JOURNAL OF INFORMATION ARCHITECTURE | VOLUME 3 ISSUE 2

REPRINT Andrea Resmini University of Bors Luca Rosati Information architect

A Brief History of Information Architecture

This article is a reprint of parts of Chapter 2, Towards a Pervasive Information Architecture, from Andrea Resmini and Luca Rosati's Pervasive Information Architecture, a oo! pu lished " #or$an %auffman& The te't was partiall" edited for clarit" " the authors& The (ournal would li!e to than! #or$an %auffman for consentin$ to the reprint& All ri$hts remain the propert" of the ori$inal ri$ht holders& The metaphors we use constantl" in our ever"da" lan$ua$e profoundl" influence what we do ecause the" shape our understandin$& The" help us descri e and e'plore new ideas in terms and concepts found in more familiar domains& )arl #orro$h, Information Architecture* An )mer$in$ 2+st Centur" Profession, 2,,-

Information architecture (IA) is a professional practice and field of studies focused on solving the basic problems of accessing and using the vast amounts of information available today! "ou commonly hear of information architecture in connection #ith the design of #eb sites both large and small and #hen #ireframes labels and ta$onomies are discussed! As it is today it is mainly a production activity a craft and it relies on an inductive process and a set or many sets of guidelines best practices and personal and professional e$pertise! In other #ords information architecture is arguably not a science but very much li%e say industrial design an applied art! &ven though its modern use strictly related to the design of information goes bac% no farther than the mid'()*+s and Richard ,aul -urman.s famous address at the American Institute of Architecture conference of ()*/ use of the term information together #ith the term architecture ( has been around for a little bit longer and in 0uite
(

It must e remem ered that .urman wrote an article with (oel %at/ entitled 0e"ond 1raphics* The Architecture of Information, which was pu lished " the AIA (ournal in +234& In an interview with 5ir! %neme"er in 2,,6, .urman said* The common term then was 7information desi$n&8 .hat $ot confusin$ was information desi$n and interior desi$n and industrial desi$n, at that moment and still toda" in man" and most people8s minds, are a out ma!in$ somethin$ loo! $ood& 33

RESMINI & ROSATI | A BRIEF HISTORY OF INFORMATION ARCHITECTURE

a fe# different settings! In an IB1 research paper #ritten in ()/2 some (3 years before -urman and entitled 4Architecture of the IB1 ,ystem56/+7 (Amdahl et al ()/2) architecture is defined as
the conceptual structure and functional ehavior, distin$uishin$ the or$ani/ation of data flows and controls, lo$ical desi$n, and ph"sical implementation&

It is not disputable that #e are tal%ing computer architectures here dis%s and bo$es and #ires and hubs but the #ay in #hich the term architecture is abstracted and conceptuali8ed in connection #ith structure and behavior and not 9ust physical layouts laid the basis for the subse0uent e$tension of its use to other areas of computing 3! A fe# years later in ()*+ at the :ero$ ;alo Alto Research <enter (;AR<) a group of people speciali8ed in information science #as assembled and then given the charter to develop technology #hich could support the architecture of information (;a%e ()=>)! ?his group #as single'handedly responsible for a number of important contributions in #hat #e #ould call today the field of human'computer interaction including the first personal computer #ith a user'friendly interface laser printing and the first -",I-"@ te$t editor! As 1arti Hearst no# a professor at the University of <alifornia Ber%eley recalls
9p:erhaps ecause of the social nature of information creation and use, much of the technical research at PARC has emphasi/ed the human;computer interaction and social aspects of computin$&

-eit8man (())>) supports this notion that the modern inception of the term originally came from :ero$ Labs6! Auoting ,mith and Ale$ander (()==) -eit8man maintains that
<ero' was amon$ the first corporations to address this notion of information structure and use the ele$ant and inspirin$ phraseolo$", the architecture of information to define its new corporate mission&

?his high'level framing the necessity for a broader vision remained one of the core concepts for those #ho #rote about information architecture up to the mid ()=+s as
Interior desi$ners ma!e "our place loo! etter, industrial desi$ners were en$ineers doin$ somethin$ that usuall" went to an en$ineer to put a pac!a$e around it& Information desi$n was epitomi/ed " which map loo!ed the est=not which too! care of a lot of parallel s"stemic parts& That is what I thou$ht 7architecture8 did and was a clearer word that had to do with s"stems that wor!ed and performed& & & & I thou$ht the e'plosion of data needed an architecture, needed a series of s"stems, needed s"stemic desi$n, a series of performance criteria to measure it& There are thousands of people usin$ the term >information architecture?, and the" have no idea where the term came from, and 2, percent of them aren8t doin$ what I thin! the" should e doin$ an"wa"& #uch of this discussion owes a $reat deal to the wor! of Rodri$o Ronda Le@n& Aee References& 0esides providin$ further documental evidence to support this notion, .eit/man also underlines how <ero' actuall" contri uted vastl" to the $eneral view of information architecture as a tool to support the desi$n and presentation of documents, somethin$ that is of vital importance in .urman8s wor!&

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much as this 9oining of specialists in information science and in user'focused development (Ronda LeBn 3++=) a trait that #ill be someho# brought to greater visibility and results by the first #ave of modern information architects in the ())+s! Crom the mid ()=+s information architecture seemingly #ent through a dormant period during #hich the idea of information architecture as both the design of comple$ or dynamically changing information seemed to be lost to a vie# much more a%in to that of information systems! Articles #ritten in those years mostly refer to information architecture as a tool for the design and creation of computer infrastructures and data layers #ith a larger emphasis on the organi8ational and business aspects of the information net#or%s (1orrogh 3++6)! <uriously enough much of the design deliverables #e associate #ith information architecture today are a product of this periodD blueprints re0uirements information categories guidelines on the underlying business processes global corporate needs they all ma%e their #ay into information architecture'related territory in the ()=+s (Brancheau E -etherbe ()=/)! ?hey #ill be incorporated once and for all in the information architects tool%it by the #ave of the late ())+s lead by Rosenfeld and 1orville! ?his is #hat Ronda LeBn describes in his graphical chronology of information architectureD identifying %ey boo%s papers and conferences Ronda LeBn introduces a three'part development hypothesis (Cig! () spanning roughly 6+ years in #hich the t#o early phases that of information design (()/+s'()*+s) and that of system design (()=+s) are integrated into the modern mainstream idea of information architecture as #e %no# it today in the ())+s! It seems fair to infer that the early ta%e on information architecture that developed from the IB1 papers ;AR< and -urmans initial vision #as still coalescing #hen the emergence of the -orld -ide -eb provided a one'time chance for pioneer'minded professionals to operate on large amounts of data in a ne# media void of or minimally encumbered by pree$isting corporate hierarchies! In ())= Louis Rosenfeld and ;eter 1orville.s boo% Information Architecture for the .orld .ide .e 2 hit the shelves and information architecture #ent mainstream!

The oo!, usuall" called the Polar 0ear oo! ecause of the drawin$ on its cover, is currentl" in its -rd edition, pu lished 2,,B& 3!

RESMINI & ROSATI | A BRIEF HISTORY OF INFORMATION ARCHITECTURE

Di$ure +* Ronda Le@n, R& 9+22E:& A chronolo$" of information architecture in the +2E,s and earl" +22,s& References o tained from LIAA& Ima$e reflects later reditin$&

A;;RFA<H&, ?F IGCFR1A?IFG AR<HI?&<?UR&

That8s wh" I8ve chosen to call m"self an Information Architect& I don8t mean a ric!s and mortar architect& I mean architect as used in the words architect of forei$n polic"& I mean architect as in the creatin$ of s"stemic, structural, and orderl" principles to ma!e somethin$ wor!;;the thou$htful ma!in$ of either artifact, or idea, or polic" that informs ecause it is clear& I use the word information in its truest sense& #ost of the word information contains the word inform, so I call thin$s information onl" if the" inform me, not if the" are Cust collections of data, of stuff& R& A& .urman, +22B

-e propose a slightly revised version of the basic scheme outlined by Ronda LeBn in #hich the three consecutive periods in the timeline effectively translate to three broad different and partially overlapping approaches that have characteri8ed the research and practice of information architecture so far the differentiating factor being the #ay they #or% #ith informationD statically dynamically and as a resource! It is clear that #hile both the information design and the information science approaches #e describe belo# see information as the ra# material to use for building artifacts the information systems approach does not! As Roger and &laine &vernden #rote in their boo% Information Dirst (3++6) information architecture is
a foundation discipline descri in$ the theor", principles, $uidelines, standards conventions and factors for mana$in$ information as a resource&

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?he focus is clearly on the managing of information for better enterprise'#ide consumption and use and the very idea of design of creation is virtually absent!

IGCFR1A?IFG H&,I@G
?he information design approach roughly corresponds to Richard ,aul -urman.s contribution and initial vision! Cor -urman design and architecture are the basis for a science and art of creating instruction9s: for or$ani/ed space (-urman ())*) and for ma%ing these understanda le! Understanding is a %ey concept in -urman.s #or%D he published his seminal boo% Information Architects in ())* 9ust one year before Rosenfeld and 1orville.s Information Architecture for the .orld .ide .e >D the boo% dealt #ith the increasing difficulty -urman #as e$periencing in communicating rising amounts of information and presented a large selection of design solutions to the problem! It #as a designer.s boo%D from a designer for designers! -urman.s maintained that as much as architects are e$pected to create structure and order in the #orld through planning and building information architects #ere e$pected to dra# lines and derive some %ind of order in dataspace their primary tas% being to ma%e this information simpler more direct and ultimately more comprehensible! At the time -urman gave an e$tremely precise definition of information architect #hich still largely holds up todayD
a& the individual who or$ani/es the patterns inherentB in data, ma!in$ the comple' clearF & a person who creates the structure or map of information which allows others to find their personal paths to !nowled$eF c& the emer$in$ 2+st centur" professional occupation addressin$ the needs of the a$e focused upon clarit", human understandin$, and the science of the or$ani/ation of information&

&ven though he #as possibly mainly concerned #ith the static visual design* of large 0uantities of information his contribution #as undoubtedly a ma9or if unintended source of inspiration in the initial modern re'framing of the field #hen it later too% on to the design of information on the -eb (-odt%e 3++3)! According to #hat he said to Han Ilyn in a recent series of intervie#s = -urman had no master plan in mind #hen he rolled information architecture on the stage at the national conference of the American Institute of Architects (AIA)D he #as 9ust trying to
>

/ * =

.urman pu lished Information An'iet", which mi$ht e considered his most information architecture;related oo!, in +2EE& The oo! was e'panded for its second edition and pu lished in 2,,, as Information An'iet" 2 & Aee Resmini, A& 92,++:& Gf Patterns and Atructures& http*HHandrearesmini&comH lo$Hof;patterns;and;structures& Aee note +2& %l"n, 5& 92,,2:& Repost 2,,2* Conversation with Richard Aaul .urman& http*HHwildl"appropriate&comHIpJ3E+& 37

RESMINI & ROSATI | A BRIEF HISTORY OF INFORMATION ARCHITECTURE

find patterns for himself)! Geither #as he interested in disseminating his ideas to a ne# audience nor in creating a ne# field or profession and #as actually 0uite surprised and probably a little upset #hen he finally did find out #hat his pattern'finding activities stirred up!

Di$ure 2* .urman showin$ how to peel a anana on sta$e at the ++th AAIALT Information Architecture Aummit in Phoeni', Ari/ona&

-urman finally came to terms #ith him being considered part of the ongoing information architecture conversation in 3+(+ #hen he #as invited to %eynote at the ((th A,I,E? IA ,ummit in ;hoeni$ Ari8ona(+!

IGCFR1A?IFG ,",?&1,
?he information systems approach is tightly connected to the line of research that developed in the ()=+s and to the logic of #hat #e identify today as information systems and business informaticsD ho# to solve problems of information management #ithin the larger business vision or logistic needs that drive organi8ations is the primary concern!

(+

The interviews contain this rief passa$e* 9%l"n: 5id "ou intend to create a movement within the field of architecture to focus on information displa" and or$ani/ation and such thin$sI 9.urman: Ko& Richard Aaul .urman %e"note on 0o'es and Arrows& http*HHwww& o'esandarrows&comHviewHia;summit;+,;richard

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?he #idely recogni8ed semantic shift to#ards user e$perience #hich follo#ed the publication of Rosenfeld and 1orville seminal boo% has made 4information systems information architecture7 a minority (if important) stance #hich is still prominent in large corporate settings and that produces conceptual friction #henever it is compared #ith 4user e$perience information architecture7 largely considered a some#hat less relevant subset and synonym #ith 4#ebsite development7! @ene Legan8a.s report on information architecture published for Correster Research in 3+(+ #ell represents these vie#s! ?he 3+'odd page document clearly defines ho# the information architect role is primarily an I? function #hose main tas% is to enable consistent access to the correct data but goes on to consider that in an enterprise hierarchy this might be better served by t#o different rolesD one concerned #ith the 4structuring of all enterprise'#ide information assets7 and that is 4 enterprise IAJ the other #ith the design of 4information for an individual -eb site portal or application UI7 and this is user e'perience IA or .e IA! Interestingly enough Legan8a also states that there is value in ho# information architecture helps structure enterprise information #hich is still unfortunately not evident to many an enterprise architect (#ith a 26K of them not really considering the domain part of their strategies) and that this value is not in attainin$ some a stract $oal of imposin$ order on disarra" ut in ena lin$ the provisionin$ of the ri$ht information in the appropriate conte't to the sta!eholders who need it! ?his enterprise'layered vie# is not 9ust Correster.sD <arter (()))) defines information architecture in business settings as
an holistic wa" of plannin$ which meets the or$ani/ation8s information needs and avoids duplication, dispersion, and consolidation issues& The information architecture is the collective term used to descri e the various components of the overall information infrastructure which ta!e the usiness model and the component usiness processes and deliver information s"stems that support and deliver it& Prime components are the data architecture, the s"stems architecture and the computer architecture 9Carter +222:&

Crom a company perspective it seems 9ust logical! ?his approach effectively connects information architecture to the strategic company thin%ing #hich is behind the idea of enterprise or enterprise'level information architecture in a #ay that 4U: IA7 has not yet managed to do! At the same time though it 0uic%ly moves the uni0ue design thin%ing #hich drives information architecture to abstract user'centered problems to#ards issues of data connections band#idth costs server topology and storage limits that are not normally part of the mindset of the information architect and that tend to be rather specific and technological in nature!

39

RESMINI & ROSATI | A BRIEF HISTORY OF INFORMATION ARCHITECTURE

IGCFR1A?IFG ,<I&G<&
?he information science approach is the one best represented by Rosenfeld and 1orville initial ta%e on the field! In an intervie# #ith ,cott Hill for F.Reilly in 3+++ (( they stated that
9i:n +226, efore the .e too! the world " storm, we were teachin$ some of the first academic and commercial courses a out the Internet& .e oth elieved the Internet would ecome an important medium and that li rarians had a $reat deal to offer this rave new world of networ!ed information environments&

Di$ure -* Lou Rosenfeld 9left: and Peter #orville 9ri$ht: in 2,,,, with Aamantha 0aile", then Oice President of Consultin$ Gperations at Ar$us Associates& Photo courtes" of P& #orville&

Rosenfeld and 1orville #ere not overtly familiar #ith -urman.s #or% at the time! In the #ords of 1orville (3++2) they
found 9them:selves usin$ the architecture metaphor with clients to hi$hli$ht the importance of structure and or$ani/ation in we site desi$n& Lou $ot a $i$ writin$ the .e Architect column for .e Review ma$a/ine, and I soon Coined in& In +22B, a oo! titled Information Architects appeared in our offices& .e learned that a fellow " the name of Richard Aaul .urman had coined the e'pression 7information architect8 in +234& After readin$ his oo!, I remem er thin!in$ this is not information architecture, this is information desi$n&

?his is an accurate and insightful statement! ?heir initial vie# #as entirely focused on the ne# dynamic environment of the -orld -ide -eb and it certainly had little in common #ith the more traditional less'Internet based information desi$n approach that
((

Mill, A& 92,,,:& An Interview with Louis Rosenfeld and Peter #orville& http*HHwww&oreill"net&comHpu HaHoreill"Hwe HnewsHinfoarchN,+,,&html

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-urman outlined in his boo%s! Frgani8ation labeling navigation and search #ere the touch points around #hich they structured their practice! Rosenfeld believed these #ere the %ey concepts to address in order to
help people find and mana$e information more successfull"& Gr$ani/ation s"stems are the wa"s content can e $rouped& La elin$ s"stems are essentiall" what "ou call those content $roups& Kavi$ation s"stems, li!e navi$ation ars and site maps, help "ou move around and rowse throu$h the content& Aearchin$ s"stems help "ou formulate Pueries that can e matched with relevant documents 9Mill 2,,,:&

Lery famously they remar%ed a fe# years later that the real difference they could see bet#een their vie# and -urman.s post hoc #as that for them information architecture #as very much the design of #hat #as etween the pages of a #eb site meaning the lin%s the structure the connections #hile for -urman it seemed to be the design of the pages themselves+2! It could also be said that Rosenfeld and 1orville designed for a #orld of ever'changing dynamic content something some#hat unsurprisingly still alien to -urman.s vision! Rosenfeld and 1orville and those many follo#ing along their initial LI, vie# must be credited for bringing in many of the core methodologies used for the design of navigation labeling and site'structure! ?hey offered the blooming community of practice an e$tremely empirical and practical approach and they single'handedly brought user research and usability engineering into the core of mainstream IA tools! -hile through the years their vie#s on the sub9ect evolved (as Rosenfeld is fond of saying they certainl" em raced other disciplines ), so far their seminal idea of information architecture as the design of ta$onomies menus and structures still represents the mainstream and most accredited vie# of #hat the field is about especially for those outside the field itself!

;&RLA,IL& IGCFR1A?IFG AR<HI?&<?UR&

Insta ilit" is what fuels the process 9Aoddu +222:

Rosenfeld and 1orville.s #ere met #ith enormous success and in the late ())+s and early 3+++s the practice of information architecture #as usually synonym #ith designing #eb sites for the -orld -ide -eb! As 3+++ became 3++> things #ere changing again! Users #ere entering the scene as producers (or prosumers a term ac%no#ledging their mutated role as both consumers and producers of information)
(3

Dor an interestin$ reverse view on this issue, see the conversation with Richard Aaul .urman pu lished in this same issue of the (ournal of Information Architecture& #"& 92,++:& Life oat Q4* Richard Aaul .urman& (ournal of Information Architecture& Oolume -& Issue 2& Reprinted from #"& 9+23B:& .hat 5o .e Rse for Life oats .hen the Ahip 1oes 5own& Marper L Row& "1

RESMINI & ROSATI | A BRIEF HISTORY OF INFORMATION ARCHITECTURE

tagging #as every#here and personal mobile devices and home appliances #ere redra#ing the boundaries of computing!

Di$ure 6* A timeline for classic information architecture derived from Ronda Leon& Resmini L Rosati, Pervasive Information Architecture, #or$an %auffman

&ven though a persistent thread %ept information architecture tied to the creation of -eb'only content and this #as (and partly is) especially true if you move into LI,' connected research many started to consider that this #as a limitation #ith little rationale behind itD ne# problems needed to be addressed and information architecture #as moving into ne# territories becoming a boundary practice #hose contributions #ere crucial #here comple$ity unfamiliarity and information overload stood in the #ay of the user regardless of the very nature of the environment being designed! Cor these people(6 information architecture #as moving beyond the confines of the -eb! -hat #as appropriate for simple hyperte$t systems in the late ())+s is certainly not even barely sufficient anymore! ,imply being able to be connected #hile being on the move means there is no certainty of the physical conte$t in #hich a certain piece of information is produced remediated or consumed turning each information architecture into a huge design challenge! ?here is no s#itching off if information follo#s us in real'time #hen #e #al% out the doorD as a result the #ay #e interact the data #e need ho# #e allo# ourselves to be distracted by the information #e receive the urgency or timing of #arnings and reminders change all the time!

(6

Amon$ them Adam 1reenfield, Peter #orville, and (oel 1rossman&

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?his mar%s a ne# stage a ne# phase #here information architecture becomes pervasive and starts to address the design of information spaces as a process opening up a conversation #ith ubi0uitous computing and service design and #here the information architect recogni8es gathering organi8ing and presenting information as tas%s analogous to those an architect faces in designing a building as both desi$n spaces for human ein$s to live, wor!, and pla" in (2! If the architect has to
ascertain those needs 9i&e&, must $ather information a out the needs:F or$ani/e the needs into a coherent pattern that clarifies their nature and interactions, andF desi$n a uildin$ that will ; " means of its rooms, fi'tures, machines, and la"out, i&e&, flow of people and materials ; meet the occupants8 needs 9.urman +223:

then the information architect has a definitely similar goal in information space as presenting information for a purpose is an architectural tas%! And places in cyberspace such as Caceboo% or ?#itter are the places #here people spend a significant amount of their time every day!

Di$ure 4* #ovin$ into pervasive information architecture

-hen #e increasingly e$perience the #orld through one or many disembodied self (Inalhan E Cinch 3++2)J #hen #e live in a #orld #here relationships #ith people places ob9ects and companies are shaped by semantics and not only by physical

(2

.ith interestin$ repercussions as well& Aee %olson Murle", A& 92,+,:& I8m an Architect& Architect& http*HHwww&architectma$a/ine&comHarchitectsHim;an;architect&asp'& "3

RESMINI & ROSATI | A BRIEF HISTORY OF INFORMATION ARCHITECTURE

pro$imityJ #hen our digital identities become persistent even #hen #e are not sitting at a des% and in front of a computer screen then #e are reshaping reality! <onversely #e need to reshape information architecture to better serve our changing needs! -hat #ill information architecture be five years from no# it is difficult to say but one thing #e %no#D it #ill be neither big nor little! It #ill be broad!

R&C&R&G<&,
Amdahl @! 1! Blaau# @! A! E Broo%s C ! ;! (()/2)! Architecture of the IB1 ,ystem56/+! IB1 Mournal for Research and Hevelopment =(3)! (Reprinted in IB1 Mournal for Research and Hevelopment 22((53) 3+++)! Brancheau M! <! E -etherbe M! <! (()=/)! Information architecturesD methods and practice! Information ;rocessing E 1anagement 33(/)! ;p! 2>6N2/6! <arter H! (())))! Information architecture! -or% ,tudy 2=(>) (=3N(=>! httpD55d$!doi !org5(+!((+=5++26=+3))(+3=/+3/! &vernden R! E &vernden &! (3++6)! Information CirstD Integrating Ino#ledge and Information Architecture for Business Advantage! Butter#orth'Heinemann ! @reenfield A! (3++/)! &very#areD ?he Ha#ning Age of Ubi0uitous <omputing! Ge# Riders! @rossman M! (3++/)! Hesigning for bridge e$periences! U: 1atters Mune 6+! httpD55###!u$matters !com5mt5archives53++/5+/5designing'for'bridge' e$periences!php Hearst 1! (())/)! Research in ,upport of Higital Libraries at :ero$ ;AR<! H' Lib 1a8agine! httpD55###!dlib!org5dlib5may)/5+>hearst!html! Hill ,! (3+++)! An intervie# #ith Louis Rosenfeld and ;eter 1orville! F.Reilly 1edia! httpD55###!oreillynet!com5pub5a5oreilly5#eb5ne#s5infoarchO+(++!html! Inalhan @! E Cinch &! (3++2)! ;lace Attachment and ,ense of Belonging! Cacilities 33(>5/)! ;p! (3+N(3=! Legan8a @! (3+(+)! ?opic overvie#D Information architecture! Correster Research! Available at httpD55 ###!forrester!com5rb5Research5topicOovervie#OinformationOarchitecture505id5> >)>(5t53! 1orrogh &! (3++6)! Information Architecture N an &merging 3(st <entury ;rofession! ;rentice Hall!

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1orville ;! (3++2)! A brief history of information architecture! In @ilchrist E 1ahon (&ds!) Information ArchitectureD Hesigning Information &nvironments for ;urpose (p! $iii)! Geal',chuman ;ublishers! 1orville ;! (3++>)! Ambient Cindability! F.Reilly 1edia! ;a%e @! &! (()=>)! Research at :ero$ ;AR<D a founder.s assessment! I&&& ,pectrum 33((+) ;p!>2N/( ! Resmini A! E Rosati L! (3+(()! ;ervasive Information Architecture! 1organ Iauffman! Ronda LeBn R! (3++=)! Ar0uitectura de InformaciBnD anPlisis histBrico' conceptual! Go ,olo Usabilidad Mournal! Available at httpD55###!nosolousabilidad!com5articulos5historiaOar0uitecturaOinformacion!ht m! Rosenfeld L! E 1orville ;! (())=)! Information Architecture for the -orld -ide -eb! F.Reilly! ,mith H! I! E Ale$ander R! <! (()==)! Cumbling the CutureD Ho# :ero$ Invented ?hen Ignored the Cirst ;ersonal <omputer! -illiam 1orro# E <o! -eit8mann L! 1! (())>)! ?he Architecture of InformationD Interpretation and ;resentation of Information in Hynamic &nvironments! 1assachusetts Institute of ?echnology! httpD55dspace!mit!edu5handle5(*3(!(53)+=>! -odt%e <! (3++3)! Information ArchitectureD Blueprints for the -eb! Ge# Riders! -urman R! ,! (())*)! Information Architects! @raphis Inc! -urman R! ,! (3+++)! Information An$iety 3! Aue!

"!

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