91,28+. +7 *=,00D=0030, ".>0] +7 U1,2+58 42/208

1he auLo rlckshaw populaLlon ln selecLed clLles ls presenLed ln llgure 12. ClLles such as
CangLok and Shlmla do noL have auLo rlckshaws. lor oLher clLles, Lhe number of auLo
rlckshaws per 100,000 populaLlon ranges beLween 190 ln kanpur Lo 1,060 ln une. une
has Lhe hlghesL number of auLo rlckshaws per 100,000 populaLlon.
Also, from Lhe graph lL can be observed LhaL Lhere ls no parLlcular relaLlonshlp
beLween populaLlon (lndlrecLly Lhe slze of Lhe clLy) and Lhe avallablllLy of Lhreewheelers.
Ma[or meLro clLles generally have hlgher number of auLo rlckshaws compared Lo smaller
clLles because Lhey acL as a feeder servlce Lo publlc LransporL and also because of Lhe
endLoend servlce Lhey provlde, whlch ls noL always posslble for Lhe publlc LransporL. lL
ls observed LhaL clLles wlLhouL publlc LransporL have a hlgher number of l1 vehlcles.
Pence Lhe number of Lhreewheelers ln any clLy ls based on Lhe local condlLlons, llke
flnanclal opLlons and road lnfrasLrucLure. naLlonal pollcles are noL havlng a unlform
effecL LhroughouL Lhe counLry.
Powever, Lhe numbers glven here may noL accuraLely glve Lhe acLual number of
Lhreewheelers operaLlng on Lhe roads (8ef: AuLofuel pollcy sLudy, C88l). A large
percenLage of Lhe vehlcles reglsLered wlLh Lhe 81Cs were found Lo noL be operaLlng so
vehlcle ownershlp does noL necessarlly LranslaLe lnLo vehlcles on Lhe road.

City wise 3W Index
0
25
50
75
100
125
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Name of the City
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Average Index

VI[ *2A0 N0,208 ?1/1 +. *C+1.>*=,00D=0030, M+>0 N=1,0
1he daLa provlded here was collecLed durlng a research pro[ecL done by 18l, ll1
uelhl from 2002 Lo 2006. llve lnLersecLlons, among Lhe buslesL ln uelhl, were selecLed
from varlous parLs of Lhe clLy. A brlef lnLroducLlon Lo Lhe lmporLance of Lhese
lnLersecLlons, Lhelr connecLlng roads and Lhe landuse paLLern of Lhe area ls glven here.

$5,+E2.>+ "./0,806/2+.
Cn Auroblndo Marg, Lhe road along whlch Lhls lnLersecLlon ls placed, are some very
lmporLanL places ln uelhl. lew of Lhe lmporLanL ones are shopplng areas (uelhl ParL,
Creen ark) hosplLals (AllMS, Safdar[ung), educaLlonal lnsLlLuLlons (ll1 uelhl, nCL81),
resldenLlal areas (Pauz khas, Creen ark) and LourlsL spoLs (CuLab Mlnar).

b1l,1/ #2l1AA5>2. "./0,806/2+.
1hls crosslng ls on MaLhura road golng Loward nolda, MaLhura and Agra. 1hls [uncLlon ls
Lhe maln enLrance for nlzammudln 8allway SLaLlon and an ad[acenL a heavy resldenLlal
area.

"NG* 2./0,806/2+.
1hls lnLersecLlon ls on a busy rlng road ln norLh uelhl near Lhe lnLer SLaLe 8us 1ermlnal.
Cne of Lhe roads connecLs Sahadra ln LasL uelhl and Chazlabad Lo Lhe rlng road. 1he
uelhl unlverslLy campus also ls very near Lhls [uncLlon.

"*) 2./0,806/2+.
l1C has Lhe hlghesL volume aL Lhe correspondlng Llme lnLervals of Lhe flve selecLed
lnLersecLlons. 1hls area ls home Lo some very lmporLanL offlces llke uelhl ollce
PeadquarLers, uuA, lnsLlLuLe of Lnglneers and 1he 1lmes of lndla. WlLhln a 1.3kllomeLer
radlus of Lhe lnLersecLlon are lndla CaLe, ragaLl Maldan, Supreme CourL, uarya Can[,
uelhl CaLe, new uelhl 8allway sLaLlon, ConnaughL lace and ?amuna 8rldge, uelhl
SecreLarlaL and Lhe rlng road.

(5.d1E2 G1J= "./0,806/2+.
1hls crosslng ls on Lhe rlng road and ls used by commuLers golng Lo 8ohLak. A heavy
resldenLlal area LhaL creaLes hlgh Lrafflc volumes ls locaLed on boLh sldes of Lhe crosslng.


1he daLa collecLed durlng Lhe mornlng peak of 9 Lo 10 a.m. was analyzed. 1hese
lnLersecLlons are evenly spaced ouL around Lhe clLy, so lL ls unllkely LhaL durlng Lhe peak
hour, Lhe same vehlcles are counLed more Lhan once.
!2J5,0 KY glves Lhe varlaLlon of Lhe LoLal volume of Lwowheelers passlng Lhrough
Lhese secLlons durlng Lhe peak hour.

!2J5,0 KY (01H b+5, *C+D=0030, U+35A08 1/ /=0 !2@0 "./0,806/2+.8 N0306/0> 2. ?03=2

Source: 18l, ll1 uelhl

AL Lhree of Lhe flve lnLersecLlons consldered, Lhe Lwowheeler volumes conLlnuously
lncreased over Lhe flveyear perlod whlle aL lS81 lnLersecLlon, Lhe volume ln 2006
remalned almosL Lhe same as ln 2002. ln Lhe case of Lhe l1C lnLersecLlon, Lhe Lwo
wheeler volumes lncreased by abouL 2,000 veh/hr(4,324 Lo 6,873) from Lhe year 2002 Lo
2003 and have sllghLly reduced ln Lhe laLer years. 8uL l1C sLlll has Lhe hlghesL Lwo
wheelers among all Lhe lnLersecLlons, followed by un[abl 8agh.

Time Series Peak Hour 2W Volumes
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
Aurobindo Chowk H. Nizamuddin ISBT ITO Punjabi Bagh
Location
2
-
W
h
e
e
l
e
r

V
o
l
u
m
e
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

!2J5,0 KZ (01H b+5, *=,00D=0030, U+35A08 1/ /=0 !2@0 "./0,806/2+.8 N0306/0> 2. ?03=2

(18l, ll1 uelhl)

AL four of Lhe flve lnLersecLlons, Lhe number of Lhreewheelers conLlnuously lncreaslng
lncreased unLll 2003 and Lhen decrease ln 2006. 1hls can be aLLrlbuLed Lo Lhe age
resLrlcLlons and Lhe resLrlcLlon on Lhe LoLal number of Lhreewheelers ln Lhe sLaLe by Lhe
uelhl governmenL.
1he percenLage of LwoandLhreewheelers ln Lhe LoLal Lrafflc ls dlscussed ln Lhe
followlng secLlons. llgure 13 glves Lhe modal share of Lwowheelers aL Lhe flve
lnLersecLlons, ln Lhe flve years observed.

Time Series peak Hour 3W Volumes
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
Location
3
-
W
h
e
e
l
e
r

V
o
l
u
m
e
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

!2J5,0 K[ *C+D=0030, M+>13 N=1,08 1/ !2@0 "./0,806/2+.8 7+, !2@0 i01,8 2. ?03=2
(18l, ll1 uelhl)

1he sLudy revealed no paLLerns LhaL show Lhe modal share of Lwowheelers ls changlng
wlLh Llme. 1he Lhreewheeler modal shares are shown ln Lhe !2J5,0 KR.

2W Modal Share in Delhi
38
30
30
40
44
37
31
30
50
43
37
33
33
42 43
35
34
35
43
41
37
33
36
42
45
0
10
20
30
40
50
Location
%

2
W

i
n

T
r
a
f
f
i
c
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

!2J5,0 KR *=,00D=0030, M+>13 N=1,08 1/ !2@0 "./0,806/2+.8 )@0, !2@0 i01,8 2. ?03=2
(18l, ll1 uelhl)

1he sLudy shows Lhe modal share of Lhreewheelers ln Lrafflc has lncreased marglnally
over Lhe perlod of observaLlon. 1o geL Lhe overvlew of Lhe modal share Lrends of Lwo
wheelers and Lhreewheelers ln Lhe clLy, Lhelr average ls Laken for each year. 1he
average values of modal shares are presenLed ln Lhe followlng Lable.

*1E30 YP $@0,1J0 M+>13 N=1,0 +7 *C+1.>*=,00D=0030,8 1/ /=0 !2@0 "./0,806/2+.8
$@0,1J0
M+>13 N=1,0 i01, +7 )E80,@1/2+.
2002 2003 2004 2003 2006
e PD 36 38 38 38 38
e YD 10 10 11 13 12

1he Lwowheeler modal share remalned almosL consLanL LhroughouL Lhe sLudy whlle Lhe
share of Lhreewheelers has flucLuaLed wlLhln a range of 3.
ln concluslon, lL can be sald LhaL over Llme Lhe modal share of LwoandLhreewheelers,
ls sLaylng aL relaLlvely Lhe same proporLlon Lhough Lhe LoLal volume of vehlcles/ flow ls
lncreaslng.
3W Modal Share in Delhi
11
14
8
13
6
11
12
10
13
6
13
13
10
12
7
13
17
11
14
9
14
15
9
14
7
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
Location
%

3
W

i
n

T
r
a
f
f
i
c
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

VIR (5,9+80 D280 7+, *,298 7+, U1,2+58 M+>08
ln Lhls secLlon, daLa from four sample clLles uelhl, Pyderabad, une and aLna were
selecLed from four populaLlon caLegorles and analyzed Lo geL a plcLure of how Lrlps are
dlsLrlbuLed.
D+,H *,298
1he followlng Lable glves Lhe mode spllL of Lhe four clLles for work Lrlps.
*1E30 YY M+>0 N932/ 7+, /=0 D+,H *,298 +7 U1,2+58 42/208
42/B
(+9531/2+.
41/0J+,B
G58 41, P D YD 4B630 D13H *,12. *+/13
?03=2 >10 mllllon 14 17 PQ 10 18 4 18 100
bB>0,1E1> 310 mllllon 36 4 ZW 4 3 3 0 100
(5.0 23 mllllon 23 19 KK 3 19 7 16 100
(1/.1 12 mllllon 3 13 KW 3 13 41 3 100
Source: uM8C reporL: 8l1LS, 2001, 881S MasLer lan, une, rlmary SurveyaLna,
2009, Pyderabad MM1S 8eporL, L&1 8amboll

LxcepL ln une, Lwowheelers are Lhe preferred opLlon for Lrlps Lo work ln Lhe clLles
sLudled. 1hls can be aLLrlbuLed Lo Lhelr affordablllLy and Lhe varlous advanLages
menLloned ln secLlon 10.3 provlded by Lhe Lwowheelers.
'>561/2+. *,298
1he followlng Lable glves Lhe mode spllL of Lhe four clLles for educaLlon Lrlps.

*1E30 YZ M+>0 N932/ 7+, /=0 '>561/2+. *,298 +7 U1,2+58 42/208
42/B
(+9531/2+.
41/0J+,B
G58 41, P D YD 4B630 D13H *,12. *+/13
?03=2 >10 mllllon 13 3 2 PY 9 46 0 100
bB>0,1E1> 310 mllllon 62 2 21 \ 4 4 0 100
(5.0 23 mllllon 6 7 11 K\ 17 26 13 100
(1/.1 12 mllllon 31 3 7 PY 14 0 21 100
Source: uM8C reporL, 8l1LS, 2001, 881S MasLer lan, une, 2008 CM aLna, 2009,
Pyderabad MM1S 8eporL, L&1 8amboll

Among educaLlon Lrlps ln Pyderabad and aLna, school bus and publlc LransporL had Lhe
hlghesL usage, whereas ln uelhl and une, Lhreewheelers have Lhe hlghesL share. Lven

ln aLna, Lhe share of Lhreewheelers ls hlgh aL 23. 1hls ls because chlldren and
sLudenLs ln mosL lndlan clLles use Lhe same auLo rlckshaw when Lhey have slmllar orlglns
and desLlnaLlons.
N+6213 1.> &06,01/2+.13 *,298
All Lhe oLher Lrlps, aparL from work and educaLlon, are grouped lnLo soclal and
recreaLlonal Lrlps. 1he mode share of Lhese Lrlps ls glven ln Lhe Lable below.

*1E30 Y[ M+>0 N932/ 7+, /=0 N+6213 1.> &06,01/2+. *,298 +7 U1,2+58 42/208
42/B
(+9531/2+.
41/0J+,B
G58 41, P D YD 4B630 D13H *,12. *+/13
?03=2 >10 mllllon 18 21 9 22 4 3 24 100
bB>0,1E1> 310 mllllon 30 4 26 12 2 7 0 100
(5.0 23 mllllon 11 13 21 23 6 14 11 100
(1/.1 12 mllllon 14 19 13 17 13 0 20 100
Source: uM8C reporL, 8l1LS, 2001, 881S MasLer lan, une, 2008 CM aLna, 2009,
Pyderabad MM1S 8eporL, L&1 8amboll

ubllc LransporL use for soclal and recreaLlon Lrlps ls low whlle use of Lhreewheelers and
personallzed modes llke cars and Lwowheelers ls hlgh. 1hls ls because comforL ls Lhe
flrsL prlorlLy for soclal Lrlps and cosL ls secondary.

ln concluslon, Lhe daLa presenLed here lndlcaLes LhaL Lwowheelers malnly serve Lhose
golng Lo work, whlle Lhreewheelers are used for educaLlon, recreaLlon and shopplng.

KQ (1,H2.J
1hls secLlon dlscusses currenL parklng pollcles and governmenL plans, exlsLlng sLandards
and Lhelr drawbacks and Lhe recommendaLlons for fuLure work ln Lhls area.
KQIK (1,H2.J (+326B :#L*(;
1he followlng guldellnes seL ouL by Lhe MlnlsLry of urban 1ransporL ln Lhe naLlonal urban
1ransporL ollcy (nu1), acL as a broad framework wlLhln whlch parklng sLraLegles are
developed:
Levy a hlgh parklng fee LhaL Lruly represenLs Lhe value of Lhe land occupled Lo
make publlc LransporL more aLLracLlve
rovlde park and rlde faclllLles for blcycle users wlLh convenlenL lnLerchanges
Craded scale parklng fees should alm Lo recover Lhe cosL of landused for parklng
and elecLronlc meLerlng should be used wldely
SLaLe governmenLs should amend bulldlng bylaws ln all mllllon plus populaLed
clLles so LhaL adequaLe parklng space ls avallable
8ylaws should conLrol parklng ln resldenLlal areas
MulLllevel parklng complexes should be mandaLory ln clLy cenLers LhaL have
hlghrlse commerclal complexes and wlll be glven prlorlLy under Lhe naLlonal
urban renewal mlsslon (nu8M)

ln addlLlon Lo Lhe above guldellnes, a clLyspeclflc parklng pollcy ls also ouLllned below:
KQIP 42/B (1,H2.J (+326B
1he pollcy sLaLes LhaL each clLy should develop a comprehenslve moblllLy plan or
LransporL masLer plan LhaL lncludes a sLraLegy for parklng conLrols wlLhln Lhe clLy and
conforms Lo Lhe naLlonal pollcy ouLllned above. 1he followlng llsL provldes a
summary of componenLs Lyplcally used by clLles worldwlde. 1he deslgn of parklng
measures should conform Lo Lhe adopLed sLraLegy of Lhe clLy.
I+=N+(-(9. +/ N2%T&() .9%29-)?X
SLraLegy conslderlng locaLlon and landuse
CharacLerlsLlcs of onandoff sLreeL parklng
SelecLlon of onsLreeL parklng opLlons
oLenLlal for prlvaLe secLor lnvolvemenL
rlclng sLraLegles

AddlLlonal conslderaLlon

1he pollcy also menLlons LhaL parklng conLrols are an effecLlve Lool for resLrlcLlng
excesslve use of prlvaLe cars. ubllc LransporL and nonmoLorlzed LransporL (nM1s) for
shorLer Lrlps can be encouraged by resLrlcLlng Lhe number of parklng spaces. no Lwo
wheeler and Lhreewheeler parklng sLraLegy ls expllclLly proposed buL lL ls undersLood
LhaL Lhe pollcy LllLs more Loward encouraglng publlc LransporL (of whlch Lhreewheelers
are a subseL and acL as lnLermedlaLe publlc LransporL (l1). Powever, no speclflc sLance
Lo encourage or dlscourage Lwowheelers ls Laken. Slnce cars and Lwowheelers are boLh
prlvaLe modes of LransporL, lL ls undersLood LhaL boLh are encouraged Lo a lesser
degree..
l8C S 12:1973 glves Lhe "1enLaLlve 8ecommendaLlons on Lhe rovlslon of arklng
Spaces for urban Area." Cnly Lhe area Lo be earmarked for parklng ln varlous landuse
Lypes are speclfled buL Lhe proporLlon of parklng area for LransporL modes ls noL
speclfled. 1he equlvalenL car space (LCS) ls menLloned for varlous vehlcles as provlded ln
Lhe Lable below.

*1E30 YR 'f52@130./ 41, N9160 :'4N; EB *B90 +7 U0=2630
U0=2630 *B90 '4N
Car / 1axl 1
Lwowheeler 0.23
AuLo 8lckshaw 0.3
8lcycle 0.1
Source: Mouu Culdellnes, !une 2008.

1hls lnherenLly assumes LhaL Lhe amounL of parklng provlded wlll be locaLlon speclflc and
ls lefL Lo Lhe dlscreLlon of Lhe parklng provlder Lo dlvlde Lhe land for varlous modes.
Powever, Lhls may lead Lo a dlsproporLlonaLe allocaLlon of land. Also, all parklng
sLandards are recommended ln Lerms of car spaces provlded as parL of Lhe bullL up area.
ln a counLry where fewer Lhan 13 of Lhe populaLlon own cars, Lhls may lead Lo over
esLlmaLlon of requlred parklng area.
KQIY #0C U0=2630 (1,H2.J N6=0A08-
1he nu1 seLs ouL speclflc sLeps lnvolved from plannlng Lo execuLlon of a new parklng
scheme. 1hls lncludes:
a. SLudles Lo evaluaLe Lhe sulLablllLy of a scheme

b. SLeps lnvolved ln Lhe deslgn process
c. llnanclal opLlons for new parklng places

1hese sLeps have been explalned ln deLall ln Lhe followlng secLlons:
(Mouu Culdellnes, 2008)

KI N/5>208 /+ E0 4+.>56/0> /+ '@1351/0 /=0 N52/1E232/B +7 1 (1,H2.J N6=0A0

1he followlng checkllsL may be used Lo assess Lhe sulLablllLy of a parklng scheme (?\n).

ls Lhe number of onsLreeL parklng spaces approprlaLe Lo encourage
publlc LransporL use and Lo promoLe an aLLracLlve pedesLrlan envlronmenL?

ls Lhe number of offsLreeL parklng spaces sufflclenL Lo provlde a balance
where Lhere ls a reducLlon ln onsLreeL spaces?

Are publlc offsLreeL parklng faclllLles locaLed wlLhln an accepLable walklng
dlsLance of acLual desLlnaLlons? (for shorLsLay parklng - l.e. less Lhen four
hours - accepLable walklng dlsLance rarely exceed 300 meLers.)

ls prlorlLy glven Lo resldenLs and shorL sLay parklng? (CompuLer parklng can
be accommodaLed, buL lL should noL be aL Lhe expense of resldenLs and shorL
sLay vlslLors.)

uoes Lhe parklng scheme dlvlde Lhe clLy lnLo coherenL zones, wlLh regulaLlon
approprlaLe Lo Lhe parLlcular clrcumsLances of each zone (l.e. Lhe sLrlcLesL
regulaLlons are usually requlred ln areas wlLh Lhe hlghesL parklng volumes).

ls Lhe regulaLlon and Larlff for publlc onsLreeL parklng hlgher Lhan for
offsLreeL parklng?

ls Lhere adequaLe enforcemenL Lo ensure compllance wlLh Lhe parklng
regulaLlons?



PI N/098 2.@+3@0> 2. /=0 >082J. 9,+6088 +7 1 @0=2630 91,H2.J 86=0A0

1he selecLlon and subsequenL deslgn of an approprlaLe clLy parklng scheme requlres a
number of sLages, summarlzed below. ln each of Lhe sLeps, Lhe headlng lndlcaLes Lhe
work Lo be done and Lhe polnLs below lL lndlcaLe Lhe basls upon whlch Lhe work ls Lo be
done:

SLep 1: ulagnose Lhe exlsLlng slLuaLlon
a. arklng supply lnvenLory
b. arklng uLlllzaLlon sLudy
c. uemand analysls and pro[ecLlons

SLep 2 Conslder poLenLlal measures
a. Supply measures
b. uemand measures

SLep 3 SelecL approprlaLe measures
a. Comprehenslve moblllLy plan

SLep 4 ueslgn approprlaLe measures
a. ConsulL wlLh sLakeholders

YI !2.1.6213 )9/2+.8 7+, #0C (1,H2.J (31608
ubllc prlvaLe parLnershlps () are belng explored as aLLracLlve opLlons Lo hlgh cosL,
mulLllevel parklng ln clLy cenLers when Lhe munlclpallLy alone cannoL meeL consLrucLlon,
developmenL and malnLenance needs. ln Lhls model, a prlvaLe enLlLy obLalns Lhe rlghL
from a governmenL agency Lo provlde a servlce under markeL condlLlons. 1he
arrangemenL allows asseL ownershlp Lo remaln ln publlc hands, buL new lnvesLmenLs ln
addlLlon Lo operaLlon and malnLenance becomes Lhe responslblllLy of Lhe prlvaLe
operaLor.

1he above pracLlces are for new parklng provlslons. ln already developed parklng areas
whlch owned by Lhe munlclpallLles, Lhe operaLlon and malnLenance work ls already belng
leased Lo prlvaLe enLlLles many clLles.

KQIZ ']28/2.J 9,16/2608 1.> ?,1CE16H8
l8C S 12 glves "1enLaLlve 8ecommendaLlons on Lhe rovlslon of arklng Spaces
for urban Areas." lL speclfles Lhe space for dlfferenL landuses ln Lerms of square meLers
or car spaces. 1he followlng are Lhe parklng spaces recommended for dlfferenL land
uses.

K &082>0./213
:2; ?0/16=0>O 80A2>0/16=0> 1.> ,+C =+5808-
loL area up Lo 100 square meLers no prlvaLe or communlLy parklng space requlred
loL area from 101 Lo 200 square
meLers
Cnly communlLy parklng space requlred
meLer
Cnly communlLy parklng space requlred
meLers
Mlnlmum oneLhlrd of Lhe open area should be
earmarked for parklng
loL area from 301 Lo 1,000
square meLers
Mlnlmum onefourLh of Lhe open area should be
loL area from 1,001 square
meLers and above
Mlnlmum oneslxLh of Lhe open area should be
:22; !31/8
Cne space for every Lwo flaLs of 30 Lo 99 square meLers or more of floor area.
Cne space for every flaL havlng 100 square meLers or more of floor area.

:222; N906213O 6+8/3B >0@03+90> 1,01-
Cne space for every flaL of 30 Lo 100 square meLers of floor area.
Cne and a half spaces for every flaL of 100 Lo 130 square meLers of floor area.
1wo spaces for every flaL of above a 130 square meLers of floor area

:2@; M53/28/+,20>O J,+59 =+582.J 86=0A08-
Cne space for every four dwelllngs, excepL ln clLles llke kolkaLa and Mumbal where Lhe
demand may be more
(l8C S 12)

P )772608 Cne space for every 70 square meLers of floor area.

Y ".>58/,213 (,0A2808 Cne space for up Lo 200 square meLers of lnlLlal floor area.
AddlLlonal spaces aL Lhe raLe of one for every subsequenL 200 square meLers or fracLlon
Lhereof.
Z N=+98 1.> M1,H0/8 Cne space for every 80 square meLers of floor area.
[ &08/15,1./8 Cne space for every 10 seaLs
R *=01/,08 1.> 42.0A18 Cne space for every 20 seaLs
\ b+/038 1.> M+/038
(l) llve and lour sLar hoLels Cne space for every four guesL rooms
(ll) 1hree sLar hoLels Cne space for every elghL guesL rooms
(lll) 1wo sLar hoLels Cne space for every 10 guesL rooms
(lv) MoLels Cne space for every 10 beds

lL ls also speclfled LhaL Lhe mlnlmum car parklng space ls 3m*6m, when lndlvldual
parklng space ls requlred and 2.3m*3m when parklng loLs for communlLy parklng are
requlred. 1he Lruck space ls speclfled aL a mlnlmum of 3.73m*7.3m. no oLher space
requlremenLs are speclfled.
1he scope of Lhe book lLself sLaLes LhaL 1he recommendaLlons are only LenLaLlve
and reasonable relaxaLlon from Lhese may be allowed ln parLlcular clrcumsLances". As a
resulL Lhe enforcemenL of Lhese guldellnes ls dlfflculL.
no daLa exlsLs on segregaLlng parklng space beLween cars and Lwowheelers. .
lurLher research ls needed before concludlng wheLher lL ls done accordlng Lo some
prlnclple or based on Lhe [udgmenL of Lhe parklng spaces' owner.
KQI[ &06+AA0.>1/2+.8 7+, !5/5,0 (1,H2.J N/5>208
ln concluslon, parklng ls one area ln whlch very llLLle research has been done.
1herefore, llLLle evldence ls avallable abouL condlLlons on Lhe ground, Lhe problems
faced by people, auLhorlLles and Lhe ones wlLh llcenses of parklng spaces. lL ls sLrongly
recommended LhaL a research pro[ecL looklng aL parklng lssues ln clLles wlLh varylng
populaLlon, slze and oLher such local lssues should be Laken up as early as posslble.


KK #+280 (+335/2+. 1.> 4+./,+3 *06=.+3+J208
1hls secLlon Lakes up nolse leglslaLlons and sLandards ln lndla, how well Lhey are belng
lmplemenLed and posslble ways Lo reduce nolse polluLlon levels.
KKIK %0J2831/2+.8 +. #+280 4+./,+3 2. ".>21
lollowlng are varlous laws ln lndla relaLed Lo nolse conLrol.
K '.@2,+.A0./13 :(,+/06/2+.; $6/O KVWR :#+280 %2A2/8 7+, M+/+, U0=26308 :,0@282+.;
PQQQ;
P $2, :(,0@0./2+. < 4+./,+3 +7 (+335/2+.; $6/O KVWK
Y !16/+,208 $6/O KVZW
Z M+/+, U0=26308 $6/O KVWW
N06/2+. KKV speclfles LhaL every moLor vehlcle be flLLed wlLh an elecLrlc horn and
any mulLlLoned horns LhaL produce shrlll, loud or alarmlng nolses are noL
permlsslble under law. 8uL Lhls law ls noL enforced properly
N06/2+. KPQ requlres LhaL every moLor vehlcle be flLLed
WlLh a muffler devlce whlch reduces Lhe nolse LhaL would oLherwlse made by
escape of exhausL gases from Lhe englne.
lL also speclfles LhaL every moLor vehlcle shall be so consLrucLed and malnLalned
as Lo conform Lo Lhe nolse sLandards for moLor vehlcles.
[ ".>21. (0.13 4+>0 X N06/2+.8 PRWO PVQ < PVK
R 4,2A2.13 (,+60>5,0 4+>0 X N06/2+. KYY
\ %1C +7 *+,/8
W %+613 $6/8_ &5308 ,0J531/2.J 3+5> 8901H0,8 0/6I

Among all Lhe regulaLlons ln Lhe above menLloned leglslaLlons, Lhe one's whlch are
relevanL Lo Lhls sLudy are explalned below.
KKIP $AE20./ #+280 N/1.>1,>8 :#+280 &5308O PQQQ 1.> 2/8
$A0.>A0./8;
#+280 N/1.>1,>8 7+, U1,2+58 %1.>580 >0@03+9A0./8
ln Lhese sLandards, varlous areas have been caLegorlzed by landuse and
lndlvldual llmlLs.



*1E30 Y\ #+280 %2A2/8 7+, U1,2+58 %1.>580 (1//0,.8
41/0J+,B +7 $,01 _
m+.0
%2A2/8 2. >G:$; %0f
?1B /2A0 #2J=/ /2A0
lndusLrlal area 73 70
Commerclal area 63 33
8esldenLlal area 33 43
Sllence Zone 30 40
noLe:
1. uay Llme shall mean from 6 a.m. Lo 10 p.m.
2. nlghL Llme shall mean from 10 p.m. Lo 6 a.m.
3. Sllence zone ls an area comprlslng noL less Lhan 100 meLers around
hosplLals, educaLlonal lnsLlLuLlons and courLs, rellglous places or any oLher
area whlch ls declared as such by Lhe compeLenL auLhorlLy.
4. Mlxed caLegorles of areas may be declared as one of Lhe four
above menLloned caLegorles by Lhe compeLenL auLhorlLy.
(Source: www.cpcb.nlc.ln)
#+280 %2A2/8 7+, U0=26308 1/ M1.5716/5,2.J N/1J0
1he followlng Lable glves Lhe nolse llmlLs speclfled for LwoandLhreewheelers as a
funcLlon of Lhelr englne capaclLles. 1hese llmlLs are speclfled Lo dlscourage users from
operaLlng vehlcles wlLhouL proper muffler sysLems.

*1E30 YW #+280 %2A2/8 7+, *C+D=0030,8 1.> *=,00D=0030,8 +7 ?2770,0./ '.J2.0 *B908
N3I .+I *B90 +7 @0=26308 #+280 32A2/8 >E:1;
1 1wowheelers
1.1 ulsplacemenL up Lo 80 cc 73
1.2 ulsplacemenL more Lhan 80 cc buL up Lo 173 cc 77
1.3 ulsplacemenL more Lhan 173 cc 80
2 1hreewheelers
2.1 ulsplacemenL up Lo 173 cc 77
2.2 ulsplacemenL more Lhan 173 cc 80
(www.cpcb.nlc.ln)


LxLenslve checks need Lo be carrled ouL as Lo wheLher Lhese llmlLs are enforced. Lven
Lhough naLlonwlde daLa ls unavallable, Lhere are some numbers from varlous hosplLal
locaLlons ln uelhl. 1he peak hour levels Lhere are presenLed below.

*1E30 YV #+280 %0@038 #01, b+892/138 2. ?03=2
%+61/2+.
#+280 30@03 :>G;
>1B
#+280 30@038 :>G;
.2J=/
AllMS 87 77
!al rakash narayan
hosplLal 83 103
kalawaLl Saran hosplLal 83 103
Curu 1eg 8ahadur hosplLal 82 102
ur 8ML hosplLal 71
Safdar[ung hosplLal 88
Ln! hosplLal 80 90
Mool Chand hosplLal 60 69
(www.cpcb.nlc.ln2007)

PosplLals come under sllence zones so nolse levels Lhere should noL exceed 30 declbels
durlng Lhe day and 40 declbels aL nlghL. Powever, Lhe acLual levels observed are hlgher
durlng Lhe nlghL and ln boLh Llme perlods are greaLer Lhan Lhe prescrlbed llmlLs aL all Lhe
locaLlons. 1he hlgher nolse levels aL nlghL can be aLLrlbuLed Lo lncreased movemenL of
heavy vehlcles (Lrucks, Lrallers, eLc.), whlch are banned ln Lhe clLy durlng Lhe day. 1hls
shows LhaL Lhe nolse llmlLs are noL belng observed and furLher reducLlon ln Lhe nolse
produced by Lrafflc ls Lo be achleved. 1he followlng secLlon dlscusses Lhe conLrol
measures LhaL can be adopLed ln Lhls regard.
KKIY #+280 4+./,+3 1.> &0J531/2+. (,+60>5,08
8educLlon ln Lhe amblenL nolse levels can be achleved by Lhe followlng measures:

$>@1.60> .+280 6+./,+3 /06=.+3+J208 2. @0=26308
varlous Lechnlques for nolse conLrol are avallable and should be consldered aL Lhe deslgn
sLage. MosL nolse sources (excepL for aerodynamlc nolse) are assoclaLed wlLh vlbraLlng
surfaces. Pence Lhe conLrol of vlbraLlon ls an lmporLanL parL of any nolse conLrol
program.


G0//0, 0.7+,60A0./ +7 .+280 31C8
SLrlcLer laws for nolse levels, Lhe lssuance of more polluLlon cerLlflcaLes Lo vlolaLors and
greaLer enforcemenL of Lhese laws are requlred


KP (+326B &06+AA0.>1/2+.8
1hls secLlon dlscusses Lhe recommendaLlons on Lhe mlx of pollcles needed Lo promoLe
safe and efflclenL Lwowheeler use ln urban seLLlngs of lndla. 1hls secLlon ls based on
oplnlons collecLed by experLs lnvolved ln research on lssues relaLed Lo Lwowheelers and
Lhreewheelers and ls presenLed under Lwo headlngs, one abouL Lhe safe and efflclenL
use of Lwowheelers and one for Lhe safe and efflclenL use of Lhreewheelers.
KPIK N170 1.> '772620./ L80 +7 *C+D=0030,8
N170 L80 +7 *C+D=0030,8
ollcles recommended Lo lmprove Lhe safeLy of Lwowheeler users are:
1I #+/27261/2+. +7 b03A0/ %1C 2. 133 N/1/08
PelmeL laws fall under Lhe [urlsdlcLlon of sLaLe governmenLs. And noL all sLaLes have noL
have declared LhaL helmeL usage ls mandaLory. Lven ln sLaLes where lL ls mandaLed, lL
applles only for Lhe drlvers buL noL for Lhe pllllon rlders. 8esearch shows LhaL helmeLs
greaLly reduce Lhe probablllLy of a faLallLy ln Lwowheeler crashes (WPC 8eporL, 2004).
Pence, lL ls recommended LhaL helmeL laws be mandaLory for boLh drlvers and
passengers ln all sLaLes.
EI N0J,0J1/2+. +7 b01@B *,17726
ln urban mlxed Lrafflc condlLlons, Lwowheelers have Lhe mosL confllcLs wlLh buses
(1able 21). 1hls can be aLLrlbuLed Lo Lhe dlfference ln mass beLween Lhe Lwo vehlcles.
1herefore, lL ls recommended LhaL separaLe bus lanes are provlded wherever posslble Lo
reduce confllcLs.
6I ?1B/2A0 b01>32J=/ L81J0 7+, *C+D=0030,8
8esearch shows LhaL Lurnlng on Lhe headllghLs durlng day reduces road Lrafflc crashes
(WPC 8eporL, 2004) and hence Lhls rule ls recommended Lo be lmplemenLed ln lndla.
>I M1H2.J *C+D=0030,8 M+,0 U282E30
1wowheelers are less dlscernlble aL nlghL, a facL LhaL leads Lo accldenLs. SLeps Laken Lo
lmprove Lhls are llkely Lo make Lhem safer.
0I ?286+5,1J2.J G2JJ0, '.J2.0 N2l08 EB b2J=0, *1]1/2+.
1he moLorcycle sales Lrends show LhaL more and more new vehlcles are belng sold wlLh
hlgher englne powers (lyer, 2008). Plgher powered englnes lead Lo hlgher speeds and
are llkely Lo cause more accldenLs and greaLer poLenLlal cosL Lo Lhe socleLy. 1he currenL
LaxaLlon sysLem does noL have dlfferenL Laxes for dlfferenL englne slzes. 8y levylng
progresslvely lncreaslng Laxes wlLh lncrease ln englne slzes, Lhls can be overcome Lo

some exLenL, assumlng LhaL hlgher Laxes dlscourage people from golng for hlgher
powered englnes.
7I *,17726 413A2.J
1rafflc calmlng aL locaLlons wlLh a hlgh lncldence of accldenLs leads Lo lower speeds and
less probablllLy of accldenLs. 1hls ls recommended Lo be lmplemenLed aL as many crlLlcal
locaLlons as posslble.
JI (,+J,0882@0 ".6,0180 2. /=0 L80 +7 ?28H G,1H08
ulsk brakes are a superlor Lechnology Lo drum brakes, whlch are Lhe mosL commonly
used brakes ln lndla. ulsk brakes are currenLly used only ln some hlgh end moLorcycles,
probably due Lo cosL consLralnLs. Superlor braklng Lechnology leads Lo reduced
accldenLs. rogresslve lnLroducLlon of dlsk brake sysLems ln all Lhe moLorcycles ls
recommended.
=I "./,+>56/2+. +7 4=23>,0.n8 b03A0/8
AL presenL, only adulL helmeLs are avallable ln Lhe markeL leavlng chlldren wlLh no
opLlon. Measures Lo lnLroduce chlldslzed helmeLs wlll reduce faLallLles among chlldren.
'772620./ L80 +7 *C+D=0030,8
1he currenL occupancy value of cars ln aLna (populaLlon ln Lhe range of 1 Lo 2 mllllon) ls
2.03, whlle LhaL of Lwowheelers wlLh a Cu value of 0.3 Lo 0.73 has an occupancy value
of 1.30 (Source: rlmary Survey). 1he values of oLher clLles follow a slmllar paLLern. 1hls
lndlcaLes a more efflclenL usage of road space by Lhe Lwowheelers. Lven aL slgnallzed
lnLersecLlons, durlng red Llmes, lL ls common Lo flnd Lwowheelers weavlng Lhrough Lhe
gaps beLween blgger vehlcles Lo come Lo Lhe sLarL of Lhe queue and Lhey are Lhe flrsL Lo
clear Lhe queue durlng green Llmes as a consequence. 1hls ls anoLher lnsLance of
efflclenL space uLlllzaLlon by Lhe Lwowheelers.
ln Lhls way lndlvldual Lwowheelers are already uslng Lhe avallable road space
efflclenLly. lf Lhe lssue ls beLLer use of road space, Lhe soluLlon can be of Lwo Lypes:
1I &0>562.J *C+D=0030, L81J0
ollcles almed aL reduclng Lhe usage of Lwowheelers alLogeLher and promoLlng publlc
and nonmoLorlzed LransporL as an alLernaLlve ls Lhe besL ldea. CurrenLly, Lwowheelers
chlef advanLages are Lhelr endLoend servlce and Lhe Lravel Llme Lhey save. rovldlng
good pedesLrlan and nonmoLorlzed vehlcle (nMv) lnfrasLrucLure, llke fooLpaLhs and
blcycle Lracks (currenLly nonexlsLenL ln mosL of Lhe clLles), ls llkely Lo provlde Lhe same
advanLages as Lwowheelers. 1hls would aLLracL some of Lhe Lrlps currenLly made by Lwo
andLhreewheelers Lo nonmoLorlzed modes. 1he Lrlps sLlll made by Lwowheelers are
Lhe ones Lhe user flnds beLLer even afLer Lhe nMv faclllLles. 1he nMv faclllLles are llkely

Lo shlfL shorL Lrlps, whlle long Lrlps can be shlfLed from Lwowheelers by provldlng a
rellable and efflclenL publlc LransporL sysLem.
EI (,+A+/2.J *C+D=0030,8 18 1. $3/0,.1/2@0 /+ 41,8
1he second besL opLlon ls Lo promoLlng Lwowheelers as an alLernaLlve Lo cars. ln Lhe
presenL scenarlo cars and Lwowheelers caLer Lo Lwo dlfferenL nlche markeLs and sLeps
should be ldenLlfled and lmplemenLed Lo converL aL leasL some of Lhe car users Lo Lwo
wheelers .
6I "A9,+@0> *,17726 M1.1J0A0./
>8K 3".$)* "#7 7)*-6# 6$-7).-#)*
As explalned ln ChapLer 3, Lhe exlsLlng Cu values and deslgn pracLlces followed ln
lndla are erroneous and a deLalled sLudy of ways Lo correcL Lhem needs Lo be
underLaken.
50"7 "#7 /#')(*)&'-0# '("%%-& 4"#"6)4)#'
under Lhe exlsLlng sysLem, normal Lrafflc englneerlng duLles llke slgnal sysLems aL
lnLersecLlons and Lrafflc clrculaLlons aL roLarles, eLc. are lefL Lo Lhe Lrafflc pollce. 1hls
resulLs ln subopLlmal usage of urban road space. 1hese pracLlces need Lo be revlewed
Lhoroughly and new and efflclenL pracLlces should be lnLroduced.
>I (1,H2.J "88508
arklng ls a problemaLlc lssue ln lndlan clLles. And proper sclenLlflc sLudles are few.
racLlces more sulLed Lo lndlan Lrafflc condlLlons need Lo be developed lf Lhe road space
for Lwowheelers ls Lo be used more efflclenLly.
0I (+326208 /+ &0>560 'A2882+.8
'A2882+. 8/1.>1,>8 E180> 9+326208- 1hls Loplc has been dlscussed separaLely for old
and new vehlcles.
#0C U0=26308
Lmlsslon sLandards for new vehlcles (based on a Lype approval process) Lend Lo be Lhe
drlvlng force Lo sLlmulaLe cleaner vehlcle Lechnologles. Lxperlence, boLh ln and ouLslde
Asla, demonsLraLes LhaL Lhls ls Lhe mosL effecLlve meLhod Lo reduce average emlsslons
over Llme. 1here ls a need Lo consLanLly upgrade Lechnology Lo lmprove efflclency of
Lwowheelers.
lnLroducLlon of new Lechnologles should nelLher be accompllshed Lhrough promoLlon
nor Lhrough a ban on speclflc Lechnologles. lnLroducLlon should be achleved Lhrough
o*06=.+3+JB !+,62.Jh sLandards for emlsslons and fuel efflclency wlLh due conslderaLlon
Lo cosLbeneflL raLlos. 1hls helps lndusLry flnd ways Lo lmprove lLs Lechnology Lo malnLaln
Lhe sLandards. Powever, emlsslonbased measures are more dlfflculL Lo monlLor Lhan
Lechnologybased opLlons.

new sLandards should be h7503.05/,13O" l.e. Lhe same for all fuels and globally
harmonlzed as far as posslble. 1hls helps users selecL Lhelr preferred fuel Lype whlle
conformlng Lo Lhe sLandards. lncreased efforLs are requlred Lo adopL alLernaLlve
propulslon sysLems and fuels.
SLrlcLer emlsslon sLandards are apparenLly pushlng lndlan manufacLurers Lo bulld more
foursLroke englne vehlcles, Lhough changlng cusLomer proflles and preferences have
also played a parL.
".L80 U0=26308
1here ls a need Lo Lake urgenL sLeps Lowards lnLroduclng effecLlve ".8906/2+. <
M12./0.1.60 :"<M; sysLems for Lwowheelers (see dlscusslon of currenL drawbacks ln
SecLlon 4.3). Where Lhese sysLems exlsL buL are noL effecLlve, lmprovemenLs should be
soughL and based on Lhe effecLlve sysLem currenLly used ln counLrles llke 1alwan.
lmplemenLaLlon of l&M sysLem and oLher lnuse vehlcle managemenL sysLems should be
backed up by progresslvely reflned flscal lnsLrumenLs. SLeps need Lo be Laken Lo reduce
nolse emlsslons, Lhe one lssue whlch ls mosL neglecLed.
vehlcle lnspecLlon wlll be lneffecLlve lf Lhe vehlcles LhaL fall are noL repalred prompLly.
1he avallablllLy of adequaLely equlpped and Lralned mechanlcs, whlch are ln shorL supply
due Lo Lhe lnLroducLlon of lncreaslngly sophlsLlcaLed foursLroke Lechnologles, ls a
prerequlslLe for a successful l&M program,
lL ls necessary Lo ensure LhaL 75038 1.> 35E,261./8 (parLlcularly for LwosLroke englnes)
should be of speclfled quallLy and wlLhouL adulLeraLlon. SoluLlons such as phaslng ouL,
upgradlng and converslon of old vehlcles Lo alLernaLlve fuels, appear Lo have llmlLed
posslblllLles and may be used Lo speclflc locaLlons and condlLlons.

*06=.+3+JBG180> (+326208
1he followlng Lechnology based pollcles are recommended Lo reduce emlsslons.
a2( 91+.9%+T- -()&(-. )%-29-% 942( #L ?-2%. +63 /%+= 8%K2( 2%-2.X
1hls has been Laken up ln uelhl for Lhreewheelers. 1wosLroke englnes polluLe more
Lhan foursLroke englnes, a slLuaLlon LhaL lncreases wlLh age.. Slnce bannlng Lwo sLroke
englnes would deny polnLLopolnL access for mllllons of people, older vehlcles whlch
polluLe more are recommended Lo be excluded. ln uelhl, Lhe dlesel/peLrol uslng Lhree
wheelers havlng an age greaLer Lhan 10 years were banned ln March 2000 and are
mandaLed Lo use cleaner fuels. A slmllar pollcy for Lwowheelers can be Laken up ln
urban areas, where Lhe concenLraLlon of emlsslons wlll be hlgh Lo reduce Lhelr emlsslons.


a2( V-1 01+M9%+T- F()&(- S-4&,6-.
1hls ls llkely Lo have less socloeconomlc lmpacL Lhan bannlng all such vehlcles, slnce Lhe
cosL dlfference beLween new Lwoand foursLroke englnes ls noL slgnlflcanL. lf operaLlng
and malnLenance cosLs are lncluded, Lhe cosL of LwosLroke englne may even be more
Lhan a foursLroke englne.
All Lhe above meLhods are besL pursued lf Lhe followlng condlLlons are meL:
l. AlLernaLlves for Lhe vehlcles belng removed are readlly avallable and markeL
LesLed.
ll. 1hese alLernaLlves are affordable, whlch may requlre Lhe lowerlng or ellmlnaLlon
of lmporL duLles or oLher Laxes on new vehlcles and
lll. SufflclenL credlL exlsLs for vehlcle owners and drlvers Lo flnance Lhe purchase of
Lhe newer vehlcles.
'6+.+A26 1.> !28613 2.8/,5A0./8
WheLher or noL Lechnology speclflc measures are adopLed, economlc pollcy opLlons exlsL
Lo encourage removal of older and more polluLlng vehlcles from polluLed clLles. 1hese
opLlons are dlscussed below:
02A &(,-(9&'-. /+% '-4&,6- %-(-126
1he sLrucLures of Laxes and oLher vehlcle charges, such as annual reglsLraLlon fees,
should be carefully revlewed and revlsed lf necessary where such sLrucLures do noL
capLure Lhe cosL of polluLlon. lor example, Lhe lmporL Larlffs or sales Laxes on cleaner
alLernaLlves Lo Lhreewheelers (wheLher new vehlcles or parLs for vehlcle reLroflLLlng)
should noL be so hlgh as Lo dlscourage Lhelr purchase slnce Lhe publlc healLh beneflLs Lo
be galned are hlgh. Slmllarly, Lhe annual reglsLraLlon fees based solely on Lhe markeL
value of Lhe vehlcle, raLher Lhan on markeL value and polluLlon emlLLed, would be Loo
low Lo dlscourage Lhe use of older vehlcles ln urban areas. ln assesslng each of Lhese
measures Lhe pollcy makers need Lo welgh Lhe socloeconomlc cosL of maklng lL more
expenslve Lo own old vehlcles agalnsL Lhe healLh beneflLs of reduclng vehlcular
emlsslons.
I%-3&9 2'2&62K&6&9? /+% %-N62,&() +63 '-4&,6-.
CovernmenL help Lo ensure Lhe avallablllLy of credlL Lhrough regular credlL and mlcro
credlL markeLs Lo faclllLaLe Lhe replacemenL of older LwosLroke englnes or auLo
rlckshaws wlLh cleaner ones ls llkely Lo encourage Lhe process. 1hls provldes an lncenLlve
Lo people ownlng older vehlcles Lo swlLch Lo newer and cleaner vehlcles.
(lyer, 2008, 1woandLhreewheelers, Source book, 2009)

KPIP N170 1.> '772620./ L80 +7 *=,00D=0030,8
laLallLy raLes show LhaL Lravelllng ln a Lhreewheeler ls very safe compared Lo a Lwo
wheeler. 1he vehlcle's deslgn makes lL sLable whlle on Lhe move.
-W !1,0 N/,56/5,0
An exacL fare sLrucLure for Lhreewheelers ls noL formulaLed or properly lmplemenLed ln
many of Lhe clLles ln lndla. Lven where Lhey are puL lnLo pracLlce, grlevances llke noL
upgradlng fare prlces wlLh fuel prlces crop up and some operaLors charge accordlng Lo
whaL Lhe,y percelve as reasonable. 1herefore, people belleve Lhe operaLors are
dlshonesL and always charge more LhaL whaL ls reasonable. (Mohan eL al., 2003)
--W &0@20C2.J /=0 %2A2/ "A9+80> +. *=,00D=0030,8
uelhl seeks Lo reduce congesLlon by seLLlng a llmlL Lo Lhe LoLal number of Lhreewheelers
permlLLed Lo ply Lhe roads. Powever, such llmlLs are noL lmposed on any oLher vehlcle
Lype even Lhough Lhey also conLrlbuLe Lo congesLlon. Also, demand for Lhreewheelers as
a paraLranslL ls also lncreaslng wlLh Lhe populaLlon whlle supply remalns consLanL. So,
Lhe raLlonale behlnd Lhls needs Lo be revlewed. lf Lhe emlsslons caused by Lhe Lhree
wheelers are Lhe reason for Lhe ban, Lhen Lhe llmlL musL be ln Lerms of Lhe emlsslons
caused or Lhe Lechnology used by an lndlvldual vehlcle.
---W (+326208 /+ &0>560 'A2882+.8
1he same pollcles explalned for Lwowheeler emlsslon reducLlons ln secLlon 13.1.2 can
be applled reduce emlsslons even ln Lhe case of Lhreewheelers.

KY &070,0.608
1. Arasan 1. and krlshnamurLhy k., (2008) LffecL of Lrafflc volume on Cu of vehlcles
under heLerogeneous Lrafflc condlLlons" 8oad & 1ransporL 8esearch, volume 17
number 1, pp. 3249
2. Annual 8eporL (2008) Annual 8eporL 20072008" ueparLmenL of 8oad 1ransporL and
Plghways, MlnlsLry or Shlpplng, 8oad 1ransporL and Plghways, new uelhl
3. 8erLraud, A., (2002). 1he economlc lmpacL of land and urban plannlng regulaLlons ln
lndla", unpubllshed manuscrlpL accesslble aL: hLLp://www.alaln
berLaud.com/lmages/A8_20lndla_20urban_Land_8eform.doc. (accessed ln
!anuary, 2009)
4. oulmenslons and WelghLs of 8oad deslgn vehlcles" l8C 31983
3. CeomeLrlc ueslgn SLandards for urban 8oads ln lalns" l8C 861983
6. Ceorge S., !ha 8., nagara[an P.k., (2001) 1he LvoluLlon and SLrucLure of Lhe 1wo
wheeler lndusLry ln lndla" !ournal of Lconomlc LlLeraLure
7. hLLp://www.arallndla.com/cmvr_Lap.aspx (accessed ln May, 2009)
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e. AnumlLa 8oychowdhury, CenLre for Sclence and LnvlronmenL, new uelhl

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