Food Processing and Preservation Technologies

Syed Rizvi
Professor, Food Process Engineering Department of Food Science 114B Stocking Hall Cornell University
(V) 607-255-7913 (F) 607-254-4868 E-mail: ssr3@cornell.edu http://www.foodsci.cornell.edu/faculty/rizvi.htm

Food Processing and Preservation Technologies

Food is undeniably most vital to the survival of human beings. Over the years several processing and preservation technologies have evolved, mostly by trial and error, for extending the storage life of food. As our scientific understanding of biological materials has accelerated in recent years so has the nature of the food industry, from a craft-based industry to a science-based manufacturing enterprise. Today, it is a big, dynamic, worldwide industry and undergoing continual change. The basic elements of a well-developed food-manufacturing infrastructure, linking the farm gate to the consumer plate, are shown below.

Basic Producers (Farmers)

Livestock Vegetables Oil Seeds Grains Fruits Sugar Fish Fine Chemicals

Commodities

Processors
Commodities: milk, proteins, fiber, flour,
VALUE-ADDED FOOD PROCESSORS Cereals Bread Cheese
Value-added

FOOD INGREDIENT MANUFACTURER S Colors Flavors

DISTRIBUTORS (MARKET)

CONSUMER

Specialties

The major aims of the food processing and preservation activities are to: Extend the shelf-life of food and serve as the surge capacity in natures seasonal cycle. Increase the organoleptic (flavor, color, texture) quality of food Provide food with the nutrients required for enhancing good health, strengthening bodies and empowering minds. Help build communities and generate income for the farmers and manufacturers The fundamentals of food preservation involve the following two basic principles: Destroy or inactivate pathogens found in food. Reduce or eliminate non-pathogenic microorganisms and enzymes responsible for spoilage of food. Control growth through adjunct treatment
Thermal death curve for a microorganismin liquid food at 70C
12

Survivor (Log 10 CFCU)

11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 4 8

( D-value = time for one-log cycle (10-fold) reduction in survivors)

Optimal microbial growth temperatures

Microbial group Thermophiles Mesophiles Psychrotrophs Optimum temperature (oF) 131 97 <50

D7 0 = 10.5 min

12

16

20

24

28

32

36

40

44

Time (min.)

An example of the latter is the cooling and freezing of food. Putting foods in a refrigerator does not eliminate the bacteria already in them but the lower temperature slows down the microorganisms enough to make the food last longer.

In general, all food processing and preservation operations are carried out by using a combination of procedures, called unit operations. These unit operations are used to transform perishables into stable foods and vice versa and are illustrated below.

( Keeps for few hours to one week) Examples: milk, fish, meat, poultry, many fruits and vegetables
Juice extraction

Highly Perishable

Refrigeration Pasteurization

Canning Freezing Dehydration

( Keeps for one week to several months) Examples apples, citrus, coconuts, dates, fats & oils, potatoes, root vegetables, pumpkins.

Perishable

Baking Brewing

Hurdle technol C.atmosphere

Flour milling Oil pressing

( Keeps for several months to years) Examples cereal grains, oilseeds, nuts, sugar, honey.

Stable

After Bourn, 2002

Some of the most common unit operations include: Thermal processing: cooking, blanching, pasteurization, canning, etc. Cold preservation: refrigeration and freezing Dehydration Fermentation Irradiation

I. THERMAL PROCESSING It is the application of heat energy to the foods with the following specific objectives. 1. Cooking to produce a palatable food examples: baking, broiling, roasting, boiling, stewing and frying etc. 2. Blanching to inactivate enzymes before freezing, to remove tissue gases, to wilt the tissue to facilitate packing or to cleanse the tissue before canning examples: beans, peas, corn 3. Pasteurization to kill pathogenic and selected spoilage microorganisms in the foods followed by some adjunct treatment techniques: LTLT, HTST, UHT examples: milk, cider, and juice.

Pasteurized products require refrigerated storage

4. Commercial Sterilization (Canning, retorting, etc.) bacterial destruction is a logarithmic function, complete destruction not probable to make food commercially sterile for extended shelf-life at room temperature examples: beans, soup, cream

Thermal conditions needed to produce commercial sterility depends on: Nature of food such as pH Storage conditions Heat resistance of the microorganisms or spore Heat transfer characteristics of the food, its container & heating medium Initial load of viable cells History of Commercial Sterilization (Canning, Retorting, Appertization): 1804: Nicholas Appert established a commercial cannery (bottling plant) for preserving foods by the following processes: Filling foods to be preserved into bottles Carefully corking the bottles Heating the bottles in boiling water for various periods of time depending upon the type of food Removing the bottles from the boiling water and cooling them 1819 UNDERWOOD, who came from England, started the first American canning operation in Boston. By 1822, Underwood packed fruits, vegetables and condiments in bottles. 1856 BORDEN built first canned milk plant in America, based on his process for condensing milk and filling it into a hermetically sealed container. 1861 CIVIL WAR accelerated demand for canned goods. Processing plants for fruits and vegetables were started in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois and California.

1874 SHRIVER invented the retort (pressure cooker), permitting canners to control temperatures accurately during heat processing 1921 CANNED CITRUS JUICE was started being produced in Florida. 1947 SCRAPED SURFACE HEAT EXCHANGER was
tested as a high temperature- short time sterilizer in aseptic processing of dairy products, baby foods, fruits, vegetables and custards.

Current Regulations for Commercial Sterilization: FDA CFR Part 113 Def. "Commercial sterility" of thermally processed foods means conditions achieved by: 1. Application of heat which renders the food free of viable (a) microorganisms capable of producing in the food under normal non-refrigerated conditions of storage and distribution (b) microorganisms of public health significance. OR 2. Control of water activity (aw) and application of heat which renders the food free of viable (a) microorganisms distribution (b) microorganismssignificance

Design of Commercial Processes Low Acid Foods: Foods other than alcoholic beverages with a finished equilibrium pH > 4.6 (pH >= 4.7 for tomato products), aw > 0.85 Destruction of C. botulinum (12 log reduction, 10-9 survivors) Clostridium botulinum Can grow and produce toxin at pH > 4.6 Obligate anaerobe, spore-forming, heat resistant pathogens Assumed to be ubiquitous in soil Has several strains. Types A & B are most heat resistant Ingestion of toxins produced them causes food poisoning Toxins are destroyed at 100oC for 10 min Putrefactive anaerobe (PA) 3679 and FS 1518 Non-toxic facultative anaerobe Resistance to heat similar to C. bot. Generally used to determine safe thermal processes instead of C. bot. Industry classification of foods for thermal processing High acid foods: pH < 3.7 Acid foods: pH 3.7 - 4.5 Low acid foods: pH > 4.5 Examples: Acid foods: Apples, blueberries, peaches, tomatoes, orange, grapefruits, grapes Low acid foods: Asparagus, beans, corn, potatoes, cauliflower, cantaloupe, watermelons, banana

Canned foods come in containers of various shapes and sizes and include jars

2. Acid Food (pH 3.7 4.5) Thermal processes are based on the destruction of Bacillus coagulans Bacillus polymyxa 3. High Acid Foods (pH < 3.7) Thermal processes are based on the destruction of yeasts and molds. Spore former do not grow at pH < 3. II. COLD PRESERVATION All microbial and biochemical activities are temperature dependant and slow down as the temperature is reduced. As a rule of thumb, for every 10oC temperature change, the rate of reaction changes by a factor of 2 to 3. 1. Chilling and refrigerated storage In the unit operation of chilling, the temperature of a food is reduced generally to between -1oC and 7 oC and thus subsequent storage at refrigerated temperature extends the shelf life of both the fresh and processed foods. It is also used as an adjunct process to extend the storage life of mildly processed (e.g. pasteurized, fermented and irradiated) and low-acid foods. In the US, refrigerated storage of food is mandated by regulations at temperatures at or below 7.20C (450F). Such foods are also marketed under refrigeration and labeled as needing refrigeration. Commercially sterilized and processed foods that may become contaminated after opening should also be labeled for refrigerated storage. Chilling and refrigerated storage prevents the growth of thermophiles and mesophiles. Psychrophiles, however, can and

do cause food spoilage during low temperatures storage but there are some psychrophillic pathogens, see table below, that need attention.
P a th o g e n ic B a cteria o f C o n c er n in R e frig era ted F o o d
C la ssific a tio n L iste ria m o n o c yto g e n e s Y e rsin a e n te ro co lita A e ro m o n a s h y d ro p h ila B a cillu s c e re u s to x in p ro d u c tio n C lo strid ium b o tu lin u m p ro te o ly tic n o n p ro te o lytic S a lm o n ella sp p . E sc h iric h ia co li S ta p h ylo co cc u s a u re u s
From Walker (1992)

M in im u m G ro w th T e m p e ra tu re ( C ) -0 .4 -1 .3 1 1 4 1 0 -1 2 3 .3 -5 5 .1 7 .1 7 .7

It is now well recognized that when chilling is combined with the control of the composition of the gaseous atmosphere around the product, their preservative effect is greater than that achieved by using either unit operation alone. In particular, fresh fruits and vegetables show considerable reduction in their respiration rate when oxygen concentration is reduced and/or carbon dioxide concentration is increased in the surrounding atmosphere. The atmospheric composition is changed by one of the following two methods. Controlled-atmosphere storage (CAS): In this process the concentrations of oxygen, carbon dioxide and often ethylene are monitored and regulated all the time.

 Modified-atmosphere packaging (MAP): In this the composition of gases within a package is replaced with a known composition mixture and the package is sealed. Examples of shelf life extension by MA storage (Adapted from Zeuthen, et al. 1990) Product French fries Pizza (Ham) Hamburger steak (w/cheese) Air storage Shelf life (days) <15 <28 <14 Optimal MAP composition CO2:N2 50:50 20-60:80-40 20:80 MA storage shelf life (days) 21 36 35

At 200C and atmospheric pressure, the respiration process in fruits and vegetables is generally represented as: C6H12O6 + CO2 = 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 2.84 Jkmol-1 C6H12O6 To chill such foods, both sensible heat (also known as field heat) and heat of respiration must be removed. The heat of respiration decreases as temperature is lowered and different commodities show vast differences in their respiratory activities. Examples of CA storage requirements for a few selected fruits are shown below.

Many fruits are now stored under controlled atmosphere for shelf life extension.

Recommended temperature and atmospheric composition for storage of selected fruits (Adapted from Zeuthen, et al., 1990) Fruit Apple Citrus Kiwi fruit Peach Plum Temperature ( 0C) 0- 4 5 15 0 -0.5 0 0 Oxygen (%) 25 10 - 15 2 2 2 CO2 (%) 1-5 4-5 4-5 4-5 4 - 12

2. Freezing and frozen-food storage The unit operation of freezing involves reduction of the temperature of a food, packaged or whole, to levels well below its freezing point, generally in the range of 10 to 200C. The conversion of water to ice increases the concentration of dissolved solutes in unfrozen water and thus lowers the water activity of the food. The concerted effect of low temperatures, reduced Frozen foods last many months water activity, and pre-treatment without spoiling. Some quality loss of blanching prior to freezing may occur of some products lead to longer shelf life. With adequate packaging, the more frozen water that exists, the less: a. chemical, enzymatic activity b. microbial activity c. desiccation occurrence The freezing process involves the removal of sensible heat to

lower the temperature of a food to its freezing point followed by the removal of latent heat of crystallization (fusion) to covert water within the product to ice. Since most foods contain lots of water (see table below) which has a high specific heat (4.2kJ/kg-K) and a high latent heat of crystallization (335kJ/kg), its the freezing of water that dominates the energy requirements. Water content and freezing points of foods Food Egg Milk Meat Fruits Vegetables Water content (% wt.) 74 87 60 - 70 85-95 76-92 Freezing point ( 0C) -0.5 -0.5 -1.5 to 2.2 -0.9 to 2.7 -0.8 to 2.8

As the temperature is lowered, more and more water converts into ice, as shown in table below, the energy requirement for freezing also increases:
P e r c e n t W a te r in F r o z e n P r o d u c t
T e m p e r a tu r e (0F ) 2 7 2 5 1 5 -4 -2 0 Ic e C re a m -1 -3 -7 -8 -8 0 5 0 2 9 L ean M eat -5 -7 -8 -8 -8 0 1 3 8 9

The quality of frozen food, however, depends not only on the temperature but also on the rate of freezing. The rate of

freezing is defined as the time required to reduce the product temperature from its initial freezing point to a temperature 5 degrees lower. At higher rates of freezing smaller ice crystals are formed and vice versa. Large ice crystals create quality problems such as sandiness in ice cream, mushiness in vegetable, to name a few. Although freezing is a preferred process today for quality foods, structural changes do occur over time whatever the rate of freezing. This shows in quality loss with time such as formation of drip on thawing to ambient temperatures, moisture loss by sublimation from ice. The storage life of a few meat products is shown in the accompanying table, illustrating the effects of storage temperatures. Methods of freezing
Storage Life of Frozen Meats In Months
Product Beef Lamb Veal Pork 10 F 4 3 3 2 0F 6 6 4 4 -10 F 12 12 8 8 -20 F 12+ 12+ 12 10

1 Diced products have shorter life 2 Cured products such as ham and bacon can be stored a few weeks only

Among the freezing methods available, the most common and industrially practiced ones are highlighted below.
Types of Freezing Methods
*1. Air: Blast, Tunnel, Fluidized Bed *2. Plate: Direct contact with freezer plates 3. Immersion: Contact with low temperature fluid *4. Cryogenic: Uses liquid vaporization to rapidly freeze product
* Most common industrial methods.

III. DRYING / DEHYDRATION The unit operation of drying generically refers to the application of heat and removal of water from liquid, semi-solid and solid foods. Dehydration, on the other hand, requires close control of physical and biochemical changes taking place during the drying operations. Since most chemical and microbiological activities require water, dried foods kept in airtight containers can last quite a long time. Since todays consumers and producers of food are away from each other both in time and place, preservation by dehydration helps maintain a more continuous food supply. Additionally, removal of water reduces the weight and bulk of the product and thus the cost of shipping and storage. Dehydrated foods often offer convenience not available with their fresh counterparts. Examples of dehydrated foods include: milk powders, coffee, tea, pasta, cereals, dehydrated potatoes, dried fruits and vegetables, dried meats (like beef jerky), powdered soups and sauces, instant rice, yeast, cheese powder, etc.

Dehydrated products very stable and last for months to years

State of water in foods The state of water in food represents an energetically complex continuum. In food processing and preservation, the thermodynamic measure of water activity is often used to describe how water behaves in food systems. Water activity (aw) is defined as: aw = ( Pw / Pw0 )T where, Pw = vapor pressure exerted by water in food Pw0 = vapor pressure of pure water at the same constant
temperature (T)

For pure water, aw =1 and when there are solutes (like salts, sugar, proteins, etc.) present in the water, the vapor pressure is lower than the saturation pressure and aw becomes less than unity. The vapor pressure exerted by a system also can be used to relate it to relative humidity in the air surrounding the system. Thus if a food is allowed to equilibrate in a closed environment at a constant temperature, the % equilibrium relative humidity (%ERH) when divided by 100 also represents aw of the food at that temperature. It can be written as % ERH = 100 . aw = 100. ( Pw / Pw0 )T Labuza (1980) has generalized the role of water activity in food preservation and how different deteriorative reactions and microbial growth are controlled in food systems by developing a food stability diagram shown below: Food stability diagram (Labuza, 1980)

For convenience and ease of interpretation, in the past the state of water has been classified into two types, free and bound. Free water exerts aw of unity, is relatively easy to remove and requires energy similar to that needed for evaporation of pure water. Bound water gives aw less than unity and takes more energy to evaporate. Drying Methods Direct contact dryers: In this type of dryers, hot air is blown across the foods to provide energy for evaporation of water. Examples include sun, bin, tray, belt, spray and fluidized bed dryers. Indirect contact dryers: In this set of dryers, heat is transferred to food indirectly through a heat transfer surface. Examples are drum and freeze dryers. Infrared and microwave technologies are also used for food drying. However, uniformity of drying and temperature control becomes critical in these types of systems. IV. FERMENTATION Production of acids and/or alcohols by controlled action of selected microorganisms is the basis of preservation of foods by fermentation. Derivative advantages include alteration of texture of foods and production of aromatic and flavor compounds. It is a low-energy and low-capital process which generally operates at mild pH and temperature conditions and thus helps minimize losses in nutritional qualities of food. Examples of fermented foods: 1. Acid (Lactic) fermentations Meat and Meat Products: Pepperoni, salami, bologna Vegetables: Pickles, sauerkraut, idli Milk Products: Yogurt, cheese, kefir, buttermilk

2. Alcoholic (Ethanolic) fermentation Beer, bread, wine 3. Mixed alcohol-acid Coffee, cocoa, vinegar V. IRRADIATION Irradiation prevents food spoilage and destroys microorganisms of public health significance. The FDA recently approved the irradiation of beef, and the irradiation of chicken has been approved for some time. Advantages of irradiation The product does not undergo heating and thus the organoleptic qualities are preserved. Packaged and frozen foods may be irradiated Process is automatic, low-energy and not labor intensive. Disadvantages Some loss of nutritional value Possibility of development of resistance to radiation in microorganisms Absence of adequate analytical procedure for detecting irradiated foods Public fear of induced radioactivity

Applications of food irradiation

Example of foods Herb, spices Meat Poultry, meat, frozen shrimp Fresh fruits Pork Fruit, grain, flour Potatoes, onions, garlic Adapted from Ley (1987) Dose range (kGy) 7 10 Up to 50 3 10 25 0.1 6 0.1 2 0.1 2 Application Sterilization Long-term storage Pathogen destruction Mould control Parasite (Trichenella) inactivation Disinfestation, insect control Sprout inhibition

REFERENCES Bourne, M.C. 2002. Personal communication Labuza, T. P. 1980. Effect of water activity on reaction kinetics of food deterioration. FoodTechnol. 34(4):36 Walker, A.P.1992. Chilled Foods Microbiology. In Chilled Foods: A Comprehensive Guide. C. Dennis and M. Stringer (Eds.). Ellis Harwood, London. Zeuthen, P.J.C., et al. (Eds.). 1990. Processing and Quality of Foods, Vol. 3. Chilled Foods : The Resolution in Freshness. Elsevier Applied Science, London.