77305

23 2012


. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3
3

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
). . . . . . . . (Jean le Rond d'Alembert
) (
)( . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
"" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
)( . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4
4
4
5
5
6
7
7
8
8
9
10
11
13

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3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
' : ) (
3.2.0.1
' : . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.0.2
' : . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.0.3
3.2.1 ) ( . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15
15
17
17
17
17
18

4.0.1.1
. . . .
4.0.1.2
4.1 ) (
4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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19
19
20
20
20
21

1.1

2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6

2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10

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22

. y :
6.0.0.3
:x
6.0.0.4
. . . . . . . . . . :
6.0.0.5
. . . . . .
6.0.0.6
6.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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23
23
23
23
24
25
26

7.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27
28

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) (
8.1 . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2' . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4 ). (Ray Tra ing
8.4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5.1.1
8.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Brightness
8.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Causti s
8.7.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.8 )+ ( . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29
31
32
33
34
35
35
37
38
38
39
39
40
41
42

9
9.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

43
43
43
44
44

10
10.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2.2 ) ( . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5.1 ) (imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

47
47
48
49
49
50
53
54
55

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2.1 ) ( . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
)( . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

57
57
57
58
58
59
59
60
60
60
61

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11
11.1
11.2
11.3

11.4
11.5
11.6
30/10/2011

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12?

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63

:
1.0.1 : .
,
, ? .

1.1
moodle
:

.1 , ) .1 (
: 1.1.1 :

" ) , , ,x ,(.
.
.
)( , .
.
.

2.1

T ,.

) (x + x
) (x
x + x

:
2
))= T sin ( (x + x)) T sin ( (x
t2

F = ma x

:
T

 #
x

) 2 (x, t
T 2
=
t2
x2

x+x

"

2
= )sin () tan (
= x 2
x
t

x0

, "

= .v 2 :
= v 2

1/11/2011

".

2.2 )

le Rond d'Alembert

:
)f (x
)g (x

= ) (x, 0

= )(x, 0
t

:
) (x, t) = F (x vt) + G (x + vt

(Jean

 .2

.2.3 ) (

:
x+vt

1
)f (x vt) + f (x + vt
+
= ) (x, t
2
2v

g (q) dq

xvt

) (

2.3

" K , m Uj
.
K

K
b

m
Uj+1

m
Uj

m
Uj1

:
2 Uj
) = K (Uj+1 Uj ) + K (Uj1 Uj
t2

N ) L = N h h , ( M = N m
K
:
.K = N :
2
2 Uj
K L2 Uj+1 2Uj + Uj1
2 Uj

v
h0
t2
h2
x2
|M
} {z
v2

) h 0 .(2

)(

2.4

":

dx

2
) (x, t
t
{z
}
|

=v6

1
=
2

Ekin

") : T (x

dx

dx

2

1
T

Taylor 2

) = 1 + 12 :
:

2 #1/2

1/2

)((1 +

1+

"

= )T (ds dx

= Epot

 .2

.2.5

2
2 #

 "

dx

+T
t
x

2.5

1
=
2

Etot = Ekin + Epot

) (x, t) = A cos (kx t +

:
= k 2

= 2

2
x2
2
t2

= vk ) k , ( . :
2
2
2
=
v
t2
x2

06/11/2011
:
) (x, t) = A cos (kx t +
|
{z } = vk
"

= k 2

= 2

2
x2
2
t

) (x

2
k

:2.1 t = 0

 .2.6

.2

) (t

= T

:2.2 x = 0

=v

.
2.5.1 , :
a
)ei(kxt
.A

2.6

2.6.1

x = 0 F = F0 eit :
T , :



= T sin ( (x = 0)) T tan ( (x = 0)) = T
x x=0
,:

) i(kxt
(x, t) = Ae

2.6.1 , .
:x = 0



) i(k0t
= ikT Ae
x x=0

F0 eit = T

F0
 F0  v
= A
=
ikT
i T

F0 eit

 .2.7

.2

:
)F0  v  i(kxt
e
i T

.x = 0

2.6.2

F
  =

=z

:x = 0



v
v

 )i(kxt
e
=
F
eit
=
F

0
0
t x=0
T
T
x=0

p
T
= v = T
}v |{z

=z

T =v 2

08/11/2011

2.7

) i(k2 xt
t = Ce

z1

) i(k1 xt
i = Ae

z2
) i(k1 xt
r = Be

:2.3

z1 :z2
.1
.2

x<0
x>0

i + r
t

:
= C
A + B
x:

t
x
ik2

CT
eit
T
C
v2
T

= ) (i + r
x

 ik1 BT
= ik1


AT
eit
eit

AT
= T
B
v1
v1
T

 .2

.2.7

:
= v2 k2

T
v

= v1 k1 ,

= z:


= z2 C
z1 A B
:

B
z1 z2
=
z1 + z2
A
2z1
C
=
z1 + z2
A

) t , r (
z2 .r = 1 ,t = 0
z2 0.t = 2 ,r = 1 :

2.7.1

 
 
) i(kxt
.Ae ) 21 2 A : (.

2.7.1 ) i(k1 xt
Ae ,:
 2
1 2  2
1
 
 A v1 = z1 2 A
2
2
:
 2
1
 
z1 2 A
2

? .:
 2 1
 2
1
 
 
z1 2 B
  + z2 2 C
2
2

2
 2
1 1 2  2 z1 (z1 z2 ) + 4z12 z2
  2
=
.
.
.
=
 A
z

A
1
2
2
2
) (z1 + z2

|:R = |r

 2
 
2


 z1 B
z1 z2
=
=  

z1  2
z1 + z2
A
} | {z
R

 2
 
z
 C
2
4z1 z2

= =  2
= T
2

 
(z
) 1 + z2
z1 A
R+T =1

 .2.8 ""

.2

2.8 ""
z1

0
= z2

= z2
2 :2.4

" .


ikx

= eit Aeikx + Be

)) = eit (A2i sin (kx

k = n
l
13/11/2011

n
l
nv
:
l

A = B
kl = n

(0, t) = 0
(l, t) = 0

= k .
= n

2.8.1 :
+ q (x) = (x)

d
dx

)p (x

d
dx

:
) (.
:
X
= ) (x, t
an n (x) ein t
n

:
n
n "" )(modes
an ) (
:

)(2.1

2
2
= v 2 2 +
2
t
x

:
) (x, t) = ein t n (x
) n (
n2 n ein t

d2 n in t
e
dx2

10

2
t2
2
x2

 .2.9 )(

.2

) (2.1:
d2 n i


nt

e n t
ei
= v2
n2 n
dx2
2
d2 n
=

n = k 2 n
dx2
v2
2.8.2 :
eikx ,

eikx
15/11/2011

2.9

)(

. (k) = vk : ?
.
:
K

K
b

m
Uj+1

m
Uj

m
Uj1

:
2

m Uj
T
) = (Uj+1 + Uj1 2Uj
2
t
a
2 Uj
x2

.v 2

a 0 :
.a 9 0
) , (:
)Ak ei(kxt) = Ak ei(kjat
:
 


2
ika
ika
T ika
4T
T
ka
= m 2
=
e 2 e 2
= e + eika 2
sin2
a
a
a
2

ka
2

4T
sin2
ma

= 2

) (k

:2.5 k
, .

11

 .2

.2.9 )(

k 0:
T
4T k 2 a2

k2 v2 k2
ma
4

= 2

= m(.
) a
| = v |k
, a ) ,
( , . ,
, , .

: 2.9.1 :
15N/m

60 1027 kg

1010 m

:
max
= max = 5 1012 Hz
2

2.9.2 T N/m a.

) (k

:2.6
. . .

.
.

12

 .2.10

.2

: 2.9.3 :
)= aei(k1 x1 t

)1 (x, t

)= aei(k2 x2 t

)2 (x, t

:
= 1 + 2
k1 +k2
k
:
= 2 k
2
1 +2
:

kx t

2
2

k = k2 k1 , k1 = k k
2 , k2 = k +

+
= 2 1 , 1 = :
2
2
= 2

ei(kxt) 2a cos

h
i
k
k
t
t
) aei(kxt) ei( 2 x+ 2 ) + ei( 2 x 2

= vg
) (x

:2.7
.1 , 2 ,

2.10

2.10.1 :

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave_pa ket

, "?
:
a (k) ei(kx(k)t) dk

= ) (x, y

): (x, 0
(x, 0) eikx dx

1
2

= )a (k

) (.
:k
2

) (kk0

A
2
a (k) = e 2k
vk 2

13

 .2

.2.10

2k .k0
:
dk

+ik x

k2
22
k

Aeik0 x

}dk |{z
=
k 2

ikx

(kk0 )2
22
k

k =kk0

k 2

) (x, 0

2.10.2 :
42
e

= dq

+q

eq

:
2

eik0 x

1
k

x
2
2

(x, 0) = Ae

= x

.x k = 1 2.10.3 . .
. ) (k :

 1 2
2
2
(k k0 ) +
) (k k0 ) = 0 + vg (k k0 ) + (k k0
2 k 2 k0
2

) (kk0

2
A
2
] e 2k ei[kx(0 +vg (kk0 )+(kk0 ) )t
k 2

k0



(k) (k0 ) +
 k

= ) (x, t

:
k 7 k = k k0

(xvg!t)2

+it

1
22
k

1
ei(kx0 t) e
+ it

1
2
2k

k 2

= ) (x, t

= 0 .vg
6= 0 )" ( ) , (

14

3.1

) ,shearing (.
P0 : V0 . 0 . .
:
= P0 + p
= V0 + v

P
V

= 0 + d

:
v
= :
V0

d
s := ,
0

3.1.1 s 103 : :
pm 2 105 N/m2
) 1010 ( 1000Hz

20/11/2011

: : ) (
:
pm 1010 Atm
)0 V0 = V = 0 V0 (1 + s) (1 +
|
{z
}
=1

= 1 s = ., s 1 :
:

dP
dP
= V
B := dV
/V
dV

15




 .3.1

.3

3.1.2 :
P V = const

:

= :

V dP + P V 1 dV = 0
dP
= P = Ba
dV

a (
:
p

v/V0

= Ba

:
p = Ba = Ba s

= s
x

V0

:



Px
Px
= Px Px +
x
=
x
x
x
2

0 x : . t2 : :
2
p
x = 0 x 2
x
t

16

Px Px+x

 .3.2

.3

:
h
x

p = Ba = Ba

p
2
2
) (Ba
=
= Ba 2 = 0 2
x
x
x
t

2 =

22/11/2011

Ba
P
=
0
0

3.2
3 .
3.2.0.1

' : ) (

, ,
.
Uob .v t = 0 ,
:
Uob + v =
:




Uob
Uob
v
1+
= f0 1 +
=

v
v

1
v + Uob
=

= f

3.2.0.2 ' :

1
0

= f .Us :
= Us 0

, ) v(.
:
!
!
1
1
= f0
1 Us0
1 Uvs

v
v
v
=
=

Us 0

3.2.0.3 ' :
...
!

Uob
v
Uvs

1+
1

f = f0

3.2.1 !
, .

17

= f

 .3.2

3.2.1

.3

) (

) /(.
vr . .0
:
vr2
c2

0
= q
1

) ( :
vr2
c2

0
vr = vr q
1

) ( :
vr
c2

vr 0
p
c 1

" ) ( :
p
1 + vcr
vr
1
1
= p
q
+
0
= 0 q
c
v2
v2
1 vcr
1 cr2
1 cr2

f0

vr
c
vr
c

p
1
p
= f0
1+

3.2.2 ,
, .
3.2.3 1

| |vr
c

18

:
) , (.
g
h
) (x, t
0

h
:4.1

) (x, t) = a cos (kx t

h . (k) = gk :
4.0.1.1

~ ~u = 0
) u (.
, .
~ ~u = 0 :
.
~ = ~u :
) (.

= , uz
x
z

= ux

~ ~u = 0
:
2 2
+ 2 =0
x2
z
) , (
:


=0
z z=h

19

= uz |z=h

 .4

.4.1 ) (

) (.
z = (x, t) :





=
)t z=(x,t
)z z=(x,t



+ g = 0
t
)z=(x,t

4.0.4 ) (
0 + (
:

)) cosh (k (z + h
a
}sin (kx t) |{z
) 2 (k) = gk tanh (kh
k
)sinh (kh

27/11/2011
4.0.1.2

1/2
. LT 2 L1
.h > 1/2 . gk .tanh 1= T1 V :
pg

" " . vph = k = k :

pg
1
vg = .vg 6= vph :
k = 2
k :

. gh |k| h < 20 vph = vh = gh :

<<h
. 20 .tanh

4.1 ) (


k .g g + k 2 : ) (N/m .
:


k 2
)k tanh (kh
2 = g +

4.2

1
1
}g 2 (t) = g |{z
a2
2
4

= gzdz

gzdz

= E pot

1
1
= ga2 = vx2 + vz2 dx
2
4
20

= Ekin

 .4.3

:
:

.4

= vz

x ,

= .vx
1
ga2
2

29/11/2011

= Etot

" ) Airy ( 2 = gk tanh (kh) :

:



1
Etot = g + k 2 a2
2

4.3

(h
, )= 4, 000 m
.
.T S = 500 km : . = :
|. gh |k
:
p
vph = vg = gh 700 km/h
, .0.1 m :
) , 500( , ,
, ) (
:
 1/4
hd
as

ad
hs
: , .
.

21

) (:
a2 2
k
c2

1+

| (k) = c |k

:
c
k

c
k

| c |k
k 2

, ,

.k

vph (k) = k
, , .
:


2
x
(x, 0) = A exp 2
2

(x, 0) = 0
t
a
(k) ei(kx(k)t) dk

:
(x, 0) eikx dx

) (x, t

a
) (k

) (2
+ :


x2
A

exp
= ) (x, t
)2 ( 2 + 2it
2 2 + 2it
:

)+ (t

04/12/2011

x2 t
+ 42 t2

2 x2
cos
) 2 ( 4 + 42 t2


1
2t
(t) = arctan
2
2
22

exp

4
1/4

) ( 4 + 42 t2

xy
6.0.0.3 y :
:

x
2

:x


x

x
,y
x
2

T y

)( x :
) 2 (x, y, t
x
x2

T y

6.0.0.4 :x
:
) 2 (x, y, t
y
y 2

6.0.0.5

T x

:


2
2
+
x2
y 2

2
= F
= T xy
t2

xy

:
) 2 (x, y, t
)= c2 2 (x, y, t
t2

= .c T T ) . , (

23

 .6

.1

6.0.1 ) ( :

.2 ) (x, y, t
.
.3
:
aj j (x, y) eij t

= ) (x, y, t

6.0.0.6
:
(x, y, t)|(x,y)C = 0
C . .
(0, y, t) = 0
(x , y, t) = 0
(x, 0, t) = 0
(x, y , t) = 0
0 x x ,0 y y .t
:
(x, y, t) = X (x) Y (y) eit
:
2
) XY = 2 (XY
c2

).(2 U + k 2 U = 0
2
c2

d2 Y
dy 2

Y
}|{z
2
ky

d2 X
dx2

|X
} {z
2
kx

, " . .
2 :


 2 = c2 kx2
 + ky2
( 2
d X
2
)(n
+
k
X
=
0
x
dx2
 X (x) = A sin  kx x
d2 Y
2
)(m
dy 2 + ky Y = 0
Y (y) = B sin ky y
) cos(
m
y

= )ky(m

24

n
,
x

= )kx(n

 .6.1

.6

:




nm (x, y) = Anm sin kx(n) x sin ky(m) y

 
 
 = c ~k

2

m
y

2

n
x

s

q
(m)2
(n)2
=c
= c kx + ky

q
k = kx2 + k62

) ~k = (kx , ky

:




Anm sin kx(n) x sin ky(m) y einm t
06/12/2011

= ) (x, y, t

m = 1, . . . ,
n = 1, . . . ,

 
: ~k . ~k

nm

: 6.0.2 ) , 3 , (

6.1
:
(l, , t) = 0
) (


2
1
1 2
+
+ 2 2
2
r
r r
r

2
= c2
t2

" :
(r, , t) = R (r) () eit
:
:
d2
+ n2 = 0 = Aein
d
+ 2 n
:


dR
r2 d2 R
+r
+ k 2 r 2 n2 R = 0
2
dr
dr
:z = kr

d2 R
dR
+z
+ z 2 n2 R = 0
dz 2
dz

25

z2

 .6.2

6.2

.6

y .x


)(m
sin ky y :
y

m
ly

)(m

.ky

eikx x ::
x

+ kx2

2

m
ly

s

26

m (kx ) = c

.
)~r = (x, y
)) (~r, t) = A exp (i (kx x + ky y t
) ~k = (kx , ky:

 
= A exp i ~k ~r t
) (
:
 
 

a ~k exp i ~k ~r (k) t dkx dky

1
2

11/12/2012

)(2

= ) (~r, t

7.0.1 , :
 
a ~k ei(kx x+ky yt) dkx dky

1
2

)(2

= ) (~r, t

 
a ~k .

, )) c (~r ( .
.
:
(~r, t) = j (~r) eij t

2
= c2 (~r) 2
t2

, :
j = 0

2

j
)c (~r

2 j +

j
)) (~r, t) = j (~r) eij t = A exp (ij (J (~r) t
27

 .7

.7.1

:


i
1
2 J = 2
j
)c (~r

2

J
y

2

J
x

7.0.2 J" ) (
7.0.3 j .
.
, ,
.


, 2 J

i
j

:
1
)(~r

c2

2

J
y

2

J
x

.
? ?c (~r) = r
) (:
 

(~r, t) = A exp i ~k ~r t +
:

+ t0

kx
ky
x+
k
k

1
1
= )(kx x + ky y +
j
c

= J

kx = k cos : ky = k sin ::
1
)(x cos + y sin
c

= )J (~r

.
? ) (.

7.1
x = 0 C ) C (.
x > 0 x < 0 . :
(
1
)(x cos + y sin
x<0
J (~r) = c1

(x
cos

+
y
sin

)
x0
c
x = 0 ,y :y = 0



1
1
1
1

) = (x cos + y sin
sin = sin
)(x cos + y sin
c
c
c
c
x 0
x+ 0
13/12/2011

28

) (
8.0.1 )) (Eikonal )S (~r
(
1
)c2 (~r

J
y

2

J
x

:
1
)(x cos + y sin
c

= J

) (
.
?
:


~ ~r + o r2
J (r~0 + ~r) = J (r~0 ) + J
:


 


(r~0 + ~r, t) = A exp i ~k (r~0 ) ~r t + 0 + o r2

~
:~k (r0 ) = J
:

) (~r, t) = Aei(J (~r)t

) ~k (r~0.

, ) J(
~

. = c (~r) k (~r) :

).c (~r
)) ~r (s) = (x (s) , y (s s " "

29

 .8 ) (

s
b

ds

dy

dx


dx dy
,
ds ds

)d~r (s
=
ds

:
p
  s 2  2
  d~r
dx
dx
dx2 + dy 2
= 
+
=
=1
  ds
ds
ds
ds
~d
r
ds

) ~r (s :

) ( )).~k (~r (s


 ~
= c (~r (s)) J

~
~= r
)r(s





~  ~ 1
)J  J (~r

~
~= r
)r(s

))~k (~r (s

= 
~

))k (~r (s

d~r
1
~
= J
c (~r (s)) ds
8.0.2


 ~
?=  J

:
1
))c2 (~r (s

2

J
y

2

J
x

:
1
))c (~r (s

2

J
y

2

J
x

s



 ~
=  J

S:


 ~ ~ d~r
 J
ds
~
~=r
)r (s

=
}|{z



~ d
)J (~r
ds
~
~= r
)r(s

30

)d~r (s
1
c (~r (s)) ds

d
ds

 .8.1

.8 ) (

:
d~r
~
= c (~r (s)) J
ds
:
=
}|{z

 2

~
~= r
)r(s



1

)c2 (~r) ~r=~r(s

~
J



~ ))c (~r (s




~
~ J
 ~
= c (~r (s)) J

~
~=r
)r (s

~ ))c (~r (s

)d~r (s
1
c (~r (s)) ds

,:



~ 1
= 2
)c (~r
))c (~r (s

~
~= r
)r (s

)d~r (s
1
c (~r (s)) ds

d
ds

: 8.0.3 c (~r) = c:

)d2~r (x
= 0 ~r (s) = r~0 + es
ds2

, .
:
c
)c (~r

= )n (~r

c . ) n (~r :



d
)d~r (s
 ~
))n (~r (s
= n
ds
ds
~
~=r
)r (s

8.1

)( , ) (
, .
:
n (~r ( )) ds

:
ds
)) c (~r (

d :

2

dy
d

ds 2
d

1
0

= ]) J [r (
} | {z

= ds

' ) , (...
r
 2
 


dy
 
ds 2
+
 
~r
d
d

=
= L ~r, ~r
)c (~r
)c (~r

31

d
ds

 .8.2'

.8 ) (

:
  1
L ~r, ~r d

= ]) J [r (

' " :



~ 1
)d~r (s
1
= 2
)c (~r
c (~r (s)) ds
))c (~r (s
~
~= r
)r (s

8.2

d
ds

'

, ,
.
, , )
(
)n (z) = n0 (1 + z
, , .
)) z (x ,
(
:


1
1 + z
d

z =
1 + z 2 dx
1 + z 2
z 2 1 z 1 ::
)d2 z (x

dx2

x
x2 + tan 0 x + x0 z + x

18/12/2011


2

~r (x) = z (x) z + x
=x

8.2.1 :



)d~r (s
d
)~ (~r
))n (~r (s
= n
ds
ds
~
~= r
)r(s
:

cva um
)c (~r

= )n (~r

, :


d
1 + z dz
1
n
d
d
0


=
n
=

0
ds
1 + z dx
1 + z 2 dx
1 + z 2 dx
z 1 .z 2 1 : z 2 ,1 z 1
:
d2
z=
dx2

32

 .8 ) (

.8.3

:

x2 + tan 0 x + z0 z


2

~r = z z + x
x
'.

8.3

0 .2
:

33

= )z (x

 )Tra ing

.8.4

(Ray

.8 ) (

:


n0
sin 0
n1

0 = arcsin

:
1 = 0
:


n1
sin 1
n2

.n1 = n .n0 = n2 = 1 :

1
sin 0

arcsin

= 0 2 = 0 arcsin n sin arcsin

:
sin x arcsin x x
:

 
1
0
= (n 1)
= 0 n
n
, .

8.4 )

Tra ing

(Ray

.ABCD
 
B
x1
D
1

  
A
x2
=
C
2
34

.8.4

)Tra ing

(Ray

.8 ) (

) (

8.4.1

, .n
2 = 1 ,x2 = x1 + d 1
, x tan 1

1 d
0 1

= Sd

8.4.2
,f .
, .
ABCD " . ,
.
.D = 1 , , ) A = 1 x ,
( , ) B = 0 x ,
(.
,c , , .C = 1/f :
, :

0
1

1
f1

= Lf

:
 
 
x1
x2
= Lf
1
2

35

.8.4

)Tra ing

(Ray

.8 ) (

20/12/2011
Lf Sd?
 

0
1 d/f d
=
1
1/f
1
 

d
1
d
=
1
1/f 1 d/f


1
0



d
1
1
1/f

1
0
1
1/f 1
0

36

S L

LS

.8.4

)Tra ing

(Ray

.8 ) (

8.4.3

GRIN

A 2
2x

n = n0 1

ABCD


1 d
  0 1
1
0
0 n1/n2


n1
n2

n1 n2
Rn2

d
n1
n2
.

R .
R > 0
)
(
n1 .
n2 .
:


1
0


0
1


0
1

1
2/R

R )
C (P
R > 0.

 
 

A
A sin
A
cos
 
 

A sin
A
cos
A

37

:

.
.

 .8 ) (

.8.5

:GRIN (Gradient Index) Lens 8.4.1 :

r
~
~n d
ds = n :

8.5

d
ds

) (

"" ) .(imaging
) (
.
:

8.5.1

38

 Brightness

.8.6

.8 ) (

, .
Sv Lf Su ::


 

 

v
1
0
1 u
1 v
1
u
1 v/f u + uv/f
=
=
1
1/f 1
0 1
0 1
1/f 1 u/f
1/f
1 u/f


1
0

v u .f
=
0
:

(x

) 1 x1
u + v uv
2
f
:
1
1
1
= +
u v
f
) x2 (? x2 = uv x1 :
8.5.1.1
u .1 v f .x2 0
u > f .2 v > 0
)( x2 = x1 ; v = 2f u = 2f
x2 ,v u = f .3
v < 0u < f .4 x2 : .x1
3 1 , 4
8.5.1 f.

8.6

Brightness

ni = 1 ) nf = 1 (
det M = 1 .
8.6.1
. 1 .
8.6.2 , 1
,
.

39

 .8 ) (

8.7

.8.7

Causti s

Causti s

, )( .
X ) f (x .
.

) (
:
)y f (x) = tan (x X

27/12/2011

= + 2


 df
= tan
)= f (x
dx x=X

2
 1 tan2
))1 (f (X
= 2
=
2
2 tan
)2f (X

40

tan = tan

.8.7

Causti s

.8 ) (

, ) 2f (X :


2
2f (X) (y f (X)) + 1 (f (X)) (x X) = 0

" .F (x, y; X) = 0 : ) (x, y . X

, ) ( ".
)( , :
d
F (x, y; X) = 0
dX
:
2

2f (X) (y f (X) f (X) (x X)) 1 (f (X)) = 0

x:y
)f (X
)f (X

= X

= f (x) +

))1 (f (X
)2f (X

8.7.1

l2 x2

= ) .f (X . :
x

l2 x2
x2

(l2 x2 ) /2
3

X = l cos

f (X) = l sin ,

) (
f (X) = cot
1
= )f (X
l sin3
:
= l cos3


1
)= l sin 1 + cos (2
2

41

x
y

 .8 ) (

.8.8 )+ (

8.8 )+ (
) (X .

f (x, y) dy

= )p (x

:
g (x, y) ei2(fx x+fy y) dxdy

= ) G (fx , fy

kx
) 2

= fx:

ky
2

p (x) ei2fx x dx

= (fy

= dx

i2fx x

g (x, y) dy e

= dxdy

)i2(fx x

g (x, y) e

= )s (fx ) := G (fx , 0

8.8.1

Fourier Sli e Theorem

) (fy = 0) G (fX , fy )p (x

, .
) (

1
= )g (r, z
G (ky , z) J0 (ky r) dky
2
)(2
) G (ky , z y J0 .0

42

.
) (Intensity ":
E
D
I (r) = | (r, t)|2

) . 2 (
:
) ( . ,

= .

9.1
0.1 :
= 0 + 1
:

E
D

Ij = |j |2

)A0 exp (i0 (~r) it

)A1 exp (i1 (~r) it

=
=

0
1

E
D
2
|I (~r) = |
= = h[A1 exp (i1 (~r) it) + A0 exp (i0 (~r) it)] c.c.i

p
))I0 + I1 + I0 I1 cos ( (~r

) = 0 (~r) 1 (r
01/01/2012

I = 0 I0 = I1 = I = 2I 2I = 0 :

9.1.1

:




= A0 exp ik~0 ~r it + A1 exp ik~1 ~r it

.( = ) . | ) |k0 | = |k1 ,
(.


= 0 1 = k~0 k~1 ~r = ~k ~r

43

 .9.2

.9

:~r
~r = ~r|| e + ~r
:
p


||I (~r) = I0 + I1 + 2 I0 I1 cos kr

2
,
. k
I = I0 = I1~ = 2k~0 k~0 = k~1 :
.k:


||I (~r) = 2I + 2I cos 2k0 r

, , , ) k~0 = k~1 (
.

9.2

) ( :
)2D = (~r) exp (ikr t
r .k = /c :
||2 2r = const
:

a
kr

= )) (~r (kr 1:
a
)2D = exp (ikr it
kr

" ) r 0 (.
:
a
)exp (ikr it
kr

= 3D | (r)| 4r2 = const 3D

.kr 1

9.2.1

03/01/2012

q


q
2
2
(x /2) + y 2 , t 2D
(x + /2) + y 2 , t

= 2D

) ,(.

v

 q
 q
 v
u
u
1
1
2
2
u
u
2
2

exp ik (x /2) + y it +at q

exp ik (x + /2) + y it i
= at q
2
2
k (x /2) + y 2
k (x + /2) + y 2
i .
" :

 q
q
2
2
= k (k /2) + y 2 k (x + /2) + y 2

r :
kx
= p
+ = k sin
x2 + y 2

44

 .9.2

.9

, r :
v
v
u
u
1
1
1
u q
u

t q
t
2
2
kr
k (x /2) + y 2
)k (x + /2
:


|4 |a
|2 |a
= ))(1 + cos (
cos2
kr
kr

= )I (~r

. , . 1010 m 106 m :
:

2
k

= .k 1

|a| k 2 2
sin2
kr

= )I2D (~r

:cos
9.2.1


sin
2
2

|4 |a
cos2
kr

, .

, :
) r (

q
q
2
2
2
2

(x /2) + y (x + /2) + y
= k
) , , . = 0 (.
:
q
q
! 2j
=
= j
= (x /2)2 + y 2 (x + /2)2 + y 2
k
k
. ?k > 1
2 ) ( = 0

45

 .9.2

x
d

.9

k > 1 y = d : x x d ::
| 4|a2
.sin Imax = kd
= = tan


k
2
Id = Imax cos
x
2d
I

= x

:9.1 I x y = d

46

 10

10.1

. .
1 2
c2 t2

= 2

" " ) y .(y

. )) ~k = k ( sin , cos
y
.(y
:
) (x, y, t) = A0 exp (iky cos ikx sin it
. = ck :
) (x, y, t) = A (x, y) exp (iky it
:


A (x, y) = a0 exp i/2k2 y ikx



 ) A (x, y
|) |A (x, y



y
  2


 A



  k  A
  y 2
  y

) = A exp (iky it ) A ,(x, y:

) A (x, y *
) 2 A (x, y) 2 A (x,y
+ 2
+ 2ik
x2
y
 y
:
)A (x, y
) 2 A (x, y
=
y
x2
08/01/2011

47

2ik

 .10

10.2

.10.2

.y )A (x, y)|y=0 = A (x, 0

.
:
A (q, y) exp (iqx) dq

1
= )A (x, y
2

.:
  2
) (q, y
q
A
= q 2 A (q, y) A (q, y) = A (q, 0) exp
y
2ik
y
2k
) A (q, 0 .
:


q2
A (q, 0) exp i y exp (iqx) dq
2k

1
= )A (x, y
2

, . :
A (q, 0) exp (iqx) dq

1
= )A (x, 0
2



2
exp iq:
2k y


iq 2
y + iqx dq
exp
2k


 2


p

exp s2 + s ds =
:
exp 4


ikx2
i

2y
4

1
2

k
exp
y

1
=
2

:


x2
i
k
exp ik

y
2y
4

10/01/2012

1
)A (x, y) = A (x, 0
2

.
:

(x , 0, 0) U2D (x x , y, t) dx

= ) (x, y, t) = (x, 0, 0) U2D (x, y, t

:

 

i
k
x2

exp ik y +
it
2y
2y
4

48

= )U2D (x, y, t

 .10.2

.10

10.2.1 : .
U2D
:

p
x2 + y 2 :


k
i
exp ikr it
2r
4

= 2D

= .r ):(x y
s
x2
x2
r =y 1+ 2 y+
y
2y

:
2D U2D

10.2.1
) (
A (~r, 0) :z = 0 ):~r = (x, y
 

 2


ik
~
~ 0 exp ik ~r R
A (~r, z) =
d2 R
A R,
2z
2z




~ zt d2 R
~ 0, 0 U3D ~r R,
R,


 
r2
ik
it
exp ik z +
2z
2z

= ) (~r, z, t

U3D (~r, z, t) =

10.2.2 ) (
) (

(
A x0
= ) (x, 0, 0
0 x>0
) (x

dx

) ik (x x
2y

(x x ) :

k
2y


 0 s
i
k
(x, y, t) = exp iky it
exp
4
2y

= :

s
!


i
k
A exp iky
it G
x
4
2y


exp i 2 d

49

= ) (x, y, t

= )G (s

 .10

.10.3

i
i
exp is2

2 s
s exp 4 +


12 exp i
s
G (s) = |s| 1
4

1 exp is2
s
2 s

s

!2


k


 x
I (x, y) = AG


2y

10.2.2

"" , ) x y x ,(
y
4 2 x2

I (x, y) |A|2

10.2.3
"" .
10.2.4
,x = 0 ) (y
2

||A
4

10.2.5 ) '( .

10.3
!
"
#
2

) (x x
k
i it
exp ik y +
2y
2y
4

= )U2D (x x , y, t

:


ik 2
k
= U2D (x, y, t) exp i x x + x
y
2y
U2D .x

50

 .10

.10.3

: 10.3.1 .2W " ) (x2 :

k
k 2
x 2y
W2
, 2y.W y :
)(:


k
(x , 0, 0) exp i x x dx
y

= ) (x, y, t) = U2D (x, y, t

k
yx

k
2
2z Rmax





~ ~r d2 R
~ 0, 0 exp i k R
R,
z

51

) (~r, z, t) = U3D (~r, z, t

 .10

.10.3

:2D : 10.3.2
(x, 0, 0) =

(x, y, t) = AU2D (x, y, t)

A
0

|x| W
|x| > W


sin
ikx
exp
x dx = 2AU2D (x, y, t)
y


kW
y

k
yx


x

: y = d
I (x) = I0

sin2

kw
d x

2
kw
d x

I0 = |A|

= I0 sinc2


kw
x
d
:

2k 2
d

I(x)
I0

2W
d

:10.1
1 0""

. 90% ""
: 3D
:

(~r, z, t) = AU3D (~r, z, t)

W h

W h

(

 


k ~

~ 0, 0 dy dx = A |x | W, |y | h
R ~r
R,
exp i
z
0
~ = (x , y )
.R

= AU3D (~r, z, t)









h
k
kW
kh
k
exp i x x dx exp i y y dy I = I0 sinc2
x sinc2
y
z
z
d
d
h

.I0 = 4K2Wd2 h |A|2 :

:( )

 
~  R0
A R
~


R, 0, 0 =
0 R
~  > R0


52

(~r, z, t) = AU3D (~r, z, t)

R0





R0
k
k
exp i Rr cos ddR |{z}
= 2AU3D (~r, z, t) RJ0
Rr dr =
z
z

0


J1 kR0 r

 .10

.10.4

kR0
r
d

Idisc = I0 Jinc2

k 2 R04
d2

I0 = |A|2

r
d
r0 = 0.61 R
0

10.3.3 :

:10.2
15/01/2012

?
, .
d
. R0 :
,r0 = 0.61 R )
0
( :
 r

0
0.61
= a tan
d
r0

: 10.3.4 10" , . = 8 cm 4186 Hz

. = 55
. ?
. .

10.4

. ). (x, y
)) = k n (x, y) + k (0 (x, y
0 ) ( ) (x, y .
:


1
1
x2 + y 2

} (x, y) |{z
= 0
2
R1
R2

1
1

R1
R2

1
):= (n 1
f

10.4.1 .
53

 .10.5

.10





k
t (x, y) = exp (ikn0 ) exp i
x2 + y 2
2f

)(.
t ) AtA (x, y ) (
)) P (x, y (.
:
.1 )) P (x, y (
.2 t
.3 f .
17/01/2012
, :
)) +y 2

AtA (x, y) P (x, y) e(i 2f (x

k

10.4.2 ) exp (ikn0 ,

.
:
x2 + y 2 R02
x2 + y 2 > R02

1
0

= )P (x, y

.f U3D
10.4.3


 
r2
ik
it
exp ik z +
= )U3D (~r, z, t
2z
2z
:


k
AtA (x , y ) P (x , y ) exp i (xx + yy ) dx dy
f



x2 + y 2

ik
2f

2z

.AtA
10.4.4 ) ( .
10.4.5 ) ( . 2

10.5

qx2 + qy2 + qz2 = k 2
! 
z it

q2

+ ky2

2
qx
k2

i qx x+qy y+k

2
,

=k

pw = ei(qx x+qy y+qz z)it = e

10.5.1 z.
pwplain wave

54

ik exp

 .10

.10.5

:x, y

(x, y, z, t) exp (i (qx x + qy y)) dxdy

1
2

)(2

= )A (qx , qy , z, t

.
) ( :
2 + k 2 = 0

10.5.2 , .
, :

A (qx , qy , z, t) = 0

!!

qy2
qx2
+ 2
2
k
k

2A
+ k2
z 2

:
 #
qy2
qx2
)+ 2 z A (qX , qy , 0
k2
k

" s

A (qx , qy , z) = exp ik

10.5.3 :

 q  q
 y  x
 ,  1
k
k
)z

2 +q2
i qx
y
2k

eikz

. .
:
662 ) (
, .
?
.
)???(
qx2 + qy2 > k 2 .z
) ( (.
" .evanes ent waves .

10.5.1

) (imaging

) z0 , ,zi
(
:
.1 ) (z0
.2 )(
.3 .zi

55

 .10

.10.5

, . 5+4 .Goodman
, .
:
h (x, y, x , y ) (x , y , z0 ) dx dy

= ) (x, y, zi

:
) (x M x , y y

) g (x, y, x , y

}|{z

M, K ) (.
, .
:

 i
h



1
ik zx + xz x + zy + y
z y
0
0
i
dx dy
P (x , y ) e
h (x, y, x , y ) = 2
zi z0
:M = zz0i :
dx dy

] zik [(xMx )x +(yMy )y

i

P (x , y ) e

1
h (x, y, x , y ) = 2
zi z0

:R0
x2 + y 2 < R02

1
0

= ) P (x , y

,:
*
2 +





 =
 h (x x , y y ) (x , y , z0 ) dx dy
=

dx dy
dudvh (x x , y y ) h (x u, y v) h (x , y , z0 ) (u, v, z0 )i
.
10.5.4 , :
)h (x , y , z0 ) (u, v, z0 )i = I (x , y ) (x u, y v

|h (x x , y y )| I (x, y, z0 ) dx dy
24.1.12

56

I (x, y, zi ) =

|I = |

 11

11.1
~ B
) ~
:(H
)(Gauss

= 0

)(No magneti monopoles

~
H
)(Faraday
= 0
t
~
E
)(Ampere + x by Maxwell
= 0
t
12 F
/m
8.85 10
= 0

4 107 N/A2

~ E
~

~ H
~

~ E
~

~ H
~

0
0

. ?
:




~
~ E
~ = 0
~ H
~

t




~
~ S
= ~
~
~ S
~ 2 S
~
, :
~
1 2E
=0
c2 t2

~
2 E

.c = 10 0 2.99792458 108 m/s

~
.H ,
, ) (.

11.1.1

~=E
~ H
~ :
,S :
I h|S|i
 2  2
~ ~
.B
" " .  E 
57

 .11.2

11.2

.11

, :
0
0

=
=

~ D
~

~ B
~

~ E
~

~ H
~

~
D
~
B

~
B
t
~
D
t
~ + P~ 0 (1 + e ) E
~
0 E
~ +M
~
0 H

11.2.1

) (

.1
.2 ~r
.3 ~
P~ k E

.4 =~ = 0
M

~2

1 E
=0
v 2 t2

~
2 E

.v = nc , n = r
. ~k
:


~ (~r, t) = E~0 exp i~k ~r it
E

 
 
 . = v ~k E~0 ,~k .
/:
~
= i0 r E
~
= i0 H

~ H
~

~ E
~

~ i~k ,
:
~
0 r E
~
0 H

=
=

~k H
~
~k E
~

~ kS
E, ) ~
~ H,
~ K
~
.(K

,H:


~0 exp i~k ~r it
= H


 
k
0 r
E0
= E0
=
0
k
58

~
H
H0

 .11

.11.3

11.3
.
.~k k z
E~0
E0x

= E0x x + E0y y
= |E0x | eix

= |E0y | eiy

E0y

:
) |E0x | cos (kz t + x
) |E0y | cos (kz t + y

Ex

Ey

,:

sin2

= cos

2 |E0x | |E0y | cos

= tan

| |E0x | + |E0y

Ex Ey
| |E0x | |E0y

2

Ey
| |E0y

2

Ex
| |E0x

x .
, x
x y
. = x y
 2
2

Ey
x
+
= 0 = 1
. |EE0x
|
| |E0y

11.3.1
n1 ,n2 ,i .r , t
,i = 0 , .
, . : )
( Hk , Ek , B , D . ,
i = r .n1 sin i = n2 sin t
S , :
n1 cos i n2 cos t
n1 cos i + n2 cos t
2n1 cos i
n1 cos 1 + n2 cos 2

rs

ts

P :
n1 cos t n2 cos i
n1 cos t + n2 cos i
2n1 cos i
n1 cos t + n2 cos i
29/01/2012
:+
z


E0x
E0y
59

= ~0
E

rp

tp

 .11.4

.11



 


0
0
.1 . ~ 0 = E0x : x
= ~0
E E0x . ,y
(.
) E
1
0
E0y


, ~ 0 = |E0 | normalized :
E


 
cos
1
12 .|E0x |2 + |E0y |2 = 1
:45
sin
1
 
1
.2 : ) RCP , (z
, 12 LCP
i
 
1
) (...
. 12 : 2 ) ,
i
(.

11.3.2
:

 


1 0
E0x
E0x
=
0 0
0
E0y



cos sin
. :
sin cos
)( T ) T .T = R () T R ( T .



1 0
= D
0 ei

= ) R (

11.4

) S ( ) sin i = nz sin o .nz

,n1 = 1 ,i .((ordinary) o
) P (
n (e ) = ny cos e + nx sin e
) (:
) sin i = n (e ) sin (e

11.5

E0
. H :
,
0

= =

1
n
}|{z

0
0
} | {z

E0
0
0 c
=
=
=
H0
k
n

377

) '(
)( , ,
:
E02
2

=I

60

 .11.6 )(

.11

, , ,2 E0:
 2
 
 2 E0
=I

) 4 (

: 11.5.1 100 W .2.5 cm

) 2.5% 2.5% , (.

2.5 W
0.0318 W/cm2
=

4 2.52 cm2

p
2I 4.9 V/cm

11.6

= E0

)(

) z (
) ( . ) ,z (E~s
.E~f = E~s + E~a
E~s = E0 x
eikzit
:E~f
z
E~f = E0 x
) eikzi(t(n1) c

.n
.z n = 1 ,
.
:
)(n 1
zE0 eikzit
c
{z
}
E~a

E0 x
eikzit + i
|
{z
}
|
~
Es

:
 2

d x
2
+

x
= F qe E0 eit
me
0
dt2
" :
x0 eit
qe E0
) me (02 2

= x
=

x0

:
qe E0
eit
) me (02 2
.

61

=x

 .11.6 )(

.11

11.6.1 0 , .100 nm
. .
? " .
:


qe x

qe E0
= E~a
i
eikzit
20 c
) m (02 2
) n( " E~a
:
qe2
) 20 m (02 2

= (n 1) z

N qe2
) 20 me (02 2

n=1+

N ":

=N

) .(1/m2
z , .z
0 0 " .
.
?
, ) , 1 .1

62

 12

?
?n < 1 .
. .
.

63